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THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTION ART
7
OF
Arts. Sciences, and General Literature
. THE R. 8. PEALE REPRINT
WITI[ NEW MAPS AND ORIGINAL AMERICAN ARTICLES BY EMINENT WRITERS
WITH A.MERICAxN REVISIONS AXD ADDITIONS
By W. H. DePUY, U.D.. LL.D.,
Bringing Each Volume LTp to Date.
VOLUME i
CHICAGO
R. S. PEALE COMPANY
1892.
708GS5
5
\). 1
Copyright 1892
Bv K. S. Pealk Company.
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Vol I. — A-(ANA).
Total Number of Articles, 966.
PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.
ABBEY AND ABBOT. Rev. Edmund Venables, Precentor and Cauou of Lincoln.
ABEL.iRD. G. Croom Robertson, M.A., Professor of Logic, University College, London.
ABERDEEN. Alex. Cruickshank, M.A.
ABRAHAM. Rev. Samuel Davidson, D.D., Author of "Introduction to the Old and New Testaments," &c.
ABY.SSINIA. David Kav, Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.
ACADEMY. Francis Storr, M.A., Author of "Tables of Irregular Greek Verbs."
ACCENT. John M. Ross, LL.D., late Editor of the "Globe Encyclopsedia."
ACCLIMATISATION. Alfred R. Wallace, Author of "Theory of Natural Selection."
ACHILLES. A. Stuart Murray, British Museum, London.
ACHIN. Col. Henry Yule, C.B., F.E.G.S., Author of "Tbe Book of Marco Polo."
ACOUSTICS. David Tho.mpson. M.A., late Professor of Natural Philosophy, University of Aberdeen.
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. Principal Donaldson, LL.D., Authorof "Early Christian Literature and Doctrine."
ACTINOZOA. T. H. Hu.XLEY, LL.D.. F.R.S., Professor in the Royal School of Mines, London.
AD.^M. Rev. Sa.muel Davidson, D.D.
ADDISON. William Spalding, LL.D., late Professor of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, University of Edinburgh.
ADMIRAL and ADMIRALTY. F. W. RowsELL, C.B., Superiutendeut of Naval Contracts, H. M. Admiralty.
ADULTERATION. Dr. HENRY Letheby, Ph.D., formerly Medical Officer of Health to the City of London.
AERONAUTICS. James Glaishek, F.R.S., Superintendent of the Meteorological Section, Greenwich
Observatory.
jESCHYL^S. J.Stuart Blackie. late Professor of Greek. University of Edinburgh.
jESIR. Miss E. C. Otte, Translator of Humboldt's "Cosmos."
jESTHETICS. Ja.mes Sully. LL.D., Author of "Sensation and Intuition."
AFGHANISTAN. CoL Y^ULB, C.B.
AFRICA. Keith Johnston, Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.
AG.VSSIZ. W.C. Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History, Owens College, Manchester.
AGK.\RIAN LAWS. GEORGE Ferguson. LL.D., formerly Professor of Humanity, Uuiversity of Aberdeen.
AGRICULTURE. John Wilson, Member of Council, Highland and Agricultural Society, and W. T. Thornton,
Author of "A Plea for Peasant Proprietors."
ALCHEMY. Jules Andrieu.
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Rev. Sir George W. Cox, Baronet, Author of "A History of Greece." &o.
ALEXANDER VI. Richard Garnett, British Museum, Author of " Idylls and Epigrams from Greek
Anthology."
ALFORD. DE.A.N. Charles Kent, .\uthor of "Charles Dickens as a Reader."
ALG.E. Dr. J. HuTTON Balfour, F.R.S.. late Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh.
ALGEBRA. Philip Kelland, F.R.S. , late Professor of Mathematics, University of Edinburgh.
ALGEr'ia. David Kay. F.R.G.S.
ALPH.\BET. John Peile, M.A. , Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge.
ALPS. John Ball, F.R.S., late President of the Alpine Club.
ALTAR. Rev. G. H. Forbes.
ALUM. James Dewar, F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural Experimental Philosophy, Cambridge.
AMAZON. A. Stuart Murray, British Museum.
AMBASSADOR. HENRY Reeve, CD., D.C.L., Registrar of H.M. Privy Council.
AMBULANCE. Thomas Long.more, C.B., Professor of Army Surgery, Netley.
AMERIC*. (North and South). Charles Maclaren, late Fellow of the Geological Society, and of the Royal
Society, Edinburgh.
AMERICAN LITER.\.TURE. John Nichol, LL.D., Professor of English Language, University of Glasgow.
AMMON. Samuel Birch, LL.D., D.C.L., Keeper of Department of Oriental Antiquities, British Museum.
AMMUNITION. Capt. C. Orde Browne, R.A.. Royal Laboratory. Woolwich.
AMOS. Rev. Canon T. K. Cheyne, Oriel Professor of Exegesis, University of Oxford.
AMPHIBIA. Prof. T. H. Huxley.
A.Ml'IIITHEATRE. Rev. G. H. FORBES.
ANALO(;y and analysis. Prof. Croom Robertson.
AN.ESTHESIA. Dr. James O. Affleck. Examiner, Royal College of Physicians. Edinburgh.
ANATOMY. Sir Wm. Turner. M.B.. F.R.S., Professor of Auatomy in the University of Edinburgh.
PREFATORY NOTICE.
' I "HE En'CYCLOP^DIA Britann'ICA has long deservedly held a foremost place amongst
-*- English Encyclopaedias. It secured this position by its plan and method of treat-
ment, the plan being more comprehensive, and the treatment a happier blending of
popular and scientific exposition than had previously been attempted in any under-
taking of the kind. The distinctive feature of the work was that it gave a connecttid
view of the more important subjects under a single heading, instead of breaking them
up into a number of shorter articles. This method of arrangement had a twofold
advantage. The space afforded for extended exposition helped to secure the services
of the more independent and productive minds who were engaged in advancing their
own departments of scientific inquiry. As a natural result, the work, while surveying
in outline the existing field of knowledge, was able at the same tiine to enlarge its
boundaries by embodying, in special articles, the fruits of original observation and re-
search. The Encyclopjedia Britannica thus became, to some extent at least, an instru-
ment as well as a register of scientific progress.
This characteristic feature of the work will be retained and made even more promi-
nent in the New Edition, as the list of contributors already published sufficiently
indicates. In some other respects, however, the plan will be modified, to meet the
multiplied requirements of advancing knowledge. In the first place, the rapid progress
of science during the last quarter of a century necessitates many changes, as well as a
considerable increase in the number of headings devoted to its exposition. In dealing
with vast wholes, such as Physics and Biology, it is always a difficult problem how
best to distribute the parts under an alphabetical arrangement, and perhaps impossible
to make such a distribution perfectly consistent and complete. The difficulty of dis-
tribution is increased by the complexity of divisions and multiplication of details, which
the progress of science involves, and which constitute indeed the most authentic note
of advancing knowledge. This sign of progress is reflected in extensive changes of
terminology and nomenclature, vague general headings once appropriate and sufficient,
such as Animalcule, being of necessity abandoned for more precise and significant
equivalents.
VI rREFATOR\' NOTICE.
But, since the publication of the last Edition, science, in each of its main divisions,
may be said to have changed as much in substance as in form. The new conceptions
introduced into the Biological Sciences have revolutionized their points of view, methods
of procedure, and systems of classification. In the light of larger and more illumi-
nating generalizations, sections of the subject, hitherto only partially explored, have
acquired new prominence and value, and are cultivated with the keenest interest. It is
enough to specify the researches into the ultimate structures, serial gradations, and pro-
gressive changes of organic forms, into the laws of their distribution in space and time,
and into the causes by which these phenomena have been brought about. The results
of persistent labor in these comparatively new fields of inquiry will largely determine
the classifications of the future. Meanwhile the whole system of grouping, and many
points of general doctrine, are in a transition state; and what is said and done in these
directions must be regarded, to a certain extent at least, as tentative and provisional.
In these circumstances, the really important thing is, that whatever may be said on
such unsettled questions should be said with the authority of the fullest knowledge and
insight, and every effort has been made to secure this advantage for the New Edition
of the Encyclopaedia.
The recent history of Physics is marked by changes both of conception and classi-
fication almost equally great. In advancing from the older dynamic to the newer
potential and kinetic conceptions of power, this branch of science may be said to have
entered on a fresh stage, in which, instead of regarding natural phenomena as the result
of forces acting between one bod\' and another, the energy of a material system is
looked upon as determined by its configuration and motion, and the ideas of configura-
tion, motion and force are generalized to the utmost extent warranted by their defini-
tions. This altered point of view, combined with the far-reaching doctrines of the
correlation of forces and the conservation of energy, has produced extensive changes in
the nomenclature and classification of the various sections of pliysics ; w hile the fuller
investigations into tiie ultimate constitution of matter, and into the phenomena and
laws of light, heat and electricity, have created virtually new sections, which must now
find a place in any adequate survey of scientific progress. The application of the
newer principles to the mechanical arts antl industries has rapidly advanced during the
same period, and will require extended illustration in many fresh directions. Mechanical
invention has, indeed, so kept pace \\ith the progress of science, that in almost every
department of physics improved machines and processes have to be described, as well
as fresh discoveries and altered points of view. In recent as in earlier times, invention
and discovery have acted and reacted on each other to a marked extent, the instru-
ments of finer measurement and analysis having directly contributed to the finding out
of physical properties and laws. The spectroscope is a signal instance of the extent to
which in our day scientific discovery is indebted to appropriate instruments of obser-
vation and analysis.
PREFATORY NOTICE. Vll
These extensive changes in Physics and Biology involve corresponding changes in
the method of their exposition. Much in what was written about each a generation
ago is now of comparatively little value. Not only therefore does the system of
grouping in these sciences require alteration and enlargement ; the articles themselves
must, in the majority of instances, be written afresh rather than simply revised. The
scientific department of the work will thus be to a great extent new. In attempting
to distribute the headings for the New Edition, so as fairly to cover the ground occu-
pied by modern science, I have been largely indebted to Professor Huxley and Professor
Clerk Maxwell, whose valuable help in the matter I am glad to have an opportunity
of acknowledging.
Passing from Natural and Physical Science to Literature, History and Philosophy,
it may be noted that many sections of knowledge connected with these departments
display fresh tendencies, and are working towards new results, which, if faithfully
reflected, will require a new style of treatment. Speaking generally, it may be said
that human nature and human life are the great objects of inquiry in these depart-
ments. Man, in his individual powers, complex relationships, associated activities and
collective progress, is dealt with alike in Literature, History and Philosophy. In this
wider aspect, the rudest and most fragmentary records of savage and barbarous races,
the earliest stories and traditions of every lettered people, no less than their developed
literatures, mythologies and religions, are found to have a meaning and value of their
own. As yet the rich materials thus supplied for throwing light on the central prob-
lems of human life and history have only been very partially turned to account. It
may be said, indeed, that their real significance is perceived and appreciated, almost for
the first time in our own day. But under the influence of the modern spirit, they are
now being dealt with in a strictly scientific manner. The available facts of human
history, collected over the widest areas, are carefully co-ordinated and grouped together,
in the hope of ultimately evolving the laws of progress, moral and material, which
underlie them, and which, when evolved, will help to connect and interpret the whole
onward movement of the race. Already the critical use of the comparative method
has produced very striking results in this new and stimulating field of research. Illus-
trations of this are seen in the rise and rapid development of the comparatively modern
science of Anthropology, and the successful cultivation of the assistant sciences, such as
Archaeology, Ethnography and Philology, which directly contribute materials for its use.
The activity of geographical research in both hemispheres, and the large additions
recently made to our knowledge of older and newer continents by the discoveries of
eminent travelers and explorers, afTord the anthropologist additional materials for his
work. Many branches of mental philosophy, again, such as Ethics, Psychology and
^Esthetics, while supplying important elements to the new science, arc at the same
time very largely interested in its results, and all may be regarded as subservient to
the wider problems raised by the philosophy of history. In the New Edition of the
Vlll PREFATORY NOTICE.
Encyclopaidia full justice will, it is hoped, be done to the progress made in these
various directions.
It may be well, perhaps, to state at the outset the position taken by the Ency-
clopaedia Britannica in relation to the active controversies of the time— Scientific, Re-
ligious and Philosophical. This is the more necessary, as the prolific activity of modern
science has naturally stimulated speculation, and given birth to a number of somewhat
crude conjectures and hypotheses. The air is full of novel and extreme opinions,
arising often from a hasty or one-sided interpretation of the newer aspects and results
of modern inquiry. The higher problems oi philosophy and religion, too, are being
investigated afresh from opposite sides in a thoroughly earnest spirit, as well as with a
directness and intellectual power, which is certainly one of the most striking signs of
the times. This fresh outbreak of the inevitable contest between the old and the new
is a fruitful source of exaggerated hopes and fears, and of excited denunciation and
appeal. In this conflict a work like the Encyclopaedia is not called upon to take any
direct part. It has to do with knowledge rather than opinion, and to deal with all
subjects from a critical and historical, rather than a dogmatic, point of view. It cannot
be the organ of any sect or party in Science, Religion or Philosophy. Its main duty
is to give an accurate account of the facts and an impartial summary of results in
every department of inquiry and research. This duty will, I hope, be faithfully
performed.
T. S. BAYNES.
ENCYCL0PJ1D.TA BEITANNICA.
A
THE Grst symbol of every Indo-European alphabet,
. denotes also tlio primary vowel sound. This coin-
cidence is probably only accidental The alphabets of
Europe, and perhaps of India also, were of Semitic origin,
and in all the Semitic alphabets except one, this same
symbol (in modified forms) holds the first place ; but it
represents a peculiar breathing, not the vowel a, — the
Tovpels in the Semitic languages occupying a subordinate
place, and having originally no special symbols. When
the Greeks, with whom the vowel sounds were much more
important, borrowed the alphabet of Phoenicia, they re-
quired symbols to express those vowels, and Esed for this
purpose the signs of breathings which were strange to
them, and therefore needed not to be preserved ; thus the
Phceuician equivalent of the Hebrew aieph became alpha;
it denoted, however, no more a guttural breathing, but the
purest vowel sound. Still, it would be too much to
assume that the Greeks of that day were so skilled in
phonetics that they assigned the first symbol of their bor-
rowed alphabet to the <7,-sound, bccaiue they knew that
sound to be the most essential voweL
This primary vowel-sound (the sound of a ia/aUier) is
produced by keeping the passage through which the air is
vocalised between the glottis and the lips in the most opeu
position possible. In sounding all other vowels, '.ho air-
channel is narrowed by the action either of the tongue or
the Ups. But hero neither the back of the tongue is
raised (as it is in sounding o and other vowels), so that a
free space is left between the tongue and the uvula, nor
ia the front of the tongue raised (as in aounding r), so that
the space ia clear between the tongue and the palate.
Again, no other vowel is pronounced with a wider opciuiig
of the lips ; whereas the aperture is sensibly reduced at
each side when we sound o, and still more when wo sound
u (that is, yoo). The whole channel, therefore, from
the glottis, where the breath first issues forth to be modi-
fied in the oral cavity, to the lips, where it finally escapes,
•a thoroughly open. Hence arises the great importance of
the sound, by reason of its thoroughly non-consonantal
character. Ail vowels may bo defmeJ a.i open positions
1—1
of the speech-organs, in which the breath escapes withotil
any stoppage, fricticin, or sibilatiou arising from the con-
t-act of those organs, whereas consonants are heard when
the organs open after such contact more or less complete.
Now, all vowels except a are pronounced with a certain
contraction of the organs ; thus, in sounding the t (the
English «-sound), the tongue is raised so as almost to
touch the palate, the passage left being so close, that if
the tongue were sufl'ercd for a second to rest on the palate,
there would be heard not i but y; and a similar relation
exists between u and w. This is commonly expressed by
calling ff and ic semi-vowels. Wo might more exactly caH
t and It consonantal- vowels; and as an historic fact, t docs
constantly pass into y, and ti into w, and vice versa. But
no consonant has this relation to the a-sound ; it has abso-
lutely no affinity to any consonant ; it is, as we have called
it, the one primary essential vowel.
The importance of this scihnd may be shown by histori-
cal as well as by physiological evidence. Wo find by
tracing the process of phonetic change in different lan-
guages, that when one vowel passes into another, it is the
pure a-sound which thus a-'usumes other forms, wherca-i
other vowels do not pass into tlie a-sound, though some-
times the new sound may have tliis symbol, KougUy
speaking, we might express the gene- ^
ml character of vowel change by draw-
ing two lines from a coiamon point,
at which a is placed. One of thcso
lines marks the progress of an original
a (aA-sound) through e (a-sound), till
it sinks finally to t («-sound) ; the oilier
marks a similar degradation, through
o to « (oo-sound). This figure omits
many miuor modifications, and is sub-
ject to some exceptions in particular languages. Put it
represents fairly in the main the general jiroccss of vowel-
change. Now, we do not a-ssert that there ever was a
time when a was the only existing vowel, but we do main-
tain that in numberless cases au originjl a has pa.sstd into
other sounds, whereas the revcrso process is excessively
1. — I
A A R
rare. Consequently, the farther wo trace back the history
of language, the more instances of this vowel do we find ;
the more nearly, if not entirely, does it become the one
starting point from which all vowel-sound is derived.
It is principally to the effort required to keep this
sound pure that wo must attribute the great corruption of
it in all languages, and iu none more than our own. In-
deed, in English, the short a-sound is never heard pure ; it
is heard in Scotland, e.g., in man, which is quite difl'ercnt
from the same word on English lips. We have it, how-
ever, long m father, kc, though it is not common. It has
passed into a great many other sounds, all of which are
denoted in a most confusing way by the original symbol,
and some by other symbols as well. Thus a denotes — (1.)
The English vowel-sound in man, perhaps the most common
of all the .substitutes, dating from tho 17th century. (2.)
It appears in want; for tliis sound o is also employed, as in
on. (3.) A more open sound is heard in alt (also denoted
by au in auk, and aw in atd). (4.) Very commonly it re-
presents the continental e, as in ale (here also we have the
s}Tnbol ai in ail). (5.) It is found in dare and many
similar words, where the sound is really the e of den, pro-
longed in the utterance ; hero also ai is sometimes an
equivalent, as iu air. Then (6) there is a sound which is
not that of a either in mare or in father, but something
between the two. It is heard in such words as ask, pass,
grant, ic. All these may be, and often are, pronounced
with the sound either of man or oi father; still, we do often
lear in them a clearly tlistinguishable intennediate sound,
■which ought to have a special symbol. Lastly (7), there
is the dull*aound heard in fmal unaccentuated syllables, e.g.,
in the word final itself. It is that to which all unaccen;
tuated syllables tend ; but it is also often heard even in
monosyllables, where it is represented by every other vowel-
symbol in the language, e.g., in her, sir, son, suti. This
Protean sound is commonly called the neutral vowel ; it
occurs in all languages, but perhaps in none so frequently
as in English. This great variety of sounds, which are all
denoted among us by one sj-mbol, clearly shows the in-
iulEciency of our written alphabet.
As in English, so in Sanskrit, the short a/i-sound was
lost, and was replaced regularly by the neutral sound.
This was regarded by the grammarians as inherent in every
consonant, and therefore was only written at the beginning
of a word ; in fact, it is the smallest amount of vowel-
eound requisite to float a consonant. Long a, however,
kept its sound pure, aad does so stUl in the vernaculars of
India. In Latin the sound was probably pure, both short
and long, and it has been .preserved so in the Romance
lajiguagcs down to the present day. In Greek there was
considerable variation, proved in one case at least by a
variation of sjinbol ; in Jonic a commonly passed into
r], a sjrmbol which probably denoted the modern Italian
open e ; but possibly the close e, that is, the English a in
ale. On the other hand, it is probable that the Doric a
approximated to au o, being sounded as a in our word
loant; and it is likely that this variation was the TrXartiao--
^tos which the grammarians attribute to the Dorians. This
is commonly sap,posed to have been the retention of a where
the Ionic had rj ; but that was not peculiar to the Dorians,
being common to all tho Greeks except the lonians. In
the north of Europe we find a similar tendency to give to'
oiji o-sound,; thus in Norse, aa, is sounded as an open o. '
By' a further cxt'cnsion in the'north of England, at least in
such parts as have been gpeciiAIy exposed to Norwegian
inJ5uence,.ff«has the sound of o ; e.g., law is pronounced lo.
A is frequently usefl as a jjrefix^in Ucu of some- fuller
form in old English. Thus •It stands for tho preposition
an (O.E. 071) in an'ay, again, afoot, asleep; for o/f in odowif
(O.E. of-dune) ; and seems lo bo intonsive in athirst (O.E.
ofthirst). Sometimes, opcciu'Jy with verb*, it reprcsenta
the old English &, which in old liljjh German apjieari as
ur or er, and in modem German as er, which signilics the
completion of an action, as in ermachen, to v>hich awake
corresponds. Frequently no special force sccma to ba
added by tho prefix, as in abide, arise, Ac. Sometimes a
appears as the representative of tho prefix commonly used
in past participles, which has the form ge in German, and
ge and y in old English, e.g., in ago or qgone; compare
aware (O.E. gewaere), among (O.E. gemang), ic. A also
stood for the preposition an (on) in such expressions (now
obsolete) as a-doing, a-making, where doing and making are
verbal nouns. Lastly, it represents the prepositions on or
af in the phrases nowa-days, Jack-a-lantem, and others.
Tho place that A occupies ill the alphabet accounts for
its being much employed as a mark or eymboL It is used,
for instance, to name the sixth note of the gamut in music;
in some systems of notation it is a numeral (see Akith-
METic); and in Logic it denotes a universal affirmative
proposition (see Looic). In algebra, a and the first letters
of the alphabet are employed to represent known quanti-
ties. AI marks the best class of vessels in Lloyds Re-
gister of British and Foreign Shipping. In the old poets,
" Aper se" is found, meaning the highest degree of excel-
lence; as when Chaucer calls Creseide "the floure and A
per ee of Troyo and Grcce."
A was the first of the eight literoe nundinalet at Rome,
and on this analogy it stands as the first of the sev^ Domini-
cal letters.
It is often used as an abbreviation, as in A.D. for anno
domini, A.M. for ante meridiem, A.B. and A.M. for artivm
haccalaureus and artium magister. In commerce A stands
for accepted. (j. P.)
AA, the name of about forty small European rivers.
The word is derived from the old German aha, cognate
to the Latin aqua, water. The following are the more
important streams of this name : — a river of Holland, in
North Brabant, which joins the Dommcl at Bois-le-Duc ;
two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into the
Gulf of Livonia, near Riga, which is situated between
them; a river in the north of France, falling into the sea
at Gravelines, and navigable as far as St Omer; and a
river of Switzerland, in the cantons of Lucerne and Aargau,
which carries the waters of Lakes Baldeker and Hallwyler
into the Aar.
AACIIEN. See Aix-la-Chapelle.
AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, is situated on
the T'iimfiord, about 15 miles from its junction with the
Cattegat. It is the capital of the district of •Xhe same
name, one of the subdivisions of the province of Jiitland.
The city is a place of xonsiderable commercial importance,
and contains a cathedral and a school of navigation. Soap,
tobacco, and leather are manufactured ; there are several
distilleries ; and the herring fishery is extensively prosecuted.
Grain and herring are largely exported, as are also to a
smaller extent wool, cattle, skins, tallow, salt provisiong, and
spirits. The harbour, which is good and safe, though
difficult of access, is entered by about 800 vessels annually,
and there is direct steam communication with Copenliageu.
Tlie district is celebrated for its breed of horses. Popula
tion (1870), 11,953.
AALEN, a. walled town of Wurtemberg, pleasantly
' situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian Alps,
about 50 milea E! of Stuttgart. . Woollen and linen goods
are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and tanneries
in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhoodi
Aalen- was a free imperial city from 13G0 till 1802, when
it was annexed to Wurtemberg. Population (1871), 5552. ,
AAR, or Aake, the most considerable river in Swi^er-
hnd. after the Rhine and Rhon>^ It rises in the glaciers
A A R — A A R
of the Finster-oaj-uorufSchreekhoni, ana Qrimsel, in the
canton of Bern; and at the Handeck in the valley of Hash
forma a magnificent water-fall of above 150 feet in height.
It then falls successively into the lakes Brienz and Thun,
and, emerging from the latter, flews through the cantons of
Bern, Soleure, and Aargau, emptying itself into the Rhine,
opposite Waldshut, after a course of about 170 miles.
Its principal tributary streams are the Kander, Saane, and
Thiele on the left, and the Emmen, Surin, Aa, Reuss, and
Limiaat, on the right. On its banks are situated' Unterseen,
Thun, Bern, Soleure or Solothum, Aarburg, and Aarau.
The Aar is a beautiful silvery river, abounding Ln fish, and
is navigable from the Rhine as far as the Lake of Thun.
Several small rivers in Germany have the same name.
AARAU, the chief town of the canton of Aargau in
Switzerland, is situated at the foot of the Jura mountains,
on the right bank of the river Aar, 41 miles N.E. of Bern.
It is well built, and contains a town-hall, barracks, several
eqiall museums, and a library rich in histories of Switzer-
land. There is a cannon foundry at Aarau, and among the
principal manufacture^ are silk, cotton, and leather ; also
cutlery and mathematical instruments, which are held in
great repute. The slopes of the neighbouring mountains
are partially covered with vines, and the vicinity of the
town is attractive. About ten miles distant along the
right bank of the Aar are the famous baths of Schinznach.
PopiJation, 5449.
AARD-VARK (eartr,-pig), an animal very common in
South Africa, measuring upwards of three feet in length,
and having a general resemblance to a short-legged pig.
It feeds on ants, and is of nocturnal habits, and very timid
and harmless. Its flesh is used as food, and when suitably
preserved is considered a delicacy. The animal is the only
known species of its genus (Oryderopus), and belongs to
the order Edentata of the mammalia. The same prefix
Aard appears in the name of the Aaed-wolf (Proteles
Lalandii)^ a rare animal found in Cafi'raria, which is said
to partake of the characters of the dog and civet. See
MiMMAtlA
AARGAU (French, Aegovie), one of fhe cantons of
Switzerland, derives its name from the river which flows
through it, Aar-gau being the province or district of the
Aar. It is bounded on the north by the Rhine, which divides
it from the duchy of Baden, on the east by Zurich and Zug,
on the south by Lucerne, and on the west by Bern, Soleure
or Solothurn, and Basel. It has an area of 502 1 square miles.
By the census of 1870, the number of inhabitants was
19'i,873, showing an increase during the preceding ten years
of 4665. Aargau stands sixth among theSwiss cantons in
density of population, having 395 inhabitants to the square
mile. The statistics of 1870 show that of the inhabitants
107,703 were Protestants, 89,180 Catholics, and 1541 Jews.
German is the language almost universally spokei.
Aargau .is the least mountainous canton of Switzerland.
It forms part of a great table'land to the north of the Alps
and the cast of the Jura, having a general elevation of
from 1200 te 1500 feet. The hills do not rise to any
greater height-than 1800 feet above this, table-land,, or
3000 feet above the level' of the sea. The surface of the.
country 'is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and
Vrell-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered
by the Aar and its numerous tributaries, and by the rivu-
lets' which flow 'northward into the Rhine. Although
moist and variable, the climate is Inildcr than in most
parts of Switzerland.
The miiicrals of Aargau are unimportant, but remarkable
palEontological reinains are found in its rocks. The soil to
tho left of the Aar is a stifl' clay, but to the right it is light
and productive. Agriculture is in an advanced state, and
great attention is given to tho rearing of cattle. Thero
are many vineyards, and much fruit is grown. The can-
ton is distinguished by its industry and its generally
diffused prosperity. Many of the inhabitants are employed
in the fishings on the Aar, and in the navigation of the
river. In the villages and towns there are considerable
manufactures of cotton goods, silk, and linen. The chief
exports are cattle, hides, cheese, timber, raw cotton, yam,
cotton cloths, silk, machinery, and wooden wares ; and
the imports include wheat, wine, salt, leather, and iron.
The most important towns are Aarau, Baden, Zofingen, and
Laufenburg, and there are mineral springs at Baden, Schinz-
nach, Leerau, and NiederweiL The Swiss Junction
Railway crosses the Rhine near Waldshut, and runs south
through the canton to Turgi, whence one line proceeds S.E.
to Zurich, and another S.\V. to Aarau and Olben.
Untd 1798, Aargau formed part of the canton of Bern,
out when the Helvetic Republic was proclaimed, it was
erected into a separate canton. In 1803 it received a
considerable accession of territory, in virtue of the arrange-
ment under which tho French evacuated Switzerland.
According to the law whereby the cantons are represented
in the National Council by one member for every 20,000
inhabitants, Aargau returns ten representatives to that
assembly. The internal government is vested in a legis-
lative council elected by the body of the pecple, while a
smaller councO of seven members is chosen by the larger
body for the general administration of affairs. The re-
sources of Aargau are stated to am.iunt to about a million
sterling; its revenue in 1807 was nearly £82,000, and the
expenditure slightly greater. There is a pubUc debt of
about X40,000. The canton is divided into eleven districts,
and these again are subdivided into forty-eight circles. There
is a court of law for each district, and a superior court for
the whole canton, to which cases involving sums above 160
francs can be appealed. Education is compulsory; but in the
Roman Catholie districts the law is not strictly enforced. By
[improved schools and other .appUances great progress has
been made in education withfn the last thirfy or forty years.
AARHUUS, a city and seaport of Denmark, situated
on the Cattegat, in lat. 56° 9' K, long. 10° 12'.E. It is
the chief town of a fertile district of the same name, one
of the subtlivisions of Jutland. The cathedral of Aarhuus
is a Gothic structure, and the largest church in Denmark.
The town also contains a lyccum, museum, and library.
Aarhuus is a phice of extensive trade. It has a good and
safe harbour, has regular steam communication with
Copenhagen, and is connected by rail with Viborg and the
interior of the country. Agricultural produce, spirits,
l,eathor, and gloves are e.xported, arid there are sugar r'e-
fineries, and manufactures of jvool^ cottor^ - and tobacco.
Popidation (1870), 15,020.
AARON, the first high-priest of the ./ews, eldest Fon
of Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of Levi, and brother
of Moses and Miriam. When Moses was comniissioned to
conduct the IsraeUtes from Egypt to Canaan, Aaron was
i^)pointed to assist him, principally, it would appeaf, on
account of his possessing,' in a high degree, persuasive
readiness of speech. On the occasion 'of Moses' .abstince
in Mount Binaii(to which he had gone up to rec?^e tho
tiibles of tho law), .the Israelites, regarding Aaron as their
leader,' chniorously demanded that he should provide them
with a 'visible sj-mbolic imago of 'ihcir .God for worship.
He weakly compUed with the derannd/ and put of the
ornaments of gold, contributed for tho purpose cast tho
figure of a calf, tlus form being •doubtless chosen in recol-
lection of Yhe idols of Egypt. In obedience to*ins(|(uctiona
given by'God to Moses, Aaron was appointed high-priest;
his sons and descendants, priests ; and his tribe wa« set
'a|)art as the saoerdoUd caste. The oftico of high-priest was
held by Aaron for-lieaxly forty years, tiM the time of his
A A 11 — A B A
death, which took i)lacc or, Mouut Hor, wLcu he was 123
years old.
AAKSSENS, Francis Van (1572-1641), one of the
greatest diplomatists of th? Uiitcd Provinces. He re-
presented the Statcs-Generol at the Court of France for
many years, and was also eng'aij'^l in embassies to Venice,
Germany, and England. hi.i I'/cat diplomatic ability
jppears from the memoirs ht VMoto of his negotiations
in 1024 with Hichehcu, who rauki i him among the three
greatest politicians of his time. A deep stain rests on the
memory of Aarssens from the shan ho had in the death of
Barneveldt, who was put to death by the States-General,
after the semblance of a trial, in I'lO.
ABABDE, an African tribe occ.ipj-ing tho country be-
tween the lied Sea and. the Nile, to the S. of Kosseir,
nearly as far as the latitude of D.rr. Many of the race
have settled on the eastern bank of the Nile, but the
greater part EtiU live like Bedouins. They arc a distinct
race from tho Arabs, and are treacherous and faithless in
their dealings. They have few horses ; when at war with
other tribes, they fight from camels, their breed of which
is famed. Tliey possess considerable property, and trade
in senna, and in charcoal made from acacia wood, which
they send as far as Cairo.
ABACA or AuAK-i, a name given to the Jfusa texlihs,
the plant that. produces the fibre called JIaiulla Hemp,
and also to the fibre itself.
ABACUS, an architectural term (from the G.-. a/3af, a
tray or flat board) apphed to the upper part of the capital
of a column, pier, ic. The early form of an abacus Ls
Forma of the AKicug,
simply a square fiat stone, probably derived from the
Tuscan order. In Saxon work it is frequently simply
chamfered, but srimetimes grooved, as in tho crj'pt at
Repton (fig. 1), ana in the arcade of the refectory at West-
minster. The abacus in Norman work is square where
the columns are small; but on larger piers it is sometmies
octagonal, as at Waltham Abbey. The square of the
abacus is often sculptured, as at the \VTiite Tower and
at Alton (fig. 2). In early English work the abacus is
generally circular, and in larger work a continuation of
circles (fig. 4), sometimes octagonal, and occasionally squaru.
The mouldings are
generally rounds,
which overhang
deep hollows. The
abacus in early
French work is
generally square, as
at Blois (fig. 3).
The term is ap-
pbed in its diminu-
tive form (Abacis-
cus) to the chequers
or squares of a tes-
seUated pavement.
Fig. 5. — Roman Abacus.
Ab-vcus also signifies an instrument employed by the
• ncients for arithmetical calculations; pebbles, bits of bone,
or coins,'being used as counters. The accompanying figure
(5) of a Eoman abacus is taken from an ancient monu-
ment. ■ It contains seven long and seven shorter rods or
hars, the former having fonr perforated beads running oti
thera, and the latter one. The b.ar marked I indicates
units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads ou the
shorter bars denote lives, — five units, five tens, <fec. The rod
O and correspond-
ing short rod are
for marking ounces;
and the short quar-
ter rods for fractions
of an ounce.
The Swan-Pan of
the Chinese (fig. 6)
closely resembles tho
Koman abacus in its i'S- 6.— Clunesi; Swan-Pan.
construction and usa Computations are made with it fcy
means of balls of bone or ivory running on slender bam-
boo rods similar to the simpler board, fitted up with beads
strung on vrircs, which is employed in teaching the rudi-
ments of arithmetic in elementary schools.
AB/E, a town of ancient Greece in the E. of Phocis
famous for a teniplo and oracle of Apollo. The temple ^yas
plundered and burned by tho Persians (B.C. 480), and again
by the Boeotians (B.C. 34C), and was re,stored on a smallei
scale by lladrian. Kemains of the temple and town may
still be traced on a peaked hill near Exarkho. See Leake's
NorthtTii Greece.
AB.VKANSK, a fortified town of Siberia, in the govern-
ment of Yeniseisk, on the river Abakan, near its coufluenca
with tho Yenisei. Lat 54° N.; long. 91° 14' E. This is
considered the mildest and most s.alubrious place in Siberia,
and is remark.ablo for the tumuli in its neighbourhood, and
for some statues of men from seven to nine feet high,
covered « ith hieroglyphics. Population about lOOO.
AE:\JNA and Puaepae, "rivers of Damascus" (2 Kings
V. 12), are now generally identified with the Barada and
the Awaj respectively. The former flows through the city
of Damascus ; the Awaj, a smaller stream, passes eight
miles to the south. Both run from west to east across the
plain of Damascus, which owes to them much of its fertility,
and lose themselves in marshes, or lakes, as they are called,
on the borders of the great Arabian desert Mr Macgrcgor,
who gives an interesting description of these rivers in his
I'^ob Hoy on, the Jordan, affirms that " as a work of
hydraulic engineering, the system and constraction of the
CiUials by which the Abana and Pharpar are used for
irrigation, may be still considered as the most complete
and extensive in the world."
ABANCAY, a tovra of Peru, in the department of
Cuzco, 65.miles W.S.W. of the town of Lh.at name. It Uea
on tho river Abancay, which is here spanned by one of the
finest bridges in Pom. Rich crops of sugar-cate are pro-
duced in the district, and the town has extensive sugar
refineries. Hemp is also cultivated, and silver is found io
the mountains. Population, 1200.
ABANDONMENT, in Marine Assurance, is the surren-
dering of the ship or goods insured to the insurers, in the
case of a constructive total loss of the thing insured.
There is an absolute total loss entitling tho assured to
recover the full amount of his insurance wherever the thing
insured has ceased to exist to any useful purpose, — and in
such a case abandonment is not required. Where the thing
assured continues to exist in specie, yet is so damaged that
there is no reasonable hope of repau-, c^r it is not worth the
expense of bringing it, or what remains of it, to its destiuiw-
tion, the insured may treat the case as one of a total loss
(in this case called constructive total loss), and demand
the full sum insured. But, as the contract of insurance is
one of indemnity, the insured must, in such a case, make
an express cession of all his right to the recovery of the
subject insured to the underwriter by abandonment. Tho
insured must intimate his intention to abandon, within «
-A. B A - A B A
5
tea3onatle tiiije after receiving correoi information as to
the loss; any unnecessary delay being held as an indica-
tion of his intention not to abandon. An abandonment
when once accepted is irreTocable; but in no circumstances
s the insured obliged to abandon. After abandonment,
the captain and crew are still bound to do all in their
power to save the property for the underwriter, without
prejudice to the right of abandonment; for which they are
entitled to wages and remuneration from the insurers, at
least so far as what is saved-wiU allow. See Aruould,
Marshall, aud Park, on the Law of Insurance, and the
judgment of Lord Abinger in Roux v. Salvador, 3 Bing.
N.C. 26_6, Tudor's Leadiny Cases, 139.
Abandonment has also a legal signification m the law
of railways. Under the Acts 13 and li Vict. c. 83, 14
and 15 Vict. c. 64, 30 and 31 Vict. c. 126, aud 32 and 33
Vict. c. 114, the Board of Trade may, on the application
of a railway company, made by the authority and with the
consent of the holders of three-fifths of its shares or stock,
and on certain conditions specified in the Acts, grant a war-
rant authorising the abandonment of the railway or a por-
tion of it. After duo publication of this warrant, the
company is released from all liability to make, maintain,
or work the" railway, or portion of the railway, authorised
to be abandoned, or to complete any contracts "elating to
it, subject to certain provisions and exceptions.
Abandoning a young child under two years of age, so
that its life shall be endangered, or its health permanently
injured, or likely to be so, is in England a misdemeanour,
punishable by penal servitude or imprisonment, 24 and 25
Vict. c. 100, § 273. In Scotland abandoning or exposing
an infant ia an offence at common law, although no evil
consequences should happen to the child.
A.BANO, a town of Northern Italy, 6 miles S.W. of
Padua. There are thennal springs in the neighbourhood,
which have been much resorted to by invalids for bathing,
both in ancient and modern times. They were called by
the Romans Aponi Foiis, and also Aauce Patavina:. Popu-
lation of Abano, 3000.
ABANO, PiETEO d', known also as Petnis de Apone or
Aponensis, a distinguished physician and philosopher, was
born at the Italian towji from which he takes his name in
• 1250, or, according to others, in 1246. After vi.siting the
east in order to acquire the Greek language, he went to
study at Pari.s, where he became a doctor of medicine and
philosophy. In Padua, to which he returned when his
studies were completed, he speedily gained a great reputa-
tion as a physician, and availed hinaself of it to gratify his
ivarice by refusing to visit patients except for an exorbitant
fee. Perhaps this as well as his meddling v/ith astrology
caused the charge to bo brought against him of practising
magic, the particular accusations being that he brought
back into his purse, by the aid of the devil, all the money
he paid away, and that he possessed the philosophei-'s stone.
He was twice brought to trial by the Inquisition ; on the
first occasion he was acquitted, aud he died (1316) before
the second trial was completed. He was found guilty,
however, and his body was ordered to be e.xlmmed and
burned; but a friend had secretly removed it, and the
Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public
proclamation of its sentence and the burning of Abano in
effigy. In his writings he expounds and advocates the
medical and philosophical systems of Averrhoes and other
Arabian ^vTitcrs. His best known works are the Con-
ciliator diffcrcnliarvm qua; inter philosophos et medicos
versantur (Mantua, 1472, Venice, 1476), and De venenis
torumque remediis (1472), of which a French translation
was published at Lyons in 1593.
ABARIS, the Hyperborean, a celebrated sago of anti-
quity, whoi-isited Greece about 570 B.C., or, according to
others, a centuij or two earlier. The particulars of his
history are diiferently related by different authors, but all
accounts are more or less mj-thicaL He is said to have
travelled over sea and land, riding on an arrow given him
by Apollo, to have lived without food, to have deUvered
the whole earth from a plague, &c. Various works in prose
and verse are attributed to Abaris by Suidas and others,
but of these we have no certain information.
ABATEMENT, Abate, from the French abattre, abater,
to throw down, demolish. The original meaning of the
word is preserved in various legal phrases. The abatement
of a nuisance is the remedy allowed by law to a person
injured by a public nuisance of destroying or removing it
by his own act, provided he commit no breach of the peace
ill doing so. In the case of private nuisances abatement
is also allowed, provided there be no breach of the peace,
and no damage be occasioned bevond vhat the removal ol
the nuisance requires.
Abatement of freehold takes pjiace where, alter the aeath
of the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands
before the entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latte*
out of possession. It differs from intrusion, which is a
similar entry by a stranger on the death of a tenant for
life, to the prejudice of the reversioner, or remainder man ;
and from disseisin, which is the forcible or fraudulent ex-
pulsion of a person seised of the freehold.
Abatement among legatees (de/alcatis) is a proportionate
deduction which their legacies suffer when the funds out
of which they are payable are not sufficient to Day them in
full.
Abatement in pleading is the defeating or quashing of a
particular action by some matter of fact, such as a defect
in form or personal incompetency of the parties suing,
pleaded by the defendant. Such a plea is called a plea in
aliatemeut; and as it does not involve the merits of the
cause, it leaves the right of action subsisting. Since 1852
it has been competent to obviate the effect of such pleas
by amendment, so as to allow the real question in contro-
versy between the parties t- be tried in the same suit.
In litigation an action is said to abate or cease on the
death of one of the parties.
Abatement, or Rebate, is a discount allowed for
prompt payment ; it also means a deduction sometimes
made at the custom-house from the fixed duties on certain
kinds of goods, on account of damage or loss sustained in
warehouses. The rate and conditions of such deductions
are regulated by Act 16 and 17 Vict. c. 107.
ABATI, or Dell'Aebato, Niccolo, a celebrated fresco-
painter of Modena, born in 1512. His best works are at
Wodena and Bologna, and have been highly praised by
Zanotti, Algarotti, and Lanzi. He accompanied Primaticcio
to France, and assisted in decorating the palace at Fontain-
bleau (1552-1571). His pictures exhibit a combination of
skill in drawiug, grace, aud natural colouring. Some of
his easel pieces in oil are in different collections ; one of the
finest, now in the Dresden Gallery, represents the martyr-
dom of St Peter and ,St PauL Abati died at Paris in
1571.
ABATTOIR, from abattre, primarily signifies a slaughter-
house jiroper, or place where animals are killed as distin-
guished from boucheries and itaux publics, places where
the dead meat is offered for sale. But the term is al.=o
employed to designate a complete meat market of which
the abattoir proper is merely part.
Perhaps fiio first indication of the existence of abattoirs
may be found in the system which prevailed under the
Emperors in ancient Rome. A corporation or guild of
butchers undoubtedly e.xisted there, which delegated to its
ollicei-s the duty of slaiigliterinf,' the l)fa.sts iwjiiired to
supply the city with meat. The establishments requisite
6
A B A,T T O I II
for this purpose wero at first scattered about tfie vanous
streets, but vrere eventually confined to one quarter, and
formed the public moat market. This market, in the .time
of Nero, was one of the most imposing structures in the
city, and some idea of its magnificence has been transmitted
to us by a delineation of it preserved on an ancient coin.
As the policy .tnd customs of the Romans made themselves
felt ill Gaul, the Roman system of abattoirs, if it may bo
BO called, was introduced there in an imperfect form. A
clique of families in .Paris long exercised the special func-
tion of catering for the public wants in respect of meat
But as the city increased in magnitude and population, the
necessity of keeping slaughter-houses as much as possible
apart from dwelliug-houses became apparent. As early as
the time of Charles IX., the attention of the French author-
ities was directed to the subject, as is testified by a decree
passed on tht 25th of February 1567. But although the
importance of the question was frequently recognised, no
definite or decided step seems to have been taken to effect
the contemplated reform until the time of Napoleon L
The evil had then reached a terribly aggravated form.
Slaughter-houses abutted on many of the principal thorough-
fares ; the traffic was impeded by the constant arrival of
foot-sore beasts, whose piteous cries pained the ear; and
rivulets of blood were to be seen in the gutters of the public
streets. The constant accumulation of putrid offal tainted
the atmosphere, and the Seine was polluted by being used
as a common receptacle for slaughter-house refuse. This
condition of things could not be allowed to continue, and
on the 9th of February 1810, a decree was passed authoris-
ing the construction of abattoirs in the outskirts of Paris,
and appointing a Commission, to which was committed the
consideration of the entire question.
The result of the appointment of this Commission was
the construction of the five existing abattoirs, which were
formaUy opened for business on the 15 th of September
1818. The Montmartre abattoir occupies 8J English acres;
illHlllUMUlllVJll
rTTTTTTTm
I I I I iSl I 1 I I
rrm-Td n~n
■ ■■■'■*'''■'
I I i I I I.' ■ I
S^I-S
S?, ' &
I » 1 I 1,1 I I I I 1
I ■ ' ' "^ ■ ' ■ ' '
— 1 I —
:~
S4i
>5
— 1 •—
— J 1— .
■ ■
t —
t ^5? , r-M 1
' ' ■ ' ' ^ ' ■ ' '
1. MenilmoDtant Abattoir.
A. Residence of OfBcUls.
B. Sheep and Cattle Shedi
C. Slaujfttter-Hoasea.
D. Yards to do.
E. Stored.
F. Tallow-meUing Hotiaca.
G. Steam Enefne.
n. Stable witti Water TankJ.
above.
I. Dane Pits.
L. Priviea
M. Layers for Cattle!
M^nilmontant, lOJ acres; Crenelle, 7| ; Du Eoule, 5|;
md Villejuif, 5i. The first two contain each 64 slaughter-
houses and the same number of cattle-sheds ; the third, 48 ;
and each of the others 32. The dimensions of each of the
slaughter-houses is about 29i feet by 13. The general
arrangement of the abattoirs will be nnderstood fron. the
preceding plan of that of Mt^niknontant.
The component parts of a French abattoir are — 1
Echaudoirs, wnich is the name given by the Paris butcher
to the particular division allotted to him for the purpose of
knocking down his beasts ; 2. Bouveries et Bergeriti, the
places set apart for the animals waiting to be slaughtered,
where the animals, instead of being killed at once, after a
long and distressing journey, when their blood is heated and
their flesh inflamed, are allowed to cool and rest till the
body is restored to its normal healthy condition ; 3. Fan-
deurt, or boiling-down establishments ; and, 4. Triperits,
which are buildings set apart for the cleaning of the tripe
of bullocks, and the fat, heads, and tripe of sheep and
calves. Besides .these, a Paris abattoir contains Loyementt
des a gens, Magasina, Rhervoirs, Voiries, Lieux d'aisance,
Voules, RemUes et ecuries, Para aux Boeu/s, &c., and is
provided with an abundant supply of .water. All the abatr
toirs are under the control of the municipal authoriJies,
and frequent inspections are made by persons regularly
appointed for that purpose.
The abattoirs are situated within the barriers, each at a
distance of about a mile and tliree-quarters from the heart
of the city, in districts whereuuman habitations are still
comparatively few. There are two principal markets from
which the abattoirs at Paris are supplied, — the one at
Poissy, about 13 miles to the north-west, and the other at
Sceaux, about 5 miles and a quarter to the south of the
city. There are also two markets for cows and calves,
n.^mely, La Chapelle and Lcs Bemadins.
The Paris abattoirs were until recently the most perfect
specimens of their class ; and even now, although in some
of their details they have been surpassed by the new
Islington meat market, for their complete and compact
arrangement they remain unrivalled.
The example set by Paris in this matter has been fol-
lowed in a more or less modified form by most of the prin-
cipal Continental towns, and the system of abattqjrs has
become almost imiversal in France.
The condition of London in this important sanitary
respect was for a long period little more endurable than
that of Paris before the adoption of its reformed system.
Smithfield market, situated in a very populous neighbour-
hood, continued till 1852 to be an abomination to the town
and a standing reproach to its authorities. No fewer than
243,537 cattle and 1,455,249 sheep were sold there in
1852, to be afterwards slaughtered in the crowded courts
and thoroughfares of the metropolis. But public opinion
at length forced the Legislature to interfere, and the corpora-
tion was compelled to abandon Smithfield market and to
provide a substitute for it elsewhere.
The site selected was in the suburb of Islington, and the
designs for the work were prepared by Mr Bunning. The
first stone was laid March 24, 1854, and the market was
opened by Prince Albert, June 15, 1855. The Islington
market is imdoubtedly the most perfect of its kind. It occu-
pies a space of some 20 acres on the high land near the Pen-
tonrille prison, and is open to both native and forei;rn cattle,
excepting beasts from foreign countries under quarantine.
In connection with the Islington cattle market are a few
slaughter-houses, half of which were originally public, and
half rented to private individuals ; but at present they are
all practically private, and the majority of the cattle sold
are driven away and kUled at private slaughter-houses. In
this respect the London system differs from that of Paris ;
and it may be said for the former that the meat is less
liable to be spoded by being carted to a distance, and is
therefore probably delivered in better condition ; but the
latter secures that great desideratum, the practical eitino-
tion of isolated slaughter-houses.
ABA ABA
The Edmburgh abattoir, erected in 1851 by the corpora-
tion, from designs prepared by Mr David Coiisin, the city
irchitect, > is the best as regards both construction and
management in the United Kingdom. It occupies an area
of four acres and a quarter, surrfiunded by a screen-wall,
from which, 'along the greater part of its length, the build-
-.r-s are aeoarated by a considerable open space. Opposite
1
iiiiiiitii
X
2, Edinburgh Slaughter-Houses.
A- Central Eoadwar.
B. SlaoKhterIng Booiha.
C CaUle ShcdB.
li. Enclosed Yards.
B. WaU.
P. Steam-j:.nglll&
G Raised Water Tank.
H. Tripery.
I. Pig-slaughterint: House.
K. Court for Cattle.
L. Sheda.
U. Blood Bouse, now Albumen Factory.
the principal gateway is a double row of buildings, extend-
ing in a straight line to about 376 feet in length, with a
Central roadway (marked AA in the annexed plan), 25 feet
«ride. There are three separate blocks of building on each
side of the roadway, the central one being 140 feet in
length, and the others 100 feet each — cross-roads 18 feet'
Tride separating the blocks. These ranges of building, as
well as" two smaller blocks that are placed transversely
behind the eastern central block, are divided into compart-
ments, numbering 42 in all, and all arranged on the same
plan. Next the roadway is the slaughtering-booth (BB), 18
feet by 24, and 20 feet in height, and behind this is a shed
(CC) 18 feet by 22, where the cattle are kept before being
slaughtered. AU the cattle are driven into these sheds by
a back-entrance, through the small enclosed yards (DD).
The large doors of the booths are hung by balance weights,
and slide up and down, so as to present no obstruction
either within the booth or outside. By a series of large
ventilators along the roof, and by other contrivances, the
slaughtering-booths are thoroughly ventilated. Great pre-
cautions have been used to keep rats out of the buildings.
To effect this, the booths are laid with thick well-dressed
pavement, resting on a stratum of concrete 12 inches
thick, and the walla, to the height of 7 feet, are formed of
solid ashlar; the roadways, too, are laid with concrete,
and causewayed with dressed whinstone pavement; and the
drainage consists entirely of glazed earthenware tubes.
The ground on which the abattoir is built was previously
connected with a distillery, and contains a well 100 feet
deep (E), which, with the extensive system of tunnels
attached to it, provides the establishment with an abundant
supply of pure water. By means of a steam-engine (F),
introduced in 1872, the water is pumped up into a raised
tank (G), whence it is distributed to tho different booths
and sheds, as well as for scouring the roadways and drains.
The steam from the engine is utilised in heating water for
the numerous cast-iron tanks required in the operations of
cleansing and dressing the tripery (H) and pig slaugh-.
tering-nou.se (I). By an ingenious arrangement of
rotary brushes driven by the steam-engine, — the inven-
tion of Mr. Rutherford, the superintendent, — the tripe is
dressed in a superior manner, and at greatly less cort
; than by the tediour and troublesome method o^ ''-ZTii-
cleaning.
By the Edinburgh Slaughter-Houses 'Act of I'SSO, the
management) is vested in the city authorities. Booths
are let at a statutory rent of £8 each per anntmi, and, in
addition to this, gate-dues are payable for every beast
entering the establishment. !^ The present rates for tenants
of booths are l^A for an ox or cow, |d. for a calf or
pig, and :Jd. for a sheep. Common booths are provided
for butchers who are not tenants, on payment of double
gate-dues. The city claims the blood, gut, and manure.
■ The tripe and feet are dressedjfor the trade without extra
charge.
The blood was formerly collected in large casks, and dis-
posed of for manufacturing purposes. This necessitated
the storage of it for several days, causing in warm weather
a very offensive effluvium. It even happened at times,
when there was little demand for the commodity, that
the blood had to be sent down the drains. All nuisance
is now avoided, and the amount received annually for
the blood has risen from between £200 and £450 to
from £800 to £1200, by a contract into which Messrs
Smith and Forrest of ilanchester have entered with
the city authorities, to take over the whole blood at
a fixed price per beast. They have erected extensive
premises and apparattLS at their own cost, for extracting
from tho blood the albumen, for which there is great
demand in calico-nrinting, and for converting the clct into
manure.
In connection with the establishment is a boiling-house,
where all meat unfit for human food is boUed down and
destroyed, Tho number of carcases seized by the inspec-
tor, and sent to the boiling-house, during the 5^ years
ending with the clos.e of 1872, amounted to 1449, giving
a weight of upwards of 400,000 pounds.
Before the erection of these buildings, private slaughter-
houses were scattered all over the city, often in the most
populous districts, where, through want of drainage and
imperfect ventilation, they contaminated the whole neigh-
bourhood. Since the opening of the public abattoir, all
private slaughtering, in the city or within a mile of it, is
strictly prohibited.
Few of the provincial towns in Great Britain have as yet
followed the example of London and EdinburgL In some
instances improvements on the old system have been
adopted, but Great Britain is still not orily far behind her
foreign neighbours in respect of abattoirs, but has even
been excelled by some of her own dependencies. In
America abattoirs are numerous, and at Calcutta and other
towns in British India, the meat markets present a very
creditable appearance from their cleanliness and systematic
arrangement. (c. N. B.)
ABAUZIT, FlEMiN, a learned Frenchman, was born
of Protestant parents at Uzis, in Languedoc; in 1679.
His father, who was of Arabian descent, died when he
was but two years of age ; and when, on the revocation
of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps
to have him educated in the Roman Catholic faith, hi«
mother contrived his escape. For two years his brother
and he lived as fugitives in the mountains of the Cevennoa,
but they at last reached Geneva, where their mother after-
wards joined them on escaping from the imprisonment in
which she was held from the time of their flight. Abauzlt'a
youth was spent in diligent sttidy, and at an early a;/c i:e
acquired great proficiency in languages, physics, and
theology. In 1698 he travelled into Holland, and there
became acquainted with" Bayle, Jurieu, and Basnage.
Proceeding to England, he was introduced to Sir J^^aao
Newton, who found in him one of the earliest defcvdera
of the great truths his discoveries disclcaed to (he -.vorld.
8
A B B — A B B
Sir Isaac corrected in the second edition of his Principia an
error pointed out by Abauzit. The high estimate Newton
entertained of his merits appears from the compliment
he paid to Abauzit, when, sending him the Commercium
EpUtolwum, ho said, " You are well worthy to judge
between Leibnitz and me." The reputation of Abauzit
induced William III. to request him to settle in England,
but ho did not accept the king's offer, preferring to return
to Geneva. There from 1715 he rendered valuable assistance
to a society that had been formed for translating the New
Testament into French. Ho declined the oiler of the
chair of philosophy in the University in 1723, but ac-
cepted, in 1727, the sinecure office of librarian to the city
Df his adoption. Hero he died at a good old ago, in 1707.
Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful
versatility. The varied knowledge he possessed wan so
well digested and arranged in his retentive mind as to be
always within his reach for immediate use. Whatever
chanced to bo discussed, it used to bo said of Abauzit, as
of Professor WhewcU of our own times, that ho seemed to
have made it a subject of particular study. Eousseau,
who was jealously sparing of his praises, addressed to
him, in his NouvelU Ilelohe, a fine pancgjTic ; and when a
stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had come to see a great
man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen Abauzit.
Little remains of the lalxmrs of this intellectual giant, his
heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into
their possession, because their religious opinions differed
from those of Abauzit. A few theological, archaeological,
and astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the
Journal Hdvetique and elsewhere, and he contributed
several papers to Rousseau's Dictionary of Music. A
work ho wrote throwing doubt on the canonical authority
of the Apocalypse was answered — conclusively, as Abauzit
himself allowed — by Dr Leonard Twells. He edited, and
made valuable additions to Spon's History of Geneva. A
collection of his wr'^ings was published at Geneva in
1770, and another at London in 1773. Some of them
(vere translated into English by Dr Harwood (1770, 1774).
Information regarding Abauzit will be found in Senebier's
Ilistoire Litteraire de Gaieve, Harwood's Miscellanies, and
Orme's JBibllotheca Biblica, 1834.
ABB, a town of Yemen in Arabia, situated on a moun-
tain in the midst of a very fertile covintry, 73 miles N.E.
of Mocha. Lat. 13° 58' N., long. 44° 15' E. It contains
about 800 houses, and is surrounded by a strong waU ;
the streets are veil paved ; and an aqueduct from a neigh-
bouring mountain supplies it with water, which is received
in a reservoir in front of the crincipal mosque. The
population is about 5000.
ABBADJE, JjVJIEs, an eminent Protestant divine,
was born- at Nay in Bern about 1657. His parents
were poor, but through the kindness of discerning friends,
he received an excellent education. He prosecuted his
studies with such success, that on completing his course
at Sedan, though only seventeen year." of age, he had con->
ferred on him the degree of doctor in theology. After
spending some years iu Berlin as minister of a French
Protestant church, ho accompanied Marshal Schomberg,
in 1683, to England, and became minister of the French
church in the Savoy, London. His strong attachment to
the cause of King Wdliam appears in his elaborate
defence of the Revolution, as well as in his history of
the conspiracy of 1696, the materials of which were
furnished,- it is said, by the s-.cretarics of state. The
king promoted him to the deanery of KUlaloe in Ireland.
He died in London in 1727. Abbaciie was a man of
great ability and an eloquent prcach'.r, but is best known
by his religious treatises, several of wuich were translated
from the original French into other languages, and had a
wide ciiculation all over Europe. The most important of
these are Traite de la Verite de la Jieligion Chrilienne ;
its continuation, Traite de la Diviniti de Jisus-Chriit ;
and L'Art de se connaitre Soyviime.
ABBAS I., surnamed Tat: Gheat, one of tht most
celebrated of the sovereigns of Persia, was the youngest
son of Shah Jlohammed Khodabendch. After heading a
successful rebellion against liis father, and causing one of
his brothers (or, as some say, both) to be aissassiiatcd, he
obiaiucd possession of the throne at the early ago of
eighteen (1580). Determined to raise the fallen fortunes
of hii counti-y, he first directed his efforts against the
predate y Uzbeks, who occupied and harassed Khorasan.
After a long and severe struggle, he defeated them in a
great battle near Herat (1597), and drove thcri out of his
dominions. In the wars he carried on with the Turks
during nearly the whole of his reign, hia successes were
numerous, and ho acquired or regained a large extent of
territory. By the victory he gained at Bassorah (1605),
he extended his empire beyond the Euphrates; A chimed L
was forced to code Shinvan and Kurdistan in 1611 ; the
united armies of the Turks and Tartars were completely
defeated near Sultanieh in 1C18, and Abbas made peace
on very favourable terms; and on theTurks renewing tliewar,
Baghdad fell into his hands after a year's siege (1623).
In the same year ho took the island of Ormuz from the
Portuguese, by the assistance of the BritisK When ho died
in 1C28, his dominions reached from the Tigris to the Indus.
Abbas distinguished himself, not only by his successes
in arms, and by the magnificence of his court, but also by
his reforms iu the administration of his kingdom. He
encouraged commerce, and, by constructing h'ghways and
building bridges, did much to facilitate it. To foreigners,
especially Christians, ho showed a spirit of tolerance ; two
Englishmen, Sir Anthony and Sir Robert Shirley, were
admitted to hie confidence, and seem to have had much
influence over him. His fame is tarnished, however, by
numerous deeds of tyranny and cruelty. His own famOy,
especially, suffered fromlliis fits of jealousy; his eldest son
was slain, and the eyes of his other children were put out,
by his orders.
ABBAS MIRZA (6. 1785, d. 183?), Prince of Persia,
third sen of the Shah Feth Ali, was destined by his father
to succeed him in the government, because of his mother's
connection with the royal tribe of the Khadjars. Ha led
various expeditions against the Russians, but generally
^-ithout success (1803, 1813, 1826). By a treaty made
between Russia and Persia in 1828, the right of Abbas
to the succession was recognised. When the Russian
deputies were murdered by the Persian populace in 1829,
Abbas was sent to St Petersburg, where he received a
hearty welcome from the Czar, and made himself a
favourite by his courtesy and literary taste. He formed a
design against Herat, but died shortly after the siege had
been opened by his son, who succeeded Feth Ali as the
Shah Mohammed Mirza. He was truthful^a rare quality
iu an Eastern — plain in di-ess and stylb of living, and fond
of literature.
ABBASSIDES, the caliphs of Baghdad, the most
famous flynasty of the sovereigns of the Mahometan or
Saracen empire. They derived their name and descent
from Abbas (b. 566, d. 652 a.d.), the uncle and adviser of
Maiomet, and succeeded the dynasty of the Ommiads, th«
caliphs of Damascus. Early in the 8th century the
famij/ of Abbas had acquired great influence from their
near relationship to the Prophet ; and Ibrahim, the fourth
in descent from Abbas, supported by the province of
Khorasan, obtained several successes over the Ommiad
armies, but was captured and put to death by the Caliph
Merwan (747). Ibrahim's brother, Abul-Abbn.s. whom ie
A B 13 — A B B
had named his heir, assumed the title of caliph, and, by a
decisive victory near the river Zab (750), effected the over-
throw of the Ommiad dynasty. Merwan fled to Egypt,
but was pursued and put to death, and the vanquished
family was treated with a severity which gained for Abul-
Abbas the surname of Al-Safiah, the Blood-ahedder.
From this time the house of Abbas was fully established
in the government, but the Spanish provinces were lost to
the empire by the erection of an independent caliphate of
Cordova, under Abderrahman.
On the death of Abul-Abbas, Almansur succeeded to
the throne, and founded Baghdad as the seat of empire.
He and his son llohdi waged war successfully against the
Turkomans and Greeks of Asia Minor; but from this time
the rule of the Abbassides is marked rather by the
development of the liberal arts than by extension of
territory. The strictness of 'the Mohammedan religion was
- relaxed, and the faithful yielded to the seductions of luxury.
The caliphs Harun Al-Rashid (786-809) and Al-Mamun
,(813-833) attained a worId--iride celebrity by their gorgeous
palaces, their vast treasures, and their brilliant and nume-
rous equipages, in all which their splendour contrasted
strikingly with the poverty of European sovereigns. The
former is known as one of the heroes of the Arabian
_ Nights ; the latter more worthily stiU as a liberal patron
of literature and science. It 15 a mistake, however, to
look in the rule of these caliphs for the lenity of modern
civilisation. " No Christian government," says HaUam,
" except perhaps that of Constantinople, exhibits such a
series of tyrants as the caliphs of Baghdad, if deeds of
blood, wrought through unbridled passion or jealous
policy, may challenge tJie name of tyranny."
The territory of the Abbassides soon suffered dismem-
berment, and their power began to decay. Eival sove-
reignties (Ashlabites, Edrisites, itc.) arose in Africa, and
an independent government was constituted in Khorasan
(820), under the Taherites. In the West, again, the Greeks
encroached upon the possessions of the Saracens in Asia
Minor. Ruin, however, came from a less civilised race. The
caliphs had continually been waging war with the Tartar
_ hordes of Turkestan, and many captives taken in these wars
•were- dispersed throughout the empire. Attrec'.ed by their
bravery and fearing rebeUion among his subjecJs, Motassera
(833-842), the founder of Samarah, and successful oppo-
nent of the Grecian forces under Theophilus, formed body-
guards of the Turkish prisoners, who became from that
time the real governors of the Saracen empire. Mota-
wakkel, son of Moto.s3em, was assassinated by them in the
palace (861) ; and succeeding caliphs became mere puppets
in their hands. Radhi (934-941) was compelled by the
disorganised condition of his kingdom to delegate to
Mohammed ben Rayek (936 a.d.), under the title of Emir-
al-Omara, commander of the commanders, the government
of the army and the other functions of the caliphate.
Province after province proclaimed itself independent ;
the caliph's, rule became narrowed to Baghdad and its
vicinity ; and the house of 'Abbas lost its power in the
East for ever, when Hulagu, prince of the Mongols, set
Baghdad on fire, and slew Motassem, the reigning caliph
(20th Feb. 1258). The Abbassides continued to hold a
semblance of power in the merely nominal caUphato of
Egypt, and feebly attempted to recover their ancient seat.
The last of them, ilotawakkel III., was taken by Sultan
Selim I., the conqueror of Egj-pt, to Constantinople, and
detained ther^ for some time as a prisoner. He afterwards
l-eturned to Egypt, and died at Cairo a pensionary of the
Ottoman government, in 1538.
ABBE is the French word corresponding to Abbot, but,
from .the middle of the sixteenth century to the time of
S,he French Ilcvolution, the term had a wider application.
xne assumption by a numerous class of the name and
style of abb6 appears to have originated in the right con-
ceded to the King of France, by a concordat between Pope
Leo X. and Francis I., to appoint ahbes commendatairei to
225 abbeys, that is, to most of the abbeys in France.
This kind of appointment, whereby the living was com-
mended to some one till a proper election could take
place, though ostensibly provisional, reaUy put the nomi-
nee in full and permanent possession of the benefice.
He received about one-third of the revenues of the abbey,
but had no share in its government, the charge of the
house being intrusted to a resident officer, the priea'
daustral. The ahhes commendalaires were not necessarily
priests ; the papal bull required indeed that they should
fake orders within a stated time after their appointment,
but there seems to have been no -.lifficulty in procuring
relief from that obligation. The , expectation of obtaining
these sinecures drew young men towards the Church in
considerable numbers, and the class of abb^s so formed —
abbes de cour they were sometimes called, and sometimes
(ironically) abbts de sainte esperance, abb^s of St Hope —
came to hold a recognised position, that perhaps proved as
great an attraction as the hope of preferment. The con-
nection many of them had with the Church was of the
slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the name
of abb^, after a remarkably moderate course of theo-
logical study ; practising celibacy ; and wearing a distinc-
tive dress — a short dark -violet coat with narrow coUar.
Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure,
many of the class found admission to the houses of the
French nobility .is tutors or advisers. Nearly every great
family had its abbd. As might be imagined from the
objectless sort of life the class led, many of the abb& were
of indifferent character ; but there are not a few instaijices
of abb& attaining eminence, both in political life and in
the waits of literature and science. The Abbe Siey^s may
be taken as a prominent example of the latter type.
ABBEOKUTA, or .jIbeokuta, a town of West Africa
in the Yoruba Country, situated in N. lat. 7° 8', and
E. long, y 25', on the Ogun River, about 50 miles north
of Lagos, in a direct line, or 81 miles by water. It lies
in a beautiful and fertile country, the surface of which is
broken by masses of grey granite. Like most African
towns, Abbeokuta is spread over an extensive area, being
surrounded by mud walls, 13 miles in extent. The houses
are also of mud, and the streets mostly narrow and
filthy. There are numerous markets in which native pro-
ducts and articles of European manufacture are exposed
for sale. Palm-oil and sh'ea,-butter are the chief articles of
export, and it is expected that the cotton of the country
will become a valuable article of commerce. The slave
trade and human sacrifices have been abolished ; but not-
withstanding the efforts of English and American mission-
aries, the natives are stUl idle and degraded. The state
called Egbaland, of which Abbeokuta is the capital,
has an area of about 3000 square miles. Its progress has
been much hindered by frequent wars with the king of
Dahomey. Population of the town, about 150,000; of the
state or adjacent territory, 50,000. (See Burton's Abheo-
kuta and the Cameroon Mountains, 2 vols.)
ABBESS, the female superior of an abbey or convent
of nuns. The mode of election, position, rights, and
aiithority of an abbess, correspond generally with those
of an abbot. The office was elective, the choicfi being by
the secret votes of the sisters from their own body. The
abbess was solemnly admitted to her office by episcopal
benediction, together with the conferring of a staff and
pectoral, and held it for life, though liable to be deprived
for misconduct. The Council of Trent fixes the qualifyin|
age at forty, with eight years of profession." Abbesses had
I. a
10
A B B — A B B
a right to demand absolute obedience of their nuns, over
whom thoy exercised discipline, extending even to the
power of expulsion, subject, however, to the bishop. As
a female an abbess was incapable of performing the
spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an
abbot. She could not ordain, confer the veil, nor excom-
municate. In the eighth century abbesses were censured
for usurping priestly powers by presuming to give the
veil to virgins, and to confer benediction and imposition
of hands on men. In England they attended ecclesiastical
councils, e.g. that of Becanficld in C94, where they signed
before the presbyters.
By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of
monks and nuns. This custom accompanied Celtic nioi;-
ostie missions to France and Spain, and even to Rome
itself. At a later period, a.d. 1115, Robert, the founder
of Fonto^Taud, committed the government of the whole
order, men as well as women, to a female superior.
Marteno asserts that abbesses formerly confessed nuns,
but that their undue inquisitiveness rendered it necessary
to forbid the practice.
The dress of an English abbess of the 12th century
consisted of a long white tunic with close sleeves, and a
black overcoat as long as the tunic, with largo and loose
sleeves, the hood covering the head completely. The
abbesses of the Hth and 15th centuries had adopted
secular habits, and there was little to distinguish them
from their lay sisters. (e. v.)
ABBETILLE, a city of France, in the department of
the Somme, is situated on the Fiivcr Somme, 12 miles
from its mouth in the English Channel, and 25 miles
•N.W. of Amiens. It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley,
and is built partly on an island, and partly on both sides
of the river. The streets are narrow, and the houses are
mostly picturesque old structures, built of wood, with
many quaint decaying gables and dark archways. The
town is strongly fortified on Vauban's system. It ha? a
tribunal and chamber of commerce. The most remarkable
edifice is the Church of St Wolfran, which was erected in
the time of Louis XIL Although the original design was
not completed, enough was built to give a good idea of
the splendid structure it was intended to erect. The
facade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant Gothic
style, and is adorned by rich tracery, while the western
front is flanked by two Gothic towers. A cloth manufac-
tory wa.s established here by Van Robais, a Dutchman,
under the patronage of the minister Colbert, as early as
16C9 ; and since that time Abbeville has contin-ieJ to be
one of the most thriving manufacturing towns in France.
Besides black cloths of the best quality, there are produced
velvets, cottons, linens, serges, sackings, hosiery, pack-
thread, jewellery, eoap, and glass-wares. It has also
establishments for spinning wool, print-works, bleaching-
works, tanneries, a paper manufactory, die. ; and being
situated in the centre of a populous district, it has a con-
siderable trade with the surrounding country. .Vessels of
from 200 to 300 tons come up to the town at high-water.
Abbeville is a station on the Northern Railway, and is also
connected with Paris and Belgium by canals. Fossil
remains of gigantic mammalia now extinct, as well as the
rude flint weapons of pre-historic man, have been dis-
covered in the geological deposits of the neighbourhood.
A treaty was concluded here in 1259 between Henry
TTT of England and Louis IX. of France, by which the
prtjvince of Guienne was ceded to the English. PoDula-
tion, 20,058.
ABBEY, a monastery, or conventual establishment,
under the government of an abbot or an abbess. A
priory oidy differed from an abbey in that the superior
V)ure the name of prior instead of abbot. This was the
case m all the English conventual cathedrals, e.g., Cantflr-
buiy, Ely, Nor\vich, kc, where the archbishop or bishop
occupied the abbot's place, the superior of the moiia-stery
being termed prior. Other priories were originally off-
shoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots of which they
continued subordinate ; but in later times the actual dis-
tinction between abbeys and priories was lost.
Reserving for the article iloNASTicisM the history of the
rise and progress of the monastic system, its objects, benefits,
evils, its decline and fall, we propose in this article to con-
fine ourselves to the structural plan and arrangement of
conventual establishments, and a description of the various
buildings of which these vast piles were composed.
The earliest Christian monastic communities ivith which Cell*
we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells or huts
collected about a common centre, which was usually tho
abode of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or
singular asceticism, but vi'ithout any attempt at orderly
arrangement. The formation of such communities in tho
East docs not date from the introduction of Christianity.
The example had been already set by tho Essenes in Judca
and' the Therapeutse in Egypt, who may be considered tho
prototypes of the industrial and meditative communities of
monks.
In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the a-sceties
were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another,
at no great distance from somo village, supporting them-
selves by the labour of their own hands, and distributing
the surplus after the supply of their own scantj- wants to
the poor. Increasing rehgious fervour, aided by persecu-
tion, di'ove them further and further away from the abodes
of men into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts. The
deserts of Egypt swarmed with the cells or huts of theso
anchorites. Antony, who had retired to the Egj-ptiau
Thebaid during the persecution of JIaximin, a.d. 312, was
the most celebrated among them for his austerities, his
sanctity, and his power as an exorcist. His iame collected
round him a host of followers, emulous of his sanctity.
The deeper he withdrew into tA wilderness, the more
numerous his di.sciplca became. They refused to be sepa-
rated from him, and built their cells round that of their
spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic commnnjtYj
consisting of anchorites living eai.'h in his own little dwell-
ing, united together under one superior. Antony, as
Neander remarks (Church History, vuL iiL p. 31G, Clark's
Trans.), " without any onscious design of his own, had
become the founder of n new mode cf living in common,
CcSDobitisra." By degrees order was introduced in the
groups of huts. They were arranged in lines like the tents
in an encampment, or the house.i in a street. From this
arrangement these lines of single cells lame to be known
as Laurae, Aavpai, " street's" or '' lanes."
The real founder of coenobian monasteries in ti.e moflern Cdnobta
sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian of the beginning of the
4th century. The first community established bj him was
at Tabennie, an island of the. Nile in Upper Ej.'ypt. Eight
others were founded in his lifetime, numbering 1000 monks.
Within 50 years from his death his societies cculd reckob
50,000 members. These coenobia resembled villages, peopled
b'- a hard-working religious community, all of one sex.
The buildings were detached. sniaD, and of the humblest
character. Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H. E.
iii. 14), contained three monks. They took their chief
meal in a common refectory at 3 p.sf., up to which hour
they usually fasted. They ate in silence, with hoods ao
drawn over their faces that they could see nothing but what
was on the table before them. The monks spent aU thft
time, not devoted to religious services or study, in manual
labour. PaUadius, who -visited the Egyptian monasteries
about the close of the 4th century, foancf among tbc 300
ABBEY
11
Banta
Laiira,
members of the Ccenobimn of Panopolis, ^der the
Pachomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12
camel-drivers, and 15 tanners. Each separate coromunity
had its' own ceconomns, or steward, who was subject to
in chief ceconomus stationed at the head estabhshment. AU
the produce of the monks' labour was- committed to him,
and by him shipped to Alexandria. The money idised by
the sale was expended in the purchase of stores for the
support of the communities, and what was over was devoted
to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the S2veral
coenobia met at the chief monastery, under the presidency
of an Archimandrite (" the chief of the fold," from /idvS-ia, a
fold), and at the last meeting gave in reports of their
administration for the year.
The ccenobia of Syria belonged to tiie Pachomian institu-
tion. We learn many detaUs concerning those in the
,V;cinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings. The
monks lived in separate huts, KoAv/Sat, forming a religious
hamlet on the mountain side. They were subject to an
abbot, and observed a common rule. (They had no refec-
tory, but ate their common meal, of bread and water only,
when the day's labour was over, reclining on strewn grass,
Bometimes out of doors.) Four times in the day they
joined in prayers and psahns^
The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy
of space, and convenience of access from one part of the
community to another, by degrees dictated a more compact
and orderly arrangement of the buildings of a monastic
ooenobium. Large piles of • building were erected, with
strong outside waUs, capable of resisting the assaults of an
enemy, within which all the necessary edifices were ranged
Vound one or more open courts, usually surrounded with
cloisters. ; The usual Eastern arrangement is exemplified
i.n the plan 6t the convent of Santa Laura, Mt. Athos
(Laura, the designation of a monastery generally, being
- converted into a female saint).
K. Gatevray.
B. Chapela.
C. Gucst-liuirse.
D. Church.
E. Cloister.
F. Fountain.
G. Refectory
H. Kitchen.
L CeUs.
^. Storehouses.
L. Postern Gate.
U. Toner.
Monasteiy of ^anta Latira, Moui«t Athos (Lenoir).
^ITiis monastery, like the Oriental monasteries generally
<8 surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall,
enclosing an area, of betv;een 3 and 4 acrea The longer
jide. extends to a length of about 500 feet. . There is only
one main entrance, tm the north side (A), defended by
three separate iron doors. Near the entrance is a large
tower (M), a constant feature in the monasteries of the
Levant. ■ ■ There is a small postern gate at (L.) The
enceinte comprises two large open courts, gniroundeS with
buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone.
The outer court, which is much the larger, contains the
granaries and storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H), and
other offices connected with the refectory (G). Imme-
diately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storeyed guest-
hfluse, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is
surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks'
cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the cathoUcon
or conventual church, a square building with an apse of
the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a
domed narthex. In front of the church stands a marble
fountain (F), covered by a dome supported on columns.
Opening from the western side of the cloister, but actually
standing in the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large
cruciform building, about 100 feet each way, decorated
within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a semi-
circular recess, recalling the Triclinium of the Lateran
Palace at Kome, in which is placed the seat of the Iltgu-
menos or abbot. This apartment is chiefly used as a hall
of meeting, the Oriental monks usually taking their meals
in their separate cells. St Laura is exceeded in magnitude
by the Convent of Vatopede, also on Mount Athos. This '.'atopede
enormous establishment covers at least 4 acres' of ground,
and contains so many separate buildings within its massive
walls that it resembles a fortified town. It lodges above
300 monks, and the establishment of the Hegumenos is
described as resembling the cqurt of a petty sovereign
prince. The immense refectory, of the same cruciform
shape as that of St Laura. wiU accommodate 500 guests at
its 24 marble tables.
The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir
shows us a church of three
aisles, with cellular apses, and
two ranges of cells on either
side of an oblong gallery.
Monasticism in the West
owes its extension and de-
velopment to Benedict of
Nursia (bom a.d. 480). His
rule was diffused with miracul-
ous rapidity from the parent
foundation on Monte Cassino
through the whole of Western
Europe, and every country wit-
nessed the erection of monas-
teries far exceeding anything
that had. yet been seen in spaci-'
ousnesa and splendour. Few
great towns in Italy were without their Benedictine convent, Bc-nedie^
and they quickly rose in all the great centres of population in tine.
England, France, and Spain. The number of these monas-'
teries founded between A.D. 620 and 700 is amazing.
Before the Councd of Constance, a.d. 1415, no fewer than
15,070 abbeys had been established of this order alone.
The Benedictine rule, spreading with the vigour of a young
and powerful Hfe, absorbed into itself the older monastic
foundations, whose discipline had too usually become dis-
gracefully relaxed. In the words of Milman {Latin
Christiani1y,-^o\. i p. 425, note x.), "The Benedictine
rule was universally received, even in the older monas-
teries of Gaul, Britain, Spain, and throughout the West,'
not as that of a rival order (all rivaliy 'was of later
date), but- IV a more full and perfect rule of the monas-
tic life." Not only, therefore, were ' new oionasterics
founded, but tho.se already existing wire pulled down,
and rebuilt to adapt them to the requirements of ths
pew rule.
The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly
arranged aftar ono plan, modified where necessary (as at.
Plan of Coptic Monastery,
A Karthex.
B. Church.
C. Corridor, with cello on each sido.
D. staircase.
12
ABBEY
[bkkedictine.
St Call,
Durham and Worcester, whore the monasteries stand close
to the steep bank of a river), to accommodate the arrange-
ment to local circumstances.
Wo have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries
of the Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the
ravages of time and the violence of man. But we have
fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the great
Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. 820, which
puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a
monastery of the first class towards the early part of the
9th century. This curious and interesting plan has been
made the siibject of a memoir both by Keller (Zurich,
1844) and by Professor Willis (Arch. Journal, 1848, vol.
7. pp. 8G-117). To the latter we are indebted for the
_^uj:eplbei]
c-ELj
Lj...j
n r-|
T r
N
hf
• 1 i
"T^^/r ""I'l"
1 1
1 1
U _J ' 1
f -!7 r^'i?
1
Ground-plan o( St Gall,-
CirTRCa.
FlBll Altar.
A lir of Si r.TiL
Altar of St I'cfcr.
Nnve.
Paradise.
. Towers.
of
MoKasTic BciLDiNoa.
O. Cloister.
H. Calefactory, wUh Dormltor)- rxT.
L Necessary.
J. Abbot's house
K. Rcfeotor/.
U Kltcheo.
U. Bakelioiuo and Brcwliouse.
N. CelJai.
O. Parlour.
P, Scrtptot lum. witli Mbraiy over.
Pj. Sacristy and Vestry.
Q. House of Novices— 1. Cbapcl; 2.
Refectory; 3. Calcfactoiy; 4.
I'ormltory; 6. Waster's Room;
6. Ctiambcrs.
B. Inflrmary— 1-6 as. above in the
House of Novicca
8. Doctor's House.
T. Phyolc Garden.
U. Houae for blood-lettlnd.
\'. School.
W. Scfaoolinnster's Lodpinps.
-\i.\|. Guest-house for those
suf-erlor rank.
XgXj. Guc&t-housc I'cr the poor.
Y. Guest-chamber for stronge tnonka.
Mk-mal Dkpakiuext.
Z. Factory.
a. Thr€3h:nr-f.oor.
6. Workshops.
t. e. .Mills.
d. Kiln.
e. Stablffi
/*. Cowsheds.
?. Goatsbeds.
A. ?'.g-st!cs. t. Sheep.folda.
*, *, t. Servar.ts' an-j workiuen's
sleeping chaiubeM
/. Gardener'a hoitso.
m, m. Hen and DucJl house,
n. Poaltry-keeper'a bouse.
o. Garden.
/I. Cemetery.
fl. Bakehouse fir Sacramental Bread,
r. Unnamed in Plan.
J. t. a. Eltchena
t, 1. 1. Batha
Rubstance of the following description, as well as for the
above woodcut, reduced from his elucidated transcript of
the original preserved in the archives of the convent
The general appearance of the convent is that of a town of
isolated houses with streets running between them. It is
evidently planned in compliance with the Benedictine rule,
which enjoined that, if possible, the monastery should contain
within itself every necessary of life, as well as the build-
ings more intimately connected with the religious and
social life of its inmates. It should compi'se a mill, a
bakehouse, stables and cow-houses, together with accom-
modation for carrying on all necessary mechanical art*
within the walls, so as to obviate the necessity of the
monks going outside its limits. The general distribution
of the buildings may be thua described : — The church,
with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a
quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The build-
ings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into
groups. The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of
the religiou-s life of the community. In closest connec-
tion with the church is the group of buildings appropriated
to the monastic life and its daily requirements — the refec-
tory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common
room for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious
and disciplinary conference. These essential elements^ of
monastic life are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded
by a covered arcade, affording communication sheltered from
the eltjments, between the various buildings. The infirmary
for sick monks, ■with the physician's house and physic gar-
den, lies' to the east. In the same group with the infirmary
is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its
head-master's house against the opposite wall of the church,
stanils outside the convent enclosure, in close proximity
CO the abbot's house, that he might have a constant eyo
nver them. The buildings devoted to hospitahty are divided
into three groups, — one for the reception of distinguished
guests, another for monks ■visiting the monaster}-, a third
for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are
placed to the right and left of the common entrance of the
monastery, — the hospitium for distinguished guests being
placed on the north side of the church, not far from the ab-
bot's house; that for the poor on the south side next to the
farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a guest-house
built against the north ■n'all of the church. The group of
buildings connected ■with the material wants of the esta-
blishment is placed to the south and west of the church,
and is distinctly separated from the monastic buildings.
The kitchen, buttery, and offices, are reached by a passage
from the west end of the refectory, and are connected 'with
the bakehouse and brewhouse, ■nhich are placed still fur-
ther away. The ■R-hole of the southern and western tides
is devoted to workshops, stables, and farm-buildings. The
btuJdinga, -with some exceptions, seem to have been of one
story only, and all but the church were probably erected
of wooii The whole includes thirty-three separate blocks.
The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of nine bays, and
a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the west
is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open
'■ Paradise" (E) between it and the wall of the church.
The ■whole area is divided by screens into various chapels.
The high altar (A) stands immediately to the east of the
transept, or ritual choir; the altar of St Paul (B) in the
eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in the western apse. A
cylindrical campanile stands detached from the church on
either side of the western apse (FF\
The " cloister court ' (G) on the south side of the nave
of the church has on its east side the " pisalis" or " calefac-
tory" (H),the common sitting-room of the brethren, tvarmed
by flues beneath the floor. On this side in later monas-
teries we invariably find the chapter-house, the absence of
which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It appears,
however from the inscriptions on the plan itself, .that the
BENKDICIINE.J
ABBEY
13
north wait of the cloisters served for the purposes ot a chap-
ter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long sides.
Above the calefactory is the " donnitory" opening into the
seiith transept of the church, to enable the monks to attend
the nocturnal services with readiness. A passage at the
other end leads to the " necessarium " (I), a portion of the
monastic buil'dings always planned with extreme care. The
southern side is occupied by the "refectory" (K), from the
west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached.
This is separated from the main buildings of the monastery,
and is connected by a long passage with a building containing
the bakehouse and brewhouse (M), and tho sleeping-rooms of
the servants. The upper story of the refectory is the "ves-
tiarium," where the ordinary clothes of the brethren were
kept On the western side of the cloister i? another two
story building (N). The cellar is below, and the larder and
store-room above. Between this building and the church,
opening by one door into the cloisters, and by another to the
outer part of the monastery area, is the " parlour" for inter-
views with visitors from the external world (O). On the
eastern side of the north transept is tho "scriptorium"
or writing-room (PJ, with the hbrary ahore.
To the east of the church stands a group of buildings
comprising two miniature conventual establishments, each
complete in itself. Each has a covered cloister surrounded
by the usual buildings, i.e., refectory, dormitory, &a, and
a church or chapel on one side, placed back to back. A
detached building belonging to each contains a bath and a
kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated
to the " oblati" or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks
as an "infirmary" (R).
The "residence of the physicians" (S) stands contiguous
lo the infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east
comer of the monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains
a drug store, and a chamber for those who are dangerously
ill. The " house for blood-letting and purging" adjoins it
on the west (U).
The "outer school," to the north of the convent area, con-
tains a large school-room divided across the middle by a
screen or partition, and surrounded by fourteen Little rooms,
termed the dwellings of the scholars. The head-master's
house (W) is opposite, built against the side wall of the
church. The two " hospitia" or "guest-houses" for tho
entertainment of strangers of difi'erent degrees (Xj Xj)
comprise a large common chamber or refectory in the
centre, surrounded by sleeping apartments. Each is pro-
vided with its own brewhouse and bakehouse, and that for
travellers of a superior order has a kitchen and store-room,
with bed-rooms for their sen'ants, and stables for their
horses. There is also an " hospitium" for strange monks,
abutting on the north wall of the church (Y).
Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the con-
vent area to the south, stands the " factoi-y" (Z), contain-
ing workshops for shoemakers, saddlers (or shoem.'ikers,
tellarii), cutlers and grinders, trencher-makers, tanners, cur-
riers, fullers, smiths, and goldsmiths, with their dwellings
in the rear. On this side we also find the fann-buddings,
the large granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malt-
house (d). Facing tho west are the stables (f), oi-sheds
(/), goat-stables (y), piggeries (A), sheep-folds (t), together
with the servants' and labourers' quarters (i). At the .south-
east corner we find the hen and duck house, and poultry-
yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n). Hard by is
the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the names of the
vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery, lettuces,
poppy, carrots, cabbages, &c., eighteen in all. In the same
way the physic garden presents the names of.'the medicinal
herbs, and the cemetery fp) those of the trees, apple, pear,
plum, quincfe, &c., planted there.
It is evident, from this most curious and valuable docu-
ment, that by the 9th century monastic estabusmnenta
had become wealthy, and had acquired considerable import-
ance, and were occupying a leading place in education,
agriculture, and the industrial arts. Tho influence such an
institution would difl'use through a wide district would be
no less beneficial than powerfui
The curious bird's eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and Canter-
its annexed conventual buildings, taken about 1 1 65, pre- bury,
served in the Great Psalter in the hbrary of Trinity College,
Cambridge, as elucidated by Professor Willis with such
admirable skill and accurate acquaintance with the existing
remains,' exhibits the plan of a great Benedictine monas-
tery in the 12th century, and enables us to compare it with
that of the 9th, as seen at St Gall. We see in both the
Sams general principles of arrangement, which indeed be-
long to all Benedictine monasteries, enabUng us to deter-
mine with precision the disposition of the various build-
ings, when Httle more than fragments of tho wall.? exist.
From some local reasons, however, the cloister and mcuiistio
buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far more
commonly the case, on the south of the church. There
is also a senarate ch<ipter-house, v/hich is wanting at
St G-alL
The bmldings at Canterbury, as at St GaU, form separate
groups. The church forms the nucleus. In immediate con-
tact with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the
group of buildings devoted to the monastic;, life. Outside
of these, to the west and east, are the "halls and chambers
devoted to the exercise of hospitality, with which every
monastery was proWded, for the purpose of receiving aa
guests persons who visited it, whether clergy or laity, tra-
vellers, pilgrims, or paupers." To the north a largo open
court divides the monastic from the menial buildings, in-
tentionally placed as remote as possible from the conven-
tual buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bake-
house, brewhouse, laundries, &c., inhabited by the lay ser-
vants of the establishment. At the greatest possible distance
from the church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is
the eleemosynarj' department. The almonry for the relief of
the poor, with a great hall annexed, forms tho pauper's
hospitium.
The most important group of buildings is naturally that
devoted to monastic Ufe. This includes two cloisters, the
great cloister surrounded by the buddings essentially con-
nected with the daily hfe of the monks. — the church to the
south, the refectory or frater-house here as always on the
side opposite to the church, and furthest removed from it,
that no sound or smell of eating might penetrate its sacred
precincts, to the east the dormitorj-, raised on a vaulted
undercroft, and the chapter-house adjacent, and the lodg-
ings of the cellarer to the west. To this officer was com-
mitted tho provision of the monks' daily food, as well as
that of the guests. He was, therefore, appropriately lodged
in the immediate vicinity of the refectoiy and kitchen, and
close to the guest-halL A passage under the dormitory
leads eastwards to the smaller or infirmary cloister, approi
priated to the sick and infirm monks. Eastward of this
cloister extend the hall and chapel of the infirmary, resem-
bUng in form and arrangement the nave and chancel of an
aisled church. Beneath the dormitory, looking out into
the green court or herbarium, lies the "pisahs" or "cale-
factory," the common room of tho monks. At its north-
east corner access was given from the dormitory to the
necessarium, a portentous edifice in the form of a Norman
hall, 1 45 feet long by 25 broad, containing fifty-five scats. It
was, in common with all such ofllces in ancient monasteries,
constructed with the most careful regard to cleanliness and
' Tht Archileciural Uiilnry of Vie Conveillual Buildingi of Ou
Mmasltry of Christ Church in Canlmbury. By the Rev. Robert
WiUis. Printed for the Kent Aichaeologicii Society, 18G8.
14
ABBEY
Wwt-
minuter.
Jork
iicalth, a sticim of water running thrcugli it from end to ■
end. A second smuLler dormitory nins from eaat to west
for the accommoilatioa of the cunTentual officers, who were
bound to sleep in the dormitory. Close to the rck-ctory,
but outside the cloisters, aro the domestic offices connected
with it; to the north, the kitchen, 47 feet square, sur-
mounted by a lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court;
to the west, the butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had
a small Idtchen of its own. Opposite the refectory door in
the cloister are two lavatories, an invariable adjunct to a
monastic dining-halJ, at which the monks washed before and
after taking food.
The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into
three groups. The prior's group " entered at the south-east
angle of the green court, placed near the most sacred part
of the cathedral, as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or
nobility who were assigned to him." The cellarer's buildings,
wore near the west end of the nave, in which ordinary
visitors of the iaiddle class were hospitably entertained.
The inferior pilgrims and paupers were relegated to the
north hall or almonry, just within the gate, as far as possible
from the other two.
Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Bene-
dictine abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as
they can be traced, with those described above. The clois-
ter and monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church.
Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, was
the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the eastern
side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a
vaulted substructure, and communicating with the south
transept. The chapter-house opens out of the same alley
of the cloister. The small cloister lies 'to the south-east of
the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have the
remains of the infirmary, with the table hall, the refectory
of those who were able to leave their chambers; The
abbot's house formed a small court-yard at the west
entrance, close to the inner gateway. Considerable por-
tions of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, cele-
brated as " the Jerjisalem Chamber," his hall, now used
for the Westminster King's scholars, and tho kitchen
and butteries beyond.
St Mary's Abbey, York, of -whichi the ground-plan is
ftnneSed", exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The
precincts are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three
sides, the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the
fourth side. The entrance was by a strong gateway (U)
to the north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where ii
now the church of St Olaf (W), in which the new comers<paid.
their devotions immediately on their arrival Near the
gate to the south was the guest's-hall or hospitium (T).
The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains
to enable us to identify the grand cruciform church (A),
the cloister-court 'with the chapter-house (B), the refectory
(I),^ the kitchen-court with its ofiices (K, O, O), and the
other principal apartmenta. _^ Tlve inSrmaiy has perished
completely.
Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrange-
ments, dependent upon local circumstances, e.g. , the dormi-
tory of Worcester runs from east to west, from the west
walk of the cloister, and that of Durham is built orer the
west, instead of as usual, over the east waUf; but, as a
general rule, the arrangements deduced from the examples
described may be regarded as invariable
The history of Monasticism is one of alM^ate periods
of decay and revival With growth in popular esteem
came increase in material wealth, leading to luxury and
worldliness. ■ The first religious , ardcor cooled, the strict-
ness of the rule was relaxed, until'by the JOth century the"
dS'ty of discipline was so complete in France that the
TOoslrj are said to have been frequently, unacguaicted with
[
BENEDICTIKE.
the rule of St Benedict, and even iguorunt that thoy were
bound by any rule at all (Robertson's Church HifUyry,
ii. p. 538.) These alternations arc reflected in the mouaatio
buildings and the arraDgementii of the establishment
i
T? OfiitdMtut
St Mary's Abo-:), Y ork (Beneuictiiie). — Chuiton s Monastic RuliTK
0. Offices
P. fcllsni.
Q. UDcert&iD
R. Pft&sARe to Abbot'e Hona*. *
S.* Pasaage to Commoo lluiu&
•T. Hoipltliim.
U. Great Owe.
V. P.>rt«r"B Lodge.
W, Church or St Olaf.
S. Tower.
Y. Emnuice from Boottiaa
A. Clitirch.
B. ChapIer-bOQSe.
C. Vestibule to dn.
E. Library or ScrltHorlam.
F. Calefactory.
G. Necessary.
H. Parlour.
L Refectory.
K. Great Eitchcri and Conr^
L. Cellarer's Office.
If. Cellars.
N.. Passage tt Cloister.
The reformation oi thSse prevalent abuses generally took
the .form of the establishment of new monastic orders, with
^ew and more stringent rules, fequiring a modification of
the ^rchiteetural arrangements. • One of the earliest of
these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took Claanfv
its name from 'the little village of Clugny, 12 miles N.W
of Macon, near which, about a.d. ^09, a reformed Ben&,
dictine abbey was founded by William, Duke of Auvergne
under Bemo, abbot of Beaume. He was succeeded by
Odo, ■rtho is often regarded as the founder of the order.
The fame of Clugny spread far and wide. Its rigid rule
was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine alK
beys, who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother
society, while new foundations sprang up in large nimi-
bers, all owing allegiance to the " archabbot," established
at Clugny. By the end of the 12th century the number
of monasteries affiliated to Clugny Li the various coun-
tries of Western Europe amounted to 2000. The monas-
tic establishment of Clugny ■jras on6 of the most ertenaiva;
and magnificent in France. We may form some idea o£
its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when,
A.D. 12i5, Pope Innocent rV;, accompanied .by twelve
c]
ABBEY
15
cardinals, a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals
of the Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis),
und three of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, Count
of Flanders and Emperor of Constantinople, the Duke of
Burgundy, and six lords, visited the abbey, the whole
party, with their attendants, were lodged within the
monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in num-
ber. Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including
the magnificent church, were swept away at the close of the
last century. \Vhen the annexed ground-plan was taken,
shortly before its destruction, nearly all the monastery, with
the exception of the church, had been rebuilt. The church,
the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resemblance
to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It
was 656 feet by 130 feet wide. The nave was 102 feet,
and the aisles 60 feet high. jL The nave (O) had double
Ahtey of Clugny, from VioUet le Due.
A. Gateway.
B. Narthex.
O. Choir.
D. HiKh-A)tar.
E. Retro.Altar,
F. Tomb of St nagh.
G. Nave.
H. Cloister.
K; Abbot's nome.
I* Guesc-neuBC.
M. Bakchoiuse.
N. At>bey Buildings,
0. Garden.
P. Kelectory.
vavdted aisles on either side. Like Lincoln, it tad an
eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with
apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept was 213
feet long, and the eastern 123 feet. The choir terminated
in a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also
semicircular. The western entrance was approached by an
ante-church, or narthex{Ji), itself an aisled church of no mean
dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a stately
flight of steps bearing a large stone cross. , To the south
of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of immense size,
placed much further to the west than is usually the case.
On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory (P), an
immense building, 100 feet long and 60 feet wide, accommo-
dating six longitudinal and three transverse rows sf tables.
It was adorned with the portraits of the chief benefactors
of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects. , The en^ wall
displayed the Last Judgment. ' Wo ire unhappily unable to
identify anyotherof the principal buLlding3(N). The abbot's
residence (K), still \-ra.rt,\y standing, adjoined the entrancc-
t'lito. The -guesl-house (L) Teas close by. .The bakehouse
(M), also remaining, is a detached ouuding of immense
.size. The first English house of the Cluniac order was that English
of Lewes, founded by the Earl of Warren, cir. a.d. 1077. Clunuc.
Of this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist.
The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle
Acre, Norfolk, and Wenlock, in Shropshire. Ground-plans
of both are given in Brittou's Architectural Antiquities.
They show several departures from the Benedictine arrange-
ment. In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect,
AU Cluniac houses in England were French colonies, go-
verned by priors of that nation. They did not secure their
independence nor become " abbeys " till the reign of Henry
VI. The Cluniac revival, with all its brilliancy, was but
short lived. The celebrity of this, as of other orders,
^¥orked its moral ruin. With their gro^rth in wealth and
dignity the Cluniac foundations became as worldly in life
and as relaxed in discipline as their predecessors, and a
fresh refortu was needed. The next great monastic re-
vival, the Cistercian, arising in the last years of the lltK
centUi-', had a wider diffusion, and a longer and more
honourable existence. Owing its real origin, as a distinct
•foundation of reformed Benedictines; in the year 1098,
to a countryman of our own, Stephen Harding (a native of
Dorsetshire, educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and
deriving its name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a desolate
and ahuost inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of
Champagne and Burgundy, the rapid growth and wide
celebrity of th? order is undoubtedJy to be attributed to
the enthusiastic piety of St Bernard, abbot of the first of
the monastic colonies, subsequently sent forth in such quick
successi'on by the first Cistercian houses, the far-famed
abbey of Claii-vaux (de Clara VaUe), A.D, lllG.
The rigid self-abnegation, which was the rulihg principle Cisterciau.
of this reformed congregation of the Benedictine order,
.extended itself to the churches and other buildings erected
by them. The characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was
the extremest simplicity and a studied plainness. Only one
tower — a central one— ^was permitted, and that was to be very
low. Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets were prohibited.'
The triforium was omitted. The windows were to be plain
and undivided, and it was forbidden to decorate them with
stained glass. All needless ornament was proscribed. The
crosses must, be of wood; the candlesticks erf iron. The
reirunciation of the world was to be evidenced in all that
met the eye., The same spirit manifested itself in the
choice of the sites of their monasteries. . The more dismal,
the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appe'ared, the
more did it please their rigid mood. 'But they came not
merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cisterciau
monasteries are, as a rule,' found placed in deep weU-
watered valleys. They always stand on the border of a
stream; not rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend
over it. These vaDeys, now so rich and productive, wore a
very different aspect when the brethren first chose them as
the place of their retirement. Wide swamps, deep mo-
rasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable forests, were their
prevailing features. The ".^Bright Valley," Clnra Vallis of
St Bernard, was known as the " Valley of Wormwood,"
infamous as a den of robbers. " It was a savage .dreary
solitude,. ■ so utterly barren that at first Bernard and hia
companions were reduced to live on beech leaves." — ^Mil-
man's Lett. Christ. voL iii. p. 335.)
All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances (tf
the localitj- forbade it, were arranged according to one plan.
TJxe? general arrangement and distribution of th^ various
" buildings, which went to make up one of thtso vastv-esta-
blishmcnts, may bo gathered from that of St Bernard's
own Abbey of Clairvaux, which is liere giren. Obirviui
It will be obsented that tlie abbey prfftiucts are surrounded
by a strong wall, furnished at internals^ with watch-
16
ABBEY
CISTERCUX
OAiiraui. towers and other dcfcnsiTe works. The wall ls nearly
encircled by a stream of water, artificially diverted from the
small riviilets wliich flow through the precincts, furnishing
the establishment with an abundiint supply in every part,
for the irrigation of the gardens and orchards, the sanitary
requirements of the brotherhood, and for the use of the
ofKces and workshops. The precincts are diWded across
the centre by a wall, running from N. to S., into an
cuter and inner ward, — the former containing the menial,
tb9 litter the monastic building's. The precincts are
entered by a gateway (P), at the extreme western ex-
tremity, giving admi.^sion to the lower ward. Here the
bams, granaries, stables, shambles, workshops, and work-
men's lodgings were placed, without any regard to eym-
Oairvaux, No. 1 (Cistercir.n), General Plan,
A. Clolsteri.
B Ovena, and Corn and
Oll-mllla.
C. St Bemaid's CcD.
D. Clilef Entrance.
E. Tanks for FiAh.
F. Guest Mouse.
O Abbot'a Jiuuso.
II. .Stnbles.
I. Winc-prcaa uid Ilay-
cl'amber.
K. rar'.our.
L. WorkEhopaandworli-
mcn's Lodglcira.
M. Slftu^hter-hoiwe.
N. Bams oBd Stablee^
0. Public Preasa
1'. Gateway
R. Remains of Old
Monaatery.
S. Oratory.
V. Itlc-works.
X. Tile-kiln.
I Y. Water-coursea.
metry, convenience being the only consideration. Ad-
vancing eastwards, we have before us the wall separatihg
the outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording
communication befveen the two. On passing through the
gateway, the outer court of the inner ward was entered,
with the western facade of the monastic church in front
Immediately on the right of entrance was the abbot's
house (G), in close proximity to the guest-house (F). On
the other side of the court were the stables, for the accommo-
dation of the horses of the guests and their attendants (H).
The church occupied a central position. To the south
were the gyeat cloister (A), surrounded by the chief monas-
tic buildings, and further to the east the smaller cloister,
opening out of which were the infirmary, novices' lodgings,
nnd quarters for the aged monks. Still further to the east,
divided from the monastic buildings by a wall, were the
veijetable gardens and orchards, and tank for fish. The
large fish-ponds, an indispensable adjunct to any ecclesia»-
tical foundation, on the formation of which the monkj
lavi.'ihed extreme earc and pains, and which often remaio
as almost the only visible traces of these vast establish-
menti, were placed outside the abbey walls.
The Plan No. 2 furnishes the ichnography of the dis-
tinctly monastic buildings on a larger scale. The usually
unvarying arrangement of the Cistercian houses allows us
to accept this as a type of the monasteries of this order.
The church (A) is the chief feature. It consists of a vast
nave of eleven bays, entered by a narthex, with a transept
and short apsidal choir. (Itmayberemarkedthat theeastern
limb in all unaltered Cistercian churches is remarkably
short, and usually square.) To the east of each limb'o<"
^^^m
Clauvau, Xo. 2 (Cistercian), Monastic Buildings.
A. Chnrch.
B. Cloister.
C. Chapier-HoBse.
D. Monks' Parlour
E. Calefactory.
V. Kitchen and Court
G. Refectory
11. Cemetery.
I. Little Cloister.
K. Infirmary.
U Loilclngs of NoTlce».
SI. Old Guc!t-Uou8e.
N. Old AbbcfsLodglnEa.
0, Cloister of Supemn-
mcran- MoLi^a.
r. Abto:e Hall,
Q. Cei: of Si Bercard.
IL Stables.
S. CeKara and St«r4H
hoosex
T. Watcr-cooTse.
U. Saw-mill and OD-mllL
V. Curricr'a Worksliopa.
X. SacrlBty.
V. Ll:tl« Library
Z. Undercroft of Dof-
mitory.
the transept are two square chapels, diWded according to
Cistercian rile by solid walls. Nine radiating chapels^
similarly divided, surround the apse. The stalls of the •
monks, forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern
bays of the nave. There was a second range of stalls in
the extrei e western bays of the nave for thefratres amversi,
or lay brothers. To the south of the church, so as to
secure as much sun as possible, the cloister was invariably
placed, except when local reasons forbade it. Roimd the
cloister (B) were ranged the buildings connected witli tho
monks' daily life. The chapter-house (C) always opened
out of the cast walk of the cloister iu a Unfi.Tvil'h fhg
CISTERCIAN.]
ABBEY
17
ClMiraui.
south transept In Cistercian houses this was quadran-
gular, and was divided by pillars and arches into two or
three aisles. Between it and the transept we find the
Bicristy (X), and a small book room (Y), armarinlum,
where the brothers deposited the volumes borrowed from
the Lbrary. On the other side of the chapter-house, to
the south, is a passage (D) conununicating with the courts
and buildings beyond. This was sometimes known as the
parlour, colloquii locus, the monks having the privilege of
conversation here. Here also, when discipline became
relaxed, traders, who had the liberty of adjniission, were
allowed to display their goods. Beyond this we often find
the calefactorium, or day-room — an apartment warmed
by flues beneath the pavement, where the brethren, half-
frozen during the night offices, betook themselves after the
conclusion of lauds, to gain a little warmth, grease their
aandals, and get themselves rcf»dy for the work of the day.
In the plan before us this apartment (E) opens froia the
Bouth cloister walk, adjoining" the refectory. The place
usually assigned to it is occupied by the vaulted substruc-
ture of the dormitory (Z). The dorr/iitory, as a rule, was
placed on the east side of the cloister, running over the
calefactory and chapter-house, and joined the south transept,
where a flight of steps admitted the brethren into the
church for jioctumal services. Opening out of the dor-
mitory was always the necessarium, pl;^rined with the
greatest regard to health and cleanliness, a water-course
Invariably running from end to end. The refectory opens
out of the south cloister at (G). The position of the refec-
tory is usually a marked point of difference between Bene-
dictine and Cistercian abbeys. In the former, as at Can-
terbur)', the refectory ran east and west parallel to the nave
of the church, on the side of the cloister furthest removed
from it. In the Cistercian monasteries, to keep the noise
and sound of dinner still further away from the sacred
building, the refectory was built north and south, at right
angles to the a.xis of the church. It was often divided,
sometimes into two, sometimes, as here, into three aisles.
Outside the refectory door, in the cloister, was the lavatory,
where the monks washed their hands at dinner time. The
buildings belonging to the material life of the monks lay
near the refectory, as far as possible from the church, to
the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer court
was the kitchen court (F), with its buttery, scullery, and
larder, and the importani, adjunct of a stream of running
water. Further to the west, projecting beyond the line of
the west front of the church, were vast vaulted apartments
(SS), serving as cellarsand storehouses, above which was the
dormitory of the conversi. Detached from tliese, and sepa-
rated entirely from- the monastic buildings, were various
vrorkshops, which convenience required to be banished to
the outer precincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned
by water, and a currier's shop (V), where the sandals and
leathern girdles of the monks were made and repaired.
Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to
the small cloister (I), opening from the north side of which
were eight small cells, assigned to the scribes employed in
copying works for the library, which was placed in the
upper story, accessible by a turret staircase. To the
south of the small cloister a long hall will be noticed.
This was a lecture-hall, or rather a iall for the religious
disputations customary among the Cistercians. From this
cloister opened the infirmary (K), with its hall, chapel,
cells, blood-letting' house, and other dependencies. At the
eastern verge of the vast group of buildings we find the
Tiovices' lodgings (L), with a third cloister near the
novices' quarters aud the original gaest-house (M). De-
tached from the great mass of the monastic edifices was
the original abbot's house (N), with its diniiig-hall (P).
Closely adjoining to this, so that the eye of the father of
1—2
the whole establishment should be constantly over those
who stood the most in need of his watchful care, — those
who were training for the moUas>tic life, and those who had
worn themselves out in its duties, — was a fourth cloister
(0), with annexed bmldiugs, devoted to the aged and
infirm members of the establishment, llie cemetery, the
last resting-place of the brethren, lay to the north side of
the nave of the church (H).
It will be seen that the arrangement of a Cistercian
monastery was in accordance with a clearly-defined system,
and admirably adapted to its purpose.
The base court nearest to the outer wall contained the
buildings belonging to the functions of the body as agri-
culturalists and employers of labour. Advancing into the
inner court, the buildings devoted to hospitality are found
close to the entrance ; while those connected with the
supply of the material wants of the brethren, — the kitchen,
cellars, &e., — form a court of themselves outside the cloister,
and quite detached from the church. The church refec-
tory, dormitory, and other buildings belonging to the
professional Ufe of the brethren, surround the great
cloister. The small cloister beyond, with its scribes'
ceUs, library, hall for disputations, osc, is the centre of the
literary Ufe of the community, 'fhe requirements of sick-
ness aud old age are carefully pro'dded for in the infirmary
cloister, and that for the aged aud infirm members of the
establishment. The same group contains the qiiarters of
the novices.
This stereotyped arrangement is further illustrated by Citeau*
the accompanying bird's eye view of the mother establish-
^^f^^^^'MMS.^m^
A. CrosB.
b. Gatc-Houae,
C. Almonry.
D. ChftpcL
E. Inner G^'e-Uouae.
F. Stable.
G. Dormitory of Lft/
tircttirco.
meat of Citeaux.
Bird's eye View of Citcau.-^u
IL Abbo;'j House.
I. KltcliCD.
K. Kcfcctory.
L. Staircase tuDormitOl 7.
M. Donnitoi7.
N. Clmrch.
P. Library.
R. Innmifiry.
S. I>otir to (.lie Cliurcik
for the Lny Biv.li csft
T. Baw Coort.
V. GrcRt Cloister.
W. Small Clolnler.
X. Boundaiy W^X
A crues (A), planted ou the high rocdL
18
ABBEY
[eiSTERCIAH.
tit: •;x. directs travellers to the gate of the monastery, reached hy buttery. The arches of the lavatory ore to be seen near
aa avenue of trees. On one side of the gate-houso (B)
is a long builJirg (C), probably the almonry, with a
dormitory above for the lower class of guests. On the other
side is a chapel (D). As soon as the porter heard a stranger
knock at the gate, ho rose, saying, JJeo gratias, the oppor-
tunity for the exercise of hospitality being regarded as a
cause for thankfulness. On opening the door he welcomed
the now arrival with a blessing — JSenedicile Ho fell on
his knees before him, and then went to iiiform the abbot.
However important the abbot's occupations might be, he
at once hastened to receive him whom heaven had sent.
He also throw himself at his guest's feet, and conducted
him to the chapel (D) purposely built close to the gate.
After a short prayer, the abbot committed the guest tu
the caro of tho brother hospitaller, whoso duty it was to
provide for his wants, and conduct tho beast on which he
might bo riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the
inner gate-housa (E). This inner gato conducted into
the base court (T), round which were placed the barns,
stables, cow-sheda, &C. On tho eastern side stood the
dormitory of tho lay brothers, /raires conversi (G), detached
from tho cloister, with cellars and storehouses below. At
(H), also outside the mbnastic buildings proper, was the
abbot's house, and annexed to it the guest house. For
these buildings there was a separate door of entrance into
the church (S). The large cloister, with its surrounding
arcades, is seen at V. On the south end projects tho
refectory (K), with its kitchen at (I), accessible from the
base court. Tho long gabled building on the east side of
the cloister contained on the ground floor tho chapter-
house and calefactory, with tho monks' dormitory above
(M), commuuicatiiig with the south transept of the church.
At (L) was the staircase to the dormitory. The small
cloister is at (W), where were tho carols or cells of the scribes,
with tho bbrary (P) over, reached by a tunet staircase.
At (R) we see a portion of the infirmary. Tho whole pre-
cinct is siirrounded by a strong buttressed wall (XXX),
pierced with arches, through which streams of water are
introduced. It will be noticed that the choir of tho church
is short, and has a square end instead of the usual apse.
Tho tower, in accordance with the Cistercian rule, is very
low. The windows throughout accord with the studied
simplicity of the order.
The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such
extensive and beautiful remains at Fountains, Rievaulx,
ICiikstall, Tintern, Netley, ifec, wero mainly arranged after
tlie same plan, with sUght local variations. As an example,
v,e give the ground-plan of Kirkstall Abbey, which is one
of tho best preserved and least altered. The church here
|Ki7kstoH. is of , the Cistercian type, with a short chancel of two
squares, and transepts %rith three eastward chapels to each,
Jittded by solid walls (2 2 2). The whole is of the most
elTidied plainness. The ■windows are unornamented, and
the nave has no triforium. The cloister to the south (4)
occupies tho whole length of the nave. On the»east side
titauds the two-aisled chapter house (5), between which and
tile south transept is a small sacristy (3), and on the other
side;. two small apartments, ono of which was probably
tho^arlour (G). Beyond this stretches southward tho
calefactoiy or day-room of the monks (1-1). Above this
whole range of building runs the monks' dormitory, opening
by stairs into the south transept of the church. At the
other end were the necessaries. On the south side of the
cloister ',we have tho remains of the old refectory (11),
iruuning,' as in EenetUctiue houses, from east to west, and
iho new refectory (12), which, mth the increase of the
inmates of the house, superseded it, stretching, as is usual
in Cl-jtercian houseSj from north to south. Adjacent to
this apartjucut arc tho remains of the kitchen, pantry, and
SSDslanO.
tho refectory entrance. The western side of tho cloister
is, in usual, occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the
upper story the dormitory of tho lay brothers (8). Ex
tending from the south-east angle of the main group of
buildings are the walls and foundations of a secondary
group of considerable extent These have been identified
cither with tho hospitium or ■nith the abbot's Louse, but
they occupy the position in which the infirmary \s mora
usually found The hall was a very spacic^us apartment,
measuring 83 feet in length by 48 feet 'J inches in btcadtk
^i|py
KirkstAll Abbey, Yorkshire (Cistercian).
L Church.
2. Clmpell
S. Sncrtsty.
4. Clolatrr.
fi Chnpter-Houso.
C. P&rlour.
7. Pu'nialiment Cell (?)
8. Cellars, with DonnitoriM for cun-
Teral o%'er.
9. Gucat-Hoiue.
10. Commcn Room.
11. Old Refectory.
12. Now Refectory.
13 Kitchen Court,
11 Calefactory or nay-Hoom.
\i. Eltcheo and Offlcca,
16-19, UncertaiD; pcrliapa OfBcce coSh
nected with the Inflmiary,
20, Infirmary trr ^bt>ol'a Uouse.
and was divided by two rows of columns. The fish-ponda
lay between the monastery and the river to tho south. The
abbey mill was situated about 80 yards ta the north-west.
The mill-pool may be distinctly traced, together with the
gowt or mill stream.
Fountains Abbey, first founded A.D. 1132, deserves '
special notice, as one of the largest and best preserved
Cistercian houses in England. But the earUer buildings
received considerable additions and alterations in the hiter
period of the order, causing deviations from the strict
Cistercian tj-pe. The church stands a short distance to
the north of tho river Skell, the buildings of the abbey
stretching down to and even across the stream. We have
the cloister (H) to the south, -nith the three-aisled chapter-
house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from its eastern walk,
and the refectory (S), with tho kitchen (Q) sod buttery (T)
attached, at right angles to its southern walk. Parallel
with the western walk is an immense vaulted substructuro
(U), incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars and
store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the convern
above. This building extended across the nvor. At its
CISTEECIAN.j
S.W. corner were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual,
above tbe swiftly flowing stream. The monies' dormitory
was in its usual position above the chapter-house, to the
south of the transept. As peculiarities of arrangement
may be noticed the position of the kitchen (Q), between the
refectory and calefactory, and of the infirmary (W) (unless
ther.; is some error in its designation) above the river to
ABBEY
iVi
Groind Plan of Fountains Ablmy, Yorkshire.
A, Kive of the Charch.
N. CellRr.
Z. Gate-nonae.
it, TraiiSfpt.
0. Brew Houae.
Abbot's Houb
C. Ol.apela.
P. Prisons.
1. PasBa^e.
D. Tower.
Q. KltcheiL
3. Great HalL
E. Sacriaty.
R. Offices.
8. Refectory.
F. Chofr.
S. Refectory.
4. Buttery.
a. Chapel of Klae
T. Buttery
&. Storehojse.
/J tars.
U. Ccllarftaiid Store-
6. Chapel.
K. C'olflter.
liousaa.
7. Kltclieo.
L Chaptcr-Hoase.
V. NcccHaary.
8. AflhplL
K. Base Court.
W. Iiiflrmao (?)
0. Yard.
h. Calcftictory.
X. Gii-'st-liuusca
10. Kitchen Tank.
M. Water Course.
Y. MIU Biidgc
the west, adjoining the guest-houses (XX). We may also call
attention to the greatly lengthened choir, commenced by
Abbot John of York, 120^-1211, and carried on by his
suocoBsor, tormiEaiujg, like Dnrlinm Cathedral, in an
eastern transept, the work of Abbot John of Kent, 1220-
1247, and to the tower (D), added not long before the dis-
solution by Abbot Huby, 1494-1526, in a very unusual
position at the northern end of the north transept. The
abbot's house, the largest and most remarkable example of
this class of bvdldings in the kingdom, stands south tn
the east of the church and cloister, from which it is divided
bythe kitchen court(K),3urrouu.dedbythe ordinary domestic
offices. A considerable portion of this house was erected
on arches pver the SkeU. The size and character of this
house, probably, at the time of its erection, the most
spacious house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle,
bespeaks the wide departure of the Cistercian order from
the stern simplicity of the original foundation. The hall
(2) was one of the most spacious and magnificent apart-
ments in mediieval times, measuring 170 feet by 70 feet.
Like the haU in the castle at Winchester, and Westminster
Hall, as originally built, it was divided by 18 pillars and
arches, with 3 aisles. Among other apartments, for the
designation of which we must refer to the ground-plan,
was a domestic oratory or chapel, 46J feet by 23 feet, and •
a kitchen (7), 50 feet by 38 feet. The whole arrangements
and character of the building bespeak the rich and powerful
feudal lord, not the humble father of a body of hard-
working brethren, bound by vows to a life of poverty and
self-denying toiL In the words of Dean MUman, " the
superior, once a man bowed to the earth with humility,
care-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit bound
with a. cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot on his
curvetting palfrey, in rich attii-e, with his silver cross before
him, traveUing to take his place amid the lordliest of the
realm." — (Lai. Chriit., vol. ui p. 330.)
The buildings of the Austin Canons or Black Canons Bl.iok
(so called from the colour of their habit) present few Austin
distinctive -peculiarities. This order had its first seat in Cancn
England at Colchester, where a house for Austin Canons
was founded about j^D. 1105, and it very soon spread
widely. As an order of regular clergy, holding a middle
position between monks and secular canons, almost resem-
bling a community of parish priests living under rule,
they adopted naves of great length to accommodate large
congregations. The choir is usually long, and is some-
times, as at Llanthony and Christ Church (Twynham),
shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, &c., is
destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the northern
houses, not uufrequently, had only a north aisle, as at
Bolton, Brinkburn, and Lanercost. The arrangement of
the monastic buildings followed the ordinary type. The
prior's lodge was almost Invariably attached to the S.W.
angle of the nave. The annexed plan of the Abbey of
St Augustine's at Bristol, now the cathedral charch oi Brisi"'
JJ
Ji-5TU]:::::':::;C
^rr- ■•-■
i\ rj' ^f^i^i^T^^^f^
St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol Cathedral).
A. Charch.
B. Oroat Clclster.
C Uttlb aolstor.
D. Chftptoi^HouAd.
E. Calefactory.
F. Se'octory.
G. ruioiu.
n. Kitchen.
L Kitchen Court
K. Cellara.
L. Abbot 8 HalL
P. Abtmt'fl Gaton^ay.
&, Intlrmary.
.1, Fr!ar«' LxxSglnK
T. King's Wall
V. Oncst-Hrtuaa
'.V. Athcy Gatew'i-,
.\. Ba-Tii. subloa. .-
T. Ltv&toiJ,
20
ABBEY
[CAKTHUSIAN.
that city, siuiwn tlio arrangement of the buildings, which
departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine tyjje.
The Austin Canons' house at Tliornton, in Lincolnshire, js
remarkable for the size and magnificence of its gatehouse,
the upper floors of which formed the gue«t-house of the
establishment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-
house of Decorated data
Pretfionfl. The Premonstraiensian regular canons, or White Canons,
lr«tensiaii. had as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most
perfect remaining are tlioso of Easby, Yorkshire, and
liayham, Sussex. The head house of the order in England
■was Welbeck. This order <\m3 a reformed branch of the
Austin canons, founded, k.n. 1119, by Norbert (born at
Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c. 1080) at Pr^montrd, a
Bccluded marshy valley in the forest of Coucy, in the
diocese of Laon. The order spread Tt-idely. Even in the
founder's lifetime it possessed houses in S)Tia and Pales-
tine. It long maintained its rigid austerity, till in the
course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its
members sank into indolence and luxurj'. The Premon-
. itrtitensians were brought to England shortly after A.D.
1140, and were first settled at.Nowhouse, in Lincolnshire,
tiear the Ilumber. The ground-plan of Easby Abbey,
)wing to its situation on the edge of the steeply-sloping
banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is
duly placed on the south side of the church, and the'
chief buildings occupy their "usual positions round it.
I?ut the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not rectangu-
lar, and all the surrounding l:milding3 are thus made to
sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The church follows
the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern
Bbbe)-3, and has only one aisle to the nave — that to the
north ; while the choir is long, narrow, and aisleless.
Each transept has an aisle to the east, forming three
thapols.
The churcn at iiayuam was deftitute of aisle either to
nave or, choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse.
This church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in
proportion tp its length. Extending in longitudinal dimen-
sions 257 feet, it is not more than 25 feet broad. To
adopt the words of Mr Beresford Hope — " Stern Premon-
stratensian canons wanted no congregations, and cared
for no processions ; therefore they buUt their church like a
long room."
Carthusinn. fhe Cart/iusian order, on its establistiment by St Bruno,
about A.D. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and
arrangement of a monastic institution. The principle of
this order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary
life, demanded the -erection of buildings on a novel plan.
This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his
twelve companions at the original institution at Chartreux,
near Grenoble, was maintained iu aU the Carthusian
establishments throughout Europe, even after the ascetic
severity of the order had been to some extent relaxed, and
the prinjitive simplicity of their buOdings had been ex-
changed for the magnificence of decoration which charac-
terises such foundations as the Certosas of Pavia and
Florence. According to the rule of St Bruno, all the
members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in the most
absolute solitude and silence. Each occupiel a small
detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden
.surrounded by high walls and connected by a common
corridor or cloister.' In these cottages or cells a Carthusian
monk passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only
leaving his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the
Church, except on certain days when the brotherhood
assembled in the refectory.
The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian
monastery, or charter-house, as it was called in England,
from a- corniption of the French rhqrtreux, is exhibited in
the plan of that of Clermont, from Viollet le Due. The Clermoot,
whole cstablbhment is surrounded with a wall, furnished
at intervals with watch towers (R). The enclosure ia
divided into two courts, of which the eastern court, sur-
rounded by a. cloister, from which the cottages of the
monks (I) open, is much the larger. The two courts ar«
A. Cliurch.
Jl. Uonlu aiolr.
C. Trior's GnrdeiL
P. Great Cloister.
£. Chaptcr-HouM
P. PaMaiic.
0. Pr1oi-5 UkIj:-
lllKA.
n. Dovecot.
1. Cell!.
K. Chfipcl of rr«^
gibauil.
U SBcristy.
U. ChjipoL
K. Slililoa.
0. Gatevrajr-
r. Gucst-Cliara-
bent.
^. Bnrnft and
Granftilea
P.. Wfttcli Towert.
S. Urtle Cloister
T. Uukehouse.
V. Kitchen.
.\. Refectory.
v. Cemetery.
Z. Prison.
n.CcllofSnb-pilor
V. Garden nf d".
C.trtliusi.-iu Monastery of Clermont
divided by the main buildings of tne monastery, indiding
the church, the sanctuary (A), divided from (B), the monks',
choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to
the south (S) surrounded by the chapter-house (E), the
refectory (X)— these buildings occupj-ing their normal
jjosition — and the chapel of Pontgibaud (K). The kitcheb
with its ofnces (V) llfes behind the refectory, accessible
from the outer court without entering the cloister. To
the north of the church, beyond the sacristy (L), and the
side chapels (M), we find the cell of the sub-prior (a), with
its garden. The lodgings of the- prior (G) occupy the
centre of the outer court, immediately in front of the west
door of the church, and face the gateway of the convent (O).
A small raised court with a fountain (C) is before it. This
outer court also contains tlie guest-chambers (P), the
stables, and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns
and gianaries (Q), the dovecot (H), and the bakehouse (T).
At (Z) is the prison. (In this outer court, in all the earlier
foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in
addition to the larger church of the monks.) The outer and
inner court are connected by a long passage (F), wide
enough to admit a cart laden 'with wood to supply the
cells of the brethren -with fuel. The number of cells sur-
rounding the great cloister is 18. They are all arranged
on a uniform plan. Each little dwelling contains three
rooms : a sitting-room (C), warmed with a stove iu winter;
a sleeping-room (D), furnished 'with a bed, a table, a bench,
and a bookcase; and a closet (E). Between the cell and
the cloister gallery (A) is a passage or corridor (B), cutting
ofif the inmafe of the cell from all sound or movement
which might internipt his meditations. '.■_ The superior had.
CARTHUSIAN. J
ABBEY
21
ClemoEt. free access to this corridor, and througli open mches was able
to inspect the garden without being seen. At (I) is the
hatch or tura-table, in which the daUy allowance of food was
deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose, aflford-
ing no Tiew either inwards or outwards. (H ) is the garden,
A. Oolstcr GaBery
B. Corridor.
C. Living Room.
D. Sleeping Rooni.
E. ClOKli
F. CoTcred Walk
G. yccc:snrf
n. Garden.
I. Hau;h.
K. Wood-houaa
Carthusian Cell, Clermont
cultivated by the occupant of the cell At (K) is the
wood-house. (F) is a covered walk, with the necessary at
the end. These arrangements are found with scarcely any
variation in all the charter-houses of Western Europe.
The Yorlcshire Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by
Thomas Holland the young Duke of Surrey, nephew of
Richard II., and Marshal of England, during the revival
of the popularity of the order, about A.D. 1397, is the most
perfect and best preserved English example. It is charac-
terised by all the simplicity of the order. The church is a
modest building, lon^, narrow, and aisleless. Within the
wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaller of the two,
the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, refec-
tory, &c., opening out of a cloister. The buildings are
plain and solid. The northern court contains the ceils, 1 i
in number. It is surrounded by a double stone wall, the
two walls being about 30 feet or 40 feet apart. Between
these, each in its own garden, stand the cells ; low-built
two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the ground-
floor, lighted with a larger and a smaller window to tiie
side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at
the back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which
the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and
the refuse of his garden to the " eremus " beyond. By the
side of the door to the court is a little hatch, through which
the daily pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by
turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either
look in or look out. A very perfect example of this hatch
— an arrangement belonging to all Carthusian houses —
exists at Miraflores, near Burgos, which remains nearly as
it wa.1 completed in 1480.
There were only nine Carthusian houses in England.
Witham. The earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded
by Henry 11., by whom the order was first brought into
England. The wealthiest and jnost magnificent was that
of Shene or Richmond in Surrey, founded by Henry V.
about A.D. 1414. The dimensions of the buildings at
Shenei are stated to have been remarkably large. The
great court measured 300 feet by 250 feet ; the cloisters
were a square of 500 feet ; the hall was 110 feet in length
by GO feet in breadth'. The most celebrated historically is
tlieCliarter-houseof London, founded by Sir Walter Manny
*.D. 1371, the narao of which is preserved by the famous
public scbool established on the site by Thomas Suttoa
A.D. IPll.
An article on monastic arrangements would be incom-
plete without some account of the convents of the Mendi- MendicanT
cant or Preaching Friars, including the Black Friara or Friara.
Dominicans, the Grey or Franciscans, the White or Carmel-
ites, the Eremite or Austin Friars. These orders arose at
the beginning of the 13th century, when the Benedictines,
together with their various reformed branches, had termi-
nated their active mission, and Christian Europe was ready
for a new religious revival. Planting themselves, as a rule,
in large towns, and by preference in the poorest and most
densely populated districts, the Preaching Friars were
obliged to adapt their buildings to the requirements of the
site. Regularity of arrangement, therefore, was not pos-
sible, even if they had studied it. Their churches, built
for the reception of large congregations of hearers rather
than worshippers, form a class by themselves, totally unlike
those of the elder orders in ground-plan and character.
They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by tran-
septs. The nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies,
one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left
entirely free for the congregation. The constructional
choir is often wanting, the whole church forming one unin-
terrupted structure, with a continuous range of windows.
The east end was usually square, but the Friars Church at
Winohclsea had a-polygonal apse. We not unfrcquently
find a single transept, sometimes of great size, rivalling or
exceeding the nave. This arrangement is frequent in
Ireland, where the numerous small friaries afi'ord admirable
exemplifications of these peculiarities of ground-plan. The
friars churches were at first destitute of towers ; but in the
14th and 15th centuries, taU, slender towers w-?io com-
monly inserted between the nave and the choir. The Grey
Friars at Ly^n, where the tower is hexagon.il, is a good
example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is
equally peculiar and characteristic. Wo miss entirely the
regularity of the buildings of the earlier orders. At the
Jacobins at Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long
narrow church of two parallel aisles, while the refectory —
a room of immense length, quite deta,ched from the cloister
— stretched across the area before the west front of the
church. At Toulouse the nave also has two parallel aisles,
but the choir is apsidal, with radiating chapels. The refec-
tory stretches northwards at right anglestothecloister, which
lies to the north of the church, haiing the chapter-house
and sacristy on the east. As examples of English friaries
the Dominican house at Norrnch, and those of the Domini- Norwick
cans and Franciscans at Gloucester, may be mentioned. The GloucesteB
church of the Black Friars of Norwich departs from the
original type in the nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having
regular aisles. In this it resembles the earUep-examples of
the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir is long and aisle-
less ; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that exist-
ing at Lynn, has perished. The cloister and monastic
buildings remain tolerably perfect to the north. The
Dominican convent at Gloucester stiU exhibits the cloister-
court, on the north side of which is the desecrated church.
The refectory is on the west side, and on the south the
dormitory of the 13th century. This is a remarkably good
example. There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side,
divided by partitions, the bases of which remain. On the
east side was the prior's house, a building of later date.
At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the
ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled,
with a continuous range of windows. There was a slender
tower between the nave and choir. Of the convents of the
Carmelite or White Friars we have a good example in the
Abbey of Hulme, near Alnwick, the first of the order in Hulmg
England, founded A.D. 1240. The church is a narrow
22
A B B - A B B
Mendicant oUong, destitute of aisles, 123 feet long by only 26 feet
Friara. wida The cloisters are to the south, with the chapter-
house, (fee, to the east, with the donnitory over. The
prior's lodge is placed to the west of the cloister. The
giiest-housea adjoin the entrance gateway, to which a chapel
was annexed on the south side of the conventual area.
The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites
in Loudon is still standing. It is of Decorated d&te, and
ima wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and
graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of the
cloister of the Grey Friars exist among the buildings of
Christ's Hospital or the Blue-Coat School. Of the Black
Friars all has perished but the naco. Taken as a whole,
the remains of the establishments of the friars aflFord little
warrant for the bitter irirective of the Benedictine of St
Alban's, Matthew Paris : — " The friars who have- been
founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the
palaces of kings. These are they who, enlarging day by
day their sumptuous edifices, cncircUng them with lofty
walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, impru-
dently transgressing the bounds of poverty, and violating
the very fundamenta.1 rules of their profession." Allowance
must here be made for jealousy of a rival order just rising
in popularity.
Eveiy largo monastery had depending upon it one or
Cells. more smaller establishments known as cells. These cells
were monastic colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and
{>lanted on some outlying estate. As an example, we may
refer to the small religious house of St Mary Magdalene's,
a cell of the great Beneilictiuo house of St Mary's, York, in
the valley of the Witham, to the south-east of the city of
Lincoln. This consists of one long narrow range of build-
ing, of which the eastern part formed the chapel, and
the western contained the apartments of the handful of
monks of which it was the home. To the east may be
traced the site of the abbey mill, with its dam and mill-
lead. These cells, when belonging to a Cl^iniac house,
were called Obediential.
The plan given by Viollot le Duo of the Priory of St
Jean de» Bona Uommea, a Cluniac cell, situated between
the town of Avallon and the village of Savigny, shows that
these diminutive establishments comprised every essential
feature of a monastery, — chapel, cloister, chapter-room,
refectory, dormitory, all grouped aceording to the recog-
nised arrangement.
Those Cluniac obedientuje differed from the ordinary
Benedictine cells in being also places of punishment, to
which monks who had been guilty of any grave infringe-
ment of the rules were relegated as to a kuid of peniten-
tiary. Here they were placed under the authority of a
prior, and were condemned to severe manual labour, ful-
filling the duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who
acted as farm-servants.
The outlying fanning establishments belonging to the
monastic foundations were known as villte or granges.
They gave employment to a body of conversi and labourers
under the management of a monk, who bore the title of
Brother Hospital-lei the granges, Uke their parent in-
stitutions, affording shelter and hospitality to belated
travellers.
Authorities: — Dngdale, Monatticon; Fosbrooke, British
M<machism; Hclyot, Dictionnaire des Ordres Eeligieux;
Lenoir, Architecture Monastique; VioUet le Due, Diction-
naire Maiscnnee, de ■ U Architecturt Francaue ; Walcott,
Conventual Arrangement; Willis, Abbey of St Gall; Archseo-
logical Journal, voL t > Conventual Buildings of Canter-
bury; CvlTzoq, Monasteries of the Levant. (e. v.)
ABBLATE QRASSO, a town in the north of Italy, near
the Ticino, 14 miles W.S.W. of MOan. It has silk manu-
factures, and contains about 5000 inhabitantii
ABBON OF FLErnY. or Asbo FLOEiACENsrs, a learned
Frenchman, bom near Orleans in 945. He distinguished
hinuelf in the schooU of Paris and Kheims, and was a profi-
cient in science, as known in his time. After spending two
years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in
restoring the monastic system, ho returned to France, and
was made Abbot of Fleury (970). He waa twice sent
to Rome by Robert the Wise (986, 996), and on each occa-
sion succeeded in warding off a threatened papal interdict
He was killed in 1004, in endeavouring to quell a monkish
revolt He wrote an epitome of the Lives of the Soman
Pontiffs, Jjesidcs controversial treatises, letters, &c
ABBOT, the head and chief governor of a community
of monks, called also in the East Archimandrita, from
mandra, " a fold," ot Uegumenos. The name ahhol is derived
from the Hebrew -*, Ah, or father, through the Syriac
Abba. It had its origin in the monasteries of Syria,
whence it spread through the East, and soon became
accepted generally in all languages as the designation of
the head of a monastery. At first it was employed as a
respectful title for any monk, as wo learn from St Jerome
(in Epist. ad GaL iv. 6, in Matt zxiiL 9), but it was soon
restricted to the Superior.
The name abbot, though general in the West, was not
universal Among the Dominicians, Carmelites, Angus-
tines, Ac, the superior was called Praepositus, " Provost,"
and Prior; among the Franciscans, Gustos, "Guardian;"
and by the monks of Camaldoli, Major.
Monks, as a rule, were -laymen, nor at the outset wm
the abbot any exception. All orders of clergy, therefore,
even the " doorkeeper," took precedence of him For
the reception of the sacraments, and for other religions
offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to
attend the nearest church. — (Novellce, 1 33, c. iL) This rale
naturally proved inconvenient when a monastery was
situated in a desert, or at a distance from a city, and
necessity compelled the ordination of abbots. This innova-
tion was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical
dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher
spiritual life, but, before the close of the 5th century, at least
in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become
deacons, if not presbyters. The change spread more
slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly
filled by laymen tQl the end of the 7th century, and
partially so up to the lltL Ecclesiastical Councils were,
however, attended by abbots. Thus, at that held at Con-
stantinople, A.D. 448, for the condemnation of Eutychcs,
23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, and,
cir. A.D. 690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a canon,
inhibiting bishops from compelling abbots to attend
councils. Examples are not uncommon in Spain and
in England in Saxon times. Abbots were permitted
by the Second Council of Nicaea, A.D. 787, to ordain
their monks to the inferior orders. This rule waa
adopted in the West, and the strong prejudice against
clerical monks having gradually broken down, eventually
monks, almost without exception, belonged to some grade
of the ministry.
Originally no abbot was penpitted to rule over more
than one monastic community, though, in Some exceptional
cases, Gregoiy the Great allowed the rule to be broken.
As time went on, violations of the rule became increasingly
frequent, as is proved by repeated enactments against it
The cases of Wilfrid of York, cir. a.d. 675, who held the
abb.acy of the monasteries he had founded at He7.ham and
Ripon, and of AJdhelm, who, at the same date, stood ii
the same double relation to those of Malmesbury, Frome,
and Bradford, arc only apparent transgressions of the rule.
We find more decided instances of plurality in Hugh of
, the T'^ynl Carlovinejian house, cir. 720, who was at the same
ABBOT
23
tims Bishop of Rouen, Paris, Bayeui, and Abbot of Fonte-
nelle and Jumi%es ; and Sidonius, Bishop cf Constance,
who, being already Abbot of Rcichenau, took the abbacy of
St Gall also. Hatto of llentz, cii: 912, annexed to his
Ece no less than 12 abbacies.
In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, we find abbots
in chief or arcMmandrites exercising jurisdiction over 'a
large number of communities, each of which had its own
abbot. Thus, Cassian speaks of an abbot in the Thebaid
who had 500 monks under him, a number exceeded in
other cases. In later times also, general jurisdiction was
exercised over the houses of their order by the abbots of
Monte Cassino, St Dalmatius, Cluguy, (tc. The abbot of
Cassino was styled Abbas Abbatum. The chiefs of other
orders had the titles uf Abbas Generalis, or Magister, or
Minister Generalis.
Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction,
and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the
11th century. The Codex of Jicstinian (lib. L tit. LiL do
Ep. leg. xl.), expressly subordinates the abbot to epis-
copal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial
exemption of an abbot from episcopal control b that of
Faustus, Abbot of Lerins, at the Council of Aries, a.d.
456 ; but the oppressive conduct, and exorbitant claims
and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to
episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the
arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent,
and, in the 6th ccntiuy, the practice of exempting religious
houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and
making them responsible to the Pope alone, received an
impulse from Gregory the Great. These exceptions,
though introduced with a good object, had grown into a
wide-spread and crying evil by the 12th century, virtually
creating an imperium in imperio, and entirely depriving
the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of power
and influence in his diocese. In the 12th century the
abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the Archbishop of
Cologne. Abbots more and more aped episcopal state,
and in defiance of the express prohibition of early councils,
and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the
episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves, and sandals. A
mitre is said to have been granted to the Abbot of Bobbio
by Pope Theodorus I, A.D. 643, and to the Abbot of St
Savianus by Sylvester II., a.d. 1000. Ducange asserts
that pontifical insignia were first assigned to abbots by
John XVIIL, A.D. 1004-1009 ; but the first undoiibted
grant is said to be that to the Abbot of St Maximinian at
Treves, by Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), a.d. 1073-10S5.
The mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon,
St Alban's, Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augus-
tine's Canterbury, Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glas-
tonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmes-
bury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury,
Tavistock, Thomey, Westminster, Winchcombe, St Mary's
York. Of these the precedence was originally yielded to
the Abbot of Glastonbury, until in A.D. 1154 Adrian IV.
(Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the Abbot of St
Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up.
Next after the Abbot of St Alban's ranked the Abbot of
Westminster.
To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that
their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and
ehould not be ornamented ■n-ith gold, a rule which was
Boon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their
pastoral staflf should turn inwards instead of outwards,
indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own
bouse. The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots
was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions,
wiMch had to be specially but ineffectually gviarded against
by the Latcran Council, a.d. 1^23. In the East, abboU,
if in priests' orders, with the consent of the bishop, were,
as we have seen, permitted by the Second Nicene Council,
A.D. 787, to collier the tonsure and admit to the order of
reader ; but they gradually advanced higher claims, until
we find them authorised by BeUarmine to be a.ssociatcd
with a single bishop in episcopal consecraliions, and per-
mitted by Innocent IV., a.d. 1489, to confer both the
subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and
everywhere had the power of admitting their o>vn monks,
and vesting them with the religious habit. In the first
instance, when a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese
chose the abbot out of the monks of the convent, but
the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to
the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the con-
firmation of the election and the benediction of the new
abbot. In abbeys exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, the
confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the
Pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses
of the new abbot's journey to Rome. By the rule of St
Benedict, the consent of the laity was in some unde-
fined way required ; but this seems never to have been
practically enforced. It was necessary that an abbot
should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate birth, a
monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable can-
didate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another
convent, well instructed him.self, and able to instruct others,
one also who had learned how to command by having prac-
tised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was
allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an
abbot in Egypt doing this ; and in later times we have
another example in the case of St Bruno. Popfe and
sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the
monks, until in Italy the Pope had usurped the nomina-
tion of all abbots, and the king in France, with the ex-
ception of Clugny, Pr^montre, and other houses, chiefs of
their order. 'The election was for life, unless the .abbot
was canonicaUy deprived by the chiefs uf his order, or,
when he was directly subject to them, by the Pope or the
bishop.
The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine
abbot in mediaeval times is thus prescribed by the consuetu-
dinary of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to
put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed
barefoot to meet the members cf the house advancing in
a procession. After proceeding up the nave, he was to
kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the
choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop
or his conunissary, and placed in his stall. The monks,
then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand,
and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of
office. He then put on his ahoes in the vestry, and a
chapter was held, and the bishop or his commissary
preached a suitable sermon.
The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute,
Umited, however, by the canons of the church, and, until
the general establishment of exemptions, by epi-scopal
control. As a rule, however, implicit obedience was en-
forced ; to act without his orders was culpable ; whUo it
was a sacred duty to execute his orders, however unrea-
sonable, until they were withdrawn. Examples among tha
Egyptian monks of this blind submission to the commands
of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who re-
garded the entire crushing of the individual will as the
highest excellence, are detailed by Cassian and others, — e.g.,
a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or
endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding
his powers. St Jerome, indeed, lays doivu, as the principle
of the compact between the abbot and his monks, that they
should obey their superiors in all things, and perform what-
ever they commanded. — (Ep. 2, ad Eustoch. do ousted.
24
ABBOT
;Wrgin.) So despotic did the tyranny became in the West,
that in the time of Charlemagne it was necessary to re-
strain abbots by legal enactmenta from mutilating their
monks, and putting out their eyes; while the rule of St
Columba ordained 100 lashes as the punishment for very
•light offences. An ubbot also had the power of excom-
municating refractory mhis, which ho might use if desired
by their abbess.
The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and
reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared
either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed.
His letters were received kneeling, like those of the Pope
and the king. If he gave a command, the monk receiving
it was also to kneel. No monk might sit in his presence,
O"- leave it without his permission. The highest place v-as
naturally assigned to him, both in church and at table.
In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks.
In the West the rule of St Benedict appointed him a sepa-
rate table, at which ho might entertain guests and strangers.
This permission opening the door to luxurious living, the
Council of Aix, a.d. 817, decreed that the abbot should
dine in the refectory, and be content with the ordinary
fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest.
These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to
secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature
abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning
the inordinate oxtravaganee of the tables of the abbots.
When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his
chaplains waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if
necessary, assisting them. At St Alban's the abbot took
the lord's seat, in the centre of the high table, and was
served on silver plate, and sumptuously entertained noble-
men, ambassadors, and strangers of quality. When abbots
dined in their own private hall, the rule of St Benedict
charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided
there was room, on which occasions the guests were to ab-
stain from quarrels, slanderous talk, and idle gossipping.
The complaint, however, was sometimes made (as by Matt.
Paris of Wulsig, the third abbot of St Alban's), that they invited
ladies uf rank to dine with them instead of theirmonks. The
ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the
same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the
nile was commonly set aside, and wo find frequent com-
plaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting great
sumptuousness of attire. Nay, they sometimes laid aside
the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress.'
Thiswasanecessary consequenceof their following the chase,
iwhich was quite usual, and indeed at that time only naturaL
With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost
much of their special religious character, and become great
lords, chiefly distinguishgd from lay lords by celibacy.
Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with their men
carrying bows and arrows ; keeping horses, dogs, and
huntsmen ; and special mention is made of an abbot of
Leicester, dr. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the
nobility in hare-hunting. In magnificence of equipage and
retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm.
They rode on mules with gOded bridles, rich saddles and
housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, attended by an
immenaa train of attendants. The bells of the churches
were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms
with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their
pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, how-
ever, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read
of Whiting, the last Abbot of Glastonbury, judicially mur-
dered by Henry VIII., that his house was a kind of well-
ordered court, where as many a.s 800 sons of noblemen and
' ^^ '^wortb, the fourth abbot of St Alban's, circa 930, U charged by
McKl.'.T Praia with adopting the attire at a epottsmao.
gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtnoos educO'
tion, had been brought up, besides others of a meaner rank,
whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance,
and officers were an honour to the nation. He would
entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time,
besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a-wetk.
He had his country houses and fisheries, and when ho
travelled to attend Parliament his retinue amounted to
upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of Clugny and
Vendome were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the
Romish Church.
In process of time the title abbot waa improperly tmns-,
ferred to clerics who had no connection with the monutio
system, as to the principal of a body of parochial
clergy; and under the Carlovingians to the chief chaplain
of the king. Albas Curia:, or military chaplain of the em^
peror. Abbot Castrensis. It even came to be adopted by,
purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of. the
republic at Genoa was called Abbas PupuU. Ducange, id
his Glossary, also gives us Abbas CanqMiiilU, Clochetiii
Palatii, Scholaria, iic.
Lay abbots, so called, had their origin in the system of
commendation, in the 8th centiiry. By this, to meet any,
(,Teat necessity of the state, such as an inroad of the Saraj
cens, the revenues of monasteries were temporarily com-
mended, i.e., handed over to some layman, a noble, or even
the king himself, who for the time became titular abbot.'
Enough was reserved to maintain the monastic brother^
hood, and when the occasion passed away the revenues
were to be restored to their rightful owners. The estites,'
however, had a habit of lingering in lay hands, so that in
the 9th and 10th centuries most of the sovereigns and
nobles among the Franks and Burgundians were titular
abbots of some great monastery, the revenues of which
they applied to their own purposes. These lay-abbots
v!eTe stylcA Abbacomitea oi Abbates Milites. Hugh Capet,
before his elevation to the throne, as an Abbacomet held
the abbeys of St Denis and St Germain, in commendam.
Bishop Hatto, of Montz, a.d. 891-912, is said to have held
12 abbeys in commimdam at once. In England, as wo see
from the Acts of the Council of Cloveshoc, in the 8th
century, monasteries were often invaded and occupied by
laymen. This occurred sometimes from the monastery
having voluntarily placed itself under the protection of a
powerful layman, who, from its protector, became its op-
pressor. Sometimes there were two lines of abbots, one of
laymen enjoying the lion's share of the revenues, another
of clerics fulfilling the proper duties of an abbot on a small
fraction of the income. The gross abuse of lay commen-
dation which had sprung up during the corruption of
the monastic system passed away with its reformation in
the 10th century, either voluntarily or by compulsion..
The like abuse prevailed in the East at a later period.
John, Patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the 12th
century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had
been handed over to laj-men, leneficiarii, for life, or for
part of their lives, by the emperors.
In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied
the place of the abbot, the ftmctions usually devolving on
the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior.
In other convents the prior was the second officer next to
the abbot, representing him in his absence, and fulfilling
his duties. The superiors of the cells, or small monastic
establishments dependent on the larger monasteries, were
also caDed priors. They were appointed by the abbots,
and held office at their pleasiu-e.
Authorities: — Bingham, Oi^V^jne*/ Ducangfe, Glossary;
■Herzog, Realwbrterbuch ; Eohertson, Ch. Hist. ; Marten e,
De Antiq. Monnst. Ritibxia , Montalcmbcrt, ilonlts of the
'•Vc^t , (1 V.)
ABBOT
25
ABBOT, Chaeles,. speaker of theHonse of Commons
/Vom 1802 to 1817, afterwards created Lord Colchester.
ied CoLCfiKSTEB.
ABBOT, Geoege, Arclibishop of Canterbury, -was bom
October 19, 1562, at Guildford in Surrey, where liis father
iras a cloth-worker. He studied at BaUiol CoUege, Oxford,
and was chosen Master of University College in 1597.
Pe was three times appointed to the office of Vice-Chan-
cellor of the University. When in 1604 the version of the
Bible now in use was ordered to be prepared, Dr Abbot's
name stood second on the Hat of the eight Oxford divines
to whom was intrusted the translation of the New Testa-
jinent, excepting the Epistles. In 1608 he went to Scotland
with the Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between
the Churches, of England and Scotland, and his conduct in
that negotiation laid the foundation of his preferment, by
attracting to him the notice and favour of the king. With-
out having held any parochial charge, he was appointed
Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609, was translated
to the see of London a month afterwards, and in less
than a year was made Archbishop of Canterbury. This
rapid preferment was due as much perhaps to his flat-
tering his royal master as to his legitimate merits. After
his elevation" he showed on several occasions, firmness
and courage in resisting the king. In the scandalous
divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against the Earl
of Essex, the archbishop persistently opposed the dissolu-
tion of the marriage, though the influence of the king and
court was strongly and successfully exerted in the opposite
direction. In 1618, when a declaration was published by
the king, and ordered to be read in all the churches, per-
mitting sports and pastimes on the Sabbath, Abbot had
the courage to forbid its being read at Croydon, where he
happened to be at the time. As may be inferred from
the incident just mentioned. Abbot was of the Protestant or
Puritan' party in the Church. Ho was naturally, therefore,
a promoter of the match between the Elector Palatine and
the Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected
marriage of the Prince of Wales with the Infanta of Spain.
This policy brought upon him the hatred of Laud and the
court. The king, indeed, never forsook him ; but Buck-
ingham was his avowed enemy, and he was regarded with
dislike by the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I.
In 1622 a sad misfortune befell the archbishop while
hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramzill. A bolt from
his cross-brow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of
the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so
greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of
settled melancholy. His enemies maintained that the fatal
issue of this accident disqualified him for his office, and
argued that, though the homicide was involuntaiy, .the
sport of huntiug which had led to it was one in which no
•clerical person could lawfully indulge. - The king had to
refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said
that " an angel might have miscarried after this sort." A
■decision was given in the archbishop's favour; but to pre-
vent disputes, it was recommended that the king Bhould
formally absolve him, and confer his office upon him afiew.
After this the archbishop seldom appeared at the council,
chiefly on account, of his infirmities. He attended the
king constantly, however, in his last illness, and performed
the ceremony of the coronation of Charles I. A pretext
■was soon found by his enemies for depriving him of all his
functions as primate, which were put in commission by
the king. This high-handed procedure was the result of
Abbot's refusal to license a sermon preached by Dr Sibthorp,
iu which the king's prerogative was stretched beyond con-
•Btitutional limits. 'The archbishop had his powers restored
to him shortly afterwards, however, whon the kii:g found
it absolutely sicccsaary to summon a Pai'liamcnt. His pre-
8en''.e being unwelcome at court, he lived from that time
in "retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed
ascendency. He died, at Croydon on the 5th August 1633,
and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had
endowed an hospital with lands to the value of £300 a year.
Abbot wrote a large nimiber of works; but, with the excep-
tion of his Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which
was reprinted' in 1845, they are now little known. His
Geography, or a Brief Descriptimt, of the Whole World,
passed through numerous editions.
ABBOT, Geokgb, known as " The Puritan," has been
oddly and persistently mistaken for others. He has been
described as a clergyman, which he never was, and as son
of Sir Morris Abbot, and his wi-itings accordingly entered
in tLo bibliographical authorities as by the nephew of
the Arch'oishop of Canterbury. One of the sons of Sir
Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he was
a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot
was of a difi'erent family altogether. He was son or
grandson (it is not clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot,
knight of Easington, East Yorkshire, having been bom
there in 1603-4, his mother (or grandmother) being
of the ancient house of Pickering. He married a
daughter of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, Warwickshire,
and as his -monument, which may still be seen in the
church there, tells, he teively held it against Prince
Rupert and Maurice during the civil war. He was a
member of the Long Parliament for Tamworth. Aa a
layman, and nevertheless a theologian and scholar of
rare ripeness and critical ability, he holds an almost
unique place in the literature of the period. His Whole
Boolce of Job Paraphrased; or made easy for any to tinder-
stand (1640, 4to), is in striking contrast, in its concinnity
and terseness, with the prolixity of too many of the Puritan
expositors and commentators. His ^ddic-ice Sablathi(l&il,
8vo) had a profound and lasting ^influence in the long
Sabbatic controversy. His Brief Notes vpon the Whole Book
of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date shows, was posthumous.
He died February 2, 1648. (MS. collections at Abbey-
viUe for history of all of the name of Abbot, by J. 1".
Abbot, Esq.,F.S.A., Darlington; Dugdale's Antu/itities of
Warwickshire, 1656, p. 791; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), s. v.;
Cox's Literature of the Sabbath; Dr James Gilfillan on
The Sabbath; Lowndte, Bodleian, B, Museum Catal.
a. v.) (a. b. g.)
ABBOT, EoBEET. Noted as this Puritan divine was in
his own time, and representative in various ways, he has
hitherto been confounded with others, as Eobert Abbot,
Bishop of Salisbury, and his personality distributed over
a Robert Abbot of Cranbrook; another of Southwick,
Hants; a third of St Austin's, London ; while these succes-
sive places were only the successive livings of the one
Robert Abbot. He is also described as of the Archbishop's
or Guildford Abbots, whereas he was iu no way related,
albeit he acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his
epistles-dedicatory of A Hand of Fellowship to Uelpe Keeps
ovt Sinne and Antichrist (1623, 4to), that it was from the
archbishop he had " received all" his " worldly mainte-
nance," as well as "best earthly countenance" and "fatherly
incouragements." The worldly maintenance was the pre-
sentation to the vicarage of Cranbrook in Kent, Of which
the archbishop was patron. This was in 1616. He had
received bis education at Cambridge, where ho proceeded
M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. . In
1639,'in the ej)istle to the reader of his most noticeable
book historically, his Triall^of our Chutch-Forsakers,
he tells us, " I have lived noW, by God's gratious dis-
pensation, above fifty years, and in the place of my
allotment two and twenty fuU." The, former data
carries us back to 1088-89, or perhaps 1587-88 — the
I ~ A.
26
A B B — A U 13
" AnDftda"year — as his birth-«ime; the latter to lClG-17
Sut supra). In hia lite Thank/ull London and her Sislera
1G2C), he deacribeo himeeli as formerly "assistant to a
reverend divine .... now with God," and the name on
the margin is " Master Haiward of Wool Church." This
was doubtless previous to his going to Cranbrook. Very
remarkable and effective was Abbot's ministry at Cran-
brook, where the father of Phiueas and Giles Fletcher was
the first " Reformation" pastor, and which, relatively small
as it is, is transfigured by being the birth-place of the poet
of the " Locusta)" and "The Purple Island." His paribh-
ioners were as his own " sons and daughters" to him, and
by day and night he thought and felt, wept and prayed, for
them aud with them. He is a noble specimen of the rural
clergyman of his age. Puritan though ho was in his deepest
convictions, he was a thorough Churchman a.s toward Non-
conformists, e.g., the Brownists, with whom he waged stem
warfare. Ho remained until 1043 at Cranbrook, aud then
chose the very inferior living of Southwick, Hants, as be-
tween the one and the other, the Parliament deciding
against pluralities of ecclesiastical offices. Succeeding the
" e.xtruded " Udall of St Austine's, Abbot continued there
until a good old aga. In 1657, in the Warning-piece, he
is described as still " pastor of Austine's in London." He
disappears silently between 1657-8 and 16G2. Robert
Abbot's books are distinguished from many of the Puritans
by their terseness and variety. (Brook's Puritatm, iii
182, 3; Walker's Sufferings; Wood's J</tfntB (Bliss); Cata-
logus Impressorxim Librurum in Bibtiotlieca JBodleiana, a. v.;
Palmer's Nonconf. Hem., iL 218.) (.v B. G.)
ABBOTSFORD, the celebrated residence of Sir Walter
Scott, situated on the south bank of the river Tweed, about
three miles above Melrose. The nucleus of the property
was a small farm of 100 acres, with the " inliarmonious
designation" of Clarty Hole, acquired by Scott on the lapse
of his lease (1811) of the neighbouring house of A.shestiel.
It was gradually increased by various acfiuisitions, the last
and principal being that of Toftficld (afterwards named
Huntlyburn), purchased in 181 7. The present new house was
then commenced, and was completed in 1824. The general
ground-plan Is a parallelogram, ' with irregular outlines —
one side overlooking the Tweed, and the other facing a
courtyard ; aud the general stylo of the building is the
Scottish baronial. Scott had ouly enjoyed his new resi-
dence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of
fortune (connected with the failure of Ballantyne and
Con.stable), which involved the estate in debt. In 1830,
the library' and museum \vere presented as a free gift by
the creditors; and after Scott's death, which took place at
Abbotsford in September 1832, a committee of friends
subscribed a further sum of about X8000 towards the same
object. The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847,
by Mr Cadell, the publisher, accepting the remaining
claims of the family over Sir Walter Scott's writings in
requital of liis obligation to obliterate the heritable bond on
the property. The result of this transaction was, that not
only was the estate redeemed by the fruit of Scott's brain,
but a handsome residue fell to the publisher. Scott's only
son Walter (Lieutenant-Colonel 15th Hussars) did not live
to enjoy the property, having died on hb way from India
in 1847. Its subsequent possessors have been Scott's
son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, and the latter's son-in-law,
J. R Hope Scott, Q.C., whose daughter (Scott's great-
granddaughter) is the present proprietor. Mr Lockhart
died at Abbotsford in 1854. — See Li/e of Scott, by J. G.
Lockhart; Abbotsford and Newslead Abbey, by Washing-
ton-Irving; Abbotsford Nolanda in Gentleman's Mag.,
' TliB Catilotruo of the Library at Abbotsfoid forms vol. IxL of the
B&imatf a» Club publications. ^
April and May 1869; The Lands of SeoCt, by James F.
Hunnewell, cr. 8vo, 1871; iSeott Loan Exhibition Catci
luyue, 4to, 1871.
ABBOTSFORD CLUB, one of the principal printing
clubs, was founded in 1 834 by Mr W. B. D. D. Turnbull, and
named in honour of Sir Walter Scott. Taking a wider
range than its predecessors, the Bannatyne and Maitland
Clubs, it did not confine its printing (as remarked by Mr
Lockhart) to works connected with Scotland, but admitted
all materials that threw light on the ancient history of
literature of any country, anywhere described or discussed
by the Author of Wavcrloy. The club, now dissolved, con-
sisted of fifty members ; aud th» publications extend to 3 t
vols, quarto, Usucd during the years 1835-18C4.
ABBREVIATIOX, a letter or group of letters, takca
from a word or words, and employed to represent them for
the sake of brevity. Abbreviations, both of single words
and of phrases, having a meaning more or less fijccd and
recognised, are common in ancient writings and in3crij>
tions, and very many are in use at the jjresent time. A
distinction is to be observed between abbreviations and the
contractions that are frequently to be met with in old
manuscripts, aud oven in early printed books, whereby
letters are dropped out here and there, or particular collo-
cations of letters represented by somewhat arbitrary symbols.
The commonest form of abbreviation is thiJ substitution for
a word of its initial letter ; but, with a view to prevent
ambiguity, one or more of the other letters are frequently
added. Letters are often doubled to indicate a plural or a
superlative.
I. Classical Abbreviations. — The following lisl con-
tains a selection from the abbreviations that occur in the'
writings and inscriptions of the Romans : —
A.
A Absolve, .£dill9, M&, Ager, Ago. AJo, Amicoa, Annus,
Antiquo, Auctor, Auditor, Augustus, Aulus, Auruuv
Aut.
A. A. Mi alicDum, Ante audita, Apud agrom, Auium aig«utuio^
AA. Augiisti. AAA. Au^uisti tres.
A.A.A.F.F. Auro argcnto ajreuando foriundo.^
A. A. V. Alter ambove.
A.C. Acta causa. Alius civis.
A. D. Ante diem ; e.g., A. D. V. Ante diom •{Uialuni.'
.V. D. A. Ad dandos agros.
.ED. Jules, .£<iUis, .£dilita3.
i£M. and AIM. .^uiilius, .£mitia.
^.R. jErarium. jEH. P. £re publlcu,
AF. Actum fide, A\ili filius.
AG. Ager, Ago, Agr^>pa.
A O. Aniino grato, Aulus Gclliua.
A. L.'E. and A. L. £. Arbitrium litis cealiiuaj.dji
Ail. nii^ A.MILL. Ad milliarium.
AN. Aniensis, Annus, ADt«.
ANN. Ami&les, Anni, Amiona.
ANT. Ante, Ajitoniua.
A. O. Alii omncs, Amico optimo.
AP. Appius, Apud.
.V. P. Ad pedes, iEdilitia potestate.
AP.F. Auro {or argento) publico feriundo.
A. P.M. Amico posuit monumentum, Annoruin plus minus;
A. P. R.C. Addo post Romam conditam.
jVRG. Argentum.
Alt. V.V.D.D. Aram Totam volens dedicavit, Arma votivudouutfedjit-
AT. A tsrgo. Also A TE. and A TEB.
A.T. M. D. 0. Aio to mihi dare opertere.
AV. Augur, Augustus, Aurcliua.
A. V. Annos visit.
A. V.C. Ab urbo condita.
AVG. Augur, Augustus.
AVG3. AwgasXHgenerally of two). A'VGGG. Augast) tres.
AVT. Pfi.U. Auctoritas provincise Romanoi'um.
B.
B. Balbius, Balbus, Beatua, Bene, Beneficiarios, Beneficiuic,
Bonus, Brutus, Bustum.
B. /orV. B8ma,BiTU3, Butit
B.A. Bixit annos. Soma au^uriis. Bonus amabilis.
' Doscnbing the fonctioa of the iriunvin numUaUa.,
ABBREVIATION
27
HR. orB. B. Bene bene, i.e., optime, Optimus. '
B. D. BonsB dose, Honiim datum.
B. DD. Bonis deabua.
B. D.S. M. Bene de se merenti.
B. F. Bona femina, Bona fidcg, Bona fortuna, Bonnm factum.
(I.J. Bona femina, Bona filia.
H, H. Bona hereditaria, Bonomm heres.
B. i. Bonura judicium. B. 1. 1. Boni judicia judicium,
B. K. Beats memoriae, Bene merenti.
B. K. Bona nostra, Bonum nomen.
li N.H.I. Bona hie invenies.
B. P. liona patema, Bonomm potestas, Bonum publicum.
B.Q. Bene quiescat. Bona quiesita.
B.RP.N. Bono reipublicae-natua.
BUT. Britannicus.
B.T. Bonomm tutor, Brevi tempore,
B. V. Bene vale, Bene vixit, Bonus vir.
B. V. v. Balnea vina Venus.
BX. Bixit, for vixit.
C.
C Cfflaar, Caius, Caput, Causa, Censor, Civis, Cohors, Colonia,
ComitiaKs (dies), Condemno, Consul, Cum, Curo,
Custos.
p. Caia, Centuria, Cum, the prefix Con.
C. B. Civis bonus, Communo bonum, Conjugi benemerenti, Cui
bono.
C.C. Calumni.'e causa, Causa cognita, Conjugi carissimae, Con-
eilium cepit, Curiro consulto.
C. C. C. Calumniae cavendse causS.
C.C. F. Caisar {or Caius) curavit faciendum, Caius Caii filiui.
caw. Clarissimi viri.
CD. Caesaris decreto, Caius Decius, Coraitialfbus diebua,
CICS. Censor, Censores. CESS. Censorep
C.F. Causa fiducise, Conjugi fecit, Curavit faciendum.
C. H. Custos heredum, Custos hortonim.
C.I. Caius Julius, Consul jussit, Curavit judex.
CIj. Clarissimus, Claudius, Clodlus, Coloiii.k
CL. ^. Clarissimus rir, ClypeuTn vovit,
C» AL Caius filarius, Causa mortis.
CN. CnfcuB.
COH. Coherea, Cohors.
COL. CoUega, Collegium, Cgloma, Columua.
COLL. Collcga, Coloni, Colonrre.
COM. Comos, Comitium, Compnratum,
CON. Conjux, Consensus, Consiliarius, Cons\il, Consularis,
COR. Cornelia (tribus), Cornelius, Corona, Corpus.
COS. Consiliarius, Consul, Consulares. COSS. Consulcs.
C.P. Carissimus or Clarissimus puor, Civis publicus, Curavit
ponendum.
C. R. Caius Kufus, Civis Romanus, Curavit reficiendum.
C3, Caisar, Communis, Consul.
C.V. Clarissimus or consularis vir.
CVR. Cura, Curator, Curavit, Curia.
D.
D. Dat, Dedit, &c., De, Dccimus, D^cius, Decretum, Decurin,
Deus, Dicit, Jtc, Dies, Divus, Dominus, Domu.'*,
Donum.
DC. Decurio colonic, Diebus comitialibus, Divus Ctesar.
D. D Dea Dia, Decurionum decreto, Dedicavit, Deo dedit, Dont-
dedit.
D. D.D. Datum decreto decurionum, Dono dedit dedicavit.
I>. E.R, De earc.
b ES. Designatus.
D.I. Dedit iraperator, Diis immortallbus, Diis inferis.
D. I.M. Deo iuvicto ilithrx, Diis inferis llanibus.
D.M. Deo Magno, Dlgntis memoria, Diis Manibus, Dolo malo.
D. 0. >L Deo Optimo Maximo.
D. P.S. Dedit proprio sumptu, Deo pqrpetuo sacrum, De pccunia
sua.
E.
Ejus. Eques, Erexit, Ergo, Est, Et. Etiam, Ex.
iEgor, Egit, Egregius.
EgrogiiR racmorice, Ejosmodi, Erexit monumentura.
Equitum raagister,
Ea res agitor.
F.
Fubius, Facere, Fecit, fcc, Familia, FiiBtus (dies\ Felix.
Femina, Fi^es, Filius, Flamon, Foi-tuna, Frator, Fuji.
Functus.
Faciendum curavit, Fidei commi3<*um, Fiductte causa,
Fidera dedit, Flamcn Dialis, Fraude donavit.
Forro flamma fame, FoMior fortxma fato.
Filius, FlameH, Flaminius, Flavins.
Paveto Unguis, Fecit libcfis, Felix liber.
Foram, Fronte, Frumentorius.
Foruui Iluniauum.
E.
RO.
R. M.
EQ. M.
E. U. A.
F.C.
K.D.
F.F.F.
FL.
F.L
KR.
F.R.
G. Gains ( = Cains), Gallia, Gaudium, GeTlina, Gemina, Gena,
Gesta, Gratia.
G.F. Gemina fidelis {%pplkd to a legion). 5o G.P.F. Gemina
pia fidelis.
GL. Gloria.
GN. Genius, Gens, Genus, Gnaeus (^Cnaeofl),
G. P.R. Genio populi Romani.
H.
H. Habet, ITeres, Hie, Homo, Honor, Hora.
HER. Heres, Herennius. HER. and HERC. Hercules,
H.Ij. Hac lege, Hoc loco, Honesto loco.
H.M. Hoc monumentum, Honesta mulicr, Hora mala,
H.S.E. Hie Eepultus est, Hie situs est.
H.V. Hsec ui-bs, Hie vivit, Honeste vixit, Honestus vir.
I.
I. Immortalis, Imperator, In, Infra, Inter, Invictus, Ipae;.
Isis, Judex, Julius, Junius, Juniter, Justus.
IA_ Jam, Intra.
I.e. JuJius Cssar, Juris Consultum, Jus civile.
ID. Idem, Idus, Interdum.
I.D. Infens diis, Jovi dedicatum, Jus dicendum, Jussu DeL
I. D.M. Jovi dco magno.
I. F. In fovo, In Ironte.
I. H. Jacet hie, In honestatem, Justus homo.
IM. Imago, Immortalis, Immunis, Impensa.
IMP. Imperator, Imperium,
I. CM, Jovi Optimo maximo.
I. P. In publico. Intra provinciam Justa persona.
I.S.V. r. Impensa sua vivus posuit
K.
K. Kceso, Caia, Calumnia, Caput, Carus, Castra.
K., EAL.. arul KL. Kalends.
l:
L. Laelius, Legio, Lex, Libcns Liber, Libra, Locus, LoUiua,
Lucius, Ludus.
LB. Libens, Liberi, I^ibertus.
L.D.D.D. Locus datus decroto decurionum.
LEG. Legatus, Legio.
LIB. Liber, Liberalitas, Libertas, Libertus, LibrariuB.
LL. Leges, Libentissime, LibertL
L.M. Libens merito, LocuS monumrnti.
L.S. Laribus sacrum. Libens solvit. Locus saoer.
LVD. Ludus.
LY.P.F. Ludos publicoa fecit.
M. Magister, Maglsti-atus, Jlagnus, Manes, Marcus, Marina^
Marti, Mater, Mcmorin. Mcnsis, Miles, Monumentmn,.
Mortuus, Mucins, ilulier.
M*. Manius.
M. D. Jlagno Deo, Manibus diis, Matri deum, Merenti derbt
ME3. Mensis. MESS, iicnscs.
M. F. Mala fides, Ma-rci filius, Monumentum fecit,
M.I. Matri Idae.-e, Matri Isidi, ilaximo Joyi.
MNT. and MON. Moneta.
M. P. Male positus, Monumentum posuit.
M.S. Manibus sacrum, Memorire sacrum, ManUficriptum.
MVN. Municeps, or municipium ; so also MN., MV., and
MVNIC.
M.T.S. Marti ultori sacrum, Mciito votum solvit
N.
N. Katio, ^atus, Nefastus (dies), Ne^ws, Keptunus, Nero,
Komen, Non, IJonte, Nostcr, Kovu3, Nuraen, Numo-
rius, Numerus, Nummus.
N"EP. Kepos, Neptunus.
K.F.C. Nostra fidei commissum.
X.L. Kon licet, Non liquet, Non loDgO.
N.M.V. Nobilis mcmoriaa vir.
NN. Nostri. NN., NNO., ffjiiNKR. Nostronim.
NOB. Nobilis. NOB., NOIiK., a»rf NOV. Novembris.
N.P, Nefastus primo (i.e., priore parte dici), ]^on potest.
0.
0. Ob, OfTirium, Omnis, Oportot, Optimus, Opus. Oaso.
OR. Obiit, Obiter, Orbis.
O.C.S. Ob civcs scrvatos.
O.H. F. Omnibus honoribus functus
O.H.S.S. Ossa hie siti sunt.
OR. Hora, Ordo, Omaraentum.
O.T.B.O Oasa tua bene quitscnnt.
P.
P. Pots, Passus, Pater, Pr.tronus, Pax, Porpctuns, Pes. Pius,,
Plebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, l*osuit, Prases, Pra:tor,
Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Pucr.
P.C. Pactum conventum, Patrcs conscripti, Pecunia constitutor
Ponendum cuiarit, Postconsulatum, PotcstatecousoriA.
M.
28
A B B K E V I A T I O N
p.p. Pl» (idelis, Pius felix, Pnomissa fidos, Publii filius.
P. M. Pisd memoris. Plus minun, Pontifex maxirous.
P.P. Pater patmtua. Pater patriaj, Pccunia publica, P'^posihis,
Primipilus, Proprsetor.
PR, Pmwea, Prtetor, Pridie, Prjnoops.
P. R. Pormiaau roipublica, Populus Uomanus.
JMI.C. Post Jiomam couditam.
PR. PR. PiKfectus praetorii, Proprsetor.
P. 8. Pecunia sua, Plebiscitnm, Proprio snmptu, PnbliciB saluti.
P. V. Pia victrii, Prtcfeotua urbi, Pnnstantisdimua vij.
Q.
Q. Quaestor, Qaando, Quautufl, Que. Qui, Qoinquennnlis,
Quintus, Quiritos.
Q.O.R. Quadero.
Q. I.S.3. Qum infra scripta sunt ; so Q. 8. 8. 8. Quie supra. 4c.
QQ. Quajcumiuo, Quinqueonalia, Quoque.
Q. U 'juai.itor rnipublic;^.
R.
R. Recto, Res. Respnblica, Betro, Roi, Rips, Boma, Ronmnna,
F.iJ'us, Rursua.
R. C. Eo-nana ci vitas, Uomanus civia.
Rii.SP. and RP. HcspuUioa.
KET. P. and RP. Retro nei'ea.
S.
8k Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Senatps, Scpultns, Serriua,
Sorvua, Soxtua Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, .Sub,
Suus.
SAC. riacerdos, Sacrificium, Sacrum.
S.C. Scnatus consultiini.
8,0. Sacrum diia, Salutcm dicit, Senatna decrcto, Sentontiam
dcdit
S.D.jr. S'lcnim diis Manibus, Sine dolo mala
SKH. Rervius, Rervus.
9. E.T.L. Sit ei terra levia.
SN. Senatus, Sententia, Sine.
S. P. Sacerdos perpetua. Sine peconia, Sua pecnnia.
S. P.Q.R, Senatus populusque Romanus.
S.S. Sanctisaimus senatus. Supra acriptum.
S.V.B.E.E.Q.V. Si vales bone est, ego quidem valco.
T.
T. Terminus, Testamentum, Titus, Tribunua, Tu, Tnrma,
Tutor.
TB., Tl., and TIB. Tiberius.
TB., TR., and TRB. Tribunus.
T.F. Testamentum fecit, Titi filios, Titnlam fecit, Titus
Flavius.
TM. Terminus, Teatamentum, Thermse.
T. P. Torminum posuit, Tribunicia potestate, Tribnnns plebis.
TVL. Tullius, Tullua.-
V.
V. "Urbs, TTsas, Uxor, Tale, Vertia, Testalia, Tester, Tir,
Tivus, Tixit, Tolo, Totum,
7.A. Teterano assignatus, Vixit annoa,
T.C. Tale conjux, Vir clarissimua, Tir consularis.
V. E, Terum etiam, Tir egregius, Tisum est.
T.F. ITsHS fructus, Terba fecit, Tivus fecit
T. P. Urbis prasfectus, Vir perfectissimus, Tivus posuit.
V. R, Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Totum reddidit
n. Medlbval Abbreviations, — Of the different kinds
of abbreviations in use in the middle age?, the following
are examples: —
A.Htf. Ave Maria,
B.P. Beatus Paulus, Beatna Petrus.
CC. Carissimua {also plur, Carissimi), Clarissimua, Circum.
D. Deus, Dominicus, Bux.
i). N. PP. Dominua noster Papa,
FF. Felicissimua, Fratres, Pandectffl (proi. for Or. n).
I.e. or I.X. Jesus Cbristua.
I.D.N. In Dei nomine.
KK. Karissimua (or -mi).
MM. Hagistri, Martyres, Matrimoniom, Meiitissimas.
O.S.B. Ordinis Sancti Benedicti.
PP. Papa, Patres, Piissimua.
R,F. Rex Francorum.
R. P. D. Reverendissimus Pater Dominos.
S. C. M. Sacra Ccesarea Majestaa.
S. M. E. Sancta Mater Ecclesia.
R.M.AL Sancta Mater Maria.
S.R.1. Sanctum Roman um Imperium.
8.T. Sanctitos Testra, Sancta Tirgo.
T. Tenerabilis, Tenerandua.
T.R.P. Testra Reverendissima Patemitaa.
• IIL Abbbeyiations now in use. — The import of these
will often be readily understood "from the connection in
which they occur. There ia no occasion to explain her«
the common abbreviations used for Chi-istian names, books
of Scripture, months of the year, points of the compass,
grammatical and mathematical terms, or familiar Titles,
Uko " Mr;" Ac
The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, may
be conveniently classified under the folloising headings :— <
1. Abbreviated Titles and Designxtioks.
A. A- Associate of Arta.
A. B. Able-bodied scainan.
A. M. (ATiium Mngister), Master of Atrts.
A. R.A. Associate of tbo Royal Academy
A. U.S.A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy.
B. A. Bachclof of Arts.
li. C. L Bachelor of Civil La%
B. D. Bachelor of Divinity.
B. LiL. Bachelor of Laws.
B.Sc Bachelor of Sciencs.
C. Chairman.
C.A. Chartered Accountant
C. B. Companion of the Bath.
C. E. Civil Engineer.
C. M. {Chirurgix Mayistcr), Master in Surgery.
C. M.G. Companion of St Michael and St George,
C. S. I. Companion of the Star of IndijL
D.C.L. DoctorofCivil Law.
D.D. Doctor of Divinity.
D. Lit Doctor of Literature.
D. AL Doctor of Medicine [Oxford].
D.Sc Doctor of Science.
Ebor. (i.'6ora«Tur«), of York.*
F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society.
F. D. {Fidn Defenaar), Defender of the Faith.
F. F. P. S. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians k Surgeons [Chisgo*. ]
F. G. S. Fellow of the Geological Society.
F.K.Q.C.P.l. Fellow of King and Queen's College of Physicians
in Ireland.
F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnxan Society.
F. M. Field Marshal
K. P. 8. Fellow of the Philologies} Society.
F. R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.
F. K.C. P. Fellow of tho Royal College of Physicians.
F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of tho Royal College of Physicians of E>lin-,
burgh.
F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Rcyal College of Sareeons.
F. R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.
F. R. S. FeUow of the Royal Society.
F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
F. R.S.L. FcUow of the Royal Society Sf Literature.
F.S. A. Fellow of the Society of Antiquai'ies.
F. S. S. Fellow of the Statistical Society.
F. Z. S. Fellow of the Zoological Society.
G.C.B. Knight Grand' Cross of the Bath.
G.C.H. Knight Grand' Cross of Hanover.
G.C.M.G. Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and Pt George.
G. C.S.I. Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India.
H.RH. His (or Her) Royal Highness.
J. P. J'istice of the Peace.
J. U. D. (Juris utriusque Dodo/), Doctor of Civil and Canou I.»w.
K. C.S.I. Knight Commander of the Star of India.
K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath.
K. G. Knight of the GarUr.
K. P. Knight of St Patrick.
K.T. Knight of the Thistle.
L.A.n. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' HalL
L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice.
LL. B. (Z^gum Baccalawreus), Baclftlor of Laws.
LL. D. {Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws.
LL. M. {Legum Magistcr), Master of Laws.
L. R. C. P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians,
L. R. C. S. Licentiate of the Royal College of .Surgeons.
L. S. A. Licentiate of the Apothecaries Society.
W.A. Master of Arts.
M. B. {Medicince Baccaiaurcus), Bachelor of Medicine.
M. C. Member of Congress.
M.D. {Mcdicina Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.
M. P. Member of Parliament.
M. R. C. P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians.
.\I. R.I.A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
Mus. B. . Bachelor of Music.
* An archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes Iv
his surname the name of his see ; thus the prelates of Canterbury, York,
0 tford, London, &c. , subscribe themselves A. 0. Cantuar.,, W. Eber.
J. F. Cion., J. London. i:c.
ABBKEVIATION'
29
bar.
bus.
c
acre.
barrel.
busheL
cent.
c. (or cub.) ft &c cubic foot,
&c.
htrndredweight.
{d€narizis), penny.
degree.
dra^bm or aram.
pennyweighi,
iranc.
florin.
foot.
furlong.
galloa
grain-
h. 01' hr. hour,
hbd. hothead,
in. iucn.
kilo, kilometre.
cwl
d.
deg.
dr.
dwt
f.
fl.
ft.
fur.
gaL
miuim.
month.
nail-
ounce,
peck.
pole.
pint.
{guadra7is)f farthing.
quarter.
quart,
ro. rood."
Rs. ' rupees.
&. or / {solidua), shilling.
3. or sec. second.
sc. or scr. scruple,
sq. f*- &c. square foot, &c,
St. stone,
yd- yard.
Mufl. D. Doctor of Musits.
N.P, Notary Public.
P.C. Vxivy Councillor.
Ph.D. {PhilosophicB Doctor), Doctor of Phiio3<^hy.
P.P. Parish Priest.
P.R.A. President of the Eoval Academy.
Q.CX Queen's Counsel.
R, {Hex, Regina), King, Queem
JLA- Royal Academician. Royal Artillery.
R.A.M Royal Academy of Music.
R.E. Royal Enginesra.
Reg. Prof. Regius Professor.
R.M. Royal Marines.
R.N. Royal Navy.
S. or St. Saint.
8.S.C. Solicitor before the Supreme Courts [of Scotland].
S.T.P. {Sacrosanci(K Theologice Professor)^ Profesror of Sacred
Theology.
V.C. Vice-Chancellor. " ictoria Cross.
V.G. Vicar-Generak
V.S. Veterinary Surgeon. |
W.S. Writer to the Signet fin Scotland]. Equivalent to Attortwy.
2. Abbreviations denoting Monies, Weights, and
Measuees : — ^
L. , * £,' or Z. {libra), pound
(money),
lb. or lb. ^libra), pound (weight),
m. o^ mi. mile ; minute.
m-
mo
na.
oz.
pk.
ro.
pi.
q>
qr.
qt.
3. Miscellaneous ABBEEviATiONa,
A. Accepted.
A.C. {Ante Christum), Before Christ.
Eicc., &/c., or acct. Account.
A. D. {Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.
A. E.I.O.U. Austrise est imperare orbi universo.'w Alles Erdreh'h
1st Oesterreich Uuterthan.
SLi. or iEtat. {^tatia [anno]). In the year of his age.
A.H. {Anvj) Eegirce)^ In the year of the Hefnra (the Mohammedan
era).
A. M. (-471710 Mutidi), In the year of the world.
A.M. {Ante meridiem), Forenoon.
Anon. Anonymous.
A.U.C I Anno urbis condilft), m the year from the building of tlie
city (i.ff., Rome.)
B.C. Before Christ.
C. or Cap. {Caput), Chapter.
C. Centigrade {or Celsius's) Thermoraecor.
cent* {Ce)itum), A hundred, //-cf/tttrnf/j/ £100.
Ct {Confer), Compare.
Ch- or Chap. Chapter.
Co. Company, County,
Cr. Creditor,
ciu-t. Current, the present month.
D.G. {Dei gratia), By the grace of God-
Do. Ditto, the same.
D.O.M. {Deo Oj)tiTno Maximo), To God the Besi and Greatest
Dr. Debtor.
D. V. {Deo /oolnite)t God will in £^.
* Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same way ;
e.g., ° ' " for "degrees, minutes, seconds," (circular meaaure); 5i 3' ^
for "ounces, drachms, scruples." ^ ^ probably to be traced to the
written form of the x in "oz."
' TlicKC forms (as well as $, the symbol for the American dollar) arc
placed before their amounts.
* It is fjiwn to Avstna to rule the whole earth. The device of
Austria, first adopted by Frederick IIT.
* " Per cent" is often u^^nifiod by 7oi a 'orm traceable to " 100."
e. g. (Exempli gratia). For example.
ect. cr &c. {£t ccttera), And the rest ; and bo forth.
Ex, Example.
F. or Fahr. Fahrenheit's Thermometet
Fe^ {Fecit) f He- made {or did) it
fl. Flourished-
Fo. or FoL Folio.
f.o.b. Free on board.
G.P.O, General Post Office .
H.M.S. Her Majesty's Ship.
lb, or Ibid. {Ibidem), In the same Mlace,
Id. {Id^n), The same.
i, e. (Id est). That is.
I. U.S. Ijesiis Hominum Salvator), Jogua the Saviour of mon,
Inl {Infra), Below.
inst Instant, the present month,
I.O. U. I owe you.
i.q. (Idem quod). The same as.
K.T.x. (kk) vac XeiTtc), M ccElcra, and the rest,
L. or Lib. {LiberS. Book
Lat Latitude.
Lc. {Loco citato). In the place cited.
Lon. *r Long. Lon^^tude.
L.S. {Locu^ sigilU), The piace of the seal.
Mem. {McTTUiito), Remember, Memorandum, ■
MS. Manuscript. MSS. Manuscript;!.
N.B. {N'ota bene). Mack well ; take notice.
N.B. North Britain (i.c, Sc/-*-'""d^
N.D. No date.
nem, con. {Kemiru^ corUradicente\ No one contradicting.
No. {Nuviero), Number.
N.S.' NewSiyle.
N.T, New Testament
ob. {OUit), Died,
Ob3, Obsolete
I). H.M.S. On Her Majesty's Service.
O.S. Old Style.
O.T. Old Testament
P. Page. Pp. Pa^es.
^. {Per), For ; e.g., ^ lb.. For one pound-
Pinx. iPinxit), He painted it.
P.M. {Post meridiem), Afternoon.
P.O. Post Office. P. 0.0. Post Office Older.
P. P.C. {Pour prendre congi). To take leave.
P.R. Pri2e-ring.
pros. (Proximo [mense]), Next montli,
P. S. Postscript
Pt Part.
p.t or pro. tern. {Pro tempore). For the time.
P. T.O. Please turn over.
Q., Qu., or Qy. Query ; Question.
q.d. {Quasi dicat), Aa if he should say ; as much as to say.
Q.E.D. {Quod erat demoTistrandiim), which was to bo denionstrateil,
Q.£.F. (Quod erat faciendiim), which was to be done.
q.s. or quant Buff. {Quantum sujicit), As much as is sufficient
q.v. {Quod vide), 'Which see.
R. or R. {Recipe), Take.
v' (= r. for radix), the sign of the square root
R.I.P. (Rcquiescat in pace I), May be rest in peace I
8C. {Scilicet), Namely ; that is to say.
Sc. or Sculp. (Sculpsit), He engraved it.
S.D. U.K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
"Seq. or sq., seqq. or sqq. {Sequens, sequcntia). The following.
8. p. {Sine prole). Without offspring.
S.P.G. Society for the Propagation oi the Gosnol.
Sup. {Supra), Above.
S.V. {Sub voce). Under the word {or heading;,
T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
nit {Ultimo [m^isc^ Last month.
U.S. United States.
V, ( Versus), Again^ .,
V. or vid. ( Fide)^^ce.
viz, { Videliccl)^ amoly,
V. R, ( Victoria Regina), Victoria the Queen.
Xmas. Christmas [TAw X is a Greek letter, corresponding (o Ch]
(See Grocvius*8 TJiesanrus Antiquitatnm, 1694, eqq.;
Nicolai's Tractatus dc Siglis Veterum ; Mominsen'a Corpus
Inscriptionum Laiinarvm, 1863, sqq.; Natalis de Waillys
Paleographie, Paris, 1838; Alph, Chassant's Faliopraphie,
,1£54, and Dictionnaire des Abrcmation^, 3d ed., 1866. A
manual of the abbreviations in current use is a desideratum. )
ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the Papal
Chancery, whose business is to sketch, out and prepare in
due form the Pope's bulls, briefs, and conaistorial decreea
30
A B D — A B D
'I'hey are first mentioned in a bull of Benedict XIL, early
iu the 14th century. Their number ia fixed at seventy-
two, of whom twelve, distinguished as de parco mitjori, hold
prelatic rank ; twenty-two, de parco minori, are clergymen of
lower rank; and the remainder, <j;amtn<j<orM, may be laymen.
ABDALLATIF, or Abd-ui^Latif, a celebrated physician
and traveller, and one of the most voluminoas writers of
the East, was born at Baghdad in 1162. An interesting
memoir of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been pre-
served \rith additions by Ibn-Abu-Osiiba, a contcmporar)'.'
From that work wo learn that the higher education of the
youth of Baghdad consisted principally in a minute and
careful study of the rules and princijiles of grammar, and
in their committing to memorj' the whole of the Koran, a
treatise or two on philology and jurisprudence, and the
choicest Arabian poetry. After attaining to great pro-
ficiency in that kind of learning, Abdallatif applied him-
oelf to natural philosophy and medicine. To enjoy the
society of the learned, he went fii-st to Mosul (1189), and
afterwards to Damascus, the great resort of the eminent
men of that age. The chemical fooleries that engrossed
the attention of some of these had no attraction for hiin,
but he entered with eagerness into speculative discussions.
With letters of recommendation from Saladin's vizier, he
visited Egj-pt, where the wish ho had long cherished to
•converse with Maimonides, " the Eagle of the Doctors,"
was gratified. He afterwards formed one of the circle of
learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at Jeru-
salem, and shared in the great sultan's favours. He taught
medicine and philosophy at Cairo and at Damascus for a
number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at
Aleppo. His love of travel led him in his old age to visit
different parts of Armenia and Asia Jlinor, and he was
sotting out on a pilgrimage to Mecca when he died at
Baghdad in 1231. Abdallatif was undoubtedly a man of
great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating
mind, but is said to have been somewhat vain of his attain-
ments. Of the numerous works — most of them on medi-
cine— which Osaiba ascribes to him, one only, the Acrount
of E;iypt; appears to be known in Europe. The manuscript
of this work, which was di.scovcrcd by Pococke the Orien-
talist, Ls preserved in the Bodleian Library. It w.is trans-
lated into Latin by Professor White of Oxford in 1800, and
into French, with very valuable notes, by De Sacy in 1310
It consists of two parts : the first gives a general view of
Egypt ; the second treats of the Nile, and contains a vivid
description of a famine caused, during the author's residence
in Eg)'pt, by the river failing to overflow its banks. The
-work gives an authentic detailed account of the state of
Egypt during the middle ages.
AED-EL-KADER, celebrated for his brave resistance to
the advance of the French in Algeria, was born near
Mascara, in the early part of the year 1807. His father
was a man of great influence among his countrymen from
his high rank and learning, and Abd-el-Kader himself at
an early age acquired a wide reputation for wisdom and
piety, as well as for skill in horsemanship and other manly
exercises. In 1831 he was chosen Emir of Mascara, and
leader of the combined tribes in their attempt to check the
growing power of the French in Africa. His efforts were
at first successful, and in 1834 he concluded a treaty with
the French general, which was very favourable to his cause.
This treaty was broken in the succeeding year; but as the
war that followed was mainly in favour of the Arabs, peace
was renewed in 1837. War again broke out in 1839,
and for more than a year was carried on in a very
desultory manner. In 1841, however, Marshal Bugciud
assumed the chief command of the French force, which
numbered nearly 100,000 men. The -war was now
^earned on with great vigour, and Abd-el-Kader, after a
most determined resistance, surrendered himself to the
Due d'Aumale, on the 22d December 1847. The promise,
that he would be allowed to retire to Alexandria or St
Jean d'Acre, upon the faith of which Abd-el-Kader had
given himself up, was broken by the French government
He was taken to France, and was iniprisoncd fjst in the
castle of Pan, and afterwards in th.it of Ainboi.se. In 1852
Louis Napoleon gave him his liberty on condition of hu not
returning to Algeria. Since ther he resided successively at
Broussa, Constantinople, and Damascus. He is reported
to have died at Mecca in October 1873. See Algeria.
ABDERA (1.), in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of
Thrace, eastward from the mouth of the river Nestua.
Mytholog)' a-ssigns the founding of the town to Hercules ;
but Herodotus states that it was first colonised by Timesias
of ClazomeniB, whom the Thracians in a short time expelled.
Rather more than a century later (b.c. 541), the people of
Seos recolonised Abdcra, The town soon became one of
considerable importance, and in B.C. 408, when it was re-
duced by Thrasybulus the Athenian, it is described as in a
very flourishing condition. Its prosperity was greatly im-
paired by its disastrous war with the Triballi (circa B.C
370), and very little b heard of it thereafter. The
Abderitie, or Abderitani, were proverbial for their want of
w it and judgment ; yet their city gave birth to several
eminent persons, as Protagoras, Democritus, and Anaxarchus
the philosophers, Hecataeus the historian, Nicsenetua the
poet, and others.
ABDERA (2.), a town in Hispania Saeiiea, founded by
the Carthaginians, on the south coast, between ilalata and
Prom. Charidemi. It is probably represented by the
modem Adra.
ABDICATION, the act whereby a person in office
renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the
time for which it is held. The word is seldom used except
in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state.
Despotic sovereigns are at liberty to divest themselves pi
their powers at any time, but it is otherwise with a limited
monarchy. The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully
abdicated unless with the consent of the two Houses of Par-
liament. Wnen James IL, after throwing the Great Seal
into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not formally
resign the crown, and the question was discussed in Parlia-
ment whether be had forfeited the throne or had abdicated.
The latter designation was agreed on, for in a full assembly
of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was re-
solved, in spite of James's protest, " that King James II.
having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the king-
dom, by breaking the original contract between king and
people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons,
having violated the fundamental laws, and having with-
drawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the
government, and that the throne is thereby vacant" The
Scotch Parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and
deposition. Among the most memorable abdications of
antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, b.c.
79, and that of the Emperor Diocletian, a.d. 305. The follow-
ing is a list of the more important abdications of lat<ir times ; —
&r>
Benedict IX.. Pope, ....... 1046
Stephen II. of Hungary , . . . 1131
Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg, . . .1169
Ladislaus HI., Duke of Poland, . . . . 1207
John Balliol of Scotland. ..... 1295
John Cantacu^ene, Emperor of the E.ist, . . . 1355
John XXIII , Pope H15
E.nc VII. of Denmark and XIII. of Swivlen, . . . 143S>
Amnrath II., Ottoman Emperor, . . U4landl44)^
Charles v.. Emperor,. ...... 155f.
Christina of Sweden. ....... 165*
John Casimir of Poland, . . ... ]66f>
James II. of England. lC3h
Frcd'^rick Acpistus of Pobrd 17Ci
A B D — A B E
31
rhilip v. of Spain, . .
1724
Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia, . , . . .
17^0
Aclitnet III., Ottomau Emperor, . . .
i7ao
<"'liarles of Naples (on accession
to throne of Siiaini,
1759
Stanislaus 11. of Toland,
1795
Cljarles Emanuel IV. of Sardiii
i I . . . June
4,
1S02
Charles IV. of Spain,
Jlar.
19,
1S08
Joseph Bonaparte of Naples,
June
«>
ISOS
'GusUTOs IV. of Sweden,
Jlar.
29,
1S09
Ix>ui3 Bonaoarte of Holland,
July
2,
1810
iXapoleon of France,
. April 4, 13H, and June
22
1S15
Victor Emanuel of Sardinia,
Jlar.
is'.
1S21
Charles X. of Fi-ance
Aug.
2
1330
Pedro of Brazil.' .
, . April
T
1331
Don Jliguel of Portugal,
May
28^
1834
v.- ...am I. of HoUand,
Oct.
7,
1840
Louis Philippe of France,
Feb.
24,
1843
lAfUis Charles of Bavaria,
Jlar.
21,
1848
Ferdinand of Austria, .
Dec
2
1S48
•- Charles Albert of Sardinia,
Jlar.
23]
1849
.Leopold 11. of Tuscany,
July
21,
1809
.Isabella 11. of Spain,
June
25,
1870
. Amadeus I. of Spain,
Feb.
11
1873
ABDOMEN, in Anatomy, the lower part of the trunk of
■■ the body, situated between the thorax and the peh-is. See
Anatomy.
ABDOMINALES, or Abdominal Fishls, a sub-division
.of the ilalacopterj-gious Order, whose ventral fins are placid
■ behind the pectorals, under the abdomen. The typical
.abdominals are carp, salmon, herring, silures, and pike.
ABDUCTIOX, a law term denoting the forcible or
fraudulent removal of a person, limited by custom to the
£ase where a woman is the victim. In the case of men or
.children, it has been usual to substitute the terra Kid-
napping (q.v.) The old severe laws against abduction,
generally contemplating its object as the possession of an
heiress and her fortune, have been repealed by 24 and 25
Vict. c. 100, s. 53, which makes it felony for any one from
motives of lucre to take away or detain against her will,
■ -with intent to many or carnally know her, <tc., any woman
. of any .age who has any interest in any real or personal
.estate, or is an heiress presumptive, or co-heiress, or pre-
;.smnptive next of kin to any one having such an interest ;
or for any one to cause such a woman to %e married or
. carnally known by any other person ; or for any one with
:3uch intent to allure, take away, or detain any such woman
nnder the age of twenty-one, out of the possession and against
-.the will of her parents or guardians. By 3. 5 4, forcible taking
away or detention against her will of any woman of any age
■with like intent is felony. Even without such intent, abduc-
■tion of any unmarried girl under the age of sixteen is a
misdemeanour. In Scotland, where there is no statutory
adju3tn;ent, abduction is similarly dealt with by practice.
ABDUL MEDJID, Sultan of Turkey, the thirty-first
sovereign of the house of Othman, was born April 23,
1823, and succeeded his father Mahmoud IL on the 2d
• of July 1839. Mahmoud appears to have been unable
to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating
his children, so that his son received no better education
than that given, according to use and wont, to Turkish
princes in the harem. When Abdul Medjid succeeded to
the throne, the affairs of Turkey were in an extremely
. critical state. At the very time his father died, the news
was on its way to Constantinople that the Turkish aiiuy
;Jiad been signally defeated at Nisib by that of the rebel
Egyptian viceroy, Mehemet Ali; and the Turkish fleet was
;at the same time on its way to Egypt, to be surrendered
perfidiously by its commander to the same enemy. But
through the inter^'ention of the gfeat European powers,
Mehemet Ali was obliged to come to terms, and the Otto-
man empire was saved. In compliance with his father's
Pedro had succeeded to the throne nf Portugal in 1826, but ;
<eil U pt dDce \a lavour cf hia daughter.
express mstructions, Abdul Medjid set at once about carry-
ing out the extensive reforms to which Jlahmoud had so
energetically devoted himself. In November 1839 was
proclaimed an edict, known as the Hatti-sherif of Gulhanc,
consolidating and enforcing these reforms, which was
supplemented, at the close of the Crimean war, by a
similar statute, issued in February 1S56. By these enact-
ments it was provided that all classes of the sultan's sub-
jects should have security for their lives and property ;
that taxes should be fairly imposed and justice impartially
administered ; and that all should have full rehgious
liberty and equal civil rights. The scheme was regarded
as so revolutionary by the aristocracy and the educated
classes (the Ulema) that it met with keen opposition, and
was in consequence but partially put in force,' especially in
the remoter parts of the empire ; and more than one con-
spiracy was formed against the sultan's life on account of
it. Of the other measures of reform promoted by Abdul
Medjid the more important were-^the reorganisation of the
army (1843-4), the institution of a council of public in-
struction (1846), the abolition of an odious and unfairly
imposed capitation tax, the repression of slave trading, and
various provisions for the better administration of the public
service and for the advancement of commerce. The pubMc
history of his times — the disturbances and insurrections in
different parts of his dominions throughout his reign, and
the great war successfully carried on against Russia by
Turkey, and by England, France, and Sardinia, in the
interest of Turkey (1853-56) — can be merely alluded to
in this personal notice. When Kossuth and others sought
refuge in Turkey, after the failure of the Hungarian rising
in 1849, the sultan was called on by Austria and Russia to
surrender them, but boldly and determinedly refused. It
is to his credit, too, that he would not allow the con-
spirators against his own life to be put to death. He bore
the character of being a kind and honourable man.
Against , this, however, must be set down his excessive
extravagance, especially towards the end of his life. He
died on the 25th of June 1861, and was succeeded, not by
one of his sons, but by his brother, Abdul Aziz, the present
sultan, as the oldest survivor of the family of Othman.
A BECKET, Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury and
hancellor of England in the 12th century, was born in
London on the 21st of December 1118. His father,
Gilbert Becket, and his mother Koesa or Matilda, were
both, there can be httle doubt, of Norman extraction, if
indeed they themselves were not immigrants from Normandy
to Englani Gilbert Becket, a merchant, and at one time
Sheriff of London, a man of generous impulses and son:o-
what lavish hospitality, provided for his only child Thomas
all the attainable advantages of influential society and a
good education. At ten years of age Thomas was placed
under the tuition of the canons regular of Merton on the
Wandle in Surrey. From Merton he proceeded to study m
the London schools, then in high repute. At Pevensey
Castle, the seat of his father's friend Richer de I'Aigle, one
of the great barons of England, he subsequently became a
proficient in all the feats and graces of chivalry. From
Pevensey he betook himself to the study of theology in the
Univeisity of ParLs. He never became a scholar, much
less a theologian, like Wolsey, or even like some of the
learned ecclesiastics of his own day ; but his intellect was
vigorous and original, and his manners captivating to his
associates and popular with the multitude. His father's
failure in business recalled him to London, and for three
years he acted as a clerk in a la\\-)er's office. But a man
so variously accomplished could not fail to stumble on
preferment sooner or later. Accordingly, about 1142,
Archdeacon Baldwin, a learned civilian, a friend of tbo
elder Becket. introduced hira to Theobald, Aichbiihop of
32
A B b: (' K E T
Cauterbury, who ut onco appuinted liim to an oflice iu the
Arcliiepiijcopal Court. His talents epocdily raised liiui to
llio ardideacoiiry of the sea A Bcckot's tact in assistijig
10 thwart an attempt to interest the Pope in favour of the
coronation of Stephen's son Eustace, paved the way to the
archdeacon's elevation to the Chancellorship of England
under Henry II., a diqnityto which he was raised in 1155.
As he had served Theobald the archbishop, so he served
Henry the king faithfully and well. It was his nature to
be loyal Enthusiastic partisanship is, in fact, the key to
much that is otller^vise inexplicable in his subsequent con-
duct towards Henry. When at a later period A Beckot was
raised to the primacy of England, a dignity not of his own
seeking, he must needs quarrel with Henry in the interest
of the Pope and " for the honour of God." As Chancellor of
England ho appeared iu the war of Toulouse at the head of
the chivalry of England, and " who can recount," says his
attendant and panegyrist Grim, " the carnage, the desolation
he made at the head of a strong body of soldiers 1 lie
attacked castles, and razed towns nnd cities to the ground ;
he burned down houses and farms, and never showed the
slightest touch of pity to any ojo who rose in insurrection
against his master. In single coinbal ho vanquished and
made prisoner the valiant Knight Engelram de Trie. Xor
did A Bccket the chancellor seek to quell Henry's secular foes
alone. He was the able mouthpiece of the Crown in its
contention with the Bishop of Chichester, who had alleged
that the permission of the Pope was necessary to the con-
tarring or taking away of ecclesiastical benefices ; and he
rigorously exacted sculage, a military tax in lieu of personal
service in the field, from the clergy, who accused him of
" plunging a sword into the bosom of his mother the
church." His pomp and .munificence as chancellor were
beyond precedent In 1159 he undfertook, at Henry's
request, an embassy to the French Court for the purpose
of affiancing the king's eldest son to the daughter of the
king of France. His progress through the country was
like a triumphal procession. " How wonderful must be
the king of England himself whose chancellor travels in
such state I" was on every one's hps. In 11S2 he was
elected Archbishop of Canterbury, Gilbert Foliot, Bishop
of Herford, alone dissenting, and remarking sarcastically,
at the termination of the ceremony, that " the king had
worked a miracle in having that day turned a laj-mau into
an archbishop and a soldier into a saint." Hitherto A
Bccket had only been in deacon's orders, and had made no
profession of sanctity of life. At the same time, there is
nothing to show that his character was stained by the gross
licentiousness of the times. Now, however, he devoted
himself body and soul to the service of the churcL The
fastidious courtier was at once transformed into the squahd
penitent, who wore hair-cloth next his skin, fed on Toots,
drank nauseous water, and daily washed the feet of thirteen
beggars. Henry, who hod expected to see the archbishop
completely sunk in .the chancellor, was amazed to receive
the follonijig laconic message from A Becket: — " I desire
that you will provide yourself with another chancellor, as
I find myself hardly sufficient for the duties of one office,
much less of two." From that moment there was strife
between A Becket and Henry, A Bccket straining every
nerve to extend the authority of the Pope, and Henry
doing his utmost to subject the church to his own will
Throughout the bitter struggle for supremacy which ensued
between A Becket and the king, A Becket was backed by
the sympathy of the Saxon populace, Henry by the support
of the Norman barons and by the greater dignitaries of the
church. At the outset A Becket was wotgted. He was
constrained to take an oath, "with good faith and without
fraud or reserve, to observe the Constitutions of Claren-
don." which «ubjecteJ clerlis guilty of crime to the ordinary
civil tribunals, put ecclesiastical dignities at ths royal dia
posal, prevented all appeals to Rome, and made Henry ths
virtual "head of the church." For lus guilty cojiplianco
with these anti-pajial constitutions he received the special
pardon and absolution of hia holiness, and {.rcKjecded to
anathematise them with the energy of a genuine remorse.
The king resolved on his ruin. He was summoned before
a great council at Northampton, and in defiance of jnstic*
was called on to account for the sum of 44,000 marka
declared to have been misappropriated by him during hia
chancellorship. " For what happened before my consecrar
tion," Eaid A Becket, " I ought not to answer, nor will L
Know, moreover, that ye are my children in God ; neither
law nor reason allows you to judge your father. I refe^niy
quarrel to the decision of the Pope. To him I appcJ, and
shall now, under the protection of the Catholic Church and
the Apostolic See, depart" He effected his escape to France,
and took refuge in the Cistercian monastery of Pontigny,
whence he repeatedly anathematised his enemies in
England, and hesitated not to speak of Henry as a " mali-
cious tyrant" Pope Alexander IIL, though at heart a
warm supporter of Becket, was guarded in his conduct
towards Henry, who had shown a disposition to support tha
anti-pope Pascal III., and it was not tiU the Archbishop of
York, in defiance of a pa'::'! cidl, had usurped the functions
of the exiled primate by officiating at the coronation of
Henry's son, that Alexander became really formidable. A
Becket was now resolute for martyrdom or victory. Henry
began to tremble, and an interview between him and Eockel
was arranged to take place at Fereitville in 1170. It was
agreed that A Becket should return to his see, and that tha
king should discharge his debts and defray the expenses of
his journey. A Becket proceeded to the coast, but the king,
who had promised to meet him, broke his engagement ia
every particular. A Becket, in retaliation, excoramumcated
the Archbishop of York and the Bishops of London and
Salisbury for officiating at the coronation of the king's son.
The terrified prelates took refuge in Normandy with Henry,
who, on hearing their tale, accompanied by an account of
A Becket's splendid reception at Canterbury, exclaimed io
ungovernable fury, " Of the cowards who eat my bread, ia
there not one who will free me from this turbulent priest t "
Four knights, Fitzurse, Tracy, Morville, and Brito, resolved
to avenge their sovereign, who it appears was ignorant of
their intention. They arrived in Canterbury, and finding
the archbishop, threatened him with death if he would not
absolve the excommunicated bishops. ■' In vain," replied
A Becket, " you threaten me. If all the swords in England
were brandishing over my head, your terrors could not move
rae. Foot to foot you will find me fighting the battle of tha
Lord. " He was barbarously murdered in tlie great cathedral,
at the foot of the altar of St Benedict, on the 29th Decem-
ber 1170. Two years thereafter he was canonised by the
Pope ; and down to the Reformation innumerable pilgiim-
ages were made to the shrine of St Thomas of Cauterbury
by devotees from everj' comer of Christendom. So numerous
were the miracles wrought at his tomb, that Gervase ol
Canterbury tells us two large volumes kept in the cathedral
were filled with accounts of them. Every fiftieth year ^
jubdeo was celebrated in his honour, which lasted fifteen
days ; plenary indulgences were then granted to all who
visited his tomb; and as many as 100,000 pilgrims were
registered at a tima in Canterbury. The worship of St
Thomas superseded the adoration of God, and even that of
the Virgin. In one year there was offered at God's altar
nothing; at that of the Virgin .£4, Is. 8d.; while St
Thomas received for his share £954, 6s. 3d. — an enormous
sum, if the purchasing power of money in those times be
considered. Henry VIII., with a just if somewhat ludi-
crous appreciation of the i;:$ue which A Ectifit liad raLcJ .
A B E — A L E
33
•with his royal predecessor Henry H, not only piliaged the
rich shrine dedicated to St Thomas, but caused the saint
hiaiself to be cited to appear in court, and to be tried and
condemned as a traitor, at the same time ordering his name
to be struck out of the calendar, and his bones to be burned
and the ashes thrown in the air. A Becket's character and
nimii have been the subject of the keenest ecclesiastical and
historic controversy doivn to the present time, but it is im-
possible to doubt the fundamental sincerity of the one or
the disinterestedness of the other, however inconsistent his
actions may sometimes appear. If the fruit of the Spirit
be " love, joy, peace, long-sulfering, gentleness, goodness,
"faith, meekness, and temperance," A Becket was assuredly
not a saint, for he indulged to the last in the bitterest
invectives against his foes ; but that he fought with
admirable courage and devotion the " battle of the Lord,"
according to the warlike ideas of an age with which he was
in intense sympathj', is bej-ond dispute. He was the
leading Ultramontane of his day, hesitating not to reprove
the Pope himself for lukewarmness in the cause of the
" church's Kberty." He was the last of the great ecclesiastics
of the type of Lanfranc and Anselm, who struggled for
supremacy with the civil power in England on almost equal
terms. In his day the secular stream was running very
strong, and he might as chancellor have noated down the
current pleasantly enough, governing England in Henry's
name. He nevertheless perished in a chivalrous effort tu
■stem the torrent. The tendency of his principles was
to supersede a civil by a spiritual despotism ; " but, in
point of fact," says Hook, in his valuable Life, "he was
a high-principled, high-spmted demagogue, who. taught
the people to struggle for their liberties," a struggle
soon to commence, and of which he was by no means
an impotent if an unconscious precursor. — See Dr Giles's
Vita et EpistolcB S. Hiomce Carduariensis ; Canon ^Morris's
Life of St Thomas Becket ; Canon Robertson's Life of
Becket ; Canon Stanley's Historical Memorials of Canter-
hury ; J. G. Nichoi's PityrtTnagfs of Walsincfkcm and
Canterbury ; Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of Canter-
bury; and Lord Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors of
England.
A'BECKETT, Gilbert Abbott, a successful cultivator
Ci light literature, was born in London in 1811, and educated
at Westminster School. He wrote burlesque dramas with
success from his boyhood, took an active share in the
establishment of ditferent comic periodicals, particularly
Figaro in London and Punch, and vias a constant contributor
. to the columns of the latter from its commencement till the
time of his death. His principal publications, all over-
flowing with kindly humour, and rich in quaint fancies,
are his parodies of li\'ing dramatists (himself included),
reprinted from Punch (1844) ; The Small Debts Act, with
Annotations and Explanations (1845) ; The Quizziology of
the British Drama and The Comic Blachslone (1846); A
Comic History of England (1847) ; and A Comic History of
Home (1852). He contributed occasionally, too, to the
Times and other metropolitan papers. A'Beckett was
called to the bar in 1841, and from 1S49 discharged with
great efficiency the duties of a metropolitan police magis-
trate. He died at Boulogne on the 30th of August
1856.
ABEL C'^,^, breath, vanity, transitoriness), the second
eon of Adam, slain by Cain his elder brother (Gen. iv
1-16). The narrative in Genesis, which tells us that "the
Lord had respect unto Abel and to his offering, but unto
Cain and to his offering he had not respect," is supplemented
by the statement of the New Testament, that " by faith
Abel offered unto God a more excellent sacrifice than Cain,"
(Heb. XL 4), and that Cain slew Abel "because his orm
works vere evil and hia brother's righteous " (1 John ill. 1 2).
In patristic theology the striking contrast between the
brothers was mystically explained and typically applied in
various ways. Augustine, for example, regards Abel as
the representative of the regenerate or spiritual man, and
Cain as the representative of the -natural or corrupt man.
Augustine in his treatise De H<sresibus, c. 86, mentions a
sect of Abelitae or AbeUans, who seem to have lived in
North Africa, and chiefly in the neighbourhood of Hippo-
Regius. According to their tradition, Abel, though married,
lived in continence, and they followed his practice in this
respect, so as to avoid the guilt of bringing sinful creatui'es
into the world.
ABEL, Karl Feiedkich (1726-1787), a cele'orated Ger-
man musician. His adagio compositions have been highly
praised, but he attained greater distinction as a performer
than as a composer, his instrument being the Viola digamhu,
which from his time has given place to the violoncello.
He studied under Sebastian Bach, played for ten years
(1748-58) in the band formed at Dresden by the Elector
of Saxony, under Hasse, and then, proceeding to England,
became (I'TSQ) chamber-musician to the queen of George III.
His life was shortened by habits of intemperance.
ABEL, Niels HenkiIj, one of the ablest and acutest
mathematicians of" modern times, was born at Findoe in
Norway in 1802, and died near Arendal in 1829. Con-
sidering the shortness of his life, the extent and thorough-
ness of his mathematical investigations and analyses are
marvellous. His great powers of generalisation were dis-
played in a remarkable degree in his development of the
theory of elliptic functions. Legendre's eulogy of Abel,
" Quelle tete celle du jeune Nori-egien ! " is the more forcible,
that the French mathematician had occupied himself with
those functions for most of his Kfettme. Abel's works,
edited by M. Holmboe, the professor under whom he studied
at Christiania, were published by the Swedish government
in 1839.
ABEL, Thomas, a Roman Catholic diiine during the
reicn of Henry VIII., was an Englishman, but when or
where born does not appear. He was educated at Oxford,
where he passed B.A. on 4th Jidy 1513, M.A on 27th
June 1516, and proceeded D.D. On 23d June 1530 le
was presented by Queen Catherine to the reciory of Brad-
well in Essex, on the sea-coast. He had been introduced
to the court through the report of his learning in classical
and hving languages, and accomplishments in music ; and
he was appointed domestic chaplain to Queen Catherine.
_It speaks well both for the chaplain and his royal mistress,
that to the last he dafended the outraged queen against
"bluff King Hal." The Defence, " Invicta Veritas," was
printed at Luneberge in 1532. This pungent Mttle book
was replied to, but never answered, and remains the
defence on Queen Catherine's part. Abel was ensnared, as
greater men were, in the prophetic delusions and ratings of
Elizabeth Barton, called the " Holy Maid of Kent." As
belonging to the Church of Rome, he inevitably opposed
Henry VIII.'s assumption of supremacy in the church.
Ultimately he was tried and condemned for " misprision
of treason," and perished in the usual cruel and ignoble
way. The execution, as described, took place at Smith-
lleld on July 30, 1540. If we may not concede the vene-
rable and holy name of martyr to Abel — and John Fo.\c
is passionate in his refusal of it — yet we must hold that
he at least fell a victim to Ids unsparing defence of hia
qvieen and friend, the "misprision of treason" having
been a foregone conclusion. In stat. 25, Henry VIII., c.
12, he is described as having "caused to be printed
and set forth in this realme diverse books against the
divorce and separation." Neither the Tractatua nor the
"diverse books" are known. — Dodd, Church HL-ln-g,
Brussels, 1737, folio, voL L p. 208; Bourchier, Ui<i. JL'ccl.
i — S
34
A B E L A R D
de ilart'jr. Fratr. minor. (Ingolst. l.").S.".); Pitta, De
Uluilr. Angl. Scrip.; Tinner's BMiotheca IIibemico-Britan-
uica, p. i. ; Zurich, Oriijinal Ltltert relativf to the English
nfformation (Parker Society, pt. iL pp. 209-211 1816);
Foxes Acts and Monuments (Cattley'e, voL v. pp. 438-440);
Burnet, Soames, Biog. Brit.; Wood's Atli^iux (Bli.s«), s. v.;
Stow, Chron. p. 581. (a. a o.)
ABELARD, Peteb, born at Pallet (Palais), not far
from Nantes, lu 1079, was the eldest son of a noblo Breton
house. The name Ahcela>dm (also written Abailardus,
Abaielardm, and in many other ways) is said to lio a cor-
rujition of I/aMardus, substituted by himself for a nick-
uauie Bajolardus given to him when a student. As a
boy, he showed an extraordinary quickness of apprehen-
sion, and, choosing a learned life instead of the active
career natural to a youth of his birth, early became an
adept in the art of dialectic, under which name philosophy,
meaning at that time chiefly the logic of Aristotle trans-
mitted through Latin channels, was the great subject of
liberal stuc'y in the episcopal schools. Roscellin, the
famous canon of Compi^gne, is mentioned by himself as
his teacher ; but v/hether he heard this champion of
extreme Nominalism in early youth, when he wandered
about from school to school for instruction and eiercise,
or some years later, after he had already begun to teach
for himself, remains uncertain. His wanderings finally
brought him to Paris, still under the age of twenty. There,
in the great cathedral school of Notre-Dame, he sat for a
while under the teaching of WUIiam of Champeaiix, the
disciple of St Ansohn and most advanced of Realists, but,
presently stepping forward, he overcame the master in
discussion, and thus began a long duel that issued in
the downfall of the philosophic theory of Realism, tUl then
dominant in the early Middle Age. First, in the teeth of
opposition from the metropolitan teacher, he proceeded to
set up a school of his own at Melun, whence, for more
direct competition, he removed to Corbeil, n,earer Paris.
Tlie success of his teaching was signal, though for a time
he had to quit the field, the strain proving too great for
his physical strength. On his return, after 1 108, he found
William lecturing no longer at Notre-Dame, but in a
monastic retreat outside th'e city, and there battle was
again joined between them. Forcing upon the Realist a
material change of doctrine, he was once more victorious,
and thenceforth he stood supreme. His discomfited rival
stiU had pov.er to keep him from lecturing in Paris, but
soon failed in this last effort also. From llelun, where he
had resumed teaching, Abelard passed to the cipital, and
set up his school on the heights of St Genevieve, looking
over Notre-Dame. When he had increased his distinc-
tion still further by winning reputation in the theological
school of Anselm of Laon, no other conquest remained for
him. He stepped into the chair at Notre-Dame, being also
nominated canon, about the year 1115.
Few teachers ever held such sway as Abelard new
did for a time. Distinguished in figure and manners, he
was seen surrounded by crowds — it is said thousands — of
students, drawn from all countries by the fame of his
teaching, in which acuteness of thought was relieved by
simplicity and grace of exposition. Enriched by the offer-
ings of his pupils, and feasted with universal admiration,
he came, as he says, to think himself the only philosopher
standing in the world. But a change in his fortunes
was at hand. In his devotion to science, he had hitherto
lived a very regular life, Yaried only by the excitement of
conflict: now, at the height of his fame, other passions
began to stir within him. There lived at that time,
within the precincts of Notre-Dame, under the care of her
uncle, the canon Fulbert, a young girl named Heloise, of
noble extraction and born about 1101. Fiir, but still
more remarkable f<5i her knowledge, which extended beyond
Latin, it is said, to Greek and Hebrew, she aw.^ka a feel-
ing of love in the breast of Abelard; and with intent tu
win her, he sought and gained a footing in FiUbert's house
as a regular inmate. Becoming also tutor to the maiden,
be used the unlimited power which he thus obtained over
her for the purpo.so of seduction, though not without
cherishing a real affection which she returned in unparallilc<l
devotion. Their relation interfering with his public work,
and being, moreover, ostentatiously sung by lumself, soon
became known to all the world except the too-confiding
FuIbcrt; and, when at last it could not escape even his
vision, they were separated only to meet in secret. There-
upon Heloise found herself pregnant, and was carried off
by her lover to Brittany, where she gave biilh to a »on.
To appease her furious uncle, Abelard now proposed a
marriage, under the condition that it should be kept
secret, in order not to mar his prospects of advancement in
the church; but of marriage, whether public or secret,
Heloise would hear nothing. She appealed to him not to
sacrifice for her the independence of his life, nor did she
finally yield to the arrangement without the darkest fore-
bodings, only too soon to be realised. The secret of the
man-lage was not kept by Fulbert; and when Heloise, true
to her singular purpose, boldly then denied it, life was
made so unsupportable to her that she sought refuge in the
convent of Argenteuih Immediately Fulbert, believing
that her husband, who aided in the flight, designed to be
rid of her, conceived a dire revenge. He and some others
broke into Abelard's chamber by night, and, taking him
defenceless, perpetrated on him the most brutal mutilation.
Thus cast down from his pinnacle of greatness into an
abyss of shame and misery, there was left to the brilliant
master only the life of a monk. Heloise, not yet twenty,
consummated her work of self-sacrifice at the call of his
jealous love, and took the veil.
It was in the Abbey of St Denis that Abelard, now
aged forty, sought to bury himself with his woes out of
sight. Finding, however, in the cloister neither calm nor
solitude, and having gradually turned again to study, ho
j-ielded after a year to urgent entreaties from without and
within, and went forth to reopen his school at the Priory
of Maisoncelle (1120). His lectures, now framed in a
devotional spirit, were heard again by crowds of students,
and all his old influence seemed to have returned ; but old
enmities were revived also, against which he was no longer
able as before to make head. No sooner had he put ill
writing his theological lectures (apparently the Introductio .
ad Tluologiam that has come down to us), than his adver-
saries fell foul of Iiis rationalistic interpretation of the
Trinitarian dogma. Charging him with the heresy of
Sabellius in a provincial synod held at Soissons in 1121,
they procured hy irregular practices a condemnation of his
teaching, whereby he was made to throw his book into the
flames, and then was r.hut up in the convtnt of St lledaro.
•■Uter the other, it was the bitterest possible exper'ence
that could befall him, nor, in the state of mental dtsola-
tion into which it plunged him, could he find any coafort
from beiii^ soon again set' free. The life in his twn
monastery proving no more congenial than formerly, he
fled from it in secret, and only waited for permission to
live away from St Denis before he chose the one lot that
suited his present mood. In a desert phice near Nogent-
sur-Seine, he built himself a cabin of stubble and reeds,
and turned hermit. But there fortune came back to him
with a new surprise. His retreat becoming known, students
flocked from Paris, and covered the wilderness around him
with their tents and huts. A\"hen he began to teach agaia,
he found consolation, and in gratitude he consecrated the
new oratory they built lor him by the name of the Paraclet«
A B E — A B E
35
Upon tne return of new dangers, or at least of fears,
Abelard left the Paraclete to make trial of another refuge,
accepting an invitation to preside over the Abbey of St
Gildas-de-Rhuys, on the far-off shore of Lower Brittany.
It proved a wretched exchange. The region was inhospit-
able, the domain a prey to lawless exaction, the house itself
savage and disorderly. Yet for nearly ten years he con-
tinued to struggle with fate before he fled from his charge,
yielding in the end only under peril of violent death.^ The
misery of those years was not, however, unrelieved ; for he
had been able, on the breaking-up of Heloise's convent at
Argenteuil, to establish her as head of a new religious
house' at the deserted Pajaclcte, and in the capacity of
spiritual director he often was called to revisit th? spot
thus made doubly dear to him. All this time Heloise had
lived amid universal esteem for her knowledge and character,
uttering no word under the doom that had fallen upon her
youth ; but now, at last, the occasion came for expressing all
the pent-up emotions of her souL Living on for some time
in Brittany after his flight from St Gddas, Abelard wrote,
among other things,- his famous Historia Calamitcttum,
and thus moved her to pen her first Letter, which remains
an unsurpassed utterance of human passion and womanly
devotion ; the first being followed by the two other Letters, in
which she finally accepted the part of resignation which,
now as a brother to a sister, Abelard commended to her.
He not long after was seen once more npon the field of
his early triumphs, lecturing on Mount St Genevieve in
1136 (when he was heard by John of Salisbury), but it
was only for a brief space : no new triumph, but 'a last
great trial, awaited him in the few years to come of his
chequered life. As far back as the Paraclete days, he
had counted as chief among his foes Bernard of Claii-vaux,
in whom was incarnated the principle of fervent and
unhesitating faith, from which rational inquiry ■ like his
was sheer revolt, and now this uncompromising spirit was
moving, at the instance of others, to crush the growing evil
in the person of the boldest offender. After preliminary
negotiations, in which Bernard was roused by Abelard's
steadfastness to put forth all his strength, a council met
at Sens, before which Abelard, formally arraigned upon a
number of heretical charges, was prepared to plead his
cause. When, however, Bernard, not without foregone
terror in the prospect of meeting the redoubtable dialec-
tician, had opened the case, suddenly Abelard appealed
to Rome. The stroke availed him nothing; for Bernard,
who had power, notwithstanding, to get a condemnation
passed at the councO, did not rest a moment till a second
condemnation was procured at Rome in the following year.
Meanwhile, on his way thither to urge his plea in person,
Abelard had broken down at the Abbey of Cluni, and there,
an utterly iaDen man, with spirit of the humblest, and
only not bereft of his intellectual force, he lingered but a
few months before the approach of death. Removed by
friendly hands,' for the relief of his sufferings, to the
Priory of St 'Marcel, he died on the 21st, of April 1143.
First buried at St Marcel, his remains soon after .were
carried off in secrecy to the Paraclete, and given over to
the loving care of Heloise, who in time came herself to
rest beside them. The bones of the pair were shifted
more than once afterwards, but they were marvellously
preserved even through the vicissitudes of the French
Revolution, and now they lie united in' the well-known
tomb at PJ're-Lachaise.
Great as was the influcnco exerted by Abelard on the
minds of his contemporaries and the course of medifeval
thought, he has been little known in modern times but
for his connection with Heloise. Indeed, it was not till
the present century, when Couisin in 183G issued the
collection entitled Oum-ages vddits d'Ahdard, that his
philosophical performance coold be judged at fif4t hand:
of hi? strictly philosophical works only one, the ethical
treatise Scito te ipsum, having been published earlier,
namely, in 1721. Cousin's collection, besides giving ex-
tracts from the theological work Sic et Non (an assemblage
of opposite opinions on doctrinal points, culled from the
Fathers as a basis for discussion), includes the Lialeciica,
commentaries on logical works of Aristotle, Porphyry, and
Boethius, and a fragment. Lie Generihus et Speciebus. The
last-named wOrk, and also the psychological treatise De
Intellectib'os, published apart by Cousin (in Fraginnni
Philosophiques, vol. ii.), are now considered upon internal
evidence not to be by Abelard himself, but only to have
sprung out of his school. A genuine work, the Glossula
super Porphyrium, from which M. de Rimusat, in hi'j
classical monograph Abelard (1&45^, has given extracts.
remains in manuscript.
The general importanoo of Abelard lies in his having
fixed more decisively than any one before him the
scholastic manner of philosophising, with its object of
giving a formally rational expression to the received
ecclesiastical doctrine. However his own particular inter-
pretations may have been condemned, they were conceived
in essentially the same spirit as the general scheme of
thought afterwards elaborated in the 13th century with
approval from the heads of the church. Through him'
was prepared in the Middle Age the ascendency of the
philosophical authority of Aristotle, which became firfflly
established in the half-century after his death, when first
the completed Organon, and gradually a"ll the other works
of the Greek thinker, came to be known in the schools :
before his time it was rather upon the authority of Plato
that the prevailing Reali.sm sought to lean. As regards
the central question of Universals, without having sufii-
cient knowledge of Aristotle's views, Abelard yet, in
taking middle ground between the extra-t-agant Realism of
his master, William of Champeaux, or of St Anselm, and
the not less extravagant Nominalism (as we have it
reported)- of his other master, RosceUin, touched at more
than one point the Aristotelian position. Along v/ith
Aristotle, also with Nominalists generally, he ascribed f'lll
reality only to the particular concretes ; whUe, in^opposi-
tion to the " insana sententia " of Roscellin, he declared
the Universal to be no mere word (vox), but to consist, or
(perhaps we may say) emerge, in the fact of predication
{sermo). Lying in the middle between Realism and
(extreme) Nominalism, this doctrine has often been spoken
of as ConceptuaJism, but ignorantly so. Abelard, pre-
eminently a logician, did- not concern himself , with the
psychological question which the Conceptuahst aims at
deciding as to the mental subsistence of the Universal.
Outside of his dialectic, it was in ethics that Abelard
showed greatest activity of philosophical thought ; laying
very particular stress upon the subjective intention as
determining, if not the moral character, at least the moral
value, of human action. His thought in this directio:;,
wherein he anticipated something of modern speculatior,
is the more remarkable because his scholastic successsis
accomplished least in the field of morals, hardly venturing to
bring the principles and rcles of conduct under pure plSlo-
sophicat discussion, even after the great ethical inquries of
Aristotle became fully known to them. (o. c. E.)
ABENCERRAGES, a family or faction that is said i^
have held a prominent position in the Moorish kingdora
of Granada in the 15th century.' The name appears to hare
been derived from the Yussuf ben-Serragh, , the head of
the tribe in the time of Mahommed VII., who did, that
sovereign good service in his struggles to retain tho
crown of which he was three times aeprived. ^'•Nothing
ia known of the.family^with certainty; but. the* name ia
B6
A B E — A B E
familiar from the interesting romance of Qines Perez de
Hita, Guerrai cwilet de Oranada, which celebrates the
feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the
ijegtis, and the cruel treatment to which the former were
Bubjected. Florian's Gontalm of Cordova, and Chateau-
briand's Last of the Ahmcerrages, are imitations of Perez
de Hita's work. The hall of the Aboncerragoa iu the
/Vlhambra takes its name from being the reputed scene of
the massacre of the family.
ABENEZRA, or Ibn Ezra, is the name ordinarily given
to AsnAliAM BEN Meik BEN EzRA (called also Abenare or
Svenare), one of the most eminent of the Jewish literati
of the Middle Ages. He was born at Toledo about 1090; left
Spain for Rome about 1140; resided afterwards at Mantua
(1145), at Lucca (1154), at Rhodes (1155 and 1166), and
in England (1159) ; and died probably in 1168. He was
distinguishcQ as a philosopher, astronomer, physician, and
poet, but especially as a grammarian and commentator.
The works by which ho is best known form a series of Com-
mentaries on the books of the Old Testament, which have
nearly all been printed in the great Rabbinic Biblca of
Bomberg (1525-6), Buxtorf (1618-9), and Frankfurter
(1724-7). Abenezra's commentaries are acknowledged to
be of very great value ; he was the first who raised biblical
exegesis to the rank of a science, interpreting the^text
•according to its literal sense, and Ulustrating it from cognate
languages. His style is elegant, but is so concise as to be
sometimes obscure ; and he occasionally indulges in epigram.
la addition to the commentaries, he wrote several treatises
on astronomy or astrology, and a number of grammatical
works.
ABENSBERQ, a smalltown of Bavaria, 18 miles S.W.
of Regensburg, containing 1300 inhabitants. Here Kapo-
leon gained an important victory over the ^^Austrians on
the 20th of April 1809. The town is the Abusina of the
Romans, end ancient ruins exist in its neighbourhood.
ABERAVON, a parliamentary and municipal borough
of Wales, in the county of Glamorgan, beautifully situated
on the Avon, near its mouth, 8 miles east of Swansea.
The town and adjacent villages have increased rapidly
in recent years, from the extension of the mines of coal and
iron in the vicinity, and the establishment of extensive
works for the smelting of tin, copper, and zinc. The
harbour, Port Talbot, has been much improved, and has
good docks ; and there is regular steam communication
with Bristol Ores for the smelting furnaces are imported
from Cornwall, and copper, tin, and coal are exported.
Aberavon unites with Swansea, Kenfigg, Loughor, and
Neath, in returning a member to Parliament. In 1871 the
population of the parish was 3396, of the parliamentary
borough, 11,006.
ABERC07WAY. See Conway.
ABERCROMBIE, John, an eminent physician of Edin-
burgh, was the son of the Rev. George Abercrombie of
Aberdeen, in which city ha was born in 1781. Aiter
cttanding the Grammar School and Marischal College,
Aberdeen, he commenced his medical studies at Edinburgh
in 1800, and obtained his degree of M.D. there in 1803.
Soon afterwards he went to London, and for about a year
gave dUigent attention to the medical practice and lectures
in St George's Hospital In 1804 he returned to Edin-
burgh, became a Fellow of the College of Surgeons, and
commenced as general practitioner in that city ; where, in
dispensary and private practice, he hvid the foundation of
that character for sagacity as an observer of disease, and
judgment in its treatment, that eventually elevated him to
the head of his profession. In 1823, be became a Licen-
tiate of the College of Physicians; in 1824, a Fellow of
that body; and from the death of Dr Gregory in 1822,
he was considered the first physician in Scotland. Aber-
crombie early began the laudable practice of preserving
accurate notes of the cases that fell under his care ; and at
a period when pathological anatomy was far too little
regarded by practitioners in this country, he had the
merit of sedulously pursuing it, and collecting a mass of
most important information regarding the changes pro-
duced by disease on different organs ; bo that, before the
year 1824, he had more extended experience, and more
correct views in this interesting field, than most of his
contemporaries engaged in extensive practic& From 181C
he occasionally enriched the pages of the Edinbui-yk
Medical and Surgical Journal with essays, that disphiy
originality and industry, particularly those " on the diseases
of the spinal cord and brain," and " on diseases of the
intestinal canal, of the pancreas, and spleen." The first
of these formed the basis of his great and very original
work. Pathological and Practical Jiesearchet on Diseases
of the Brain and Spinal Cord, which appeared at Edin-
burgh in 1828. In the same year he published also
another very valuable work, his Researches on the Liteaset
of the Intestinal Canal, Liver, and other Viscera of tlie
Abdomen. Though his professional practice was very
extensive and lucrative, he fonnd time for other specula-
tions and occupations. In 1830 he published his Inquiries
concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man and t/ie Investi-
gation of Truth, a woik which, though less original and
profound than his medical speculations, contains a popular
view of an interesting subject, expressed in simple language.
It was followed in 1833 by a sequel. The Philosophy of
the Moral Feelings, the object of which, as stated in the
preface, was " to divest the subject of all improbable
speculations," and to show " the important relation which
subsists between the science of mind and the doctrines of
revealed religion." Both works have been very extensively
read, reaching the 18th and, 14th editions respectively in
1869. Soon after the publication of Moral Peelings, the
University of Oxford conferred on the author the honorary
degree of Doctor of Medicine, and in 1835 he was elected
Lord Rector of Marischal College, Aberdeen. Dr Aber-
crombie was much beloved by his numerous friends for
the suavity and kindness of his manners, and was uni-
versally esteemed for his benevolence and unaffected piety.
He died on the 14th of November 1844 of a very uncom-
mon disease, the bursting (from softening of the musculai
substance) of the coronary vessels of the heart.
ABERCROMBY, Dattd, M.D. This Scottish physi-
cian was sufficiently noteworthy half a century after his
(probable) decease to have his ^^ova Medicines Praxis
reprinted at Paris in 1740; while during his lifetime his
Tuta ac efficax luis venerew scepe absque mercurio ac semper
absque salivatione mercuriali curando mcthodus (1684, 8vo)
was translated into German and published at Dresden in
1703 (8vo). In 1685 were published De Pulsus Varin-
tione (London; Paris, 1688, 12mo), and Ars explorandi
medicos facultates plantarum ex solo sap. (London). His
Opuscula were collected in 1687. These professional
writings gave him a place and memorial in Bailer's Biblio^
theca Medicinoe Pract. (4 vols. 8vo, 1779, torn, iii, p. 619);
but he claims passing remembrance rather aa a meta^
physician by his remarkable controversial books in theo"
bgy and philosophy. Formerly a Roman Catholic and
Jesuit, he abjured Popery, and published Protestancy
proved Safer than Popery (London, 1686). But by far
the most noticeable of his productions is A Discourse
of Wit (London, 1685). This treatise somehow has fallen
out of sight — much as old coined gold gets hidden away
— so that bibliographers do not seem to have met with
it, and assign it at hap-hazard to Patrick Abercromby,
M.D. ■ Notwithstanding, the most cursory examinatioq
of it proves that in this Discourse of Wit are contained
A B E — A B E
some of the most characteristic and most definitely-put
metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy of com-
mon sense. Of this early metaphysician nothing biographi-
cally has come down save that he was a Scotchman
("Scotus") — bom at Seaton. He was living early in the
iSth century. (HaUer, as fupra; Lawrence Charteris's
M.S., s. V.) So recently as 1833 was printed A Short
Account of Scots Divines by him, edited by James Maidment,
Edinburgh. (a. b. g.)
ABERCROMBT, James, Lord Dunfermline, third son
of the celebrated Sir Ralph Aberpromby; was bom on the
7th Nov. 1776. Educated for the profession of the law,
he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1801, but he
was prevented from engaging to any considerable extent in
general practice by accepting appointments, first as commis-
sioner in bankruptcy, and subsequently, ag steward of the
estates of the Duke of Devonshire. He commenced his
political career in 1807, when he was elected member of
Parliament for the borough of Midhurst. His sympathies
with the small and struggling Opposition had already been
declared, and he at once attached himseU to the Whig
party, with which he consistently acted throughout life.
Li 1812 he waa returned for Calne, which he continued to
represent until his elevation to the Scotch bench in 1830.
During this lengthened period he rendered conspicuous and
valuable services to his party and the country. In Scotch
affairs he took, as was natural, a deep interest; and, by
introducing, on two separate occasions, a motion for the
redress of a special glaring abuse, he undoubtedly gave a
strong impulse to the growing desire for a general reform.
In 1824, and again in 1826, he presented a petition from
the inhabitants of Edinburgh, and followed it up by a
motion " for leave to bring in a Bill for the more etfectual
representation of the city of Edinburgh in the Commons
House of Parliament." The motion was twice rejected,
but by such narrow majorities as showed that the monopoly
of the self-elected Council of thirty -three was doomed. In
1827, on the accession of the Whigs to power under Mr
Canning, Abercromby received the appointment of Judge-
Advocate-General and Privy Counsellor. In 1830 he was
raised to the judicial bench as Chief Baron of the Exche-
quer in Scotland. The oflSce was abolished in 1832; and
almost contemporaneously, Edinburgh, newly enfranchised,
was called to return two members to the first reformed
Parliament. As the election marked the commencement
of a new political era, the honoiu' to be conferred possessed
a peculiar value, and the choice of the citizens fell most
appropriately on Francis Jeffrey and James Abercromby,
two of the foremost of those to whom they were indebted
for their hard- won privileges. In 1834 Mr Abercromby
obtained a seat in the cabinet of Lord Grey as Master of
the Mint. On the assembling of the new Parliament in
1835, the election of a speaker gave occasion for the first
trial of strength between the Refo.rm party and the followers
of Sir Robert Peel. After a memorable division, in which
more members voted than had ever before been known,
Abercromby was elected by 316 votes, to 310 recorded for
Manners-Sutton. The choice was amply justified, not only
by the urbanity, impartiality, and firmness with which
Abercromby discharged the public duties of the chair, but
also by the important reforms he introduced in regard to
the conduct of private business. In 1839 he resigned the
office, and received the customary honour of a peerage, with
the title of Lord Dunfermline. The evening of his life was
passed in retirement at Colinton, near Edinburgh, where he
died Ion the 17th April 1858. The courage and sagacity
which marked his entire conduct as a Liberal were never
more conspicuous than when, towards the close of his life,
he availed himself of an opportunity of practically asserting
his cherished doctrine of absolute religious equality. The
important part he took in, originating and supportmg the
United Industrial School in Edinburgh for ragged children,
irrespective of their religious belief, deserves to be grate-
fully acknowledged and remembered, even by those who
took the opposite side in the controversy which arose with
regard to it. *
ABERCROMBY, Patrick, M.D., was the third son of
Alexander Abercromby of Fetterneir in Aberdeenshire, and
brother of Francis Abercromby, who was treated by Jamea
II. Lord Glasford. He was born at Forfar in 1656. A3
throughout Scotland, he could have had there the benefits ot
a good parish school ; but it would seem from after events
that his family was Roman Catholic, and hence, in all pro-
bability, his education was private. This, and not the un-
proved charge of perversion from Protestantism in subser-
viency to James II., explains his Roman Catholicism and
adhesion to the fortunes of that king. But, intending to
become a doctor of medicine, he entered the University of
St Andrews, where he took his degree of M.D. in 1685.
From a statement in one of his preface-epistles to his mag-
num opus, the Martial Achievements of the Scats N'ation,
he must have spent most of his youthful years abroad.
If has been stated that he attended the Univei-sity of
Paris. The Discourse of Wit (1G85), assigned to him,
belongs to Dr David Abercromby, a contemporary. On his
return to Scotland, he is found practising as a physician in
Edinburgh, where, besides his professional duties, he gavR
himself with characteristic zeal to the study of antiquities,
a study to which he owes it that his name still lives, for
he finds no place in either HaUer or Hutchison's Medical
Biographies. He was out-and-out a Scot of the old patriotic
type, and, living as he did during the agitations for the
union of England and Scotland, he took part in the war
of pamphlets inaugurated and sustained by prominent
men on both sides of the Border. He crossed swords
with no less redoubtable a foe than Daniel Defoe in his
Advantages of the Act of Security, compared with those of
the intended Union (Edinburgh, 1707), and A Vindication
of ttu Same against Mr De Foe {ibid.) The logic and
reason were with Defoe, but there was a sentiment in the
advocates of independence which was not suiBciently
allowed for in the clamour of debate ; and, besides, the
disadvantages of union were near, hard, and actual, the
advantages remote, and contingent on many things and
persons. Union wore the look to men like Abercromby
and Lord Belhaven of absorption, if not extinction. Aber-
cromby was appointed physician to James II., but the Re-
volution deprived him of the post. Crawford (in his Peer-
age, 1716) ascribes the title of Lord Glasford to an intended
recognition of ancestral loyalty; its bestowment in 1685
corresponding with the younger brother's graduation as
M.D., may perhaps explain his appointment A minor
literary work of Abercromby's was a translation of M.
Beague's partizan History (so called) of the War carried on
by the Popish Government of Cardinal Beaton, aided by the
French, against the English under the Protector Somerset,
which appeared in 1707. The work with which Aber-
cromby's name is permanently associated is his already
noticed Martial Achievements of tlie Scots Nation, issued in
two noble folios, vol. i. 1711, vol. il 1716. In the title-
page and preface to voL i he disclaims the ambition of
being an historian, but in vol. ii., in title-page and preface
alike, he is no longer a simple biographer, but an historian.
That Dr Abercromby did not usethe word "genuine history"
in his title-page without warrant is clear on every page of
his largo work. Granted that, read in tho light of after
researches, much of the first volume must necessarily be
relegated to the region of the mythical, none the less was
the historian a laborious and accomplished reader and inves-
tigator of all available authorities, as well manuscript aa
38
A B E — A B E
printed ; wkilc the roll of names of iLose tvIio aided liini
includes every :iuiu of note in Scotland at the time, from
Sir Thomas Craig and Sir George Mackenzie to Mr Alex-
ander Niabet and ilr 'fliomaa Kuddimau. The Martial
Achievemtntt has not been reprinted, though practically
the first example of Scottish typography in any way
noticeable, vol. ii. having been printed under the scholarly
supervision of Thomas Ruddiman. The date of his death
is uncertain. It has been variously assigned to 1V15,
1716, 1720, and 172G, and it is uAially added that he left
a widow in great poverty. That he was living in 1710 is
certain, as Crawford speaks of him (in his Peerage, 17 10)
13 "my worthy friend." Probably he died about 1710.
Mfmuirs o/ the Ahercromhi/s, commonly given to Lim, does
not appear to have been published. (Chambers's Eminent
Scolsiiifn, «. v.; Anderson's Scottish Nation, t. v.; Chalmers's
Diog. Diet., ». v.; Chalmers's Life of Rvddiman; Haller's
Bibliotheca Medicina: Pract., 4 vols. 4to, 1779; Hutchin-
son's Diog. Medical, 2 vols. 8vo, 1799; Lce'a Defoe, 3 vob.
8vo.) (a. b. g.)
ABERCROMBT, Sib Ralph, K.B., Lieutenant-General
in the British army, was the eldest son of George Aber-
cromby of Tullibody, Clackjnannanshire, and was born in
October 1734. After passing some time at an excellent
school at Alloa, he went to Rugby, and in 1752-53 he
attended classes in Edinburgh University. In 1754 he was
sent to Lcipsic to study civil law, with a view to his pro-
ceding to the Scotch bar, of which it is worthy of notice
that both his grandfather and his father lived to be the
oldest members. On returning from the Continent he
expressed a strong preference for the military profession,
and r\ cornet's commission was accordingly obtained for
Kim (March 175G) in the 3d Dragoon Guards. lie rose
through the intermediate gradations to the rank of lieu-
tenant-colonel of the regiment (1773), and in 1781 he
became colonel of the 103d infantry. When that regiment
was disbanded in 1783 he retired upon half-pay. That
up to this time ho had scarcely been engaged in active
service, was owing mainly to his disapproval of the policy
of the Government, and especially to his sympathies with
the American colonists in their struggles for independence ;
and his retirement is no doubt to be ascribed to similar
feelings. But on Franc* declaring war against England
in 1793, he hastened to resume his professional dutiesj
and, being esteemed one of the ablest and most intrepid
officers in the whole British forces, he was appointed to
the command of a brigade under the Duke of York, for
service in Holland. He commanded the advanced guard
in the action on the heights of Cateau, and was wounded
at Nimeguen. The duty fell to him of protecting the
British army in its disastrous retreat out of Holland, in
the wrinter of 1794-5. In 1795 he received the honour of
knighthood, the Order of the Bath being conferred on him
in acknowledgment of his services. The same year he
was appointed to succeed Sir Charles Grey, as commander-
in-chief of the British forces in the West Indies. In 1796,
Grenada was suddenly attacked and taken by a detach-
ment of the army under his orders. He afterwards
o'otained possession of the settlements of Demerara and
Essequibo, in Souih America, and of the islands of St
Lucia, St Vincent, and Trinidad. He returned in 1797
to Europe, and, in reward for his important services, was
appointed to the command of the regiment of Scots Greys,
intrusted with the govemnients of the Isle of Wight, Fort
George, and Fort Augustus, and raised to the rank of lieu-
tenant-general He held, in 1797-8, the chief command
of the forces in Ireland. There he laboured to maintain
the discipline of the army, to suppress the rising rebellion,
and to protect the people from military oppression, with a
care worthy alike of a gre.it general and an enlightened
and beneficent statesman. Wlien he was appointed to the
command in Ireland, an invasion of that country by the
French was confidently anticipated by the Engli^h
Government Ho used his utmost efforts to restore the
discipline of an army that was utterly disorganised; and.-
aa a firet step, he anxiously endeavoured to protect the
people, by re-establishing the supremacy of the ci^Hl power,
and not allowing the military to be called out, except when
it was indispensably necessary for the enforcement of the
hiw and the maintenance of order. Finding that he received
no adequate support from the head of the Irish Govern-
ment, and that all his efforts were opposed and thwarted
by those who presided in the councils of Ireland, he resigned
the command. Hia departure from Ireland was dieuly
lamented by the reflecting portion of the people, and was
sjwedily followed by tho.so disastrous results whicft he had
anticipated, and which he so ardently desired and had so
wisely endeavoured to prevent. After holding for a short
period the office of Commander-in-Chief in Scotland, Sir
l\alph, when the enterprise against Holland was resolved
upon in 1799, was again called to command under the
Duke of York. The difficulties of the ground, the incle-
mency of the season, unavoidable delays, the disorderly
movements of the Russians, and the timid duplicity of the
Dutch, defeated the objects of that expedition. But it
was confessed by the Dutch, the French, and the British
alike, that even victory the most decisive could not
have more conspicuously proved the talents of this distin-
guished officer. His country applauded the choice, when,
in 1801, he was sent with an army to dispossess the
French of Egypt. His experience in Holland and the
West Indies particularly fitted him for this new command,
as was proved by his carrj-ing his army in health, in spirits,
and with the requisite supplies, in spite of very great diflS-
culties, to the destined scene of action. The debarkation
of the troops at Aboukir, in the face of an opposing force,
is justly ranked among the most daring and brilliant
exploits of the English army. A battle in the neighbour-
hood of Alexandria (March 21, 1801) was the sequel of
this successful landing, and it was Sir R. Abercromby's
fate to faD in the moment of victory. He was struck by
a spent ball, which could not be extracted, and died seven
days after the battle. The Duke of York paid a just
tribute to the great soldier's memory in the general order
issued on the occasion of his death : — " His steady observ-
ance of discipline, his ever-watchful attention to the
health and wants of his troops, the persevering and un-
conquerable spirit which marked his military career, the
splendour of his actions in the field, and the heroism of
his death, are worthy the imitation of all who desire, like
him, a Hfe of heroism and a death of glory." By a vote
of the House of Commons, a monument was erected in
honour of Sir Ralph Abercromby in St Paul's CathedraL
His widow was created a peeress, and a pension of j£2000
a year was settled on her and her two successors in the
title. It may be mentioned that Abercromby was returned,
after a keen contest, as member of Parliament for his
native county of Clackmannanshire in 1773; but a |»rlia-
mentary life had no attractions, for him, and he did not
seek re-election. A memoir of the later years of his life
(1793-1801), by his son. Lord Dunfermline, was published
in 1861.
ABERDARE, a town of 'Wales, in the county of
Glamorgan, on the right bank of the river Cynon, four
miles S.W. of MerthjT-Tydvil llie district around is
rich in valuable mineral products, and coal and iron
mining are very extensively carried on in the neighbour-
hood. Important tin-worki?, too, have been recently
opened. Part of the coal is used at the iron-works, and
large quantities are sent to Cardiif for exportation. Aber-
ABERDEE"N
39
dare JS connected with the coast by canal and railway.
Owing to the great development of the coal and iron
trade, it has rauidiy increased from a mere village to a
large and flourishing town. Handsome churches, banks,
and hotels have been erected, a good supply of water has
been introduced, and a public park has been opened.
Two markets are held weekly. The whole parish falls
within the parliamentary borough of Merthyr-Tj;dvil.
The rapid growth of its population is seen by the fol-
lowing tigures : in 1841 the number of inhabitants was
6471 ; in 1851. 14,999 ; in 1861, 32,299; and in 1871,
37,774.
ABERDEEN, a royal burgh and city, the chief part .of a
parliamentary burgh, the capital bi the county of Aberdeen,
the chief seaport in the north of Scotland, and the fourth
Scottish town in population, industry, and wealth. It lies
in lat. 57° 9' N. and" long. 2° 6' W., on the German Ocean,
near the mouth of the river Dee, and is 542 miles north
of London, and 111 miles north of Edinburgh, by the
shortest railway routes.
ABERDEEN
ta^^^^^^SiSF-^ : ' "^ ^\S ^ A \ ■ ) "
Aberdeen, probably the Devana on the Diva of Ptolemy,
was an important place in the 1 2th century. "William the
Lion had a residence in the city, to which he gave a char-
ter in 1179, confirming the corporate rights granted by
David I. - The city received many subsequent royal
charters. It was burned by Edward III. in 1336,' but
it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New Aber-
deen. The houses were of timber and thatched, and
many such existed till 1741. 'The burgh records are the
oldest of any Scottish burgh. They begin in 1398, and are
complete to the present time, with only a short break.
Extracts from them, extending from 1398 to i570, have
been published by the Spalding Club. For many centuries
the city was subject to attacks by the barons of the sur-
rounding districts, and its avenues and sLx ports had to
be guarded. The ports had all been removed by 1770.
Several monasteries c^cistcd in Aberdeen before the Re-
furmation. "Most of the Scottish sovereigns jifiitcJ the
city and received gifts from the authorities. In 1497 a
blockhouse was built at the harbour mouth as a protection
against the English. During the religious struggle in the
1 7th century between the Royalists and Covenanters the
city was plundered by both parties. In 1715 Earl
Marischal proclaimed the Pretender at Aberdeeru In 1745
the Duke of Cumberland resided a shoit time in the city.
In the middle of the 18th century boys were kidnapped
in Aberdeen, and sent as slaves to America. In 1817 the
city became insolvent, with a debt of £225,710, contracted
by public improvements, but the debt was soon paid off.
The motto on the city arms is Bon- Accord. It formed the
watchword of the Aberdonians while aiding King Robert
the Bruce in his battles with the English.
Of eminent men connected with Aberdeen, New and
Old, may be mentioned — John Barbour, Hector Boece or
Boethius, Bishop Elphinstone, the Earls Marischal ; George
Jamesone, the famous portrait painter ; Edward Raban, the
first printer fn Aberdeen, 1622 ; Rev. Andrew Cant,
the Covenantor ; David Anderson (Davie do a' thing), a
mechanic ; James Gregory, inventor of the reflecting
telescope ; Dr Thomas Reid, the metaphysician ; Dr George
Campbell, Principal of Marischal Qollege, author of several
important works, and 'best known by his Philosophy o/
Rhetoric; Dr James Beattie ; Lord ' Byron ; Sir James
Mackintosh; Robert HaU • Dr P- Hamilton,' who wrote on
the National Debt.
Till 1800 the city siood on a few eminences, and had
steep, narrow, and crooked streets, but,, since the Improve-
ment Act of that year, the whole aspect of the place has
been altered by the formation of two new spacious and
nearly level streets (Union Street and King Street, meet-
ing in Castle Street), and by the subsequent laj-ing out of
many others, besides squares, 'terraces, «fec., on nearly flat
ground.- The city is above eight miles in ciixuit, and is
built on sand, gravel, and boulder clay. The highest parts
are from 90 to 170 feet above the sea. The chief thorough-
fare is Union Street, nearly a mile long and 70 feet broad.
It runs "W.S.'W. from Castle Street, and crosses the Den-
b'urn, now the railway valley, by a noble granite arch 132
feet in span and 50 feet high, whichj^ost. .with a -hidden
arch'on each side, j£13,000.
Aberdeen is now a capaciou.ij'^elegant, and well-built 'Public
town, and fron^the material employed, consisting chiefly of .Buildtncsi
light grey native granite, is called . the " granite city.";
It contains many fine public buildings. The principal of
these is Marischal College or University Buddings, which
stands on the site of a pre-Reformation Franciscan Convent,
and was rebuilt, 1836-1841, at a cost of about £30,000.
It forms three sides of a court, which is 117 by 1 05 feet,
and has a back wing, and a tower 100^ feet high. Thf
accommodation consists of twenty-five large class-rooms ana
.laboratories, a hall, library, museums, &c.
The University of Aberdeen was formedby the' union
and incorporation, in 1860, by Act of Parliament, of the
University and King's College of Aberdeen, founded in Old
Aberdeen, in 1494, by William Elphinstone, Bishop of
Aberdeen, under the authoritj' of a Papal bull obtained by
James I'V., and of the Marischal College and University of
Aberdeen, founded in New Aberdeen, ia 1593, by George
Keith, Earl JIarischal, by a charter ratified by Act of Par-
liament. _ The officials consist of a chancellor, with rector
and principal; there. are 21 professors and 8 assistanta
Arts and divinity are taught in King's College, and medicine,
natural history, and law in Marischal College. The arts
session lasts from the end of October to the beginning
of April. The arts curriculum of four years, with gradua-
tion, costs £36, lis. There are 214 arts bursaries, 29
divinity, and 1 medical, of the aggregate annual value of
£3646, £650, and £26, respectively. About CO art»
40
ABERDEEN
bursaries, mostly from £10 to £35 in vaiue, are given
yearly by competition, or by presentation and examination.
Two-tliinla of the arts studcDts are bursars. Seventeen
annual scholarships and prizes of the yearly value of X758
are given at the end of the arts curriculum. The average
yearly number of arts students, in the thirteen years
since the union of the arts classes of the two colleges in
18G0, has been 3i2, while in the separate colleges together
for the nine years before the union, it was 431. In winter
session 1872-73 there were 623 matriculated students in
all the faculties. In 1872, 32 graduated in arta, 68 in
medicine, 5 in divinity, and 1 in law. The library has
above 80,000 volumes. The General Council in 1873 had
2075 registered members, who, with those of Glasgow Uni-
versity, return one member to Parliament.
The Free Church Divinity College was built in 1850,
at the cost of £2025, in the Tudor-Gothic style. It has a
Inrge hall, a library of 12,000 volumes, and 15 bursaries of
the yearly value of from £10 to £25.
At the east end of Union Street, and partly in Castie
Street, on the north side, are the now County and Muni-
cipal buildings, an imposing Vranco-Scottish Gothic pile,
225 feet long, 109 feet broad, and 64 feet high, of four
Btorics, built 1867-1873 at the cost of £80,000, including
£25,000 for the site. Its chief feature is a tower 200
feet high. It contains a great ball, 74 feet long, 35 feet
bro-id, and 50 feet high, with an open timber ceiling : a
Justiciary Court-House, 50 feet long, 37 feet broad, and
31 foot high; a Town Hall, 41 feet long, 25 feet broad,
and 15 feet high, and a main entrance corridor GO feet
long, 16 feet broad, and 24 feet high. A little to the west
is the Town and County Bank, a highly ornamented building
inside and outside, in the Italian style, costing about
£24,000.
A very complete closed public market of two floors was
built in 1842, at a cost of £28,000, by a company incor-
porated by Act of Parliament. The upper floor or great
hall is 315 feet long, lOo feet broad, and 45 feet high,
with galleries all round. The lower floor is not so high.
The floors contain numerous small shops for the sale of
meat, fowls, fish, &c., besides stalls and seats for the sale
of vegetables, butter, eggs, <fec. The galleries contain small
shops for the sale of drapery, hardware, fancy goods, and
books. On the upper floor is a fountain of polished Peter-
head granite, costing £200, with a basin 7J feet diameter,
cut out of one block of stone. Connected with this under-
taking was the laying out of Market Street from Union
Street to the quay. At the foot of this street is being built
in the Italian style the new post and telegraph office, at a
cost of £16,000, including £4000, the cost of the site.
It is to form a block of about 100 feet square and 40 feet
high.
Chiircliea Aberdeen has about 60 places of worship, with nearly
«°<i 48,000 sittings. There are 10 Established churches; 20
" Free, 6 Episcopalian, 6 United Presbyterian, 5 Congre-
gational, 2 Baptist, 2 Methodist, 2 Evangelical Union, 1
Unitarian, 1 of Roman Catholic, 1 of Friends, and 1 of Origi-
nal Seceders. There are also several mission chapels. In
1843 aU the Established ministers seceded, with 10,000 lay
members. The Established and Free Church denomina-
tions have each about 11,000 members in communion.
The Established West and East churches, in the centre of
the city, within St Nicholas churchyard, form a continuous
building 220 feet long, including an intervening aisle, over
which is a tower and spire 140 feet higL The West was
built in 1775 in the Italian style, and the East in 1834 in
the Gothic, each costing about £5000. They occupy the
site of the original cruciform church of St Nicholas, erected
in the I3th, 14th, and 15th centuries. One of the nice
(bells la the tower bears the date of 1352. and is 4 feet
diameter at the moiith, 3^ feet high, and very thick. Tie
Union Streiit front of the churchyard is occupied by a
very elegant granite facade, built in 1830, at the cost of
£1460. It is 147^feet long, with a central arched gateway
and entablature 32J feet high, with two attached Ionic
columns on each side. Each of the two wings ha;i sLit
Ionic columns (of single granite blocks, 15 feet 2 inches
long), with boaement and entablature, the Whole being 23J
feet high. The following are the style, cost, and date of
erection of the other principal Aberdeen churches — St An-
drew's, Episcopal, Gothic, £6000, 1817; North Church,
Established, Greek, £10,000, 1831; three churches in f.
cruciform group. Free, simple Lancet Gothic, with a fin.
brick spire 174 feet high, £5008, 1844; Roman Catholic
Gothic, £12,000, 1859; Free West, Gothic. £12.858, 1869.
with a spire 175 ftet high.
In 1873 there were in Aberdeen about 110 school*, ^i}
from 10,000 to 11,000 pupils in attendance. About 2501:
students attend the University, Mechanics' Institution, and
private schools for special branches.
Five miles south-west of Aberdeen, on the south side oi
the Dee, in Kincardineshire, is St Mary's Roman Catholic
College of Blairs, with a president and three professors.
The Aberdeen Grammar School, dating from about 1203,
is a preparatory school for the university. It haa a tectoi
and four regular masters, who teach classics, English,
arithmetic, and mathematics, for the annual fee of £4, lOs.
for each pupil. Writing, drawing, itc, are also taught.
Nearly 200 pupils attend, who enter about the ag? of
twelve. Like the Edinburgh High School, it has nj
elementary department. There are 30 bursaries. A new
granite building for the school was erected, 1861-1803,
in the Scotch baronial style, at the cost of £16,000, in-
cluding site. It is 215 feet lone and 60 feet high, and
has three towers.
The Mechanics' Institution, founded 1824, and re-
organised 1834, has a hall, class-rooms, and a library of
14,000 volumes, in a building erected in 1846, at a coist of
£3500. During the year 1872-73, there were at the School
of Science and Art 385 pupils ; and at other evening classes,
538.
Aberdeen has two native banks, besides branch banks, Ljuke. JL^
and a National Security Savings Bank ; three insurance
companies, four shipping companies, three railway com-
panies, and a good many miscellaneous companies. There
are ten licensed pawnbroking establishments, with about
440,000 pledges in the year for £96,000, and with a
capital of £27,000. There are seven incorporated trades,
originating between 1398 and 1527, and having charitable
funds for decayed members, widows, and orphans. They
have a hall, built in 1847 for £8300, in the Tudor Gothic
style. The hall, 60 feet long, 29 wide, and 42 high, con-
tains curious old chairs, and curious inscriptions on the
shields of the crafts.
Among the charitable institutions is Gordon's Hospital, Cluritic*.
founded in 1729 by a miser, Robert Gordon, a Dantzic
merchant, of the Straloch family, and farther endowed
by Alexander Simpson of CoUyhill in 1816. It is
managed by the Town Council and four of the Established
ministers of Aberdeen, incorporated by royal charters of
1772 and 1792. The central part of the house was built
in 1739, and the wings in 1830-1834, the whole costing
£17,300, and being within a garden of above four acres.
It now (1873) maintains and educates (in English, writing,
arithmetic, physics, mathematics, drawing, music, French,
<Uc.) 180 boys of the age 9 to 15, the sons and grandiona
of decayed burgesses of guild and trade of the city; and
next those of decayed inhabitants (not paupers). Expendi-
ture for year to 31st October 1872, £4353 for 164 Ix.ys.
It has a head-master, three regular, and several visitiiig
ABERDEEN
41
masters. The Boys' and Girls' Hospital, lately built for
£10,000, maintains and educates 50 boys and 50 girls.
The Female Orphan Asylum, founded by Mrs Elmslie,
in 1840, and managed by trustees, maintains and educates,
chiefly as domestic servants, 46 girls between the ages of
4 and 16, at the yearly cost for each of about £23, 13s.
Thco admitted must be legitimate orphan daughters of
respectable parents, who have lived three years imme-
diately before death in Aberdeen or in the adjoining
parishes of Old Machar and Nigg. The Hospital for
Orphan and Female Destitute Children, endowed by John
Carnegie and the trustees of the Murtle Fund, maintains
and educates 50 girls, chiefly for domestic service. The
Asylum for the Blind, e3tabli.shed in 1843, on a foundation
by Miss Cruickshank, maintains and educates about 10
blind children, and gives industrial employment to blind
adults. There is a boys' and girls' school for 150 boys
and 150 girls on Dr BeU's foundation. The Industrial
Schools, began by Sheriff Watson in 1841, and the Re-
formatory S -hools, begun in 1857, having some 600 pupils
on the roU, have greatly diminished juvenile crime in the
district. The Murtle or John Gordon's Charitable Fund,
founded in 1815, has an annual revenue from land of about
£2400, applicable to all kinds of charity, in sums from
£5 to £300. The Midbeltie Fund, founded by a bequest
of £20,000, in 1348, by James Allan of Midbeltie, gives
yearly pensions ranging from £5 to £15 to respectable
decayed widows in the parishes of St Kicholas and Old
Machar.
The two pansnes in which Aberdeen is situated, viz.,
St Nicholas and Old Machar, have each a large poor-house.
The poor of both parishes cost about £20,000 a year.
The Royal Infirmary, instituted in 1740, was rebuilt
1833-1840, in the Grecian style, at the cost of £17,000.
It is a well-situated, large, commodious, and imposing
building. It has thi'ee stories, the front being 166 feet
long and 50 feet high, with a dome. A detached fever-
house was built in 1872 for about £2500. The managers
were incorporated by royal charter in 1773, and much
increased in number in 1852. The institution is sup-
ported by land rents, feu-duties, legacies, donations, sub-
scriptions, church collections, &c. Each bed has on an
average 1200 cubic feet of space. There are on the average
1 30 resident patients, costing each on the average a shilling
daily, and the number of patients treated may be stated at
1 700 annually, besides outdoor patients receiving advice and
medicine. The recent annual expenditure has been about
£4300. There is a staff of a dozen medical ofiicers.
The Royal Lunatic Asylum, opened in 1800, consists of
two separate houses, valued in 1870 at £40,000, in an
enclosure of 40 acres. It is under the same management
as the Infirmary. The recent daily average of patients has
been about 420, at an annual cost of £13,000. The annual
rate for each pauper is £25, lOs. The General Dispensary,
Vaccine, and Lying-in Institution, founded in 1823, has
had as many as 6781 cases in one year. The Hospital for
Incurables has a daily average of 26 patients, and the Oph-
thalmio and Auric Institution has had 671 cases in a year.
The Music Hall, built Li 1821 and 1859 at the cost
Muiiic of £16,500, has a front 90 feet long, with a portico of 6
H^li. Ionic pillars 30 feet high; large, highly-decorated lobbies
and zooms; and a hall 150 feet long, 63 broad, and 50
high, with a flat ceiling, and galleries. The hall holds 2000
pei-sons seated, and has a fine organ and an orchestra for
3C0. Hero H.R.H. Prince Albert opened the British
Association, as president, 14th September 1859. A new
Theatre and Opera House was built in 1872, in the mbcod
l'.i.'atro. Gothic style, for £8400, with the stage 52i feet by 29, and
the auditorium for 1700 to 1800 persons. The front wall
IS of bluish granite and red and yellow freestone, with
some polished Peterhead granite pillars, the rest being
built of concrete.
In Castle Street, the City PUce and Old Market Stance,
is the Market Cro.sa, a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal
structure of freestone, 21 feet diameter, and 18 feet high.
It has Ionic columns and pilasters, and an entablature of
twelve panels. On ten of the panels are medallions,
cut in stone, in high relief, of the Scottish sovereigns fri,m
James I. to James VIL From the centre rises a com-
posite column 12^ feet high, with a Corinthian capital, on
which is the royal unicorn rampant. This cross was planned
and erected about 1C82 by John Montgomery, a native
architect, for £100 sterling. On the north side of the
same street, adjoining the municipal buildings, is thu
North of Scotland Bank, a Grecian building in granite,
with a portico of Corinthian columns, having most elabo-
rately carved capitals. On an eminence east of Castle
Street are the military barracks for 600 men, built in 1796
for £16,000.
The principal statues in the city are those of the last
Duke of Gordon — died 1836 — in grey granite, 10 feet high;
Queen Victoria, in white Sicilian marble, 8 J feet high;
Prince Albert, bronze, natural-size, sitting posture; and a
curious rough stone figure, of unknown date, supposed to
be Sir William Wallace.
The Dee to the south of the city is crossed by three
bridges, the old bridge of Dee, an iron suspension bridge,
and the Caledonian Railway bridge. The first, till 1832
the only access to the city from the south, consists of
seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 feet high,
and was built early in the 1 6th century by Bishops Elphic-
stone and Dunbar. It was nearly all rebuilt 1718-1723,
and from being 14J feet wide, it was in 1842 xnade 26
feet wide. From Castle Street, King Street leads in the
direction of the new bridge of Don (a little east of the old
" Brig o' Balgownie "), of five granite arches, each 75 feet
span, built for nearly £13,000 in 1827-1832.
A defective harbour, and a shallow sand and gravel bar at
its entrance, long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but, under
various Acts since 1773, they have been greatly deepened.
The north pier, b'lilt partly by Smeaton, 1775-1781, and
partly by Telford, 1810-1815, extends 2000 feet into the
German Ocean. It is 30 feet broad, and, with the parapet,
rises 15 feet above high water. It consists of large granite
blocks. It has increased the depth of water on the bar
from a few feet to 22 or 24 feet at spring tides, and to 17
or 18 feet at neap. The wet dock, of 29 acres, and with
6000 feet of quay, was completed in 1848, and called
Victoria Dock, in honour of Her Majesty's visit to the
city in that year. These and other improvements of the
harbour and its entrance cost £325,000 down to 1848.
By the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee near the harbour
has been diverted to the south, ac the cost of £80,000,
and 90 acres of new ground (in addition to 25 acres
formerly made up) for harbour works are being made up on
the city or north side of the river; £80,000 has beeu
laid out in forming in the sea, at the south side of the
river, a new breakwater of concrete, 1050 feet long, against
south and south-east storms. The navigation channel is
being widened and deepened, and the old pier or break-
water on the north side of the river mouth is to ba
lengthened at least 500 feet seaward. A body of 31 com-
missioners manage the harbour affairs.
Aberdeen Bay affords safe anchorage with off-shore wind.s,
but not with those from the N.E., E., and S.E. On the
Girdlei ess, the south point of the bay, a lighthouse was
built iL 1833, in lat 57' 8' N., and long. 2° 3' W., with
tv/o &xed lights, one vertically below the other, and re-
spectively 115 and 185 feet above mean tide. There are
also fixed leading lights to direct shrps entering the harbour
L — 6
Market
Crosa
Bildgei".
Harbonr,
42
ABERDEEN
Water.
turcs, &c.
at night. In fogfl, a steam whi»tlo near tUo lighthouse is
sounded ten seconds every minute. Near the harbour
mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns.
The water supplied to the city contains only 3J grains
solid matter in a gallon, with a hardness of about 2 degrees.
It is brought by gravitation, in a close brick culvert,
from the Dec, 21 miles W.S.W. of the city, to a reservoir,
which supplies niie-tentha of the city. The other tenth,
or higher part of the city^is supplied by a separate leaer-
voir, to which part of the water from the culvert is forced
up by a hydi-aulio engine. Nearly 40 gallons water per
head of the population are consumed daily for all purposes.
The new water works cost XI 00,000, and were opened by
Her Majesty, IGth October 18GG.
The gas is made of cannel coal, and is sent tlirough 71
miles of main pipes, which extend 5 miles from the works.
The manufactures, arts, and trade of Aberdeen and
vicinity are 1 irge and flourishing. Woollens were made as
early as 170; , and knitting of stockings was a great industry
in the 18tb century. There are two large firms in the
woollen trade, with 1550 hands, at £1000 weekly 'wages,
and making above 1560 tons wool in the year into yams,
carpets, h.-'nd-knit hosiery, cloths, and tweeds. The linen
trade, much carried on since 1749, is now confined to one
firm, with 2G00 hand.s, at £1200 wages weekly, who spin,
weave, and bleach 50 tons flax and CO tons tow weekly,
and produce yarns, floorcloths, sheetings, dowlas, ducks,
towels, sail-canvas, &c. The cotton manufacture, introduced
in 1779, employs only one firm, with 550 hand.<i, at £220
weekly wages, who spin 5000 bales of cotton a-year into
mule yarn. The wincey trade, begun in 1839, employs
400 hands, at £200 weekly wjges, who make 2,100,000
yards cloth, 27 to oG inches broad, in the year. Paper,
first made here in 1G96, is now manufactured by three
firms in the vicinity. The largest has 2000 'hands, at
£1250 weekly wages, and mokes weekly 75 to 80 tons of
writing paper, and 6J millions of envelopes, besides much
cardboard and stamped paper; another firm makes weekly
77 tons coarse and card paper; and a third, 20 tons print-
ing and other paper. The comb works of Messrs Stewart
ife Co., begun in 1827, are the largest in the world, em-
ploying 900 hands, at £500 weekly wages, who yearly
convert 1100 tons horns, hoofs, india-rubber, and tortoise-
shells into 1 1 millions of combs, besides spoons, cups,
scoops, paper-knives, <fec. Seven iron foundries and
many engineering works employ lOOC men, at £925
weekly wages, and convert 6000 tons of iron a-year into
marine and land steam engines and boilers, corn mills,
wood-preparing machinery, machinery to grind and pre-
pare artificial manures, besides sugar mills and frames and
coffee machinery for the colonies.
The Sandilands Chemical Works, begun in 1848, cover
five acres, and employ over 100 men and boys, at £90 to
£100 weekly wages. Here are prepared naphtha, benzole,
creosote oil, pitch, asphalt, sulphate of ammonia, sulphuric
acid, and artificial manures. Paraffin wax and ozokerite
are refined. An Artesian weU within the works, 421 feet
deep, gives a constant supply of good water, always at
51 Fahr. Of several provision-curing works, the largest
employs 300 hands, chiefly females, in preserving meats,
soups, sauces, jams, jeU-es, pickles, &c., and has in con-
nection with it, near the city, above 230 acres of fruit, vege-
table, and farm ground, and a large piggery. The products
of the breweries and distilleries are mostly comsumed at
home. A large agricultural implement work employs 70
or 80 men and boys. Nearly 200 acres of ground, within
three miles of the city, are laid out in rearing shrub and
forest-tree seedlings. In 1872 about 145 acres of straw-
berries were reared within three miles of Aberdeen, and
(JU tuua of this fruit are said to have b«en exported.
< Fishing
Sliipbuild-
»ng.
Very uurjiblo grey grjiiito has been quarried near Abcr- CraniK.
decn for 300 years, ajd blocked and dre&sed pa^Hng, kerb,
and building granit* stones Lave long been exported from
the di.ftrict In 1764, Aberdeen granite pavement was first
used in London. .About the year 1 795, large granite blocks
were sent for the Portsmouth docks. The chief stouts of
the New Thames Embankment, Loudon, are from Kemn.iy
granite quarrie*, 10 miles northwest of the city. Aber-
deen is almost entirely built of granite, and Urge quantities
of the stone are exported to build bridges, wharfs, docks,
lighthouses, &c, elsewhere. Aberdeen is famed for \l»
polishing-workfl of grapite, especially grey and red. They
employ about 1500 hands in polishing vases, tables,
chimney-pieces, fountains, monuments, columns, ic., for
British and foreign demand. Mr Alexander Mjicdonald,
in 1818, was the first to begin the granite polishing trade,
and the works of the same firm, the only ones of the kind
till about 1850, are still the largest in the kingdom.
In 1820, 15 vessels from Aberdeen were engaged in tho
northern whale and seal fishing; in 18C0, one vessel, but
none since. The white fishing at Aberdeen employs some
40 boats, each with a crew of 5 men. Of the 900 tons
wet fish estimated to be brought to market yearly, above a
third are sent fresh by rail . to England. The salmoc
caught in the Dee, Don, and sea are nearly all sent to
London fresh in ice. The herring fishing has been pro-
secuted since 1836, and from 200 to 350 boats are
engaged in it.
Aberdeen has been famed for shipbuilding, especially
for its fast clippers. Since 1855 nearly a score of vessels
have been built of above 1000 tons each. The largest
vessel (a sailing one) ever built here was one in 1855, of 2400
tons.. In 1872 there were built 11 iron vessels of 9450
tons, and 6 wooden of 2980 tons, consuming 5900 tons
iron, and costing £252,700, including £70,700 for engines
and other machinery. '1400 hands were employed in
shipbuilding in that year, at the weekly wages of about
£1230.
In 1872, there belonged to the port of Aberdeen 236 Shipping
vessels, of 101,188 tons, twenty-four of the vessels, of 7483
tons, being steamers. They trade with most British and
Irish ports, the Baltic and Mediterranean ports, and many
more distant regions. In 1872, 434,108 tons shipping
arrived, ^t the port, and the custom duties were £112,414.
The export trade, exclusive of coasting, is insignificant.
The shore or harbour dues were £126 in 1765, and £1300
in 1800. In the year ending 30th September 1872, they
were £25,520; while the ordinary harbour rc\enue was
£37,765, expenditure £28,598, and debt £324,614. The
introduction of steamers in 1821 greatly promoted in-
dustry and traffic, and especially the cattle trade of
Aberdeenshire with London. These benefits have been
much increased by the extension of raOw ys. Commodious
steamers ply regularly between Abe.Ucen and Londoli,
Hull,' Newcastle, Leith, Wick^ Kii"kwall, and Lerwick.
The joint railway station for the Caledonian, Great
North of Scotland, and Deeside lines, was opened 1867,
and is a verj' handsome erection, costing about £26,000.
It is 500 feet long, and 102 feet broad, with the side walls
32 feet high. The arched roof of curved lattice-iron ribs,
covered with slate, zinc, and glass, is all in one span, rising
72 feet high, and is very light and airy.
The Medico-Chinirgical Society of Aberdeen was founded
in 1789. The haU was built in 1820 at a cost of £4000,
and is adorned with an Ionic portico of four granite columns,
27 feet high. It has 42 members, and a library of 6000
volumes. The legal practitioners of Aberdeen have been
styled advocates since 1633, and received royal charters
in 1774, 1779, and 1862. They form a society, called
th.j Society of Advocates, of 127 members in 1873, with a
Itailway.
StatioD.
Societiet.'
ABERDEEN
4;^
fre^.
Public
Parks.
pality.
iall built in 187^ for £5075, a library of nearly 6000
volumes, and a fund to support decayed and indigent
members, and their nearest relatives. The revenue in
1872 wa3i2S80.
Aberdeen has on^ daily and three weekly newspapers.
The Aberdeen Journal, established in 1748, is the oldest
newspaper north of the Forth.
The places of out-door recreation and amusement are
chiefly the following: — The Links, a grassy, benty, and
Bandy tract, 2 miles long and J to J mile broad, along
the shore between the mouths of the Dee and the Don.
It is mostly only a few feet above the sea, but the Broad
llill rises to 94 feet. Cattle shows, reviews, kc, are held
on the Links. To the north-west of the town, a Public
Recreation Park of 13 acres was laid out in 1872, at the
co-st of £3000, with walks, grass, trees, shrubs, and flowers.
Climate Daily observations from 1857 to 1872 ehow the mean
temperal"ure of Aberdeen for the year to be 45°"8 Fahr.,
for the three summer months 56° Fahr., and for the three
winter months 37°"3. The average yearly rainfall is 30'57
inches. Aberdeen is the healthiest of the large Scottish
towns. East winds prevail in spring.
Since 1867 £50,000 has been spent in constructing
main sewers throughout the city. A few acres of farm
laud have been irrigated by part of the sewage.
The city is governed by a corporation, the magistrates
and town councO, consisting of twenty-iive councillors,
including a provost, six bailies, a dean of guild, a trea-
surer, kc. The corporation revenue in the year 1871-72
was £11,498. The police, water, and gas are managed by
the council. The municipal and police burgh has an area
of nearly three square miles, with 12,514 municipal electors,
and with assessable property valued at £230,000 in 1873.
The Parliamentary burgh has an area of nine square miles,
including Old Aberdeen and Woodside, with 14,253 Par-
liamentary electors, and real property to the value of
£309,328 in 1873. It returns one member to Parliament.
The populafiou of Aberdeen in 1396 was about 3000; in
1643, 8750'; in 1708, 5556; in 1801, 26,i)92; in 1841,
03,262; and in 1871, 88,125; with 6718 inhabited
houses, 292 uninhabited, and 77 building.
Ol'l Abeedeex, Old, is a small, quiet, ancient town, a
Aberdeen, hurgh of barony and regality, a mile north of Aberdeen,
and as far south-west of the mouth of the Don. It mostly
forms one long street, 45 to 80 feet above the sea. The
Don, to the north of the town, runs through a narrow,
wooded, rocky ravine, and is spanned by a single Gothic
arch, the " Brig 0' Balgownie" of Lord Byron. The bridge
rests on gneiss, and is 67 feet wide and 34i feet h'"' .bove
the surface of the river, which at ebb tide is hert ^» feet
Jeep. The bridge is the oldest in the north of Scotland,
and is said to have been built about 1305 The funds
belonging to the bridge amount to £24,000.
The town was formerly the see of a bishop, and had a
large cathedral dedicated to St ilachar. In 1137 David L
translated to Old Aberdeen the bishopric, founded at
Mortlach in Banffshire ia 1004 by Malcolm IL in memory
of his signal victory there over the Danes. In 1153
Malcolm IV. gave the bishop a new charter.
ratliedral. The cathedral of St Macliar, begun about 1357, occupied
nearly 170 years in building, and did not remain entire
fifty years. What is still left is the oldest part, viz., the
nave and side aisles, 120 feet long and 621 feet broad,
now used as the parish church. It is chiefly built of
ouilayer granite stones, and while the plainest Scottish
cathedral, is the only one of granite in the kingdom. On
the flat pannellod ceiling of the nave are 48 heraldic shields
•■f the princes, nobles, and bishops who aided in its erection.
It has been lately repaired, and some painted window.'*
inserted, at the cost of £4280.
The chief structure Lq Old Aberdeen is the stately fabric King's
of Kirig's College cear the middle of the town. It fornia College,
a quadrangle, with interior court 103 feet square, two
sides of which have been rebuilt, and a projecting wing for
a Kbrary added since i860. The oldest parts, the Crovm
Tower and Chapel, date from about 1500. The former
is 30 feet square and 60 feet high, and is surmounted
by a structure about 40 feet high, consisting of a six-sided
lantern and a royal crown, both sculptured, and resting on
the intersections of two arched ornamented slips rising froai
the four comers of the top of the tower. The chapel, 120
feet long, 28 feet broad, and 37 feet high, stiU retains in
the choir the original oak canopied stalls, miserere seat, and
-lofty open screen. These fittings are 300 years old, in
the French flamboyant stylo, and are unsurpassed, in taste-
ful design and delicate execution, by the oak carving cf
any other old church in Europe. This carved woodwork
owes its preseiwation to the Principal of Sefonnation
times, who armed his people, and protected it from the
fury of the barons of the Meams after they had robbed
the cathedral of its beUa and lead. The chapel is still used
for public worship during the University session.
Connected with Old Aberdeen is a brewery in the town,
and a brick and coarse pottery work in the vicinity. There
are also a Free church, two secondary schools, and two
primary schocSs. Old Aberdeen has its own municipal
ofiicers, consisting of a provost, 4 bailies, and 13 councillors.
The town is drained, lighted, supplied with water, and is
-.vithin thp ParUamentary boundary of New Aberdeen.
There are several charitable institutions. Population in
1871, 1857 ; inhabited houses, 233. (a. c.)
ABERDEENSHIRE, a maritime county in the north-
east of Scotland, between 56° 52' and 57° 42' N. lat. and
between 1° 49' and 3° 48' long. W. of Greenwich. It is
bounded on the north and east by the Germ.in Ocean ; on
the south by tLie counties of Kincardine, Forfar, and Perth ;
and on the west by those of Inverness and Banff. Its
greatest length is 102 miles, and breadth 50 miles. Its
circuit with sinuosities is about 300 miles, 60 being sea-
coast. It is the fifth of Scotch counties in size, and is one-
sixteenth of the extent of Scotland. Its area is 1970
square miles, or 1,260,625 acres, of which, in 1872, 36'6
per cent., or 585,299 acres, were cultivated, 93,339 in woods
(mostly Scotch fir and larch), and 6400 in lakes. It con-
tains 86 civil parishes and parts of 6 others, or 101 parishes,
including civil and quoad sacra. The county b generally
hilly, and mountainous in the south-west, whence, ne.tr the
centre of Scotland, the Grampians send out various branchc.-i,
mostly to the north-east, through the county. The run of
the rivers and the general slope of the county is to the
north-east and east. It is popularly divided into five
districts : — First, Mar, mostly between the Dee and Don, Distfid^^
and forming nearly the south half of the county. It is
mountainous, especially Braemar, its west and Highlana
part, which contains the greatest mass of elevated land in
the British Isles. Here the Dee rises amid the grandeur
and wildness of lofty mountains, much visited by tourists,
and composed chiefly of granite and gneiss, forming many
high precipices, and sho«-ing patches of snow throughout
every summer. Here rises Ben Muichdhui, the second highest
mountain in Scotland and in the British Isles, 4296 feet ;
Eraeriach, 4225; Cairntoul, 4245; Cairngorm (famed for
" Cairngorm stones," a peculiar kind of rock crystal), 4090 ;
Bcn-a-Buird, 3800; Ben Avon, 3826; and Byron's "dark
Lochnagar," 3786. The soil on the Dee is sandy, and
on the Don loamy. The city of Aberdeen is in Mar.
Second, Formartin, between the lower Don and Ythaii.
with a sandy coast, succeeded by a clayey, fertile, tdlod
tract, and then by low hills, moors, mosses, and tilled land
Third, Buchan, north of the Ythan, and next in size to
44
ABERDEENSHIRE
Mar, tntb parts of the coxst bold and rocky, and with the
interior bare, low, flat, undulating, and in parts, peaty. On
the coast, 6ii miles south of Peterhead, are the Boilers of
Bnchan, — a basin in which the aca, entering by a natural
arch, boils up violently in stormy weather. Buchan Ness
is the castmost point of Scotland. Fourth, Garicch, a
beautiful, undulating, loamy, fertile valley, formerly called
the granary of Aberdeen, withihe prominent hill Benachie,
167C feet, on the south. Fifth, Slralhbogie, mostly con-
sisting of hills (The Buck, 2211 feet; Noath, 1830 feet),
moors, and mosses. The county as a whole, except the low
grounds of Buchan, and the Highlands of Braemar, consists
mainly of nearly level or undulating tracts, often nalced
and infertile, but interspersed with many rich and highly
cultivated spots.
Rivers. The chief rivers are the Dee, 96 miles long; Don, 78;
Vthan, 37, with mussel beds at its mouth; Ugie, 20; and
Deveron, 58, partly on the'boundary of Banffslwre. The
pearl mussel occurs in the Ythan and Don. A valuable
pearl in the Scottish croivTi is said to be from the Ythan.
Loc. Muick, the largest of the few lakes in the county,
1310 feet above the sea, is only 2| miles long and J to J
mile broad. The rivers havp ilenty of salmon and trout.
There are noted chalybeate _ rings at Peterhead, Fraser-
burgh, and Pananich near Ballater.
Oimate. The climate of Aberdeenshire, except in the mountainous
districts, is comparatively mild, from the sea being on two
sides. The mean annual temperature at Braemar is 43°'6
Fahr., and at Aberdeen 45°-8. The mean yearly rainfall
varies from about 30 to 37 inches. The summer climate
of the Upper Dee and Don valleys is the driest and most
bncing in the British Isles, and grain is cultivated up to
1600 feet above the sea, or 400 to 500 feet higher than
elsewhere in Korth Britain. All the crops cultivated in
Scotland ripen, and the people often live to a great age.
Geology. The rocks are mostly granite, gneiss, with small tracts of
syenite, mica slate, quartz rock, clay slate, grauwacke,
primary limestone, old red sandstone, serpentine, and trap.
Lias, greensand, and chalk flints occur. The rocks are
much covered with boulder clay, gravel, sand, and allu-
vium. Brick clay occurs near the coast. The surface of
the granite under the boulder clay often presents ghcial
sraoothings, grooves, and roundings. Cairngorm stone,
beryl, and amethyst are found in the granite of Braemar.
Plants and The tops of the highest mountains have an arctic flora.
Aniniais. At Her Majesty's Lodge, Loch Muick, 1350 feet above the
sea, grow larches, vegetables, currants, laurels, roses, <tc.
Some ash trees, 4 or 5 feet in girth, are growing at 1300
feet above the sea. The mole occurs at 1800 feet above
the sea, and the squirrel at 1400. Trees, especially Scotch
fir and larch, grow well in the county, and Braemar abounds
in natural timber, said to surpass any in , the north of
Europe. Stumps of Scotch fir and oak found in peat in
the county are often far larger than any now growing.
Grouse, partridges, and hares abound in the couuty, and
rabbits are often too numerous. Red deer abound in
Braemar, the deer forest being there valued at £5000 a
year, and estimated at 500,000 acres, or one-fourth the
arc.i "jf deer forests in Scotland.
Apncul- Poor, gravelly, clayey, and peaty soils prevail much more
ture. in Aberdeenshire than good rich loams, but tile draining,
bones, and guano, and the best modes of modern -tillage,
have greatly increased the pro<luce. Farm-houses and
steadings have greatly improved, and the best agricultural
implements and machines are in general use. About two-
thirds of the population depend entirely on agriculture, and
oatmeal in various forms, with milk, is the chief food of
farm-servants. Farms are generally small, compared with
those in the south-east counties. The fields are separated
by dry-stone dykes, and also by woo<len and wire fences.
Leases of 19 or 21 years prevail, and the five, eix, or seven
shift rotation is in general use. In 1872 there were 1I,C42
occupiers of land, with an average of 50 acres each, an3
paying about £630,000 in rent Of the 585,299 acres of
the county in crop in 1872, 191,880 acres were in oats,
18,930 in barley and bcre, 1G33 in rye, 1357 in wheat,
95,091 in turnips (being one-fifth of the turnips grown in
Scotland), 8414 in potatoes, 232,178 in grasses and clover.
In 1872 the county had 23,117 horses, 157,900 cattle
(being above one-seventh of all the cattle in Scotland),
123,308 sheep, and 13,579 pigs. The county is unsur-
passed in breeding, and unrivalled in feeding cattle, aud
this is more attended to than the cultivation of grain-crops.
About 40,000 fat cattle are reared, and above £1,000,000
value of cattle and dead meat is sent from the county to
London j early. The capital invested in agriculture within
the county is estimated at about £5,133,000.
The great mineral wealth in Aberdeenshire is its long- Mincralai
famed durable granite, which is largely q>iarried for biiild-
ing, paving, causewaying, and polishing. An acre of land
on being reclaimed has yielded £40 to £50 worth of causo-
waying stonea Gneiss is also quarried, as also primary
limestone, old red sandstone, conglomerate millstone, grau-
wacke, clay slate, syenite, and hornblende rock. Iron ore,
manganese, and plumbago occur in the county.
A Lirge fishing population in villnges along the coast FUberies.
engage in the white and herring fishery. Haddocks are
salted and rock-dried (speldings), or smoked (finnans). The
rivers and coasts yield many salmon. Peterhead was long
the chief British port for the north whale and seal fishery,
but Dundee now vies with it in this industry.
The manufactures and arts of the county are mainly Huinfae-
prosecuted in or near the town of Aberdeen, but throughout turc:.
the rural districts there are much milling of com, brick and
tile making, stone-quarrying, smith-work, brewing and
distilling, cart and farm implement making, casting and
drj-ing of peat, timber feUing, especially on Decside and
Donside, for pit-props, railway sleepers, lath, barrel staves,
(tc. The chief imports into the county are, coals, lime. Trade,
timber, iron, slates, raw materials of textile manufac-
tures, wheat, cattle-feeding stuS's, bones, guano, sugar, ■
alcoholic liquors, fruits, &c The chief exports are granite
(rough, dressed, -end polished), flax, woollen, and cotton
goods, paper, combs, preserved provisions, oats, barley,
live and dead cattle, <tc. In the county there are about
520 fairs in the year for cattle, horses, sheep, hiring ser-
vants, ic.
Aberdeenshire communicates with the south by the £«i]*aya.
Caledonian Railway, and five macadamised roads across
the east Grampians, the highest rising 2200 feet above the
sea. About 188 miles of railway ^the Great North of
Scotland, Formartin and Buchan, and Deeside lines), and
2359 miles of public roads, ramify through the county.
Tolls over the county were abolished in 1865, and the
roads are kept up by assessment. The railway lines in the
county have cost on the average about £13,500 a mile.
Several macadamised roads and the Great North of Scot-
land Railway form the main exits from the county to the
north-west.
The chief antiquities in Aberdeenshire are Picts" houses Anti-
or weem^ stone foundations of circular dwellings; mono- quilies.
liths, some being sculptured; the so-called Druid circles;
stone cists; stone and earthen enclosures; the vitrified
forts of Dunnideer and Noath ; cairns ; crannoges ; earthen
mounds, as the Bass; flint arrow-heads; clay fimeral urns;
stone celts and hammers. Remains of Roman camps occur
at Peterculter, Kintore, and Auchterless, respectively 107 J,
100, and 115 acres. Roman arms have been found. Ruina
of ancient edifices occur. On the top of a conical hill called
Dunnideer. in the Garioch district, are the remains of ^
ABERDEENSHIRE
45
Kmincnt
men.
castle, supposed to be 700 years old, and surrounded by a
vitrified wall, which must be still older. The foundations
of two buildings stiU remain, the one in Braemar, and . the
other in the Loch of Cannor (the latter with the remains
of a wooden bridge between it and the land), which are
supposed to have belonged to Malcolm Canmore, King of
Scotland. The most extensive ruins are the grand ones of
KUdrummy Castle, evidently once a princely seat, and stilt,
covering nearly an acre of ground. It belonged to David
Earl of Huntingdon in 1150, and was the seat of the Earls
of Marr attainted in 1716. 'The Abbey of Deer, now in
ruins, was begun by Cumyn Earl of Buchan about 12 19i
In Roman times, Aberdeenshii'e formed part of Ves-
pasiana in Caledonia, and was occupied by the TaLxali, a
warlike tribe. The local names are mostly Gaelic. St
Columba and his pupil Drostan visited Buchan in the Gth
century. In 1052 Macbeth fell near the Peel Bog in
Lui'iphanan, and a cairn which raarks the spot is stiU
shown. In 1309 Bruce defeated Comyn, Earl of Buchan,
rear Inverurie, and annihilated a powerful Norman family.
In 1411 the Earl of Marr defeated Donald of the Isles in
the battle of Harlaw, near Inverurie, when Sir Robert
Davidson, Provost of Aberdeen, was killed. In 1562
occurred the battle of Corrichie on the Hill of Fare, when
the Earl of Murray defeated the Marquis of Huntly. In
1715 the Earl of Marr proclaimed the Pretender in Braemar.
In 1746 the Duke of Cumberland with his army marched
through Aberdeenshire to Culloden. In 1817 a base line
of verification, 5 miles 100 feet long, was measured in'con-
nection with the Trigonometrical Survey of the British Isles,
on the Belhelvie Links 5 to 10 miles north of Aberdeen.
Among eminent men connected with Aberdeenshire are,
Robert Gordon of Stralooh, who in 1648 published the first
atlas of Scotland from actual sjirvey ; the Earls Marischal,
whose chief seat was Inverugie Castle ; Field-Marshal
Keith, born at Inverugie Castle, 1696 ; Dr Thomas Reid,
the metaphysician, minister of New Machar 1737 to 1752 ;
Lord Pitshgo, attainted 1745; Sir Archibald Grant of
Monymusk, who introduced turnips into the coiinty 1756,
and was the first to plant wood on a great sc;Je ; Peter
Garden, Auchterless, said to have died at the age of 132,
about 1780; Rev. John Skinner, author of some popular
Scottish songs ; Morrison the hygeist ; the Earl of Aberdeen,
Prime Miaister during the Crimean war.
The native Scotch population of Aberdeenshire are long-
headed, shrewd, careful, canny, active, persistent, but
reserved and blunt, and vrithout demonstrative enthusiasm.
Thoy have a physiognomy distinct from the rest of the
Scottish people, and have a quick, sharp, rather angry
accent. The local Scotch dialect is broad, and rich in
diminutives, and is noted for the use of e for o or u, f for
kTi, d for th, &c. In 1830 Gaelic was the fireside language
almost every family in Braemar, but now it is little used.'
Courts and Aberdeenshire has a Lord-Lieutenant and 3 Vice and 60
Deputy-Lieutenants. The Supreme Court of Justiciary sits
in Aberdeen twice a-year to tiy cases from the counties of
Aljerdcen, Banff, and Kincardine. The counties of Aberdeen
and Kincardine are under a Sheriff' and tv/o Sheriffs-Substi-
tute. The Sheriff Courts are held in Aberdeen and Peter-
head. Sheriff Small-Debt and Circuit Courts are held at
seven places in the county. There are Burgh or Bailie Courts
in Aberdeen and the other royal burghs in the county.
Justice of the Peace and Police Courts are held in Aberdeen,
&c. The Sheriff Courts take cognisance of Commissaiy
business. During 1871, 994 persons were confined in the
Aberdeenshire prisons. In the year 1870-71, 74 parishes
in the county were assessed £53,703 for 7702 poor on the
Tioll and 1847 casual poor.
Aberdeenshire contains 105 Established churches, 99
Free. 31 Episcopal, 15 LTQJtgd Presbyterian, 9 Roman
Native
features.
Polico.
Cburchet.
Cathohc, and 31 of other denominations. This includes
detached parts of the two adjacent counties.
By the census of 1871, 84-83 per cent, of the children Ecicition.
in the county, of the ages 5 to 1 3, were receiving education.
Those formerly called the parochial schcolniasters of
Aberdeenshire participate in the Dick and Milne Bequests,
which contributed more salary to the schoolmasters in some
cdses than did the heritors. Most of the schoolmasters are
Masters of Arts, and many are preachers. Of 114 parochial
schools in the county befoi-e the operation of the new
Education Act, 89 received the Milne Bequest of £20 a
year, and 91 the Dick Bequest, averaging £30 a year, and
a schoolmaster with both bequests would have a yearly
income of £145 to £150, and in a few cases £250. The
higher branches of education have been more taught ia the
schools of the shires of Aoerdeen and Banff than in the
other Scotch counties, and pupils have been long in the
habit of going direct from the schools of these two counties
to the University.
The value of property, or real rental of the lands and Property,
heritages in the county (including the burghs, except that
of Aberdeen), for the year 1872-73, was £769,191. The
railway and the water works in the city and county were
for the same year valued at £11,133. For general county
purposes for the year ending 15th May 1872, there was
assessed £14,803 to maintain police, prisons, militia, county
and municipal buildings, <tc., and £19,320 to maintain
2359 miles of pubUc county roads.
The chief seats on the proprietary estates are — Balmoral Proprietora
Castle, the Queen ; Mar Lodge and Skene House, Earl
of Fife ; Aboyne Castle, Marquis of Huntly ; Dunecht
House, Earl of Crawford and Balcarres ; Keith Hall, Earl
of Kintore ; Slains Castle, Earl of Errol ; Haddo House,
Earl of Aberdeen ; Castle Forbes, Lord Forbes ; Philorth
House, Lord Saltoun ; Huntly Lodge, the Duke of Rich-
mond. Other noted seats are — Drum, Irvine ; Invercauld,
Farquharson ; Newe Castle, Forbes ; Castle Eraser, Eraser ;
Cluny Castle, Gordon ; Moldrum House, Urquhart ; Craiga-
ton Castle, Urquhart ; Pitfour, Ferguson ; Ellon Castle,
Gordon ; F3rvie Castle, Gordon. Ten baronets and knights
have residences in the county. Of the proprietors many
hvo permanently on their estates. Their prevailing names
are Gordon, Forbes, Grant, Eraser, Duff, and Farquharson.
Aberdeenshire has one city, Aberdeen, a royal parha- Burghs,
mentaiy .burgh ; three other royal parliamentary burghs,
Inverurie, Eontore, and Peterhead ; and seven burghs of
barony. Old Aberdeen, Charleston of Aboyne, Fraserburgh,
Huntly, Old Meldrum, Rosehearty, and Turriff.
The county sends two members to Parliament — one for
East Aberdeenshire, with 4341 electors, and the other for '
West Aberdeenshire, with 3942 electors. The county has '
also four parliamentary burghs, which, with their respective
populations in 1871, are — Aberdeen, 88,125; Peterhead,
8535; Inverurie, 2856; and Kintore, 659. The first
sends one member to Parliament, and the other three unite
with Elgin, Cullen, and Banff, in sending another.
By the census 1801 the county had 121,065 inhabitaiits,
and by that of 1871, 244,603, with 53,576 families. 111
females to 100 males, 34,589 inhabited houses, 1052 unin-
habited houses, and 256 building. In 1871 there were in
eight towns (Aberdeen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, Huntly,
Inverurie, Old Meldrum, Turriff, and Now Pitsli2<^)i
111,978 inhabitants; in 32 villages, 19,561; and in nuol
districts, 113,064.
(New Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xiL ; the charters
of the burgh; extracts from the Council Register down to
1625, and selections from the letters, guildry, and trca-
surcr'e accounts, forming 3 volumes of tho Spalding Club;
Collections for a History of the Shires of A. and Banff,
edited by Joseph Robertson,. Esq.,. 4to, Spalding Club;
Paillanien-
■ tary Tepro.
santation.
Population.
46
A B E — A B E
/leytftrum Epifeopntus Alcrdonensii, vols. L fiud ii., by
I'rof. Cosiao Innes, 4to, Spalding Club ; Tfie Jlistoryof A.,
by Walter Tliom, 2 vols. 1 2mo, 1811; Buchan, by the Rev.
John B. Pratt, 12ino, 1859; Historical Account and Delineo
lion of A., by Robert Wilson, 1822; First Report of Royal
Com. on Hist. MSS., 18G9; The Annals of A., by William
Kennedy, 1813; Orem's Description of the Chanonry, Cathe-
dral, and Kiwfs College of Old A., 1724-25, 1830; The
Castellated Architecture of A., by Sir Andrew Leith Hay
of Rannes, imp. 4to ; Specimens of Old Castellated Houses
of A., with drawings by GUcs, folio, 1838 ; Lipes of Eminent
,1/ctj of a., by Jan\c3 Bnice, 12mo, 1841). (a. c.)
ABERDEEN, Gkorgk Hamilton Gordon, Fouetu
Earl of, was bora at Edinburgh on the 28th January
178-1:. He was educated at Harrow School, and at St
John's College, Cambridge, where he gi'aduated in 1804.
ile succeeded hb) grandfather in the earldom in 1801, and
in the same year he made an extended tour through
.Europe, visiting France, Italy, and Greece. On his
return he founded the Athenian Club, the membership
of which was confined to those who had travelled in
Greece. This explains Lord Byi'ou's reference in the
English Bards aiul Scotch Reviewsrs to "the travelled
Thane, Athenian Aberdeen." Soon after his return he
contributed a very able article to the Edinburgh Review
(v.)l vi.), on Cell's Topography of Troy. Another
literary result of his tour was the publication in 1822 of
An Inquiry itito the Principles of BeaxUy in, Grecian Archie
lecture, the substance of which had appeared some years
before in the form of an introduction to a translation of
Vitruvius' Civil Architecture. In 180G, having been
elected one of the representative peers for Scotland, he
took his seat in the House of Lords on the Tory side.
He was already on terms of intimacy with the leading
raembora of the then predominant party, and in particular
■with Pitt, through the influence of his relative, the cele-
brated Duchess of Gordon. In 1813 he was intrusted
with a delicate and difficidt special mission to Vienna, the
object being to induce the Emperor of Austria to join the
alliance against his son-in-law Napoleon. His diplomacy
was comjJetely successful; the desired alliance was secured
by the treaty of TopUtz, which the Earl sign«d as repre-
sentative of Great Britain in September 1813. On his
return at the conclusion of the war, he was raised to a
British peerage, with the title of Viscount Gordon. Lord
Aberdeen was a member of the Cabinet formed by the Duke
of Wellington in 1S2S, for a short time as Chancellor of the
Duchy of Lancaster, and then as Foreign Secretary. He
was Colonial Secretary in the Tory Cabinet of 1834-5, and
a fain received the seals of the Foreign Office under Sir
Robert Peel's administration of 1841. The policy of non-
intervention, to which he stedfastly adhered in his conduct
of foreign affairs, was at once his strength and Ids we.ikness.
According to the popular idea, he failed to see the limita-
tions and exceptions to a line of policy v/hich ne;irly all
admitted to bo as a general rule both wise and just. On
the whole, his administration was perhaps more esteemed
abroad than at home. It has been questioned whether
uny English minister ever was on terms of greater
intimacy with foreign courts, but there is no substantial
warrant for tie charge of want of patriotism which was
sometimes brought against him. On the two chief ques-
tions of home politics which were finallj^ settled during
his tenure of office, ho was in advance of most of his
party. While the other members of the Government
yielded" Catholic Emancipation and the repeal of the Corn
Laws as unavoidable concessions, Lord Aberdeen spoke
and voted for both measures from conviction of iheir
justice. On the 13th June' 1843, he moved the second
reading of hia bill "to remove doubts re.-ipecti:iy the
admisjiion of ministers to benefices in Scolliind,'' and it
was passed into law in that session, though a eimilar
measure had been rejected in 1840. Ab the first proposal
did not prevent, so the passing of the Act had no effect m
healing, the breach m 'he Established Church of ScotLind
which occurred in 184o. On the defeat of Lord Derby's
government in 1852, the state of parties waa Buch as to
necessitate a coalition government, of which Lord Aber-
deen, in consequence of the moderation of hia views, was
the n.-itunil chief. He had been regarded as the leader of
the Peel party from the time of Sir Robert's death, but
his views on the two great questions of home policy above
mentioned rendered him more acceptable to the Liberals,
and a more suitable leader of a coalition goverrmient than
any other member of that party could have been. His
administration wiU chiefly bo remembered in connection
with the Crimean war, which, it is now generally believed,
might have been altogether prevented by a more vigorous
policy. The incompetence of various departments at
homo, and the gross mismanagement of the commissariat
in the terrible winter of 1854, caused a growing dissatis-
faction with the government, which at length found
emphatic expression in the House of Cominons, when a
motion submitted by Mr Roebuck, calling for inquiry, was
carried by an overwhelming majority. Lord Aberdeen
regarded the vote as one of no-confidence, and at once
resigned. From this period Lord Aberdeen took little part
in public business. In recognition of his services he
received, soon after his resignation, the decoration of the
Order of the Garter. He died December 13, 1860. Lord
Aberdeen was twice married, — first in 1805, to E daughter
of the first Marquis of Abercorn, who' died in 1812, and
then to the widow of Viscount Hamilton. He was suc-
ceeded in the title and estates by Lord Haddo, his son
by the second marriage
ABERDOUR, a village in the county of Fife, in Scot-
land, pleasantly situated on the north shore of the Firth
of Forth, and much resorted to for sea-bathing. It is 10
nules N.'W. of Edinburgh, with which there is a frequent
conjmunication by steamer.
ABERFELDY, a village in Perthshire, celebrated in
Scottish song for its " birks " and for the neighbouring
falls of Monuss. It is the terminus of a branch of the
Highland Railway.
ABERGAVENNY, a market town in Monmouthshire,
14 miles west of Monmouth, situated at the junction
of a small stream called the Gavenny, with the river Usk.
It is supposed to have been the Gohannium of the Romans,
so named from Gobannio, the Gavenny. The town wai
formerly walled, and has the remains of a castle built
soon after the Conquest, and also of a Benedictine monas
tery. The river Usk is hero spanned by a noble stone
bridge of fifteen arches. Two markets are held weekly,
and elegant market buildings have recently been erected.
There is a free grammar school, with a fellowship and
exhibitions at Jesus College, Oxford. No extensive
manufacture is carried on except that of shoes ; the town
owes its prosperity mainly to the large coal and iron
works in the neighbourhood. Abergavenny ia a poUiag
place for the county. Population of parish (1871), 631S.
ABERNETHY, a town in Perthshire, situated in the
parish of the same name, on the right bank of the Tay,
7 miles below Perth. The earliest of the Culdee houses
was founded there, and it is said to have been the capital of
the Pictish kings. It was long the chief seat of the Epis-
copacy in the country, till, in the 9th century, the bishopric
was transferred to St Andrews. There still remains at Aber-
nethy a curious circular tower, 74 feet high and 48 feet
in circumference, consisting of sixty-four courses of hewn
stone. A number of similar towers, though not so weD
A B E — A B E
47
built, are to be met witli in Irel.iiid, but there is only one
Dther m Scotland, viz., that at Brechin. Petria argues, iu
bis Round Towers of Ireland, that these structures have
been used as belfries, and also as keeps.
ABERNETHY, John,— a Protestant dissenting divine of
Ireland, was born at Coleraine, county Londonderry, Ulster,
where his father was minister (Nonconformist), on the
lyth October 1680. In his thirteenth year he entered a
student at the University of Glasgow. On concluding his
course at Glasgow he went to Edinburgh University,
t\here his many brilliant gifts and quick and ready wit —
thought-born, not verbal merely — struck the most eminent
of his contemporaries and even his professors. Returning,
home, he received licence to preach from his Presbytery
before ho was twenty-one. In 1701 he was urgently
invited to accept the ministerial charge of an important
congregation in Antrim ; and after an interval of two
years, he was ordained there on 8th Augast 1703. His
admiring biographer tells of an amount and kind of
work done there, such as only a man of fecund brain, of
large heart, of healthful frame, and of resolute will, could
have achieved. In 1717 he was invited to the congrega-
tion of Ushei'a Quay, Dublin, as colleague with Rev. Mr
Arbuckle, and contemporaneously, to what was called the
Old Congregation of Belfast. The Synod assigned him to
Dublin. He refused to accede, and remained at Antrim.
This refusal was regarded then as ecclesiastical high-
tre:ison; and a cont'-oversy of the most intense and dis-
proportionate character followed. The controversy and
quorrel bears the name of the two camps in the con-
flict, the "Subscribers" and the "Non-subscribers." Out-
and-out evangelical as John Abernethy was, there can ba
no question that he and his associates sowed the seeds of
that after-struggle in which, under the leadership of Dr
Henry Cooke, the Arian and Socinian elements of the Irish
Presbyterian Church were thrown out. Much of what he
contended for, and which the " Subscribers " opposed bitterly,
has been sDently granted in the lapse of time. In 1726 the
" Non-subscribers," spite of an almost wofuUy pathetic
pleading against separation by Abernethy, were cut off, with
due ban and solemnity, from the Irish Presbyterian Church.
In 1 730, spite of being a " JSTon-subscriber," he was called
by his early friends of Wood Street, Dublin, whither he
removed. In 1731 came on the greatest controversy in
which Abernethy engaged, viz., in relation to the Test Act
nominally, but practically on the entire question of tests
and disabilities. His stand was "against all laws that, upon
account of mere differences of religious opinions and forms
of worsTiip, excluded men of integrity and ability from
sen-ing their country." He was nearly a century in
advance of his century. He had to reason with those who
denied that a Roman Catholic or Dissenter could be a
" man of integrity and ability." His Tracts — afterwards
collected — did fresh service, generations later. And so
John Abernethy through life waa over foremost where un-
popular truth and right were to be maintained; nor did he,
for sake of an ignoble expediency, spare to smite the highest-
seated wrongdoers any more than the hoariest errors (as he
believed). He died in 1740, having been tmco married.
(Kippis' Biog. Brit., s. v.; Dr Duchal's Life, prefixed to
Sermons; Diary in MS., 6 vols. 4to; History of Irish Pres-
bi/terian Church). (k. B. o.) ;
ABERNETHY, John, grandson of ihe preceding, an
eminent surgeon, was bom in London on the 3d of April
1764. His father was a London merchant Educated
at Wolverhampton Grammar School, ho was apprenticed
in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke, a surgeon in extensive
practice in the metropolis. He attended Sir William
Blizzard's anatomical lectures at the London Hospital,
and was early employed to assist Sir William " de-
monstrator;" he also attended Pott's surgical lectures at
St Bartholomew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of the
celebrated John Hunter. On Pott's resignation of the
oflice of surgeon of St Bartholomew's, Sir Charles Blicke,
who was assistant-surgeon, succeeded him, and Abernethy
was elected assistant-surgeon in 1787. In this capacity
ho began to give lectures in Bartholomew Close, which
were so well attended that the governors of the hospital
built a regular theatre (1790-91), and Abernethy thus
became the founder of tha distinguished School of St
Bartholomew's. He hold the office of assistant-surgeon of
the hospital for the long period of twenty-eight years, till, in
1815, ho was elected principal surgeon. He had before that
time been appointed surgeon of Christ's Hospital (1813),
and Professor of Anatomy and Surgery to the Royal
CoUege of Surgeons (1814). Abernethy had great fame
both as a practitioner and as a lectujer, his reputation iu
both respects resting on the efforts he made to promote
the practical improvement of surgery. His Surgical Ob-
servations on tlie Constitutional Origin and Treatment OJ
Local Diseases (1809) — known as "My Book," from the
great frequency with which ha referred his patients to it,
and to page 72 of it in particular, under that name — wad
one of the earliest popular works on medical science.
The views he expounds in it are based on physiological
considerations, and are the more important that the con-
nection of surgery with physiology had scarcely been
recognised before the time he wrote. The leading prin-
ciples on which he insists in " My Book " are chiotly these
two : — \st, That topical diseases are often mere symptoms
of constitutional maladies, and then can only be removed
by general remedies ; and Id, That the disordered state of
the constitution very often originates in, or is closely
allied to deranged states of the stomach and bowels, and
can only be remedied by means that beneficially affect the
functions of those organs. His profession owed him
much for his able advocacy of the extension in this way
of the province of surgery. He had gi'eat success as a
teacher from tha thorough knowledge he had of his
science, and the persuasiveness with which he enunciated
his \'iews. It has been said, however, that the influence
he exerted on those who attended his lectures was not
beneficial in this respect, that his opinions were delivered
so dogmatically, and all who differed from him were dis-
paraged and denounced so contemptuously, as to repress
instead of stimulating inquiry. It ought to be mentioned,
that he was the first to suggest and to perform the daring
operation of securing by ligature the carotid and the exter-
nal Uiac arteries. The celebrity Abernethy attained in
liis practice was duo not only to his great professional
skill, but also in part to the singularity of his manners.
He used great plainness of speech in his intercourse with
his patients, treating them often brusquely, and sometimes
even rudely. In the circle of his family and friends ha
was courteous and affectionate ; and in all his dealings he
was strictly just and honourable. He resigned his surgery
at St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1827, and his professor-
ship at the CoUege of Surgeons two years later, on account
of failing health, and died at his residence at Enfield
on the 20th of April 1831. A collected edition of his
works in five volumes was published in 1830. A bio-
graphy. Memoirs of John Abernethy, by George Macilwain,
F.R.C.S., appeared in 1853, and though anything but
satisfactory, passed through several editions.
ABERRATION, or (more correctly) the Aberration
op Light, is a remarkable phenomenon, by which stars
appear to deviate a little, in the course of a year, from
their true places in thiheavcns. It results from the eye
of the observer being carried onwards by the motion of the
earth nu its orbit, during the time that light takes to
48
A B E — A B 1
travel from the star to the earth. The effect of this com-
bination of motions may be best explained by a familiar illus-
tration. . Suppose a rain-drop falling vertically is received
in K tube that has a lateral
motion. In order that the
drop may fall freely do\ni
the axis of the tube, the
latter must be inclined at
such an angle as to move
from the position AD to BE,
and again to CF, in the
tiujcs the drop moves from
D to G, and from G to C.
The drop in this case, since
it moves down the axis all
the way, must strike the
bottom of the tube at C
in the direction FC. The
light proceeding from a star is not seen in its true direc-
tion, but strikes the eye obliquely, for a precisely similar
reason. If lines bo taken to represent the motions, so that
the eye is carried from A to C during the time that light
moves from D to C, the light will appear to the eye at C
to come, not from D, but from F. The angle DCF, con-
tained by the true and apparent dii-ections of the star, is
the aberration. It is greatest when the two motions are
at right angles to each other, i.e., when the star's longitude
is 90° in advance of, or behind, the heliocentric longitude
of the earth, or (which amounts to the same thing) 90°
behind, or in advance of, the geocentric longitude of the
sun. (See Astronomy.) Now, in the right-angled triangle
ACD, tan ADC {i.e., DCF) = j^ ; whence it appears that
the tangent of the angle of aberration (or, since the angle
is very small, the aberration itself) is equal to the ratio,
velocity of e.irth in orbit _, , , ., .>, ■•
i—^, — fT^-TT . The rate of the earth s motion
velocity 01 liglit
being to the velocity of light in the proportion of 1 to
10,000 nearly, the maximum aberration is small, amount-
ing to about 20--1 seconds of arc, — a quantity, hov.'cver,
which is very appreciable in astronomic^al obsci'vations.
Aberration always takes place in the direction of the
earth's motion; that is, it causes the stars to appear nearer
than they really are to the point towards whioh the earth
is at the moment moving. That point is necessarily on
the ecliptic, and 90° in advance of the earth in longitude.
The efl'ect is to make a star at the pole of the ecliptic
appear to move in a plane parallel to the ecliptic, so as to
form a small ellipse, similar to the earth's orbit, but having
its major axis parallel to the minor axis of that orbit, and
vice versd. As we proceed from the pole, the apparent
orbits the stars describe become more and more elliptical,
tin in the plane of the ecliptic the apparent motion is in
a straight line. The length of this line, as well as of the
major axes of the different ellipses, amounts, in angular
measure, to about 40" 'S. The stars thus ajjpear to oscil-
late, in the course of the year, 20"'4 on each side of their
true position, in a direction parallel to the plane of the
ecliptic, and the quantity 20" -4 is therefore called the
constant of aberration.
For the discovery of the aberration of light, one of the
finest in modern astronomy, we are indebted to the dis-
tinguished astronomer Dr Bradley. He was led to it, in
1727, by the result of observations he made with the view
of determining the annual parallax of some of the stars ;
that is, the angle subtended at these stars by the diameter
of the earth's orbit. He observed certain changes in the
positions of the stars that he could not account for. The
deviations were not in the direction of the apparent motion
that parallax would (nve rise to; and he bad no better
success in attempting -to explain the phenomenon by tho
nutation of the earth's axis, radiation, errors of obserw
tion, ic. At last the true solution of the difficulty occurred
t him, suggested, it is said, by the movements of a vane
on the top of a boat's mast. Roemer had discovered, a
quarter of a century before, that light has a velocity which
admits of measurement; and Bradley perceived that the
earth's motion, having a perceptible relation to that of
light, must affect the direction of the visual rays, and with
this the apparent positions of the stars. He calculated the
aberration from the known relative velocities of the earth
and of light, and the results agreed entirely with his
observations.
The observed effects of aberration are of importance as
supplying an independent method of measuring the velocity
of hght, but more particularly as presenting one of the few
direct proofs that can be given of the earth's motion round
the sun. It is indeed the most satisfactory proof of this
that astronomy furnishes, the phenomenon being quite in-
explicable on any other hypothesis.
ABEKYSTWITH, a municipal and parliamentary bo-
rough, market town, and seaport of Wales, in the county
of Cardigan, is situated at the western end of the Vale
of Ehcidol, near the confluence of the rivers Ystwilh
and Rheidol, and about the centre of Cardigan Bay. It
is the terminal station of the Cambrian Railway, and a
line to the south affords direct communication with South
Wales, Bristol, &c. The borough unites with Cardigan,
Lampeter, itc., in electing a member of Parliament. Coal,
timber, and lime are imported, and the exports are lead,
oak bark, flannel, and corn. The harbour has of hite been
much improved; and the pier, completed in ISCS, forms
an excellent promenade. There are many elegant build-
ings, and it has been proposed to establish here a Uni-
versity College of Wales. On a promontory to the S.W.
of the town are the ruins of its ancient castle, erected in
1277, by Edward I., on the site of a fortress of great
strength, built by Gilbert de Strongbow, and destroyed by
Owen Gwynedd. From its picturesque situation and
hertlthy climate, and the suitableness of the beach for
bathing, Aberystwith has risen into great repute as a
w.itering-place, and attracts many visitors. Much of the
finest scenery in Wales, such as the Devil's Bridge, &c.,
lies within easy reach. Population (1871), 6898.
ABETTOR, a law term implying one who instigates,
encourages, or assists another to perform some criminal
action. See Accessory.
ABEYANCE, a law term denoting the expectancy of an
estate. Thus, if hnds be leased to one person for life, with
reversion to another for years, the remainder for years ij
in abeyance till the death of the lessee.
ABGAR, the name or title of a line of kings of Edess.T
in Mesopotamia, One of them is known from a corre-
spondence he is said to have had with Jesus Christ. The
letter of Abgar, entreating Jesus to visit him and heal him
of a disease, and offering Him an asylum from the wrath
of the Jews, and the answer of Jesus promising to send a
disciple to heal Abgar after His ascension, are given by
Eusebius, who believed the documents to be genuine. The
same belief has been held by a few moderns, but there can
be no doubt whatever that the letter of Jesus at least is
apocryphal. It has also been alleged that Abgar possessed
a picture of Jesus, which the credulous may see either at
Rome or at Genoa. Some make him the possessor of the
handkerchief a woman gave Jesus, as He bore the cross,
to wipe the sweat from His face with, on which, it is
fabled, His features remained miraculously imprinted.
ABIAD, Bahr-el-, a name given to the western branch
of the Nile, above Khartoum. It is better known as the
AVhite Nile. See Nile.
A B I — A B I
49
ABIEfi. See Fm.
ABILA, a city of ancient Syria, the capital of the
tetrarchy of Abilene, a territory whose limits and extent it
is impossible not* to define. The site of Abila is indi-
cated by some ruins and inscriptions on the banks of the
riyer Barada, between Baalbec and Damascus, about twelve
miles from the latter city. Though the names Abel and
Abila differ in derivation and in meaning, their similarity
has given rise to the tradition that this was the scene of
Abel's death.
ABILDGAARD, Nikolaj, called "the Father of Danish
Painting," was bom in 1744. He formed his style on
that of Claude and of Nicolas Pousstn, and was a cold
theorist, inspired ndi by nature but by art. As a technical
painter he attained remarkable success, his tone being
very harmonious and even, but the effect, to a foreigner's
eye, is rarely interesting. His works are scarcely known
out of Copenhagen, where he won an immense fame in his
own generation, and where he died in 1809. He was the
founder of the Danish school of painting, and the master
of Thorwaldsen and Eckersberg.
ABIMELECH ('l^?"'?-'!. father of the king, or rather
perhaps hing-father), occurs first in the Bible as the name
of certain kings of the Philistines at Gerar (Gen. xx. 2,
xxi, 22, xxvi 1). From the fact that the name is applied
in the inscription of the thirty-fourth psahu to Achish, it
has been inferred with considerable probability that it was
used as the official designation of. the Philistinian kings.
The name was also borne by a son of Gideon, judge of
Israel, by his Shechemite concubine (Judges viLi. 31).
On the death of Gideon, who had refused the title of king
both for himself and his children, Abimelech set himself
to obtain the sovereignty through the influence of his
mother's relatives. In pursuance of his plan he slew
seventy of his brethren " upon one stone " at Ophrah,
Jothara, the youngest of'them, alone contriving to escape.
This is one of the earliest recorded instances of a practice
exceedingly common on the accession of Oriental despots.
Abimelech was eventually made king, although his election
was opposed by Jotham, who boldly appeared on Mount
Gerimn and told the assembled Shechemites the fable of
the trees desiring a king. At th« end of the third year
of his reign the Shechemites revolted, and under the
leadorahip of Graal made an unsuccessful attempt to throw
off the authority of Abimelech. In Judges is. there is
an account of this insurrection, which is specially interest-
ing oiving to the full details it gives of the nature of the
military operations. After totally destroying Shechem,
Abimelech proceeded against Thebez, which had also re-
volted. Here, while storming the citadel, he was struck on
the head by the fragment of a millstone thrown from the
wall by a woman. To avoid the disgrace of perishing by
Q woman's hand, he requested his armour-bearer to run
him through the body. Though the immediate cause of
his death was thus a sword-thrust, his memory was not
saved from the ignominy he dreaded (2 Sam. xi. 21). It
has been usual to regard Abimelech's reign as the first
ettempt to establish a monarchy in Israel. Tl;^ facts,
however, seem rather to support the theory of Ewald
(Gesch. ii. 444), that Shechem had asserted its independ-
ence of Israel, when it chose Abimelech as its king.
ABINGDON, a parliamentary and municipal borough
and market town of England, in Berkshire, on a branch
of the Thames, 7 miles south of Oxford, and 51 miles
jW.N.W. of London. It is a place of great antiquity, and
jwas an important town in the time of the Heptarchy. Its
i)ame is derived from an ancient abbey. The streets. whii:b
are well paved, converge to a spacious area, in v^hich the
market is held. In the centre of this area stands tho
jmarket-Jiouse. supported on lofty pillars, with a large hall
above, appropriated to the sTumner assizes for the county,
and the transaction of other pubhc business. The town
contains two churches, which are saiS to have been erected
by the abbots of Abingdon, one dedicated to St Nicholas
and the other to St Helena ; several charitable institutions,
and a free grammar school, with scholarships at Pembroke
CoUege, Oxford. In 1864 a memorial of Prince Albert
was erected at Abingdon, a richly ornamented structure,
surmounted by a statue of the Prince. Abingdon was
incorporated by Queen Mary. It sends one member to
Parliament, and is governed by a mayor, four aldermen,
and twelve councillors. In the beginning of the century
it manufactured much sail-cloth and sacking; but its chief
trade now is in corn and malt, cai-pets, and coarse linen.
It is a station on a branch of the Great 'V\'"estern Railway
Population (1871), 6571.
ABIOGENESIS, as a name for tne production of living
by not-living matter, has of late been superseding the less
accurate phrase " Spontaneous Generation." Professor
Huxley, who made use of the word in his presidential
address to the British Association in 1870, distinguished
Abiogenesis from " Xenogenesis " or " Heterogenesis,"
which occurs, or is supposed to occur, not when dead
matter produces living matter, but when a living parent
gives rise to offspring which passes through a totally
different series of states from those exhibited by the
parent, and does not return into the parent's cycle of
changes. When a " living parent gives rise to offspring
which passes through the same cycle of changes as itself,'
there occurs "Somogenesis." "Biogenesis" includes both
of these. Other names for Abiogenesis are Generatia
^quivoca, Generatio Primaria, Archigenesis (Urzeugung),
Archebiosis, &c. The question of Abiogenesis — whether
under certain conditions living matter is produced by not-
hying matter — as it is one of the most fundamental, is per-
haps also the oldest in Biology; but within recent years — •
partly because the means of accurate experimentation have
been increased and the microscope improved, and partly
because the question has been recognised in its impor-
tant bearings on evolution, the correlation of forces, and
the theory of infectious diseases — naturalists have been
led to bestow more attention upon it than at any previous
period. While, therefore, the doctrine of Abiogenesis
cannot be said to be either finally established or refuted,
it is at least reasonable to believe that we are gradually
advancing to a solution. Among the older observers
of phenomena bearing on the question may be named
Aristotle, who, with the ancients generally, favoured
Abiogenesis ; Eedi, the founder of the opposite view ;
Vallisnieri ; Buffon; Needham ; and SpaDanzani ; among
later observers, Schwann and Schulze, Schrceder and
Dusch, Pasteur, Pouchet, Haeckel, Huxley, Bastian, and
many others. The experiments and observations made by
these naturalists, and their results — the ingenious' ex-
pedients employed to prevent inaccuracy^ — the interesting
and often marvellous transformations which microscopista
declare they have witnessed — will be discussed in tho
article Histology ; here it will be enough to note the
general nature of the reasoniogs with which the opponents
and defenders of Abiogenesis support their views. The
opponents maintain that all trustworthy observationa
have hitherto shown living matter to have sprung from
pre-existing living matter ; and that the further we search
and examine, the smaller becomes the . number of those
organisms which we cannot demonstrate to have arisen from
living parents. They hold that seeming instances -^
spontaneous generation pre usually to be explained by the
germ-theory — the prefic nee of invisible germs in the air ;
and they call to their aid-sue^ high authorities as Pasteur
and TynddL The defenders of Abiogenesis, on tho othen
T. — 7
50
A B 1 — A li C
hand, v/liile interpreting the results of past obacrvabon
and experimeot in their own favour, are yet leas disposed
to rest on these, rather preferring to ar^ae from those
wide analogies of evolution and correlalaon which seem to
support their doctrine. Thus Hacckel expressly embraces
Abiogcnesis as a necessary and integral part of the theory
of universal evolution ; and Huxley, in the same spirit,
though from the opposite camp, confesses that if it were
given him to look beyond the abyss of geologically
recorded time to the still more remote period when the
earth was passing through physical and chemical con-
ditions, he should ejrpect to be a witness of the evolution
of living protoplasm from not-living matter. (Critiqves
and Addresses, p. 239.) From this point of view, of
course, any microscopic obiervatious that have been made
soera verj' limited and comparatively unimportant. The
Abiogenists, indeed, are not without arguments to oppose
the results of past observation that seem unfavourable to
their vieAvs ; they argue that, as yet, all the forms
observed and shown to be produced by Biogenesis are
forms possessing a certain degree of organi-sation, which
in their case makes Abiogeuesis unlikely, from the first ;
whereas it has not been shown that the simplest struc-
tures— the Monera — do not arise by Abiogenesis. But
it is not so much on grounds of fact and experiment the
defenders of the Abiogenesis theory are convinced of
its truth, as because it seems to gain confirmation from
reasonings of much ^vidcr scope; because Abiogenesis aids
the theory of evolution by tracing the organic into the
inorganic ; because it fosters the increasing unpopularity
of the hypothesis of a special " vital force;" and because,
if this theory of the " perpetual origination of low forms
of life, now, as in all past epochs," were established, it
would agree well with the principle of uniformity, and by
disclosing the existence of unknown worlds of material for
development, would relieve natural selection with its ay-sist-
ing causes from what many consider the too Herculean
labour of evolving aU species from one or a very few
primary forms. The fullest discussion of the subject of
Abiogenesis, from the Abiogonist's point of view, is to be
found in Dr Bastiau's Beginninya of Life. Professor
Huxley's address, already referred to, contains an interest-
ing historical survey, as well as a masterly summary of
facts and arguments in favour of Biogenesis. For many
interesting experiments, see Nature, 1870-73.
ABIPDNES, a tribe of South American Indians, inhabit-
ing the territory lying between Santa F^ and St lago.
They originally occupied the Chaco district of Paraguay,
but were driven thence by the hostihty of the Spaniards.
According to M. Cobrizhoffer, who, towards the end of
last century, hved among them for a period of seven years,
they have many singular customs and characteristics.
They seldom marry before the age of thirty, are chaste
and otherwise virtuous in their lives, though they practise
infanticide, and are without the idea of God. "With the
Abipones," says Darwin, " when a man chooses a wife, he
bargains with the parents about the price. • But it fre-
quently happens that the girl rescinds what has been
agreed upon between the parents and bridegroom, obsti-
nately rejecting the very mention of marriage; She often
runs away and hides herself, and thus eludes the bride-
groom." The Abiponian women suckle those infants that
are spared for the space of two years, — an onerous habit,
which is believed to have led to infanticide as a means of
escape. The men are brave in war, and pre-eminently
experi in swimming and horsemanship. NumericaDy the
tribe is insignificant. M. Dobrizhoffer's account of the
Abiponians was translated into English by Sara Coleridge,
aX tlie suggestion of Mr Southey, in 1822.
ABJUILITTOX. See Ajllegiancb, Oath os.
ABKHASIA, or Abasia, a tract of Asiatic liosaia, on
the border of the Black Sea, comprehending between kt.
42° 30' and 41° 45' N. and between long. 37' 3' and 40° 36'
E. The high mountains of the Caucasus on the N. and
N.E. divide it from Circassia; on the S.K it is bounded
by Mingrelia ; and on the S. W. by the Black Sea. Though
the country is generally mountainous, there are some deep
well- watered valleys, and the clin.ato is mild. The soil
is fertile, producing grain, grapes, and other fruits.
Some of the inhabitants devote themselves to agriculture,
some to the rearing of cattle and horses, and not a few
support themselves by piracy and robbery. Honey is
largely produced, and is exported to Turkey; and excellent
arms are made. Both in ancient and in modem times
there has been considerable trafiic; in slaves. This country
was early known to the ancients, and was subdued by the
Emperor Justinian, who introduced civilisation and Chris-
tianity. Afterwards thi Persians, then the Georgians, and
more recently the Tvuks, ruled over the land. Under
the Turks Christianity gradually disappeared, and Moham-
medanism was intrvluced in its stead. By the treaties of
Akerman and AAvianople, Russia obtained possevsion of
the fortresses of this territory; but till the insurrection of
186G, the chiefs had almost unlimited power. The prin-
cipal town is Sukumkaleh. The population of Abkhasia
is variously stated at from 50,000 to 2r)0,000. See Pal-
grave's £ssays on Eastern Questions, 1872.
ABLUTION, a ceremonial purification, practised in
nearly every age and nation. It consisted in washing the
body in whole or part, so as to cleanse it symbolically
from defilement, and to prepare it for religious obsen'auces.
Among the Jews we find no trace of the ceremony in patri-
archal times, but it was repeatedly enjoined and strictly
enforced under the Mosaic economy. It denoted either —
(1.) Cleansing from the taint of an inferior and less pure
condition, and initiation into a higher and purer state, ao
in the case of Aaron and his sons on their being set apart
to the priesthood; or (2.) Cleansing from the soil of
common life, in preparation for special acts of worship, as
in the case of the priests who were commanded, upon pain
of death, to wash their hands and feet before approaching
the altar; or (3.) Cleansing from the pollution occasioned
by particular acts and circumstances, as in the case of the
eleven species of uncleanness mentioned in the Mosaic
law; or (4.) The absolving or purifying one's self from the
guilt of some particular criminal act, as in the case of
Pilate at the trial of the Saviour. The sanitary reasons
which, in a warm climate and with a dry sandy soil, ren-
dered frequent ablution an imperative necessity, must not
bo allowed to empty the act of its symbolic meaning. In
the Hebrew different words are used for the washing of
the hands before meals, which was done for the sake of
cleanliness and comfort, and for the washing or plunging
enjoined by the ceremonial law. At the same time it is
impossible to doubt that the considerations which made
the law so suitable in a physical point of view were present
to the mind of the Lawgiver when the rite was. enjoined.
Traces of the practice are to be found in the history of
nearly every nation. The customs of the Mohammedans,
in this as in other matters, are clcsely analogous to those
of the Jews. ^Yith them ablution must in every case pre-
c-ede the exercise of prayer, and their law provides that in
Vhe desert, where water is not to be found, .the Arabs may
perform the rite wi'th sand. Various forms of ablution
practised by different nations are mentioned in the sixth
book of the iEueid, and we are told that iEneas washed
his ensanguined hands after the battle before touching his
Penates. Symbolic ablution finds a pLice under the New
Testament dispensation in the rite of baptism, which is
observed, though with some variety of form and circum-
A B N — A B O
51
stances, throughout the whole Christian Church. By
Romau Catholics and Bitualists, the tenn ablution is
appUed to the cleansing of the chaHce and the fingers of
the celebrating priest after the administration of the Lord's
Supper.
ARN'F.R (^52?, father of light), first cousin of Saul
(1 Sam. xiv. 50) and commander-in-chief of his army.
The chief references to him during the lifetime of Saul are
found in 1 Sam, xvii. 55, and xxvi. 5. It was only after
that monarch's death, however, that Abner was brought
into a position of the first political importance. David,
who had some time before been designated to the throne,
was accepted '\.- king by Judah alone, and was crowned at
Hebron. T' - other tribes were actuated by a feeling
hostile to Judah, and, as soon as they had thrown off the
Philistinian yoke, were induced by Abner to recognise
Ishbosheth, the surviving son of Saul, as their king. One
engagement between the rival factions under Joab and
Abner respectively (2 Sam. ii 12) is noteworthy, inasmuch
as it was preceded by an encounter between twelve chosen
men from each side, in which the 'vhole twenty-four seem
to have perished. In the general engagement which fol-
lowed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was
closely pursued by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to
have been " light of foot as a wild roe." As Asahel would
not desist from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was
compelled to slay him in self-defence. This originated a
deadly feud between the leaders of the opposite parties, for
Joab, as next of kin to Asahel, was by the law and custom
of the country the avenger of his blood. For some time
afterwards the war wps carried on, the advantage being
invariably on the aide of David. At length Ishbosheth
lost the main prop of his tottering cause by remonstrating
with Abner for marrying Rizpah, one of Saul's concubines,
an alliance which, according to Oriental notions, implied
pretensions to the throne. Abner was indignant at the
rebuke, and unmediately transferred his allegiance to
David, who not only welcomed him, but promised to give
him the command of the combined armies on the re-union
of the kingdoms. Almost immediately after, however,
Abner was slain by Joab and his brother Abishai at the
gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the assassina-
tion was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a
sufficient justification for the deed according to the moral
standard of the time. There can be little doubt, however,
that Joab was actuated in great part by jealousy of a new
and formidable rival, who seemed not unlikely to usurp
his place in the king's favour. The conduct of David
after the event was such as to show that he had no com-
plicity in the act, though he could not venture to punish
its perpetrators. The dirge which he repeated over the
grave of Abner (2 Sam. ui 33-4) has been thus trans-
lated : —
Should Abner die as a villain dies ? —
Thy hards — not boimd.
Thy feet — not brought into fetters :
As one falla before the sons of wickedness, fcllest thou.
AEO, a city and seaport, and chief town of the district
of the same name in* the Russian province of Finland, is
eituated in N. bt. 60° 26', E. long. 22° 19', on the Aura-
joki, about 3 miles from where it falls into the Gulf of
Bothnia. It was a place of importance when Finland
formed part of the kingdom of Sweden, and the inhabi-
tants of the city and district are mostly of Swedish descent.
By the treaty of peace concluded here between Russia and
Sweden on 17tli August 1743, a gieat part of Finland was
ceded to the former. Abo continued to be the' capital of
FinLind tUl 1819. In November 1827, nearly the whole
city was burnt down, the university and its valuable library
being entirely destioy e<t" " Before this calamity Abo coa.
tained 1100 houses, and 13,00C 'jihabitants ; and its
university had 40 professors, more th.in 500 students, and
a library of upwards of 30,000 volumes, together with a
botanical garden, an observatory, and a chemical laboratory.
The university has since been removed to Helsingfors.
Abo is the seat of an archbishop, and of the supreme court
of justice for South Finland; and it has ar cathedral, a
town-haU, and a custom-house. Sail-cloth, linen, leather,
and tobacco are manufactured; shipbuilding is carried on,
and there are ertensive saw-mills. There is also a large
trade in timber, pitch, and tar. Vessels drawing 9 or 10
feet come up to the town, but ships of greater draught are
laden and discharged at the mouth of the river, which
forms an excellent harbour and is protected. Population
in 1867, : 3,109.
ABOLITIONIST. See Slavery.
ABOMASUM, caillette, the fourth or rennet stomach of
Ruminantia. From the omasum the food is finally depo-
sited in the abomasum, a cavity considerably larger than
either the second or third stomach, although less than the
first. The base of the abomasum is turned to the omasum.
It is of an irregular conical form. It is that part of the
digestive apparatus which is analogous to the single stomach
of other Mammalia, as the food there undergoes the process
of chymification, after being macerated and ground down
in the thi'ee first stomachs.
ABOMET, the capital of Dahomey, in West Africa, is
situated in N. lat. 7°, E. long. 2° 4', about 60 miles
N. of Whydah, the port of the kingdom. It is a clay-
buUt town, surrounded by a moat and mud walls, and
occupies a large area, part of which is cultivated. The
houses stand apart; theie are no regular streets; and the
place is very dirty. It has four larger market-places, and
trade is carried on in palm-oil, ivory, and gold, Moham-
medan traders from the interior resorting to its markets.
The town contams the principal palace of the king of
Dahomey. It is the scene of frequent human sacrifices,
a " custom" being held annually, at which many criminals
and captives are slain; while on the death of a king a
" grand custom" is held, at which sometimes as many as
2000 victims have perished. The slave-trade is also pro-
secuted, and the efforts of the British Government to induca
the king to abolish it and the " customs" have proved un-
successful. Population, about 30,000. See Dadojiey.
ABORIGINES, originally a proper name given to an
Italian people who inhabited the ancient Latium, or
country now called Campagna di Roma. Various deriva-
tions of this name have been suggested; but there can be
scarcely any doubt that th.^ usual derivation {ah origins) is
correct, and that the word simply indicated a settled tribe,
whose origm and earlier history were unknown. It is thus
the equivalent of the Greek autochthones. It is therefore,
strictly speaking, not a proper name at all, although, from
being applied to one tribe (or group of tribes), it came to
be regarded as such. Who the Aborigines werf, or whence
they came, is tmcertain; but various traditions that are
recorded seem to indicate that they were an Oscan oj
Opican tribe that descended from the Apennines int<
Latium, and united with some Pelasgic tribe to form the
Latins. The stories about .iEneas's landing in Itnly repr&
sent the Aborigines as at firet opposing and then coalescing
with the Trojans, and state that the united people thea
assumed the name of Latins, from their king Zatinus,
These traditions clearly point to the fact that the Latins
were a mixed race, a circumstance which is proved by the
structure of their language, in which we find numerous
words closely connected with the Greek, and also numerous
words that are of an entirely different origin. These non-
Greek words are mostly related to the dialect.? of the
52
A B O — A B R
Opican tribes. In modern tiirics tho tenn Abori'jinea has
been extended in eigniilcution, and is uiicd to indicate
the inhabitauta found in a country at ita first discovery, in
contradistinction to colonies or new races, the time of whose
introduction into the country is known.
ABORTION, in Midioi/ery (from aborior, I perish),
the premature separation and expulsion of the contents of
the pregnant uterus. When occurring before the eighth
lunar month of gestation, abortion ia the term ordinarily
employed, but subsequent to this period it is designated
premature labour. The present notice includes both these
terms. As an accident of pregnancy, abortion is far from
uncommon, although its relative frequency, as compared
with that of completed gestation, has been very differently
estimated by accoucheurs. It is more liable to occur in
the earlier than in the later months of pregnancy, and it
would also appear to occur more readily at tho periods
corresponding to those of the menstrual discharge. Abor-
tion may be induced by numerous causes, both of a local
and general nature. Malformations of tho pelvis, acci-
dental injuries, and the diseases and displacements to
which tho uterus is liable, on the one hand ; and, on the
other, various morbid conditions of the ovum or placenta
leading to the death of tho foetus, are among the direct
local caiises of abortion The general causes embrace
certain states of the system which are apt to exercise a
more or less direct influence upon the progress of utero-
gestation. A deteriorated condition of health, whether
hereditary or as the result of habits of Ufe, certainly pre-
disposes to the occurrence of abortion. SyphUis is known
to be a frequent cause of the death of the foetus. Many
diseases arising in the course of pregnancy act as direct
exciting causes of abortion, more particularly the eruptive
fevers and acute inflammatory affections. Prolonged
irritation in other organs may, by reflex action, excite
the uterus to expel its contents. Strong impressions
made upon the nervous system, as by sudden shocks and
mental emotions, occasionally have a similar effect Further,
certain medicinal substances, particularly ergot of rye,
borax, savin, tansy, and cantharides, are commonly be-
lieved to be capable of exciting uterine action, but the
effects, as regards at least early pregnancy, are very un-
certain, while the strong purgative medicines sometimes
employed with the view of procuring abortion have no
effect whatever upon the uterus, and can only act remotely
and indirectly, if they act at all, by irritating the alimen-
tary canaL In cases of poisoning with carbonic acid,
abortion has been observed to take place, and the experi-
ments of Dr Brown Sequard show that anything inter-
fering with the normal oxygenation of the blood may
cause the uterus to contract and expel its contents. Many
cases of abortion occur vrithout apparent cause, but in
such instances the probability is that some morbid condition
of the interior of the uterus exists, and the same may be
said of many of those cases where the disposition to abort
has become habitual. The tendency, however, to the
recurrence of abortion in persons who have previously
miscarried is well known, and should ever be borne in
mind with the view of avoiding any cause likely to lead
to a repetition of the accident. Abortion resembles ordi-
nary labour in its general phenomena, excepting that in
the former hemorrhage often to a large extent forms one
of the leading symptoms. The treatment of abortion
embraces the meams to be used by rest, astringents, and
sedatives, to prevent the occurrence when it merely
threatens ; or when, on the contrary, it is inevitable, to
accomplish as speedily as possible the complete removal
of the entire contents of the uterus. The artificial induc-
tion of premature labour is occasionally resorted to by
aoooucheuTB jmder certain conditions involving the safety
of tlic mother or the fiEtus. For Criminal Abortion, fct
Medicax Jueibpeudence.
ABOUKIIl, a small village on the coast of Egypt, 1 3
miles N.E. of Alexandria, containing a ciistle which wai
used as a state prison by Mehemet Ali. Near the village,
and connected with the shore by a chain of rocks, is a
small island romaikable for remains of ancient buildings.
Stretching to tho eastward as far as tho Rosetta mouth of
the Nile is the spacious bay of Aboukir, where Nelson
fought " the Battle of the Nile," defeating and almost
destroying the French fleet that had conveyed Napoleon
to Egypt. It was near Aboukii that tho expedition to
Egypt, under Sir Kalph Abercromby, in 1801, effected a
landing in the face of an opposing force.
ABRABANEL, Isaac (called also Abravanel, Abarbanel,
Barbanella, and Ravanella), a celebrated Jewish statesman,
philosopher, theologian, and commentator, was bom at
Lisbon in 1437. He belonged to an ancient family that
claimed descent from the royal house of David, and his
parents gave him an education becqming so renowned a
lineage. He held a high place in the favour of King
Alphonso v., who intrusted him with the management of
important state affairs. On the death of Alphonso in
1481, his counsellors and favourites were harshly. treated
by his successor John ; and Abrabauel was, in consequence,
compelled to flee to Spain, where he held for eight years
(1484-1492), the post of a minister of state under Ferdi-
nand and Isabella. When the Jews were banished from
Spain in 1492, no exception was made in Abrabanel's
favour. Ho afterwards resided at Naples, Corfu, and
Monopoli, and in 1503 removed to Venice, where he held
office as a minister of state till his death in 1508. Abra-
banel was one of the most learned of the rabbis. HLs
writings are chiefly exegetical and polemical ; he displaj's
in them an intense antipathy to Christianity, though he
lived on terms of friendship with Christians. He wrote
commentaries on the greater part of the Old Testament,
in a clear but somewhat diffuse style, anticipating much
that has been advanced as new by modern theologians.
ABRACADABRA, a meaningless word once supposed
to have a magical efficacy as an antidote against agues and
other fevers. Ridiculously minute directions for the
proper use of the charm are given in, the Praicepta de
Medicina of Serenus Sammonicus. The paper on which
the word was written had to be folded in the form of
a cross, suspended from the neck by a strip of linen so as
to rest on the pit of the stomach, worn in this way for
nine days, and then, before sunrise, cast behind the wearer
into a stream running to the east. The letters of this word
were usually arranged to form a tiiangle in one or other of
the following ways : —
ABEACADABEA ABHACADABEA
ABEACUJABE
BEACADABE
AERACADAB
EACADAB
ABEACADa
ACADA
ABKACAD
CAn
ABEACA
A
ABEAO
ABEA
ABB
'
ABRAHAM or ABRAJf, father of the Israelite race,
was the first-born son of Terah, a Shemite, who left Ur
of the Chaldees, in the north-east of Mesopotamia, along
with Abram, Sarai, and Lot, and turned westwards in the
direction of Canaan. Abram had married his haJf-sistei
Sarai, who was ten years younger than himself ; and
though such relationship was afterwards forbidden by the
law. it was common in ancient times, both among othei
A B R A K A M
63
peoples, and among the Hebrews tliemselTea at leasi; oefora
Mosea. The cause of Terah's removing from his native
country ia not given. Having come to Haran, ho abode
there till his death, at the age of 205. According to
Genesis xii., Abram left Haran when he was 75 years of
age, that is, before the death of his father, in consequence
of a divine command, to which was annexed a gracious
promise, " And I wiU make of thee a great nation, and I
will bless thee, and make thy name great ; and thou shalt
be a blessing. And I will bless them that bless thee, and
Gurso him that curseth thee ; and in thee shall all families
of the earth be blessed " (xii. 2, 3). Another tradition
makes him leave Haran only after Terah's decease (Acta
vii. 4). The later account is that Abram's departure was
the result of religious considerations, because he had
already become emancipated from surrounding idolatry.
Perhaps the desire of a nomadic life, the love of migration
natural to an Oriental, had more to do with his pilgrimage
than a spiritual impulse from within ; but it is likely that
his culture advanced in the course of his sojournings, and
that he gradually attained to purer conceptions of duty
and life. Traditions subsequent to the Jehovistic represent
him as driven forth by the idolatrous Chaldeans (Judith
V. 6, &c.) on account of his monotheistic doctrines, and
then dwelling in Damascus as its king (Josephus's Anti-
quities, i. 7). The true cause of departure may be sug-
gested by Nicolaus of Damascus saying that he came out
of Chaldea with an army. The leader of a horde, worsted
ia some encounter or insurrection, he emigrated at the
head of his adherents in quest of better fortunes. The
word redeemed, in Isaiah xxix. 22, out of which Ewald
conjectures so much, as if Abram had been rescued from
great bodily dangers and battles, does not help the portrait,
because it means no more than the patriarch's migration
from heathen Mesopotamia into the Holy Land. Journey-
ing south-west to Canaan with his wife and nephew, he
arrived at Sichem, at the oak of the seer or prophet, where
Jehovah appeared to him, assuring him for the first time
that his seed should possess the land he had come to.
He travelled thence southward, pitching his tent east of
Bethel. Still proceeding in the same direction, ho arrived
at the Negeb, or most southern district of Palestine,
whence a famine forced him down to Kgypt. His plea
that Sarai was his sister did not save her from Pharaoh ;
for she was taken into the royal harem, but restored to
her husband in consequence of divine chastisments inflicted
upon the lawless possessor of her person, leading to the
discovery of her true relationship. The king was glad to
send the patriarch away under the escort and protection
of his men. A similar thing is said to have subsequently
hiippened to Sarai at Gerar with the Philistine king
Abimelech (Genesis sx.), as also to Rebekah, Isaac's wife
(xxvi.) The three narratives describe one and the same
event in different shapes. But the more original (the
junior Elohistic)' is that of the 20th chapter, so that Gerar
was the scene, and Abimelech the offender; while the later
Jehovistic narrative (xii.) deviates still more from veri-
similitude. Though this occun'ence, however, belongs to
the southern borders of Palestine, wo need not doubt the
fact of Abram's sojourn in Egypt, especially aa ho had an
Egyptian slave (Genesis xvi.) How long the patriarch
remained there is not related ; nor are the influenoes which
the religion, science, and learning of that civilised land
had upon him alluded to. That they acted beneQcially
apon his mind, enlightening and enlarging it, can scarcely
be doubted. His religious conceptions were transformed.
' Three documents at least ftre traconble in tlio Pent.iteuch; the
Elohistir, the junior Elohistic, and the Jehovistic. These were put
together by a redactor. Nearly tho whole of the fifth book w:ia
«lduU by the DouteroDomi^t.
The manifold wisdom of Egypt impressed him. Inter-
course with men far advanced in civilisation taught him
much. Later tradition speaks of his communicating U>
the Egyptians the sciences of arithmetic and astronomy
(Josephus i. 7) ; but this is founded upon the motion
entertained at the time of the civilised Chaldeans of
Babylon, whereas Ur of the Chaldees was a district
remote from the subsequent centre of recondite knowledge.
Abram received more than he imparted, for the Egyptians
were doubtless his superiors in science. He found the
rite of circumcision in use. There, too, he acquired great
substance — flocks and herds, male and female slaves.
After returning to Canaan, to his former locality, Abram
and Lot separated, because of disputes between their
herdsmen, there not being sufficient room for all their
cattle in common. After this separation the possession of
Canaan was again assured to Abram and t6 his seed, who
should be exceedingly numerous. This is the third
theocratic promise he received. He is also commanded
by Jehovah to walk through it in its length and breadth
as a token of inheritance, — a later Jehovistic tradition that
must be judged according to its inherent verisimilitude.
Abram settled again at the oak of Mamre near Hebron.
This was his headquarters. After Lot had been taken
prisoner ia the expedition of the kings of Shinar, Ellasar,
Elam, and Goyim, against the old inhabitants of Basan,
Ammonitis, Ivloabitis, Edomitis, and others besides, Abram
gave chase to the enemy, accompanied by his 318 slaves
and friendly neighbours, rescuing his nephew at Hobah,
near Damascus. On his return, the royal priest Melchizedek
of SalMn came forth to meet him with refreshments, blessed
the patriarch, and received from him the tithe of the spoUa.
The king acted generously towards the victor, and was still
more generously treated in return.
Jehovah again promised to Abram a numerous ofi"spring,
with the possession of Canaan. He also concluded a
covenant vrith him in a solemn form, and revealed the
fortunes of his posterity in Egypt, with their deliverance
from bondage. Ia consequence of the barrenness of
Sarai, she gave her handmaid Hagar to Abram, who,
becoming pregnant- by him, was haughtily treated by her
mistress, and fled towards Egypt. But an angel met
her in the desert and sent her back, telling of a numerous
race that should spring from her. Having returned, she
gave birth to Ishmael, ia the 8Gth year of Abram's age.
Again did Jehovah appear to the patriarch, promising as
before a multitudinous seed, and changing his name in
conformity with such promise. He assured him and bis
posterity of the possession of Canaan, and concluded a
covenant with him for aU time. At the institution of
circumcision on this occasion, Sarai's name was also changed,
because she was to be the maternal progenitor of the
covenant people through Isaac her son. Abram, and all
the males belonging to him, were then circumcised. He
had become acquainted vdlh the rite in Egyjjt, and trans-
ferred it to his household, making it a badge of distinction
between the worshippers of tho true God and the idolatrous
Canaanites — the symbol of the flesh's subjection to the
spirit. Jts introduction into the worship of the colony at
Mamre indicated a decided advance in Abram's religious
conceptions. He had got beyond the cruel practice of human
sacrifice. The gro.ss worship of the Canaanites was left
behind; and the small remnant of it which he retained com-
ported with a faith approaching monotheism. Amid pre-
vailing idolatry this institution was a protection to his
family and servants — a magic circle drawn around them.
But, though powerful and respected wherever his name
was known, he confined tlio rito to his own domestics,
without attempting to force it on the inhabitants of
tho land where he sojourned. The punishment of dcatJi
54
ABRAHAM
for neglecting it, because the uncircumciaea person -was
thought to bo a breaker of the covenant and a despLser
of its Author, seems a. harsh measure on the part of
Abram; yet it can hardly bo counted an arbitrary trans-
ference of tho later Levitical severities to the progenitor of
the race, since it is in the Elohist.
Accompanied by two angeb, Jehovah appeared again to
Abram at tho oak of Mamre, accepted his proposed hospv-
tality, and promLsed him a eon by Sarai within a year.
Though she laughed incredulously, the promise *as definitely
repeated. When the angels left, Jehovah communicated
to Abram the divine purpose of destroying the dwellets
in Siddim because of their wickedness, but acceded to the
patriarch's intercession, that the cities of the plain should
bo spared if ten righteous men could bo found in them.
I'he two angels, who had gone before, arrived at Sodom in the
evening, and were entertained by Lot, but threatened with
shameful treatment by tho depraved inhabitants. Seeing
that the vengeance of Heaven was deserved, they proceeded
to execute it, saving Lot with his wife and two daughters,
and sparing Zoar as a place of refuge for them. Jehovah
rained down fire and brimstone from heaven, turning all
the Jordan district to desolation, so that when Abram
looked next morning from tho spot where Jehovah and
himself had parted, he saw a thick smoke ascend from the
ruins.
Abram then journeyed from Hebron to tho Ncgob, settled
between Kadesh and Shur in Gerar, where Sarai is said to
have been treated as a prior account makes her to have been
in Egypt. At the patriarch's prayer the plague inflicted on
the king and his wives was removed. This is a duplicate of
the other story. Whatever historical truth the present nar-
rative has belongs to an earlier period of Abram's life. His
second removal to Gerar originated in the former journeying
through it into Egypt. He must have remained in the neigh-
bourhood of Hebron, his first settlement, where Isaac was
born according to the Elohistic account. After the birth of
the legitimate heir, succeeding events were the expulsion of
Hagar and Ishmael from the paternal home, and the making
of a covenant between Abimelech and Abram at Beersheba.
Hero Abram " called on the name of the Lord," and is
said to have planted a noted tamarisk in commemoration
of the event.
Abram was now commanded by God to offer up Isaac in
the laud of Moriah. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented
by an angel just as he was about to slay his son, and
sacrificed a ram that presented itself at the time. In
reward oi his obedience he received the promise of a numer-
ous seed and abundant prosoerity. Thence he returned to
Beersheba.
Sarai died and was buried in the cave of Macnpelah near
Hebron, which Abram purchased, with the adjoining field,
from Ephron the Hittite. . The measures taken by the
patriarch for the marriage of Isaac are circumstantially
described. , His steward Eliezer was sent to the country
and kindred of Abram to find a suitable bride, which he
did in Haran, whither he was divinely conducted. Eebekah
appeared as the intended one; she parted from Bethuel
and her. family with their fuU approbation, was brought
to Isaac, and became a maternal ancestor of the chosen
people.
It is curious that, after Sarah's aeath, Abram should
have contracted a second marriage with Keturah, and
liegotten six sons. The Chronicles," however, make her
his concubine (1 Chron. L 32), so that these children may
have been born earlier. Probably the narrative intends
to account for the diffusion of Abram's posterity in Arabia.
Keturah's sons were sent away with gifts from their home
into Arabia, and aU the father's substance was given
to Isnac. The patriarch died at the age of 175 years,
and woA buried by I^aac and Ishmael beeido Sarai is
^fachpelah. I'he book of Genesis gives two lists of Arab
tribes, descended partly from Abram and Eeturah, partly
from him and Hagar or IshmaeL These dwelt in Arabia
Deserta and Petrxa, as also in the northern "half of Arabia
Welii.
1. We cannot adopt the opinion of Von Bohlen and Dozy
tliat Abram is a mythical person. Ho must be regarded as a
historical character, though the accounts of his life have
mythical elements intermingled with much that is tradi-
tional or legendary. The difficulty of separating the historic
from the merely traditional, hinders the presentation of a
natural portrait Later legends have invested him with ex-
traordinary excellence. They have made him a Worshipper '
of Jehovah, a prophet, the friend of God, favoured with
visible manifestations' of His presence, and receiving
repeated promises of the most far-reaching character. He
is the typical ancestor of tho chosen race, living under the
constant guidance of God, prospering in worldly goods,
delivered from imminent perils. A superhuman halo
surrounds him. It is the Jehovist in particular who
invests him with the marvellous and improbable, con-
necting him with altars and sacrifices — a cultus posterior
to both his time and mental development — making him
the subject of theoplianies, talking familiarly to Jehovah
himself, and feeding angels with flesh. The Elohist's
descriptions are simpler. Hiq patriarchs are usually colour-
less men, upright and plain. Th^y hav^ neither char-
acteristic features nor distinct outline. Abram stands
out an honest, peaceable, generous, high-minded patriarch;
a prince, rich, powerful, and honoured, fitted for rule,
and exercising it with prudence. Wo need not expect
a full history of the man from writers long posterior, the
representatives of popular traditions. Only fragments
of the life are given, designed to . show his greatness.
Legend assigned ideal lineaments to the progenitor whom
a remote antiquity shrouded with its hoary mantle, and
thus he became a model worthy of imitation.
2. The biblical sources of his biography are three at
least; and sometimes all appear in a single chapter, a£ in
Gen. xxii., which describes the severest trial of faith. The
oldest or Elohim-document h seen in verses 20-24, which
link on to chap. xxi. 2-5, from the same. The rest of the
chapter belongs to the junior Elohist, except verses 14^18,
added by the Jehovist to connect Abram's sacrifice ^-ith
Jerusalem These different documents, out of which the
general narrative was finally put together by a redactor,
create diversities and contradictions. Thus the Elohist
makes Abram laugh at the announcement of a son by Sarai
(xviL 17); the Jehovist, jealous for the patriarch's honour,
assigns the laughter to the woman as a sign of incredulity
(xviii. 12).
3. The account of the change of names given to Abram
and Sarai when circumcision was instituted, cannot be
regarded as historical The Elohist says that Abram became
Abraham, the latter meaning /a<A«r of tnuch people. But
the Hebrew tongue has no word rahdm, and no root with
the three letters cm. Hence the Jews found the etymo-
logy a puzzle.* The old reading was undoubtedly Abram
and Sarai, though the later Jews expressly forbade Abram
either in speaking or writing. The difference is one of
mere orthography. The forms om and on are cognate
ones, as are m:? and nTi7. The ctjonologising propensity
of the Elohist is well known. The names signifv/a/A<r <j/
heif//U and pnncess respectively.
4. The religion of Abram was not pure Jehovism. Ac-
cording to Exodus vi 3, the name Jehovah was unknown
before Moses. Pure Jehovism was a growth not reached
2 See Beer'a Ltbcn AhraJiaiAs, pp. 150, 161.
A B E — A B E
55
before the prophets. It was a late development, the creed
of the most spiritual teachers, not of the people generally.
Abram was a. distinguished Orieutal sheikh, who laid aside
the grossness of idolatry, and rose by degrses, through ooa-
tact with many peoples and his own reflection, to the con-
ception of a Being higher than the visible world, the Gcd
of the light and the sun. He was a civilised nomad,
having wider and more spiritual aspirations than the
peoples with whom' he livedo As a worshipper of God,
his faith was magnified by later ages throwing back
their more advanced ideas into his time, because ho was
the founder of a favoured race, the type of Isiael as
they were or shoxild be.
5. The leading idea forming the essence of the story re-
Bpecting Abram's sacrifice of Isaac, presents some difficulty
of explanation. The chapter did not proceed from the
earliest writer, but from one acquainted with the institu-
tion of animal sacrifices. That the patriarch was familiar
with human sacrifices among the peoples round about is
beyond a doubt. Was he tempted from within to comply,
on one occasion, with the prevailing custom; or did the
disafi'ected Canaanites call upon him to give such proof
of devotion to his God 1 Perhaps there was a struggle in
his mind between the better ideas which led to the habitual
renunciation of the barbarous rite, and scruples of the uni-
versal impropriety attaching to it. The persuasion that it
could never be allowed may have been shaken at times.
The general purport of the narrative is to place in a strong
light the faith of one prepared to make the most costly
sacrifice in obedience to the divine command, as well as
God's aversion to human offerings.
6. It is impossible to get chronological exactness in
Abram's biography, because it is composed of difi'erent tra-
ditions incorporated with one another, the product of dif-
ferent times, and all passing through the hands of a later
redactor for whom the true succession of events was not
of primary importance. The writers themselves did not
know the accurate chronology, having to do with legends
as well as facts impregnated with the legendary, which the
redactor afterwards altered or adapted. The Elohist is
much more chronological than the other writers. It is
even impossible to teU the time when Abram lived. Ac-
cording to Lepsius, he entered Palestine 1700-1730 B.C. ;
according toBunsen, 2886 ; while Schenkel gives 2 130-2 140
B.C. In Beer's Leben Abraham's his birth is given 1948
A.M., i.e., 2040 B.C.
7. The Midrashim contain a good deal about Abram
which is either foumded on biblical accounts or spun out
of the fancy. Nimrod was king of Babylon at the time.
The patriarch's early announcement of the doctrine of one
God, his zeal in destroying idols, including those worshipped
by his father, his miraculous escape from Nimrcd's wrath,
his persuading Terah to leave the king's service and go
with him to Canaan, are minutely told. During his life
he had no fewer than ten temptations. Satan tried to ruin
him, after the fiend had appeared at the great feast given
when Isaac was weaned, in the form of a poor bent old man,
who had been neglected We can only refer to one speci-
men of rabbinic dialogire-making. God appeared to
Abram by night, saying to him, " "Take thy son" — (Abram
interrupting), " Which 1 I have two of them." The voice
of God — " Him who is esteemed by you as your only .son."
Abram — " Each of them is the only son of his mother."
God's voice — " Him whom thou lovest." Abram — " I love
both." God's voice — " Him whom thou especially lovest."
Abram — " I cherish nry children with like love." God's
voice — " Now, then, take Isaac." Abram — " And what
shall I begin with in himf God's voice — " Go to the lund
where at my call mountains will rise up out of valleys
...... to Moriih. and oficr thy son Isaac as a holocaust."
Abram — "Is it a sacrifice I .shall offer. Lord? Where is the
priest to prepare it V " Be thou invested vrith that dig-
nity as Shem was formerly." Abram — " But that land
counts Beveral' mountains, which shall I ascend 1" "The
top of the mountain where thou shalt see my glory veiled
in the clouds," &c (Beer, pp. 59, 60.)
The Arabic legends about Ibrahim are mostly taken from
the Jewish fountain, very few being independent and pre-
Islamito. Mohammed collected all that were current, and
presented them in forms best suited to his purpose. His
sources were the biblical accounts and later Jewish legends.
Those about the patriarch building the Kaaba along with
Ishmael, his giving this son the house and aD the country
in which it was, his going as a pilgrim to Mecca every
year, seeing Ishmael, and then retm-ning to his own land,
Syria, his foot-print on the black stone of the temple,
and similar stories, are of genuine Arabic origin. The
rest are Jewish, with certain alterations. The collected
narratives of the Arabic historians are given by Tabari,
constituting a confused mass of legends drawn from the
Old Testament, the Koran, and the Babbina. (See
Ewald's Geschichie des Yolkes Israel, vol L pp. 440-484,
third edition ; Bertheau's Zur Geschichie der Israelites,
p. 206, et seq.; Tuch's Kommentar ueber die Genesia,
1838: Knobel's Die Genesis, 1852; Doz/s Die Israeliten
m Mekka, p. 16, et seq.; B. Beer's Leben Abraham's
nach Auffassung der jiidijschen Sage, 1859 ; Chrrniique
iAbou Djafar Mohammed Tahari, par L. Dubeux, tome
premier, chapters 47-60; Chwolson's Ssabier vrid der
Ssabismus, vol. ii.) (s. D.)
ABRAHAM-A-SANCTA-CLARA, was horn at Krahen-
heimstetten, a village in Snabia, on the 4th of June 1642.
His family name was Ulrich Megerle. In 1662 ho joined
the order of Barefooted Augustinians, and assumed the
name by which alone he is now known. In this order he
rose step by step until he became prior provincialis and
definitor of his province. Having parly gained a gxeat
reputation for pulpit eloquence., he was appointed court
preacher at Vienna in 1669. There the people flocked in
crowds to hear him, attracted by the force and homeliness
of his language, the grotesqueness of his humour, and the
impartial severity with which he lashed the folUes of all
classes of society. The vices of courtiers and court-life
in particular were exposed with an admirable intrepidity.
In general he spoke as a man of the people in the lan-
guage of the people, the predominating quality of his
style,, which was altogether unique, being an overflowing
and often coarse wit. There are, however, many passages
in his sermons in which he rises to loftier thought, and
uses more refined and dignified language. He died at
Vienna on the 1st December 1709. In his published
writings Abraham-a-Sancta-CSara displayed much the same
qualities as in the pulpit. Perhaps the most favourable
specimen of his style is furnished in Judas der Enschclm.
His works have been several times reproduced in whole
or part, though with many spurious interpolations, within
the last thirty years, and have been very extensively read
by both Protestants and Catholics. A'selection was issued
at Heilbronn in 1845, and a complete edition in 21 vols,
appeared at Passau and Lindau, in 1835-54.
ABRANTES, a town of Portugal, Estrcmadura province,
on the Tagus, about 70 miles N.E. of Lisbon, delightfully
situated on the brow of a hiU, of which the slopes are
covered with olive trees, gardens, and vineyards. It has
considerable trade with Lisbon, particularly in fruit,
com, and oU. The town is strongly fortified, and is
an important military position. At the convention of
Cintra it was surrendered to the British. Junot derived
froin it his title of Duko of Abrantea. Population about
6000.
56
A B R — A B iS
ABRAXT ES, Duke and Ddchzss op. See Jijnot.
AI3KAXA.S, or Aukasajc, a word engraved on certain
fiutique stones, wbich were called on that account Abraxas
stones, and wore used as amulets or charms. The Basili-
dians, a Gnostic sect, attaclied importance to the word, if,
indeed, they did not bring it into use. The letters o£
iPpaidt, in the Greek notation, make up the number 305,
and the liasilidians gave the name to the 3G5 orders of
spirits, which, as they conceived, emanated in succession
from the Supreme Being. These orders were sujipoiied to
occupy as many heavens, each fashioned like, but inferior
to that above it; and the lowest of the heavens was
thought to bo the abode of the spirits who formed the
earth and its inhabitants, and to whom wiis committed
the administration of its affairs. The Abraxas stones,
which are frequently to be met with in the tabincts
of the curious, are of very little value. In addition to
the Tvord Abraxas and other mystical characters, they
Lave often engraved on them cabalistic figures. The com-
monest of these have the head of a fowl, and the arms
and bust of a man, and terminate in the body and tail of
a serpent.
ABRUZZO, originally one of the four provinces of the
continental part of the kingdom of the two Sicilies, after-
ward subdivided into Abruzzo Ulteriore I., Abruzzo Ulte-
riorell., and Abruzzo Citeriorc, which were so named from
their position relative to Naples, and now form three of
the provinces of the kingdom of Italy. The district,
which was the most northerly part of the kingdom of the
two Sicilies, is bounded by the Adriatic on the E, and
by the provinces of Ascoli Piceno on the N., Umbria and
Rome on the W., and Terra di Lavoro, MoUse, and Capi-
tanata on the S. The Abruzzi provinces have an area of
nearly 4900 English square miles, and extend from N. lat.
41°40'to 42°55'. Though presenting to the Adiiatic a coast
of about 80 miles in length, they bave not a single good
port^ This territory is mostly rugged, mountainous, and
covered with extensive forests, but contains also many
fertile and well-watered valleys. The Apennines traverse
its whole extent, running generally from N.W. to S.E., and
here attaining their greatest elevation. Near Aquila is
Monte Corno, the loftiest peak of that chain, called // gran
jSasso d'ltalla, or the great rock of Italy, which rises to the
height of 0S13 feet. Monte Majella and Monte Velino
attain the height of 9500 and 8792 feet respectively.
From the main range of the Apennines a number of smaller
branches run off towards the west. The country is
watered by numerous small rivers, most of which fall into
the Adriatic. They are often suddenly swollen by the
rdns, especially in the spring, and thus cause considerable
damage to the lands through which they pass. The
principal rivers are the Tronto, Treutino, Pescara, and
Sangio. In Abrn2zo Ulteriore II. is lake Celano or Lago
di Fucino, the Lacus Fucinus of the Romons, now reduced
to about one-third of its former extent. The climate varies
with the elevation, but, generally speaking, is temperate
and healthy. Agriculture is but little understood or
attended to, although in many of the lower parts of the
country the land is fertile. The rivers are not e: abanked,
nor is irrigation practised; so that the best of tie land is
frequently flooded during the rainy season, and pirched in
the heat of summer. The principal productions are com,
hemp, flax, almonds, olives, figs, grapes, and chestnuts.
In the neighbourhood of Aquila saffron is extensively
cultivated, although not to such an extent as formerly.
The rearing and tending of sheep is the chief oixupation
of the inhabitants of the highlands; and the wool, which
is of a superior quality, is an important article of com-
merce, while the skins are sent in large quantities to the
Le\-ant. Bears, wolves, and wUd boars inhabit the moun-
tain fastnesses; and in the extensive oak forests nnmerons
herds of swine are fed, the hams of which are in liii;li
ri-pnte. 'i'lie manufactures are very inconsideiaM,, '.:.^'.:;j:
chiefly woollen, Linen, and. silk stuffs, and earthen and
wood wares. Abruzzo 'was of great importance to the
kingdom of Naples, being its chief defence to the north,
and presenting almost insurmountable difliculties to the
ad^Tince of an -enemy. The country is now free of the
daring brigands by whom it was long infested. The
inhabitants are a stout, well-built, brave, and industrious
race. Their houses are generally miserable huts; their
food principally maize, and their drink bad wine. The
railway from Ancona to Brindisi passes through Abruzzo
Ulteriore I. and Abruzzo Citcriore, skirting the coast; and
a line has been projected from Pescara, by Popoli, the Lago
di Fucino, and the valley of the Liris, to join the railway
from Rome to Naples, and thu.s open up the interior of the
country. The line ia open for traffic between Pescara
and Popoli.
Abruzzo Ultebiore I. is the most northerly of the
three provinces, and has an area of 1283 square miles, with
a population in 1871 of 245,684. The western part of .the
province is very mountainous, the highest crest of the Apen-
nines dividing it from Abruzzo Ulteriore II. The valleys
possess a rich soil, well watered by rivulets and brooks in
the winter and spring, but these are generally dried up in
the summer months. Tho streams run mostly into the
Pescara, which botinds the province towards Abruzzo
Citcriore, or into the Tronto, which is the northern
boundary. The city of Teramo is the capital of the
province.
AuKUZZo Ulteeioee n. is an inland district, nearly
covered with mountains of various heights, one of which
is the Gran Sasso. There are no plains ; but among the
mountains are some beautiful and fruitful vallej-s, watered
by the various streams that run through them. None of
the rivers are navigable. The province has an area of 2510
square miles, and in 1871 contained 332,782 inhabitants.
Its chief town is Aquila.
Abruzzo Citeriore lies to the south and east of the
other two pro%'inCes. It is the least hilly of the three, but
the Apennines extend through the south-west part. They,
however, gradually decline in height, and stretch away into
plains of sand and pebbles. The rivers all run to the
Adriatic, and are very low during the summer months.
The soil is not very productive, and agricidture is in a
very backward state ; the inhabitants prefer the chase
and fishing. The province contains 1104 square miies,
with a population of 340.299 in 1871. Its chief town is
ChietL
ABSALOM (o'''=??, father of peace), the third son of
David, king of Israel He was deemed the handsomest
man in the kingdom. His sister Tamar having been
violated by Amnon, David's eldest son, Absalom caused
his scr\'ant3 to murder Amnon at a feast, to which he had
invited all the king's sons. After this deed he fled to the
kingdom of his maternal grandfather, where he remained
three years ; and it was not till two years after his return
that he was fully reinstated in his father's favour. Absalom
seems to have been by this time the eldest surviving son
of David, but he was not the destined heir of his father's
throne. The suspicion of this excited the impulsive
Absalom to rebellion. For a time the tide of public
opinion ran so strong in his favour, that David found it ex-
pedient to retire beyond the Jordan. But, instead of adopt-
ing the prompt measures which his sagacious counsellor
Ahithophel advised, Absalom loitered at Jerusalem tQl a
large force was raised against him, and when he took the
field his army was comfiletely routed. The battle was
fought in the forest of Ephraim ; and Absalom, caught in
A B S — A B S
57
Ihe toughs of a tree by the superb hair in which he gloried,
■was run through the body by J oab. The king's grief for
iis wortMess son vented itself in the touching lamentation
— " 0 my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom 1 woald
God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son;"
ABSALOJi', Archbishop of Lund, in Denmark, was born
in 1128, near Soroe in Zealand, his family name being
Axel. In 11 -iS he went to study at Paris, where a coUcge
for Danes had been established. He afterwards travelled
extensively in diifercnt countries; and returning to Den-
mark in 1157, was the year after chosen Bishop of Roes-
kilde or Kothschild. Eloquent, learned, endowed with
uncommon physical strength, and possessing the confidence
pf the king, ^V'aldcma^ I., known as the Great, Absalon
held a position of great influence both in the church and
state. In that age V/arlike pursuits were not deemed in-
consistent with the clerical office, and Absalon was a
renowned warrior by sea and land, as well as a zealous
ecclesiastic, his avowed principle being that " both swords,
the spiritual and the temporal, were entrusted to the
clergy." To his exertions as statesman and soldier Wal-
demar was largely indebted for the independence and con-
solidation of his kingdom. In 1177 he was chosen by the
chapter Archbishop of Lund and Primate of the church,
but he declared himself unwUhng to accepi;. the appoint-
ment; and when an attempt was made to install him by
force, he resisted, and appealed to Rome. The Pope de-
cided that the choice of the chapter must be respected,
and commanded Absalon to accept the Primacy on pain of
excommunication. He was consecrated accordingly by the
papal legate Galandius in 1178. He set the Cistercian
monks of Soroe the task of preparing a history of the
country, the most valuable result being the Danish
Chronicle of Saxo Grammaticus, who was secretary to
Absalon and his companion in an expedition against the
iWendish pirates. A tower or castle which the archbishop
caused to be buUt as a defence against these pirates, was
the commencement of the present capital, Copenhagen,
,which from this circumstance is sometimes known in his-
tory as Axelstadt. The archbishop died in 1201, in the
monastery at Soroe, and was buried in the parish church,
where his grave may still be seen.
ABSCESS, in Surgery (from ahscedo, to separate), a
iCoIlection of pus among the tissues of the body, the result
of inflarajnation. Abscesses are divided into acute and
chronic. See Sukqery.
ABSINTHE, a liqueur or aromatised spirit, prepared oy
pounding the leaves and flowering tops of various species
of wormwood, chiefly Artemisia Absinthium, along with
angelica root {Arcliangelica officinalis), sweet flag root
(Acorus Calamus), the leaves of- dittany of Crete (OnV/are«TO
\Dictamnus), star-anise fruit (Illicium anisaium), and other
aroraatics, and macerating these in alcohol. After soaking
for about eight days the compound is distilled, yielding an
emerald-coloured, liquor, to which a proportion of an
essential-oil, usually that of anise, is added. The liqueur
thus prepared constitutes the genuine Exlrait d' Absinthe
of the French ; but much of an inferior quality is made
iWith other herbs and essential oils, while the adulterations
practised in the manufacture of absinthe are very numerous
and deleterious. In the adulterated liqueur the green
'colour is usually produced by turmeric and indigo, but the
.presence of even cupric sulphate (blue vitriol) as a colour-
ing ingi-edient has been frequently detected. ■ In com-
merce two varieties of absinthe are recognised — common
and Swiss absintlie — the latter of which is prepared with
higlily concentrated spirit; and when really of Swiss manu-
facture, is of most trustworthy quality as regards the herbs
used in its preparation, h The chief seat or tho manufa.>
tuio is in the canton of NeufcLatcI ia Switzerland, although.
absinthe distilleries are scattered generally throughout
Switzerland and France. The liqueur is chiefly consumed
in France, but there is also a considerable esport trade to
the United States of America. In addition to the quan-
tity distilled for home consumption in France, the amount
imported from Switzerland in recent years has not been
less than 2,000,000 gallons yearly. The introduction of
this beverage into general use in France is curious. Dur-
ing the Algerian war (1844-47) the soldiers were advised
to mix absinthe with their wine as a febrifuge. On their
return they brought with them the habit of drinking it,
which is ;iow so widely disseminated in French society,
and with such disastrous consequences, that the custom is
justly esteemed a grave national evil. A French physician,
M. Legrand, who has studied the physiological efl'ects of
absinthe drinking, distinguishes two trains of results accord-
ing as the victim indulges in violent excesses of drinking
or only in continuous steady tippUng. In the case of
excessive drinkers there is first the feeUng of exaltation
peculiar to a state of intoxication. The increasing dose
necessary to produce this state quickly deranges the diges-
tive organs, and destroys the appetite. An unappeasable
thirst takes possession of the victim, with giddiness, tingling
in tho oars, and hallucinations of sight and hearing, followed
by a constant mental oppression and anxiety, loss of brain
power, and, eventually, idiocy. The symptoms in the
case of the tippler commence with muscular quiverings and
decrease of physical strength; the hair begins to drop off, the
face assumes a melancholy aspect, and he becomes ema-
ciated, wrinkled, and sallow. Lesion of the brain follows,
horrible dreams and delusions haunt the victim, and gradu-
ally paralysis overtakes him and lands him in his grave.
It has been denied by a French authority, M. Moreau, that
these symptoms are due to wormwood or any of the essen-
tial oils contained in absinthe, and he maintains that the
strong spirit and such adulterations as salts of copper are
suflicient to account for the effects of the liqueur. There
is, however, no doubt that proportionately the consumptioa
of absinthe is much more deleterious to the human frame
than the drinking of brandy or other strong spirits. The
use of absinthe has been prohibited in both the army and
navy of France.
ABSOLUTE (from the Latin absolvere), having the
general meaning of loosened from, or unrestricted, in which
sense it is popularly used to qualify such words as " mon-
archy" or " power," has been variously employed in philo-
sophy. Logicians use it to mark certain classes of njimes.
Thus a term has been called absolute in opposition to attri-
butive, when it signifies something that has or is viewed as
having independent existence ; most commonly, however,
the opposition conveyed is to relative. A relative rams
being taken as one which, over and above the object
which it denotes, implies in its signification the existence
of another object, also deriv^g a denomination from the
same fact, which is the ground of the first name (MUl),
as, e.g., father and son, the non-relative or absolute name
is one that has its meaning for and in itself, as man.
This distinction is a convenient one, although, as has been
observed, it can hardly in perfect strictness be maintained.
Tho so-called r.bsolute name, if used with a meaning, does
always stand in some relation, however variable or in-
definite, and tho meaning varies with tho relation. Thus
man, which is a word of very difl'erciit meanings, as, e.g.,
not woman, not boy, not master, not brute, and so forth,
may be said to have them according to the different
relations in which it admits of being viewed, or, as it has
been otherwise expressed, according to the different notions
whoso '■ universe " it composes, along with its different
correlatives. .. From this point of view there is always one
relaiiQa.ifl_wliich a real thing must Btand, namely, the
L — 8,
58
A B 6 — A B S
relation to its contradictory (03 not man) intbin the
auiverso of being ; tUo correlatives, under less general
notions, being then generally eipreascd positively as con-
traries (woiuan, boy, ni^-ster, brute, and bo forth, for man).
If there is thus no nana or notion that can strictly bo
called absolute, all knowledge may be said to bo relative,
or of the relative. But the knowledge of an absolute has
also been held impossible, on the ground that knowing is
itself a relation between a subject and an object ; what is
known only in relation to a mind cannot be known as
absolute. This doctrine, now commonly spoken of under
the name of the Relativity of Knowledge, may, indeed, be
brought under the former view, in which subject-object
marks the relation of highest philosophical significacce
within the whole universe of things. Keeping, however,
the two views «part, we may say with double force that
of the absolute there is no knowledge, — (1), because, to be
known, a thing must be consciously discriminated from
other things; and (2), because it cau bo known only in
relation with a knowing mind. Notwithstanding, there
have been thinkers from the earliest times, who, in dif-
ferent ways, and more or less explicitly, aUow of no such
restriction upon knowledge, or at least consciousness, but,
on the contrary, starting from a notion, by the latter
among them called the absolute, which includes within it
the opposition of subject and object, pass therefrom to
the explanation of al] the phenomena of natuie and of
mind. In earlier days the Eleatics, Plato, and Plotinus,
in modern times Spinoza, Leibnitz, Fichte, Schelling,
Hegel, and Cousic, all have joined, under whatever dif-
ferent forms, in maintaining this view. Kant, while
denying the absolute or unconditioned as art object of
knowledge, leaves it conceivable, as an idea regulative of
the mind's intellectual .experience. It is against any such
absolute, whether as real or conceivable, that Hamilton
and Mausel have taken gi-ound, the former in his famous
review of Cousin's ])liilosophy, reprinted in his Discussions,
the latter in his Bampton Lectures on 2'he Limits of.
lltligious Thoiujhi, basing their arguments indifferently on
the positions as to the Relativity of Knowledge indicated
above. For absolute in its more strictly metaphysical use,
see Metapuysics. (o. c r.)
ABSOLUTION, a term used in civil and ecclesiastical
law, denotes the act of setting free or acquitting. In a
criminal process it signifies the acquittal of an accused
person on the ground that the evidence has either dis-
])roved or faDed to prove the charge brought against him.
It is now little used except in Scotch law, in the forms
assoilzie and absolvitor. The ecclesiastical usage of the
vord is essenli.ally different from the civil It refers to
sm actually committed, and denotes the setting of a person
free from its guilt, or from its penal consequences, or from
both. It is invariably connected with penitence, and some
form of confession, the Scripture authority, to which the
Uoman Catholics, the Greek Church, and Protestants
equally appeal, being found in John xx. 23, James v. 1 6,
»tc. In the primitive church the injunction of James was
literally obeyed, and confession was made before the
whole congregation, whose presence and concurrence were
reckoned necessary to the validity of the absolution pro-
nounced by the presbjrter. In the 4th century the bishops
began to exercise the power of absolution in their own
right, without recognising the congregations. In conse-
quence of this the practice of private confession (con/essio
iiuncularis) was established, and became more and more
common, unti it was rendered imperative once a year by
a decree of the fourth Lateran Council (1215). A dis-
tinction, indeed, was made for a time between peccata
venudta, which might bo confessed to a layman, and
pcccdtc nwrtaHa. which could only be confessed to a, pnes'c;
but this was ultimately abolished, and the r>oman CanoQ
Law now etands, JS'ec vmdalia nee morlalia poesumus
cnnfiteri taoavifntaliier, nisi tactrdoti. A change in the
form of absolution was almost a logical sequence of tha
change in the nature of the confession. At first the priest
acted ministerially as an intercessory, using the formula
abaoluti^Tiit precativa or cUprecaliia, which consisted of the
words : Dominua absolvat te — iliserealur tut omnipotena
Dcuf et dimittal tibi omnia peccata tva. This is still the
only form in the Greek Church, and it finds a place in the
Roman Catholic service, though it is no longer used in
the act of absolution. The Romish form was altered in
the 13Lh century, and the Council of Trent decreed the
tise of the formula abtolutionis indicativa, where the priest
acts judicially, as himself possessed of the power of bind-
ing and loosing, and says. Ego absolvo te. Where a form
of absolution is used in Protestant Churches, it is simply
declarative, the state being only indicated, and in no sense
or degree assumed to be caused by the declaration.
ABSOIIPTION, in the animal economy, the function
possessed by the absorbent system of vessels of taking up
nutritive and other fluids. See Physiology.
AJBSTEMII, a name formerly given to such persons as
could not partake of the cup of the eucharist on account
of their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists allowed these
to communicate in the species of bread only, touching
the cup with their lip; which was by the Lutherans
deemed a profanation. Among several Protestant sects,
both in Great Britain and America, abstemii on a some-
what different principle have recently appeared. These
are total abstainers, who maintain that the use of stimu-
lants Ls essentially sinful, and allege that the wine used
by Christ and his disciples at the supper was unfermented.
They accordingly communicate in the unfermented "juice
of the grape." The difference of opinion on this point
has led to a good deal of controversy in many congrega-
tions, the solution generally arrived at being to allow both
wine and the pure juice of the grape to be served'al the
communion table.
ABSTRACTION, in Psychology and Tyogic, is a word
used in several distinguishable but closely allied senses.
First, in a comprehensive sense, it is often applied to that
process by which we fix the attention upon one part of
what is present to the mind, to the exclusion of another
part ; abstraction thus conceived being merely the nega-
tive of Attention a( J. v.) In this sense we are able in
thought to abstract one object from another, or an attribute
from an object, or an attribute perceived by one sense
from those perceived by other senses. Even in cases
when thoughts or images have become inseparably
associated, we posssss something of this power of abstract-
ing or turning the attention upon one rather than another.
Secondly, the word is used, with a more special significa-
tion, to describe that concentration of attention upon the
resemblances of a number of objects, which constitutes
classification. And thirdly, not to mention other less
important changes of meaning, the whole process of
generalisation, by which the mind forms the notions
expressed by common terms, is frequently, throagh a
curious transposition , of names, spoken of as abstraction.
Especially when understood in its less comprehensive
connection, the process of abstraction possesses a peculiar
interest. To the psychologist it is interesting, because
there is nothing he is more desirous to understand than
the mode of formation and true nature of what are called
general notions. And fortunately, with regard to the
abstractive process by which these are formed, at least in
its initial stages, there is little disagreement ; since every
one describes it as a procees of comparison, by which the
mind is enabled to consider the objects confusedly pre-
A B S — A B U
59
sented to it in intuition, to recognise and attena exclusiTely
to their points of agreement, and so to classify them in
accordance with their perceived resemblances. Further,
tiiis process is admitted without much dispute to belong
to the discursive or elaborative action of the intellect ;
although, perhaps — should the view of some modern
psychologists be correct, that all intelligence proceeds by
the establishment of relations of likeness and unlikeness
— abstraction will be better conceived as thus related to
intelligence in general and typical of all its processes, than
as the action merely of a special and somewhat indefinite
faculty. No such harmony, however, exists regarding the
nature of the product of abstraction; for that is the subject-
matter of Nominalism and Kealism, which has produced
more controversy, and stimulated to more subtlety of
thought, than any other subject ever debated in philo-
Bophy. The concept or abstract idea has been represented
in a multitude of ways : sometimes as an idea possessing
an objective existence independent of particulars, even
more real and permanent than theirs ; sometimes as an
idea composed of all the-cii-cumstances in which the par-
ticulars agree, and of no others ; again, as the idea of an
individual, retaining its individualising qualities, but with
the accompanying knowledge that these are not the pro-
perties of the class ; and yet again, as the idea of a
miscellaneous assemblage of individuals belonging to a
class. It is still impossible to say that the many-sided
controversy is at an end. The only conclusion generally
admitted seems to be, that there exists between the con-
cept and the particular objects of intuition some very
intimate relation of thought, so that it is necessary, for all
purposes of reasoning, that the general and particular go
hand in hand, that the idea of the class — if such exists
— be capable of being applied, in every completed act of
thought, to the objects comprised within the class.
To the student of ontology, also, abstraction is of
special interest, since, according to many distinguished
thinkers, the recognition of abstraction as a powerful and
universal mental process is to explain all ontology away,
and give the ontologist his eternal quietus. The thorough-
going notain'vlist professes to discover in the mind an
inveterate tendency to abstraction, and a proneness to
ascribe separate existence to abstractions, amply sufficient
to account for all those forms of independent reality which
metaphysics defend, and to exhibit them all in their true
colours as fictitious assumptions. In reply, the ontologist,
strengthened by the instinct of self-preservation, commonly
contends that the analogy between general notions and
metaphysical principles does not hold good, and that the
latter are always more than simple abstraciions or mere
names. Only after abstraction is understood can the
question be settled.
In like manner to logic, whether regarded as tne science
of the form.al laws of thought, or, more widely, as the science
of scientific methods, a true understanding of abstraction
is of the greatest importance. It is important in pure
logic, because, as we have seen, every act of judgment and
reasoning postulates a concept or concepts, and so pre-
supposes abstraction. Abstraction, detenniniflg the possi-
bility alike of reason and speech, creates those notions
that bear common names ; it is indispen.sable to the
formation of classes, great or small; and just according as
it ascends, increasing the extension and diminishing the
intension of classes, the horizon visible to reason and to
)o<nc gradually recedes and widens. And to logic as the
science of the sciences a true doctrine of abstraction is not
less necessai-y ; because the process of extending know-
ledge is, in all its developments, essentially th.; same as
the first rudimentary effort to form a concept and think of
particulars as members of a class ; i " natural law," at
least m its subjective aspect, is invariably an abstraction
made by comparing phenomena — an abstraction under
which phenomena are classed in order to the extension of
knowledge just as under a concept are grouped the par-
ticulars presented in intuition. As proof of this identity
it is found that the 'same diS'erences exist regarding the
objective or subjective nature of the " natural law " as
regarding that of the concept. Some affirm that the law
is brought ready-made by the mind and superinduced on
the facts ; others, that it is never in any sense more than
a mere mental conception, got by observing the facts ;
while there are yet others who maintain it to be sucli a sub-
jective conception, but one corresponding at the same time
to an external relation which is real though unknowable.
ABSURDUM, Eeductio ad, a mode of demonstrating
the truth of a proposition, by showing that its contra-
dictory leads to an absurdity. It is much employed by
EucUd.
VBU, a celebrated mountain oi western India, between
oOOO and 6000 feet in height, situated in 2i° 40' N. lat.,
and 72° 48' E. long., within the RAjputdn4 State of Sirohf.
It is celebrated as the site of the most ancient Jain temples
in India, and attracts pilgrims from all parts of the country.
The Jaius are the modern Indian representatives of the
Buddhists, and profess the ancient theistic doctrines of that
sect, modified by saint worship and incarnations. The
elevations and platforms of the mountain are covered with
elaborately sculptured shrines, temples, and tombs. On
the top of the hill is a smaU round platform containing a
cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the impression of
the feet of Ddta-Bhrigu, an incarnation of Vishnu. This
is the chief great place of pilgrimage for the Jains, Shrawaks,
and Banians. The two principal temples are situated at
Deulwar4, about the middle of the mountain, and five miles
south-west of Guru Sikrd, the highest summit. They are
built of white marble, and are pre-eminent alike for their
beauty and is typical specimens of Jain architecture in
India. The following description is condensed from Mr
Fergusson's History of Architecture, vol. ii. pp. 623 to
625 : — The more modern of the two was built by two
brothers, rich merchants, between the years 1197 and
1247, and for delicacy of carving and minute beauty of
detail stands almost unrivalled, even in this land of patient
and lavish labour. The other was buUt by another
merchant prince, Bimala Shdh, apparently about 1032 a.d.,
and although simpler and bolder in style, is as elaborate as
good taste would allow in a purely architectural object.
It is one of the oldest as well as one of the most complete
examples of Jain architecture known. The principal object
within the temnle is a cell lighted onjj from the door, con-
taining a cross-legged a(3«f:cd figure TSi'thegod ParesnAth.
The portico is composed of forty-'^ight pUlars, the whole
enclosed in an oblong court-yard about 140 feet by 90
feet, surrounded by a double colonnade of smaller pDIars,
forming porticos to a range of fifty-five cells, which enclose
it on all sides, exactly as they do in a Buddhist monastery
(vikdra). In this temple, however, each cell, instead of
being tlie residence of a monk, is occupied by an im.age of
Paresnith, and over the door, or on the jambs of each, are
sculptured scenes from the life of the deity. The whole
interior is magnificently oruameirted. The Emperor Akbar,
by a farmin dated in the mouth of Eabi-ul-Aul, in the
37th year of his reign, corresponding with 1C93, made a.
grant of the hill and temples of Abu, as well as of the
other lulls and places of Jain pilgrimage in the empire, to
Ilarbijai Sur, a celebrated preceptor of the Setimbari sect
of the Jain religion. He also prohibited the slaughter of
animals at these places. The farmdn of this enlightened
monarch declared th.at "it is the rule of the worshipper-
of God to preserve all religions."
GO
A B U — A B U
ABCJ-BEKR {father nf the virgin), v/as originally called
Abd-el-Caaba (servant of t>t^ temple), and received the name
by which ho is known histxjrically in consequonco of the
marriage of his virgin daughter Ayesha to Mohaiumcd. . He
■naa born at Mecca in the year 073 A.D., a Koreishito of
the tribe of Bcun-Taim. Possessed of immense wealth,
■which he liad himself acquired in commerce, and held in
hi"h esteem as a judge, an interpreter of dreams, and a
depositary of the traditions of his race, his early accession
to Islamism was a fact of great importance:^ On his con-
version he assumed the name of Abd-Alk (servant of God).
His own belief in Mohammed and his doctrines was so
thorough as to procure for him the title El Siddik (the
faithful), and his success in gaining converts was corre-
spondingly great. In his personal relationship to the
prophet ho showed the deepest veneration and most un-
swerving devotion. When Mohammed fled from Mecca,
Abu-Bekr was his sole companion, and shared both his
hardships and his triumphs, remaining constantly with
him until the day of his death. During his last illness
the prophet indicated Abu-Bekr as his successor, by desir-
ing him to offer up f)rayer for the people. The choice
was ratified by the chiefs of the army, and ultimately con-
firmed, though All, Mohammed's son-in-law, disputed it,
asserting his own title to the dignity. After a time Ali
submitted, but the difference of opinion as to his claims
gave rise to a controversy which still divides the followers
of the prophet into the rival factions of Sunnites and
Shiites. Abu-Bekr had scarcely assumed his new position
under the title Khalifet-Resul-Allah (successor of the prophet
of God), when he was called to suppress the revolt of the
tribes Hedjaz and Nedjd, of which the fonner rejected
Islamism, and the latter refused to pay tribute. He en-
countered formidable opposition from different quarters,
but in every case he was successful, the severest struggle
bein" that with the impostor Mosailima, who was finally
defeated by Khaled at the battle of Akraba. Abu-Bekr's
zeal for the spread of the new faith was as conspicuous as
that of its founder had been. When the internal disorders
had been repressed and Arabia completely subdued, he
directed his generals to foreign conquest The Irak of
Persia was overcome by Khaled in a single campaign, and
there was also a successful expedition into Syria. After
the hard-won victory over Mosailima, Omar, fearing that
the sayings of the prophet would be entirely forgotten
when those who had listened to them had all been re-
moved by death, induced Abu-Bekr to see to their preserva-
tion in a written form. The record, when completed, was
deposited with Hafsu, daughter of Omar, and one of the
wives of Mohammed. It was held in great reverence by all
Moslems, though it did not possess canonical authority,
and furnished most of the materials out of which the
Koran, as it now exists, was prepared. When the authori-
tative version was completed, all copies of Hafsu's record
were destroyed, in order to prevent possible disputes and
divisions. Abu-Bekr died on the 23d of August 634,
having reigned as Khalif fully two years. Shortly before
his death, which one tradition ascribes to poison, another
to natural causes, he indicated Omar as his successor, after
the manner Mohammed had observed in his own case.
ABULFAKAGIUS, Geegob Abulfakaj (called also
BaehebEjEUS, from his Jewish parentage), was born at
Malatia, in Armenia, in 1226. His father Aaron was a
physician, and Abulfaragius, after studying under him,
also practised medicine witn great success. His command
of the Arabic, Syriac, and Greek languages, and his know-
ledge of philosophy and theology, gained for him a very
liigh reputation. In 1244 he removed to Antioeh, and
shortly after to Tripoli, where he was consecrated Bishop
of Cuba, when only twenty years of age. He was subse-
quently transferred to the Boe of Aleppo, and was elected
in 1266 Maphrian or Primate of the eastern Ecction of
the Jacobite Uhristians. This dignity he held till his
death, which occurred at Maragha, in Azcrbijan, in 1286.
Abulfaragias wrote a large nimiber of works en various
subjects, but his fame as an author rests chiefly on hia
Hittorji of the World, from the creation to his owii
day. It was written first in Syriac, and then, after a
considerable interval, an abridged version in Arabic
was published by the author at the request of friendo.
The latter is divided into ten sections, each of which con-
tained the account of a separate dynasty. The historic
value of tne ■won lies entirely in the portions that treat of
eastern nations, especially in those relatujg to the Saracens,
the Tartar Mongols, and the conquests of Genghis Khan.
The other sections are full of mistakes, arising partly no
doubt from the author's comparative ignorance of chissical
languages. A Latin translation of the Arabic abridgement
was published by Dr Pococke at Oxford in 1603. A jior-
tion of the original text, with Latin translation, edited, by
no means carefully or accurately, by Bruns and F. W.
Kirsch, appeared at Leipsic in 1788.
ABULFAZL, vizier and historiographer of the great
Mongol emperor, Akbar, was born about the middle of
the 16th century, the precise date being uncertain. His
career as a minister of state, brilliant though it was, would
probably have been by this time forgotten but for the
record he himself has left of it in his celebrated history.
The Akhar Nameh, or Book of Akbar, as Abulfazl's chief
literary work is called, consists of two parts, — the first being
a complete history of Akbar's reign, and the second,
entitled Ayin-i-Akbari, or Institutes of Akbar, being an
account of the religious and political constitution and
administration of the empire. The style is singularly
elegant, and the contents of the second part possess a
unique and lasting interest. An excellent translation of
that part by Mr Francis Gladwin was published in Cal-
cutta, 1783-6. It was reprinted in London very in-
accurately, and copies of the original edition are now
exceedingly rare and correspondingly valuable. Abulfazl
died by the hand of an assassin, while returning from a
mission to the Deccan in 1 002. Some writers say that the
murderer was instigated by the heir-apparent, who had
become jealous of the minister's influence.
ABULFEDA, Ismaf.l ben-Axi, Emad-eddijj, tne. cele-
brated Arabian historian and geographer, bom at Damascus
in the year 672 of the Hegira (1273 a.d.), was directly
descended from Ayub, the father of th() emperor Saladin.
In his boyhood he devoted himself to the study of the
Koran and the sciences, but from his twelfth year he was
almost constantly engaged in military expeditions, chiefly
against the crusaders. In 1285 he was present at the
assault of a stronghold of the Knights of St John, and he
took part in the sieges of Tripoli, Acre, and Roum. In
1298 the princedom of Hamah and other honours, origin-
ally conferred by Saladin upon Omar, passed by inherit-
ance to Abvilfeda; but the succession was violently dis-
puted by his two brothers, and the Court availed itself of
the opportunity to supersede all the three, and to abolish
the principahty. The siiltan Melik-el-Nassir ultimately
(1310) restored the dignity to Abulfeda, with additional
honours, as an acknowledgment of his military services
against the Tartars and Bibars, the sultan's rival He
received an independent sovereignty, with the right of
coining money, ic, and had the title Melik Mowayyad
(victorious prince) conferred upon him. For twenty years,
tiU his death in October 1331, he reigned in tranquillity
and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of govern-
ment and to the composition of the works to which he is
chiefly indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patroa
A B U — A B Y
61
of men of letters, wlio repaired in large numbers to his
court. Abulfeda's chieiE historical work is An Abi-idgane;it
of the History of ihe Human Race, in the form of annals,
extending from the creation of the world to the year 1328.
A. great part of it is compiled from the works of previous
srriters, and it is diflScult to determine accurately what is
the author's and what is not. Up to the time of the birth
of Mohammed, the narrative is very succinct; it becomes
more full and valuable the nearer the historian approaches
his own day. It is the only source of information on
many facts connected w^th the Saracen empire, and alto-
gether is by far the most important Arabi.an history we
now possess. Various translations of parts of it exist,
the earUest being a Latin rendering of the section relating
to the Arabian conquests in Sicily, by Dobelius, Arabic
professor at Palermo, in 1610. This is preserved in
Muratori's Reritm llallcarum Scriptores, vol. i. The his-
tory from the time of Mohammed was published with a
Lr.tin translation by Reiske, under the title A nnalex Mos-
lemici (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1789-94), and a similar
edition of the earher part was published by Fleischer at
Leipsio in 1831, under the title Ahulfedoe Hisloria Ante-
Islamitica. His Geography is chieily valuable in the his-
torical and descriptive parts relating to the Moslem empire.
From his necessarily imperfect acquaintance with astro-
nomy, his notation of latitude and longitude, though fuller
than that of any geographer who preceded him, can in no
case be depended on, and many of the places whose posi-
tion he gives with the utmost apparent precision cannot
be now identified. A complete edition was published by
MM. Reinaud and De Slane at Paris in 1840; and Eeinaud
published a French translation, with notes and illustrations,
in 1848. MSS. of both Abulfeda's great works are pre-
served in the Bodleian Library and in the National
Library of France.
ABULQHAZI-BAHADUR (1605-1663), a khan- of
Khiva, of the race of Genghis-Khan, who, after abdicating
in favour of his son, employed his leisure in writing a
history of the Mongols and Tartars. He produced a
valuable work, which has been translated into German,
French, and Russian.
ABUNA, the title given to the archbishop or metropoli-
tan of Abyssinia.
ABUSHEHR. See Bushiee.
ABU-SIMBEL, or Ipsambul, the ancient Ahoccis or
Abuncis, a place in Nubia, on the left bank of the Nile,
about DO miles S.W. of Dorr, remarkable for its ancient
Egyptian temples and colossal figures hewn out of the
solid rock. For a description of these see NuDiA.
ABU-TEMAN, one of the most highly esteemed of
Arabian poets, was born at Djacem in the year 1 90 of the
Hegira (806 a.d.) In the little that is told of his life is
is difficult to distinguish between truth and fable. He
seems to have lived in Egypt in his youth, and to have
been engaged in servile employment, but his rare poetic
talent speedOy raised him to a distinguished position at
the court of the caliphs of Bagdad. Arabian historians
assert that a single poem frequently gained for him many
thousand pieces of gold, and the rate at which his con-
temporaries estimated his genius may be understood from
the saying, that " no one could ever die whose name had
been praised in the verses of Abu-Teman." Besides
writing original poetry, he made three collections of select
pieces from the poetry of the East, of the most important
of which, called Hamasa, Sir William Jones speaks highly.
Professor Caa'lyle quoted this collection largely in his Speci-
mens of Arabic Poetry (1796). An edition of the text,
with Latin translation, was published by Freytag at
Bonn (1828-51), and a meritorious translation in German
verse by Riickert appeared in 1846. Abu-Teman died
845 A.D.
ABYDOS (1.), in Ancient Geography, a city of Mysia
in Asia Minor, situated on the Hellespont, which is hert
scarcely a mile broad. It probably was originally a
Thracian town, but was afterwards colonised by Milesians.
Nearly opposite, on the European side of the Hellespont,
stood Sestos; and it was here that Xerxes crossed the
strait on his celebrated bridge of boats when he invaded
Greece. Abydos was celebrated for the vigorous resistance
it made when besieged by Philip 11. of Macedon; and is
famed in story for the loves of Hero and Lcander. The
old castle of the Daidanelles, built by the Turks, lies a
little southward of Sestos and Abydos.
ABYDOS (2.), in Ancient Geography, a town of Upper
Egypt, a little to the west of the Nile, between Ptolemais
and DiospoUs Parva, famous for the palace of Memnon and
the temple of Osiris. Remains of these two edifices are
still in existence. In the temple of Osiris Mr Bankeg
discovered in 1818 the tablet of Abydos, contaiiung a
double series of twenty-six shields of the predecessors of
Barneses the Great. This tablet is now deposited in the
British Museum,
ABYSSINIA
ABYSSINIA is an extensive country of Eastern Africa,
the limits of which are not well defined, and authorities
are by no means agreed respecting them. It may, however,
be regarded as lying between 7° 30 and 15° 40' N. lat., and
35° and 40° 30' E. long., having, N. and N.W., Nubia ;E.,
the territory of the Danakils ; S. , the country of the Gallas^
md W., the regions of the Upper Nile.' It has an area of
* It is usual to include in Abyssinia tlie flat country wliicli lies betTv-cen
it and the Red Sea, and to regard the latter as forming its boundary on
the east. This, however, is not stiictl/ correct. Ahysoinia proper com-
prises only the mouritainous portion of this territorj', the low lying por-
tion being inhabited by distinct and hostile tribes, and claimed by the
Viceroy of Egypt as part of his dominions. The low country is very
unhealthy, the soil dry and arid, and with few exceptions uncultivated,
whereas the hi;jhlands are generally salubrious, well v/atered, and in
many parta very fertile. This arid track of country is only a few miles
broad at Massowah, in the north, but widens out to 200 or 300 miles at
Tajurrah, in the south. It is, in a groat mea-suro, ov/inf; to Aby^^sinia
being thus cut off from intorcourso with the civilised world by this in-
bospitable region, which has for three centuries bcou in the hnnda of
enemies, that it is at present so .for sunk in iguorunce and barbarism.
about 200,000 square miles, and a population of frc'in
3,000,000 to 4,000,000.
The name Abyssinia, or more properly Habessinia, is
derived from the Arabic word Habesch, which signifies
mixture or confusion, and was applied to this countiy by
the Arabs on account of the mixed character of the people.
This was subsequently Latinised by the Portuguese intc
Abojssia and Abassinos, and hence the present name. The
Abyssinians call themselves Iliopyavan, and their country
Iliopia, or Manghesta Itiopia, the kingdom of Ethiopia.
The country of Abyssinia rises rather abruptly from the
low arid' district on the borders of the Bed Sea in lofty
ranges of mountains, and slopes away more gradually to
the westward, where the tributaries of the Nile have formed
numerous deep valleys. It consists for the most part of
extensive and elevated table-land.s, with mountain ranges
e.xtcnding in dififerent directions, and intersected by numerous
valleys. The table-lands are generr.lly from 6000 to POOO
feet above the level of the sea, but in the sou^i there ar»
S2
ABYSSINIA
some of considerable extent, which attain a height of more
than 10,000 feet. The mountains in various parts of the
country rise to 12.000 and 13,000 feet above the sea, and
some of the peaks of Samen are said to reach to 15,000
feet, and to bo always covered with snow. The average
height of the range which divides the streams flowing to
th2 east from tjosa that flow westward is about 8000 feet,
rising to 10,00o or 11,000 in the south, and sinking in the
north. The whole country presents the appearance of
having been broken np and tossed about in a remarkable
manner, the mountains assuming wild and fantastic forms,
•with sides frequently abrupt and precipitous, and only
accessible by very difficult pas-ses. The Samen range of
mountains are the highest in Abyssinia, and together with
the Lamalmon and Lasta mountains form a long but not
continuous chain, running from north to south.
Sketch Chart of Abyssinia.
The principal rivers of Abyssinia are tributaries of the
Nile. The western portion of the country may be divided
into three regions, drained respectively by the Mareb, the
Atbara, and the AbaL The most northern of these rivers
ia the Mareb, which rises in the mountains of Taranta,
flows first south, then west, and afterwards turns to the
north, where it is at length, after a course of upwards of
500 milo!, lost in the sand, but in the rainy season it falls
into the Atbara. The Atbara, or Takazza, rises in the
mountains of Lasta, and flowing first north, then west, and
again turning to the north, at length falls into tho Nile,
after a coui'se of about 800 miles. The Abai, Bahr-el-Azrek
or Blue River, the eastern branch of the Nile, and considered
by Bruce to bo tho main stream of that river, rises from
two mountains near Geesh, in lat 10° 59' 25' N., long.
36° 55' 30" E., about 10,000 feet above the level of the
sea. It flows first north to the Lake of Dembea or Tzana,
then takes a long semicircular sweep round the province of
Godjam, and afterwards flows northward to about the 10th
degree of N. lat., where it unites with the Bahr-el-Abiad,
which has now been ascertained to be the true Nil^i The
Hawash, the principal river of eastern Abyssinia, rises about
lat. 9° 30' N., long. 38° E.and, flowing in a north-easterly
direction towards the Red Sea, is lost in Lake Aussa, laJj
ir25'N.,long. 'tr40'E. The principal hke of Abyssinia
is the Dembea, which lies between 11° 30' and 12° SC N.
lat., and 37° and 37° 35' E. long., being about 60 miles in
length by 40 in width, and containing a number of small
islands. It is fed by numerous smaU streams. The lake
of Ashangi, in kt. 12° 35' N., long. 39° 40' R, is about 4
miles long by 3 broad, and upwards of 8000 feet above tho
sea.
The fundamental rocks of Tigr£, and probably of all
Abyssinia, are metamorphic. They compose the mass of
the table-land, and while they occupy no inconsiderable
portion of its surface, they are exposed, in Tigr6 at least, in
every deep valley. The metamorphics vary greatly in
mineral character, "every intermediate grade being found
between the most coarsely crystallino granite and a slaty
rock so littlo altered that tho lines of the original bedding
are still apparent Perhaps the most prevalent form of
rock is a rather finely crystalline gnsies. Hornblende-schist
and mica-schist are met with, but neither of tho minerals
from which thoy are named appears to be so abundant as
in some metamorphic tracts. On the other hand, a compact
felspathic rock, approaching febite in composition, is pre-
valent in places, as in the Suru defile, between Komayli
and Senaf6." There are a few exceptions, but as a general
nilo it may bo asserted that in tho neighbourhood of the
route followed by the British army, so much of the country
as is more than 8000 feet above the sea consists of bedded
traps, and this is probably the case in general over Abys-
sinia. " Between the traps and tho metamorphica a
series of sandstones and limestones intervene, one group of
the former underlying the latter. The limestone aione is
fossiHferous, and is of Jurassic age." " On the route to
Magdala volcanic rocks were first met with at Senaf^ where
several liilla consist of trachyte, passing into claystone and
basalt Trap hills, chiefly of trachyte, are dotted over the
country to the southward as far as Fokada, a distance of
nearly 30 miles. Here a great range of bedded traps com-
mences, and extends for about 25 miles to the south, pass-
ing to the west of Adigerat" At Meshek, two marches
south of Antalo, " the route entered high 'ranges entirely
composed of trap, and thence no other rocks were seen as
far as Magdala." " The trappean rocks belong to two dis-
tinct and unconformable groups. The lower of these is
much inclined, while the higher rests on its upturned and
denuded edges." Denudation has evidently been going on
to a great extent in this country. One of its most striking
features are the deep ravines which have been worked out
by the action of the streams, sometimes to the depth of
3000 or 4000 feet " How ranch of the Abyssinian high-
lands has been removed by these great torrents, and spread
as an alluvial deposit over the basin of the Nile 1" "Probably
over the whole of northern Abyssinia there existed at least
4000 feet of bedded traps, of which now only a few vestiges
remain." — W. T. Blanford,
Abyssinia is said to enjoy "probably as saiuorious a
climate as any country on the face of the globe." —
Parh/ru. The heat is by no means oppressive, a fine
light air counteracting the power of the sun ; and during
the rainy season, the sky being cloudy, the weather is
always agreeable and cool, while the rain itself is not very
severe. In certain of the low valleys, however, malarious
influences prevail before and after the rainy season, and
bring on dangerous fevers. On the higher parts the cold
is sometimes intense, partictilarly at night The natural
division of the seasons is into a cold, a hot, and a rainy
season. The cold season may be said to extend from
October to February, the hot from the beginning of March
to the middle of June, and the wet or monsoon period from
this time to the end of September. The rainy season is of
importance, not only in equalising the temperature, increasing
ABYSSIFIA
63
tne fertility, and keeping up fhe water supply ol the country,
but, as Sir S. Baker lias shown, it plays a most important
part in the annuo! overflow of the Nile.
On the aumraits and slopes of the highest mountains
the vegetation is of a thoroughly temperate and even
English character ; the plateaux have a flora of the same
character; while on the lower slopes ^f the hills and in the
ravines occur many trees and shrubs of wanner climes.
"The general appearance of the plateaux and plains is that
of a comparatively bare country, with trees and bushes
t'ninly scattered over it, and clumps and groves only occur-
ring round villages and churches. But the glens and ravines
in the plateau sides, each with its little bright spring, are
often thickly wooded, and offer a delicious contrast to the
open country." — Mark/uxm.. This refers more particularly
to the northern portion oi the country, that drained by the
Mareb ; the central and southern parts are much more fertile
and productive. Here the fertihty is so great that in some
parts three crops are raised annually. Agricultui'e receives
considerable attention, and large quantities of maize, wheat,
barley, peas, beans, &c., are grown. Very ey+ensively
cultivated is tef {Poa ahyssinica), a herbaceous plant with
grains not larger than the head of a pin, of which is made
the bread in general use throughout the country. The low
grounds produce also a kind of com called tocussa, of
which a black bread is made, which constitutes the food of
the lower classes. CoQ'ee grows wild on the western
mountains, and the vine and sugar-cane are cultivated in
favourable localities. Cotton is also grown to a consider-
able extent. Among the fruit-trees are the date, orange,
lemon, pomegranate, and banana. Myrrh, balsam, and
various kinds of valuable medicinal plants are common.
Most of the domestic animals of Europe are fouud here.
The cattle are in general small, and the oxen belong to the
humped race. The famous Galla oxen have horns some-
times four feet long. The sheep belong to the short and
fat-tailed race, and are covered with wooL Goats are very
common, and have sometimes honis two feet in lengtli.
IMie horses are strong and active. Of wild animals the
t-.potted hy^na is among the most numerous, as well as the
fiercest and most destructive, not only roaming in immense
numbers over the country, but fi-equently entering the
towns, and oven the houses of the inhabitants. The
elephant and rhinoceros are numerous in the low grounds.
The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns ; its skin, which
has no folds, is used for shields, and for lining diinking
vessels, being regarded as an antidote to poison. Crocodiles
and hippopotami are plentiful in the rivers ; lions, panthers,
and leopards are seen occasionally, and buffaloes frequently.
Among other animals may be mentioned as common various
species of antelopes, wild swine, monkeys, hare" oiuirrels,
several species of hyrax, jackals, <5ic.
The birds of Abyssinia are very numerous, ana many of
them remarkable for the beauty of their plrmage. Great
numbers of eagles, vultures, hawks, and other birds of prey
are met with; and partridges, snipes, pigeon's, parrots,
thrushes, and swallows are very plentiful Among insects
the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey eveiywher^
constituting an important part of the food of the inhabi-
tants, and several of the provinces paying a large proportion
of theii- tribute in this article. Of an opposite class is the
locust, the ravages of which here, as in other parts of
Northern Africa, are terrible. Serpents are not numerous,
but several species are poisonous.
The inhabitants of Abyssinia form a number of different
tribes, and evidently belong to several distinct races. The
majority are of the Caucasian race, and are in general well-
formed and handsome, with straight and regular features,
lively eyes, hair long and straight or somewhat curled, and
colour dark olive, approaching to Uack. Ruppoll regards
thera as identical in teatures with the Bedouin Arabs. The
tribes inhabiting Tigre, Amhara, Agow, kc, belong to this
raca^: The Galla race, who came originally from the south,
have now overrun the greater part of the country, consti-
tuting a large portion of the soldiery, and, indeed, there are
few of the chiefs who have not an intermixture of Galla
blood in their veins. They ate fierce and turbulent ijj
character, and addicted jx) cruelty. Many of them are stOl
idolaters, but most of them have now adopted the Moham-
medan faith, and not a few of them the Christianity of the
Abyssinians. They are genei-ally largo and well-built, of a
brown complexion; with regular features, small deeply-sunk
but very bright eyes, and long black hru'r. A race of Jews,
kn'own by the name of Falashas, inhabit the district of
Samen. They affirm that their forefathers came into the
country in the days of Rehoboam, but it seems more
probable that they ai-rivcd about the time of the destruction
of Jerusalem. From the 10th century they enjoyed theii
own constitutional rights, and were subject to their own
kings, who, they pretend, were descended from King David,
until the year 1800, when the royal race became extinct,
and they then became subject to Tigri.
The prevailing religion of Abyssinia is a very corrupted
form of Chi-istianity. This is professed by the majority of
the people, as well as by the reigning princes of the different
states. There are also scattered over the country many
Mohammedans, and some Falashas or Jews. Christianity
was introduced into this country about the year S.'JO, but
since that time it has been so corrupted by errors of various
kinds as to have become Uttle more than a dead formahty
mixed up with much superstition and Judaism. Feasts
and fast-days are very frequent, and baptism and the Lord's
supper are dispensed after the manner of the Greek Church.
The children are circumcised, and the Mosaic command-
ments with respect to food and purification are observed.
The eating of animals which do not chew the cud and which
have not cloven hoofs is prohibited. The ecclesiastical body
is very numerous, consisting of priests, of various kinds,
with monks and nuns, and is looked upon with great awe
and reverence. If a priest be married previous to his
ordination, he is allowed to remain so; but no one can
marry after having entered the priesthood. The primate
or chief bishop is called Abuna {i.e., our father), and is
nominated by the patriarch of Cairo, whom they acknow-
ledge as their spiritual father. The churches are rude
edifices, chiefly of a circular form, with thatched roofs, the
interior being divided into three compartments, — an outei
one for the laity, one within for the priests, and in the
centre the Holy of Holies, exactly after the manner of a
Jewish temple. The worship consists merely in reading
passages of Scripture and dispensing the Lord's supper,
without any preaching. Like the Greek Church, they have
no images of any kind in their places of worship, but paint-
ings of the saints are very common — their faces always in
full, whatever may be the position of their bodies. They
have iimumerable saints, but above aU is the Virgin, whom
they regard as queen of heaven and earth, and the great
intercessor for the sins of mankind. Their reverence for a
saint is often greater than for the Almighty, and a man
who would not hesitate to invoke the name of his Maker in
witness to a falsehood may decline so to use the nam.e of
St Michael or St George. Legends of saints and works of
religious controversy form almost their entire hterature.
" At present," says Bishop Gobat, " the Christians of
Abyssinia are divided into three parties, so inimicaJ to each
other that they curse one another, and will no longer par-
take of the sacrament together. It is one single point of
theology that disunites them — the imceasing dispute con-
cerning the unction of Jesus Christ."
In manners the Abyi>siuians are rude and barbaroU^
t)4
ABYSSINIA
Engaged as thcj are in coii'inual wars, ana accustomed
to bloodshed, human life is little regarded among them.
Muraera and executions are fi-equent, and yet cruelty is
said not to be a marked feature of their character ; -and in
war they seldom kill their prisoners. When one is con-
victed of murder, he is handed over to the relatives of the
deceased, who may either pit him to death or accept a
ransom. When the murdered person has no relatives, the
priests take upon themselves the office of avengers. The
Abyssinians are irritable, but easily appeased ; and are a
gay people, fond of festive indulgences. On every festive
occasion, as a saint's day, birth, marriage, ic., it is
customary for a rich man to collect his friends and neigh-
bours, and kill a cow and one or two sheep. The principal
parts of the cow are eaten raw while yet warm and quiver-
ing, the remainder being cut into smaU pieces, and cooked
with the favourite sauce of butter and red peppdr paste.
The raw meat in this way is considered to be very superior
in taste and much tenderer than when cold. "I can
readily believe," says Mr Parkyns," that raw meat would be
preferred to cooked meat by a man who from childhood
had been accustomed to it." The statement by Bruce
respecting the cutting of steaks from a hve cow has fre-
quently been called in question, but there can be no doubt
that Bruce actually saw what he narrates, though it would
appear to have been a very exceptional case. Mr Parkyns
was told by a soldier, " that, such a practice v/as not un-
common among the Gallas, and even occasionally occurred
among themselves, when, as in the case Bruce relates, a cow
had been stolen or taken in foray." The principal drinks
are mese, a kind of mead, and bousa, a soit of beer made
from fermented cakes. Their dre?s consists of a large
folding mantle and clcse-fitting drawers ; and their houses
are very rude structures of a conical form, covered with
thatch. Marriage is a very .slight connection among them,
dissolvable at any time by either of the parties ; and poly-
gamy is by no means imcommon. Hence there is httle
family affection, and what exists is only among childreu of
the same father and mother. Children of the .'■,ame father,
but of different mothers, are said to be " alwavs enemies to
each other." — Gohat.
Abyssinia is one of the most ancient monaroiucs in tne
world, and has been governed from time immemorial by an
emperor. For many years, however, until the accession of
the late Emperor Theodore, he had been a mere puppet in
the hands of orte or other of his chiefs. Each chief is
entire master of all soiu:ces of revenue xvithin his territory,
and has practically full power of life and death. His sub-
jection consists in an obhgaticn to, send from time to time
presents to his superior, and to follow him to war with as
large a force as he can muster. For several generations
the emperor had been little better than a prisoner in his
palace at Gondar, his sole revenue consisting of a small
stipend and the tolls of the weekly markets of that city,
the Teal power being in the hands of the ras or vizier of
the empire, who was always the most powerful chief for the
time. If at any time a chief " has found himself strong
enough to march upon the capital, he has done so, placed
upon the throne another puppet emperor, and been by him
appointed ras or vizier, till a rival stronger than himself
could turn him out and take Ms place." — Dr Belce.
The three principal provinces of Abyssinia ar£ Tigr^ in
the north, Amhara (in which Gondar the capital is situated)
in the centre, and Shoa in the south. The governors of
these have all at different times assumed the title of Kas.
Three other provinces of some importance are Lasta and
Waag, whose capital is Sokota; Godjam, to the south of
Lake Dembea ; and Kivara, to the west of that lake, the
birth-place of tha Emperor Theodore The two provinces
of Tigre and Shoa have generally beeu m a state of rebellion
from or acknowledged independence of the central power at
Gondar. The geographical position of Tigr^ enhances ita
political importance, as it lies between Gondar and the seai
at Massowah, and thus holds as it were the gate of the
capital The province of Shoa is almost separated from
that of Amhara.by the Wolla Gallaa, a Mohammedan tribe,
and for a long time the former had been virtually indepen-
dent, and governed by a hereditary line of princes, to one
of whom the Indian government sent a SDCcial embassy
under Major Harris in 1841
The principal towns arc Gondar in Amhara, the lormer
capital of the kingdom, and containing about 7000 inhabit-
ants, and Debra Tabor in Amhara, formerly a email village,
but which rose to be a place of considwable ei^e in conse-
quence of the Emperor Theodore having fixed upon it as
his residence, and near it was Gaflat, v^-here the European
workmen resided. It was burned by the oinperor v.hen be
set out on his fatal march to Magdala. Adowa is the
capital of Tigre, and the second city in the empire, having
about 6000 inhabitants. Antalo \s also one of the principal
towns of Tigr4, and the capital of Enderta. Near Antalo
is CheUcut. Sokota, the capital of Lasta Waag, is a town
of con.siderable size. The capital of Shoa is Ankobar, and
near it is Angolala, also a place of considerable size. The
capital of Agam6 is Adigerat.
The language of the religion and literature of the country
is the Geez, which belongs to the Ethiopic class of languages,
and is the ancient language of Tigr6; of this the modem
Tigr($ is a dialect. The Amharic, the language of Amhara,
is that of the court, the army, and the merchants, and is
that too which travellers who penetrate beyond Tigr6 have
ordinarily occasion to usa But the Agow in its various
dialects is the language of the people in some provinces
almost exclusively, and in others, where it has been super-
seded by the language of the dominant race, it still exists
among the lowest classes. This last is behoved to be the
original language of. the people; and from the afEnity of the
Geez, Amharic, ~ and cognate dialects, to the Arabic, it
seems probable that they were introduced by conquerors ot
settlers from the opposite shores of the Red Sea. The
Gallas, who have overrun a great part of Abyssinia, have
introduced their own language into various parts of the
country, but in many cases they have adopted the language
of the people among whom they have come. The Uterature
of Abyssinia is very poor, and contains nothing of much
value. During the late war the hbraries in connection
■\rith the religious communities were found to contain only
modern works of little interest On the capture of Magdala,
a large number of MSS. were found there, which had bee u
brought by Theodore from Gondar and other parts. Of
thess 359 were brought home for examination, and are
now deposited in the British Museum. The oldest among
them belong to the 15th and 16th centuries, but the great
bulk of them are of the 17th and 18th, and some are of
the present century. They are mostly copies of the Holy
Scriptures, canonical and apocryphal, including the Book.of
Enoch, praj'er and hymn books, missals, hvea of saints, and
translations of various of the Greek fathers.
The trade and manufactures of Abyssinia are insignificant,
the people being chiefly engaged in agriculture and pastoral
pursuits. Cotton cloths, the universal dress of the country,
aie made in large quantities. The preparation of leather
and parchment is also carried on to some extent, and manu-
factures of iron and brass. "The Abyssinians are, I
think," says Mr Markham, " capable of civihsation. Their
agriculture is good, their manufactures are not to be
despised ; but the combined effects of- isolation, Galla
inroads, and internal anarchy, have thrown them back for
centuries." The foreign trade of Abyssinia is carried on
entirely through Massowah. Its principal imports are lead.
ABYSSIi^lA
65
tin, copper, silk, gunpowder, glass wares, Persian carpcU,
and coloured cloths. The chief exports are gold, ivory,
ilaves, coifee, butter, honey, and wax.
Abpsinia, or at least the northern portion of it, was
included in the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia. The connec-
tion between Egypt and Ethiopia was in early times very
intimate, and occasionally the two countries were under
the same ruler, so that the arts and civilisation of the one
naturally found their way into the other. In early times,
too, the Hebrews had commercial intercourse with the
Ethiopians ; and according to the Abyssinians, the Queen
of Sheba^ who visited Solomon, was a monarch of their
countrj-, and from her son MenOek the kings of Abyssinia
are descended. Diuing the -captivity many of the Jews
settled here, and brought with them a knowledge of the
Jewish religion. Under the Ptolemies, the arts as weU as
the enterprise of the Greeks entered Ethiopia, and led to
the establishment of Greek colonies. A Greek inscription
at Adulis, no longer extant, but copied by Cosmos, and
preserved in his Topographia Chj-utiana, records that
Ptolemy Euergetes, the third of the Greek dynasty in Egypt,
invaded the countries on both sides of the Red Sea, and,
having reduced most of the provinces of Tigr4 to subjection,
returned to the port of Adulis, and there offered sacrifices
to Jupiter, Mars, and Neptune. Another inscription, not
80 ancient, found at Axum, and copied by Salt and others,
states that Aeizanas, king of the Axomites, the Home-
rites, ic, conquered the nation of the Bogos, and returned
thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his victory. The
ancient kingdom of Auxume flourished in the first or
second century of our era, and was at one time nearly
coextensive with the modem Abyssinia. The capital
Auxume and the seaport Adulis were then the chief
centres of the trade with the interior of Africa in gold ^ust,
ivory, leather, aromatlcs, &c. At Axum, the site of the
ancient capital, many vestiges of its former greatness still
exist ; and the ruins of Adulis, which was once a seaport
on the Bay of Anncsley, are now about 4 miles from the
shore. Chriitianity was introduced into the country by
Frumentius, who was consecrated first bishop of Abyssinia
by St Athanasius of Alexandria about A.D. 330. Subse-
quently the monastic system was introduced, and between
470 and 480 a great company of monks appear to have
entered and established themselves in the country. Since
that time Monachiism has been a power among the people,
and not without its infiuence on the course of events. In
522 the king of the Homerites, en the opposite coast of
the Bed Sea, having persecuted the Christians, the Emperor
Justinian requested the king of Abyssinia, Caleb or
Elesbaan, to avenge their cause. He accordingly collected
an army, crossed over into Arabia, and conquered Yemen,
which remained subject to Abyssinia for 67 years. This was
the most flourishing period in the annals of the countiy. The
Ethiopians possessed tie richest part of Arabia, carried on a
large trade, which extended as far as India and Ceylon, and
were in constant communication with the Greek empire.
Their expulsion from Arabia, followed by the conquest of
Egypt by the Mohammedans in the middle of the 7th
century, changed this state of afi'airs, and the continued ad-
vances of the followers of the Prophet at length cut them
off from almost eveiy meauB of communication with the
civihsed world ; so that, as Gibbon says, " encompassed by
the enemies of their religion, the Ethiopians slept for near a
thousand years, forgetful of the world by whom they were
forgotten." About A-d. 9G0, a Jewish princess, Judith,
conceived the bloody design of murdering all the members
of the royal family, and of establishing herself in their stead.
During the execution of this project, the infant king was
carried off by some faithful adherents, and conveyed to Shoa,
where his authority was acknowledged, while Judith reigned
for 40 years over the rest of the kingdom, and transmitted
the crown to her descendants. In 1268 the kingdom waa
restored to the royal house in the person of Icon Imlac.
Towards the close of the 15lh century the Portugueso
missions into Abyssinia commenced. A belief had long
prevailed in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom
in the far oast, whoso monarch was known as Prester John,
and various expeditions had been sent in quest of it.
Among others who had engaged in this search was Pedrd
de Covilham, who arrived in Abyssinia in 1490, and,
believing that he had at length reached the far-famed king-
dom, presented to the Negus, or emperor of the country, a
letter from his master the king of Portugal, addressed to
Prester John. Covilham remained in the country, but in
1507 an Armenian named Matthew was sent by the Negus
to the king of Portugal to request his aid against the Turks.
In 1520 a Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered
the Red Sea in compliance with this request, and an
embassy from the fleet visited the country of the Negus,
and remained there for about sis years. One of this
embassy was Father Alvarez, from whom we have tho
earliest and not the least interesting account of the country.
Between 1528 and 1540 armies of Mohammedans, under the
renowned general Mohammed Gragn, entered Abyssinia from
the low country, and overran the kingdom, obliging the
emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses. In this
extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese, and
Bermudei, who had remained in the country after the
departure of the embassy, was ordained successor to the
Abuna, and sent on this niission. In consequence a
Portuguese fleet, under the command of Stephen de Gama,
was sent from India and arrived at Massowah. A force
of 450 musqueteers, under the command of Christopher
de Gama, younger brother of the admiral, niarclied into
the interior, and being joined by native troops were at first
successful against the Turks, but were subsequently defeated,
and their commander taken prisoner and put to death.
Soon afterwards, however, Mohammed Gragn was shot in
an engagement, and his forces totally routed. After this,
quarrels arose between the Negus and the Catholic primate
Bermudez, who wished the former publicly to profess liim-
self a convert to Rome. This the Negus refused to do,
and at length Bermudez was obliged to make his way out of
the countiy. The Jesuits who had accompanied or followed
Bermudez into Abyssinia, and fixed their head-quarters
at Fremona, were oppressed and neglected, but not actually
expelled. In the beginning of the following century Father
Paez arrived at Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment,
who soon rose into high favour at court, and gained over
the emperor to his faith. He directed the erection of
churches, palaces, and bridges in different parts of the
country, and carried out many useful works. His successor
Mendez was a man of much less conciliatory manners, and the
feelings of the people became more strongly excited against
the intruders, till at length, on the death of the Negus, and
the accession of his son Facilidas in 1633, they were all
sent out of the country, after having had a footing there
for nearly a centuiy and a half. The French physician
Poncet, who went there in 1698, was the only European
that afterwards visited the country before Bruce in 1769.
It was about the middle of the 16th centui-y that the
Oalla tribes first entered Abyssinia from tho south; and
notwithstanding frequent efforts to dislodge them, they
gradually extended and strengthened their positions till
they had overrun the greater part of the cu jntry. The power
of the emperor was thus weakened, independent chiefs set
themselves up in different parts, until at length he became
little better than a puppet in the hands of the most power-
ful of his chiefs. In 1805 the country was visited bv
Lord Valentia and Mr Salt, and again by Salt in I81Q. In
I o
06
ABYSSINIA
1 620 >Ie.=sro Gobat and Kuglcr were sent oul as missionanes
by the Church Missionary Society, and were well received
by tbo Raa of Tigri. ilr Kuglcr died soon afte- his
arrival, and his place was subsequently supplied by Mr
licnberg, who was followed by Messrs Ulumhardt and Krapf.
In 1830 Mr Gobat proceeded to Gondar, where he also
met with a favourable reception. In 1833 he returned to
Europe, and published a journal of his residence here. In
I ho following year ho went back to TigrC', but in 1836 ho
was compelled to le^ve from ill health. In 1838 other
missionaries were obliged to leave the country, owing to
the opposition of the native priests. Messrs Isenbcrg and
Krapf went south, and established themselves at SLoa.
The former soon after returned to Engjand, and Mr Krapf
remained in Shoa tiU March 1812. Dr Riippcl,tho German
naturalist, Tisitod the country in 1831, and remained
nearly two years. MJI. Combes and Tamiaier arrived at
Massowah iu 1835, and visited districts- which had not been
traversed by Europeans since the time of the Portuguese.
In 1839 the French Government sent out a scientific com-
mission under M. Lefebvre. Its labours extended over five
•/ears, and have thrown great light on the condition and
productions of the country. In 1841 a political mission
was sent by the Governor-General of India to Shoa, under
the direction of Major Harris, who subsequently published
an account cf hia travels. One who has done much to ex-
tend our geographical knowledge of this country is Dr Beke,
who was there from 1840 to 1843. Mr Mansfield Parkyus
was there from 1843 to 1840, and has written the most
interesting boolc on the counti-y since the time of Bruce.
Bishop Gobat having conceived the idea of sending lay
mi-ssionaries into the country, who would engage in secular
occupations as well as carrj' on missionary work, Dr Krapf
and Mr Flad arrived in 1855 as pioneers of that mission.
Six came out at first, and they were subsequently joined by
others Their work, however, was moie valuable to Theodore
than their preaching, so that he employed them as work-
men to himself, and established them at Gaffat, near his
capital. Mi- Stern arrived in Abyssinia in 1860, 'but re-
turned to Europe, and came back in 1863, accompanied by
Mr and Mrs Rosenthal
Lij Kassa, v/ho came subsequently to be known as the
Emperor Theodore, was born in Kuara, a western province
bf Abyssinia, about the year 1818. His father was of noble
family, and hi3 uncle was governor of the provinces of
Dcmbca, Kuara, and Chelga. He w.as educated in a con-
vent, but, preferring a wandering life, he became leader of
t, band of malcontents. On the death of his uncle he was
made governor of Kuara, but, not satisfied with this, he
seized upon Dembea, and having defeated several generals
sent against him, peace w.is restored on his receiving
Tavavitch, daughter of Ras Ali, in marriage. This lady is
Slid to have been his good genius and counsellor, and during
her life his conduct was most exemplar}-. He next turned
his arms against the Turks, but was defeated ; and the mother
of R.13 Ali having insulted him in his fallen condition, he
proclaimed his independence. The troops sent against hira
were successively defeated, and eventually the whole of the
possessions of Ras Ali fell into his hands He next de-
feated the chief of Godjam, and then turned his arms
against the governor of Tigrc, whom he totally defeated in
Februarj- 18.55. In March of the same year he took the
title of Theodore III., and caused himself to be crowned
king of Ethiopia by the Abuna. Theodore was now in the
zenith of his career. He is described, as being generous
to excess, free from cupidity, merciful to his vanquished
enemies, and strictly continent, but subject to violent bursts
oi anger, and possessed of unyielding pride and fanatical
religious zeal, i He was also a man of education and inteUi-
i^cnce, superior to those aniong whom he lived, with natural
talenta for governing, and gaining the esteem of others.
He had further a noble bearing and majestic walk, a frame
capable of enduring any amount of fa'igue, and is said to
have been " the best shot, the best spearman, the best
runner, and the best horseman in Abyssinia." Had he
contented himself with what he now possessed, the sove-
reignty of Amhara and Tigr^, he might have maintained hia
position ; but he was led to exhaust his strength against
the Gallas, which was probably one of the chief causes of
his ruin. He obtained several victories over that people,
ravaged Jheir country, took possession of Magdcla, which
he afterwards made his principal stronghold, and en'Utcd
many of the chiefs and their followers in his own ranks..
He shortly afterwards reduced the kingdom of Shoa,
and took Ankobar, the capital ; but in the meantime his
own people were groaning under bis heavy exactions,
rebellions were brcalang out in various parts of his pro-
vinces, and his good queen was now dead. He lavished
vast sums of money upon his army, which at one time
amounted to 100,000 or 150,000 fighting men; and in
order to meet this expenditure, he was forced to exact
exorbitant tributes from his people. The British consul,
Plowden, who was strongly attached to Theodore, having
been ordered by his Goveramcnt in 1800 to return to
Massowah, was attacked on his way by a rebel nnmed
Garred, mortally wounded, and taken prisoner. Theodore
attacked the rebels, and in the action the murderer of Mr
Plowden was slain by his friend pnd companion Jlr Bell,
but the latter lost his life in preserving that of Theodore.
The deaths of the two Englishmen were terribly avenged by
the slaughter or mutilation of nearly 2000 rebels. Theodore
soon after married his second wife Tcrunish, the proud
daughter of the late governor of Tigr6, who felt neither
affection nor respect for the upstart who had dethroned her
father, and the union was by no means a happy one. In
1862 he made a second expedition against the Gallas, which
was stained with atrocious cruelties. Theodore had now
given himself up to intoxication and lust. When the
news of Mr Plowden's death reached England, Capl.-iin
Cameron was appointed to succeed him as consul, and
arrived at ilassowah in February 1862. He proceeded to
the camp of the king, to whom he presented a rifle, a pair
cf pistols, and a letter in the Queen S nama In October
Captain Cameron was dismissed by Theodore, vriih a letter
to the Queen of England which reached the Foreign Olfice
on the 12th of February 1863. For some reason or other
this letter was put aside and no answer returned, and to
this in no small degree is to be attributed the diiEci;lties
that subsequently arose with that country. After forward-
ing the letter. Captain Cameron, hearing that the Christians
of Bogos had been attacked by the Shangallis and other
tribes under Egyptian rule, proceeded to that district, and
afterwards went to Kassala, the seat of the Egyptian ad-
ministration in that quarter. Thence he t< cut to Metemch,
where he was taken ill, and in order to recruit his health
he returned to Abyssinia, and reached Jenda in August
1803. In November despatches were received from
England, but no answer to the emperor's letter, and this,
together with the consul's visit to Kaisala, greatly
offended him, and in January 1804 Captain Cameron and
his suite, with Messrs Stem and Roscnihal, were cast into
prison. WTien the news of this reached England, the
Government resolved, when too late, to send an answer to
the emperor's letter, and selected Mr Honniizd Rassam to
be its bearer. He arrived at Massowah in July 1804, and
immediately despatched a messenger requesting permission
to present himself before the emperor. Neither to this nor
a subsequent application was any answer returned till
August 1865, when a curt note was received, stating that
Consul Cameron had been released, and if Mr Kassam stilt
ABYSSINIA
67
desired to visit the kiiig, Le was to proceed by the route of
Metemeh. They reached Metemeh on 21at November, and
five weeks more v?ere lost before they heard from the
emperor, whose reply was now courteous, informing them
that the governors of all the districts through which they
had to march had received orders to furnish them with
every necessary. They left Metemeh on the 28th December,
and on 25th January foDowing arrived at Theodore's camp
in Damot. They were received with all honour, and were
afterwards sent to Kuarata, on Lake Dembea, there to await
the arrival of the captives. The latter reached this on 1 2t'h
March, and everything appeared to proceed very favourably.
A month later they started for the coast, but had not pro-
ceeded far when they were all brought back and put into
confinement. Theodore then wrote a letter to the Queen,
requesting European workmen and machinery to be sent to
him, and despatched it by Mr Flad. The Europeans,
although detained as prisoners, were not at first unkindly
treated ; but in the end of June they were sent to Magdala,
where they were soon afterwards put in chains. They
suffered hunger, cold, and misery, and were in constant
fear of death, tiU the spring of 1868, when they were
relieved by the British troops. In the meantime the power
of Theodore in the country was rapidly waning. In order
to support his vast standing army, the country was drained
of its resources : the peasantry abandoned the fertile plains,
and took refuge in the fastnesses, and large fertile tracts
remained uncultivated. Rebellions broke out in various
parts of the country, and desertions took place among his
troops, till his army became little more than a shadow of
what it once was. Shoa had already shaken ofif his yoke ;
Godjam was virtually independent ; Walkeit and Samen
were under a rebel chief ; and Lasta Waag and the
country about Lake Ashangi had submitted to Wagsham
Gobaze, who had also overrun Tigrc5, and appointed Dejach
Kassai his governor. The latter, however, in 18C7 rebelled
against his master, and assumed the supreme power of that
province. This was the state of matters when the English
troops made their appearance in the country. With a view
if possible to effect the release of the prisoners by con-
ciliatory measures, Mr Flad was sent back, with some
artisans and machinery, and a letter from the Queen,
stating that these would be handed over to his Majesty on
the release of the prisoners and their return to Massowah.
This, however, failed to influence the emperor, and the
, English Governmtnt at length saw that they must have
recourse to arms. In July 1867, therefore, it was resolved
to send an army into Abyssinia to enforce the release of
the captives, and Sir Robert Napier was appointed com-
mander-in-chief. . A reconnoitring party was despatched
beforehand, under Colonel Merewether, to select the landing-
place and anchorage, and explore the passes leading into
the interior. They also entered into friendly relations
with the different chiefs in order to secure their co-operation.
The landing-place selected was Mulkutto, on Annesley Bay,
the point of the coast nearest to the site of the ancient
Adulis, and we are told that " the pioneers of the English
expedition followed to some extent in the footsteps of the
f.dventurous soldiers of Ptolemy, and met with a few faint
traces of this old world enterprise." — C. R. Markliam..
The force amounted to upwards of 16,000 men, besides
12,640 belonging to the transport service, and followers,
making in all upwards of 32,000 men. The task to be
accomplished was to march over 400 miles of a mountainous
and little-known country, inhabited by savage tribes, to
the camp or fortress of Theodore, and compel him to deliver
up his captives. The commander-irk-chief landed on 7th
January 1868, and soon after the troops began to move
forward through the pass of Senaf^, and southward through
Iho districts of AgauKi, Tera, Kndaila, Wojcrat, Lasta, and
Wadela. In the meantime Theodore had been reduced to
great straits. Hia army was rapidly deserting him, and he
could hardly obtain food for his followers. He resolved to
quit his capital Debra Tabor, which he burned, and set
out with the remains of hia army for Magdala. During
this march he displayed an amount of engineering skiU in
the construction of roads, of military talent, and fertility
of resource, that excited the admiration and astonishment
of his enemies. On the afternoon of the 10th of April a
force of about 3000 men suddenly poured down upon the
English in the plain of Arogi^, a few miles from Magdala.
They advanced again and again to the charge, but were
each time driven back, and finally retired in good order.
Early next morning Theodore sent Lieut. Prideaux, one of
the captives, and Mr Flad, accompanied by a native thief,
to the English camp to sue for peace. Answer was returned,
that if he would deliver up aU the Europeans in his hands,
and submit to the Queen of England, he would receive
honourable treatment. The captives were liberated and
sent away, and along with a letter to the English general
was a present of 1000 cows and 500 sheep, the acceptance
of which would, according to Eastern custom, imply that
peace was granted. Through some misunderstanding, word
was sent to Theodore that the present would be accepted,
and he felt that he was now safe ; but in the evening he
learned that it had not been received, and despair again
seized him. Eai;ly next morning he attempted to escape
with a few of his followers, but subsequently returned.
The same day (13th April) Magdala was stormed and
taken, and within they found the dead body of the
emperor, who had fallen by his own hand. .The inhabitants
and troops were subsequently sent away, the fortifications
destroyed, and the town burned. The queen Terunish
having expressed her wish to go back to her own country,
accompanied the British army^ but died during the march,
and her son Alam-ayahu, the only legitimate son of the
emperor, was brought to England, as this was the desire
of his father. The success of the expedition was in no
small degree owing to the aid afforded by the several native
'chiefs through whose country it passed, and ijo one did
more in this way than Prince Kassai of Tigre. In acknow-
ledgment of this several pieces of ordnance, small arms,
and ammunition, with much of the surplus stores, were
handed over to him, and the English troops left the country
in May 1868. Soon after this Prince Kassai declared his
independence; and in a war which broke out between him
and Wagsham Gobaze, the latter was defeated, and his
territory taken possession of by the conqueror. In 1872
Kassai was cro%vned king of Abyssinia with great ceremony
at Axam, under the title of King Johannes. In that year the
governor of Massowah, Munzinger Bey, a Swiss, by com-
mand of the Viceroy of Egypt, marched an armed force
against the Bogos countr)-. The king solicited the aid of
England, Germany, and Russia .against the Egyptians, whoso
troops, however, were after a time withdrawn. Sir Bartle
Frere, in the blue-book published respecting his mission to
Zanzibar, is of the opinion thot England, having regard to
the passage to India by the Red Sea, should not have wholly
abandoned Abyssinia. (d. k.)
(See Travels of Bn-ce, 1768-73; Lord Valentia, Salt,
1809-10; Combes et Tamieier, 1835-37 ; Ferret et Galinier,
1839-43; RuppeU, 1831-33; MM. Th. Lefebvre, A. Petit, et
Quartin-Dillon, 1839-43; Major Harris; Gobat; Dr C.
Ecke; Isenberg and Krapf, 1839-42; Mansfield Parkyns;
Von Heuglin, 1861-62; H. A. Stern, 1860 and 1863;
DrBknc, 1863; A. Rassam, 1869; C. R. Markham, 1869;
W. T. P.lanford, 1870; liemrdo/lho ExpeditiontoAhyssinia,
compiled -by order of the Secretary of State for War, by
Major T. J. Holland and Captain H. Hozier, 2 vols. 4to,
and plates, 1870; various Parliamentary Papers. 18C7--C8.)
<!8
A C A — A C A
ACACIA, a genuB of shrubs and trees belonging to
the natural family Lcguminosae and thn Bcction Mimosesb.
The flowers oro email,
arranged in rounded or
elongated clusters. The
leaves ore compound
pinnate in genonvL In
some instances, how-
ever, more especially iii
the Australian species,
the leaf-stalks become
flattenetl, and 8er\'e the
purjjoso of leaves; the
plants are hence call-
ed leafless Acacias, and
as the leaf-stalks are
often placed with their
edges towards the sky
and earth, they do not
intercept light so fully
as ordinary trees. There are about 420 species of
Acacias widely scattered over the wanner regions of the
globe. They abound in Australia and Africa. Various
species, such as Acacia vera, arabica, Ehrenbergii, and
tortilis, yield gum arabic ; while Acada Vereic, Seyal, and
Adansonii furnish a siiidlar gum, called gum Senegal These
species are for the most part natives of Arabia, the north-
eastern part of Africa, and the East Indies. The wattles
Leaf of Acacia keUrophylUL
of Australia are species of Acacia with astringent harkt.
Acana dcalbata is used for tanning. An astringent
medicine, called catechu or cutch, is procured from sevend
species, but more especially from Acacia Catechu, by boiling
down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get
an extract. The bark of Acacia arabica, under the
name of Babul or Babool, is used in Scinde for tanning.
Acacia formosa supplies the valuable Cuba tijnber ca'leti
sabicu. Aco^ria Scyal is the phint which is supposed to be
the shitt-vh tree of the Dible, which supplied sliittim-wood.
The pods of Acaciix nilotica, under the name of neb-neb, are
used by tanners. The seeds of Acacia Niopo are roR.'ited
and used as snuff in South America. The seeds of all the
varieties of Acacia in South Au.stralia to the west, called
Nundo, are used as food after being roasted. Acacia
melaiMxylon, black wood of Australia, sometimes called
light wood, attains a great sue ; its wood is used for
fumituie, and receives a high polish. Acacia homalopkylla,
myall wood, yields a fragrant timber, used for ornamental
purposes. A kind of Acacia is called in Australia Bricklow.
.In common language the term Acacia is often applied to
species of the genus Robiuii, which belongs also to the
Leguminous family, b\it is placpd in a different section.
Jiobiiiia Pseudo-acacia, or false Acacia, is cultivated in
the milder parts of Britain, and forms a large tree, with
beautiful pink pea-like blossoms. The tree is sometimes
called the Locust tree.
ACADEMY
ACADEMY, u/.aSiJ;itia,' a subufb of Athens to the north,
forming part of the Ceramicus, about a mile beyond
the gate named Dypihim. It was said to have belonged
to the hero Academus, but the derivation of the word is
unknown. It v/as surrounded with a wall by Hipparchus,
and adorned with walks, groves, and fountains by Cimon,
the son of MUtiades, who at his death bequeathed it as a'
public pleasure-ground to his feUow-citizens. The Academy
was the resort of Plato, who possessed a small estate in the
neighbourhood. Here he taught for nearly fifty years, till
his death in 318 B.o. ; and from those "groves of the
Academy wliere Plato taught the truth," ^ his school, as
distinguished from the Peripatetics, received the name of
the Academics.
The same name (Academia) was in after times given by
Cicero to his viUa or country-house near Puteoli. There
was composed his famous dialogue, TIu Acader.iic Ques-
tions.
Of the academic school of philosophy, in so far as it
diverged from the doctrines of its groat master (see Plato\
we must treat very briefly, referring the reader for parti-
culars to the founders of the various schools, whose names
we shall have occasion to mention.
The Academy lasted from the daj's of Plato to those of
Cicero. As to the number of successive schools, the critics
are not agreed. Cicero himself aud Varro recognised only
two, the old and the new; Sextus Empiricus adds a third,
the middle; others a fourth, that of Philo and Charmidas ;
and some even a fifth, the Academy of Antiochus.
Of the old Academy, the princijial leaders were Speusip-
pus, Plato's sister's son, and his immediate successor;
Xenocrates of Chalcedon, who ^vith Speusippus accompanied
Plato in his journey to Sicily; Polemo, a dissolute young
' The bye-fori.i iKxin/iia, which occurs in Diogenes Laertius, is pro-
bably a ralionalistic attempt to interpret the word, such as we com-
monly meet with in the writing? of Piato.
* Horace, £p. ii. 2, ii.
Athenian, who cjime to laugh at Xenocrates, and remained
to listen (Horace, Sat., ii. 3, 253); Crates, and Crantor, the
latter of whom wrote a treatise, Tcpl irci'Oov^, praised by
Cicero. Speusippus, like the Pythagoreans, with whom
Aristotle compares him, denied that the Platonic Good
could be the first principle of things, for (he said) the
Good is not like the germ which gives birth to plants and
animals, but is only to be found in already existing things.
He therefore derived the universe from a primev.^l indeter-
minate unit, distinct from the Good; from this unit he
deduced three principles — one for numbers, one for magni-
tude, and one for the souL The Deity he conceived ta
that living force which rules all and resides everywhere.
Xenocrates, though like Speusippus infected with Pj-th&-
goreauism, was the most faithful of Phto's successors. He
distinguished three essences: the sensible, the intelligible,
and a third, compounded of the other two. The sphere of
the first is all below the heavens, of the second all beyond
the heavens, of the third heaven itself. To each of these
three spheres one of our faculties corresponds. To the sen-
sible, sense; to the intelligible, intellect or reason; to the
mixed sphere, opinion (Sofa). So far he closely follows
the psychology and cosmogeny of his master; but Cicero
notes as the characteristic of both Speusippus and Xeno-
crates, the abandonment of the Socratio principle of
hesitancy.
Of the remaining three, the same writer (who is our prin-
cipal authority for the history of the Academic school) tells
us fliat they preserved the Platonic doctrine, but emphasised
the moral part. On the old Academy he pronounces the
following eulogium (Ve Fin. v. 3); "Their writings and
method contain aU liberal learning, all history, all polite
discourse ; and besides, they embrace such a variety of
arts, that no one can undertake any noble career without
their aid. .... In a word, the Academy is, as it were, the
workshop of every artist." Modem criticism has not en-
dorsed this high estimate. They presened, it is true, and
ACADEMY
69
elaborated many details of the Platonic teaching, which wb
could iU have spared; but of Plato's originality and specu-
latire power, of his poetry and enthusiasm, they inherited
nothing ; " nor amid all the learning which has been pro-
fusely lavished upon iuTestigating their tenets, is there a
single deduction calculated to elucidate distinctly the
character of their progress or regression." ^ There is a
saying of Polemo's, which will illustrate their viitual
abandonment of philosophy proper : " We should eiorcise
ourselves in business, not in dialectical speculation."
ArcesUaus, the successor of Crates, the disciple of Theo-
phrastus and Polemo, was the founder of the second or
middle Academy. He professed himself the strict fol-
lower of Plato, and seems to hare been sincerely of opinion
that his was nothing but a legitimate development of the
true Platonic system. He foUowed the Socratic method
of teaching in dialogues; and, like Socrates, left no writ-
ings,— at least the ancients were not acquainted with any.
But we have no evidence that he maintained the ideal
theory of Plato, and from the general tendency of lus
teaching it is probable that he overlooked it. He affirmed
that neither our senses nor our mind can attain to any
certainty; in all we must suspend our judgment; proba-
bility is the guide of life. Cicero tells us that he was
more occupied in disputing the opinions of others than in
advancing any of his own. ArcesUaus is, in fact, the
founder of that academic scepticism which was developed
and systematised by Cameades, the founder of the third
or new Academy. He was the chief opponent of the
Stoics and their doctrine of certitude. This is attested by
a well-known saying of his : "If there had been no Chry-
sippus, there would have been no Cameades." To the
Stoical theory of perception, the <JMvraa-La KaTaXryimKri, by
which they expressed a conviction of certainty arising
from impressions so strong as to amount to science, he
opposed the doctrine of aKaTaXrjipta, which denied any
necessaiy correspondence between perceptions and the
objects perceived. But whUe denying the possibility of
any knowledge of things in themselves, he saved himself
from absolute scepticism by the doctrine of probability or
verisimilitude, which jnay serve as a practical guide in hfe.
Thus he announced as his criterion of truth an imagination
or impression (<f>avTaa-ia.) at once credible, irrefragable, and
attested by comparison with other impressions. The wise
man might be pennitfed to hold an opinion, though he
allowed that that opinion might be false. In ethics, how-
ever, he appeared as the pure sceptic. On his visit to
Rome as an ambassador from Athens, he alternately main-
tained and denied in his public disputations the existence
of justice, to the great scandal of Cato and aU honest
citizens.
On the fourth and fifth Academies, we need not dwell
long. Philo and Antiochus both taught Cicero, and with-
out doubt communicated to him that mild scepticism, that
eclecticism compounded of almost equal sympathy with
Plato and Zeno, which is the characteristic of his philo-
sophical writings. The Academy exactly corresponded to
the( moral and political wants of Eomo. With no genius
for speculation, the better Eomans of that day were con-
tent to embrace a system which, though resting on no
philosophical basis, and compounded of heterogeneous
dogmas, offered notwithstanding a secure retreat from
religious scepticism and political troubles. " My words,"
says Cicero, speaking as a tru.6 Academician, "do not
proclaim the truth, like a Pythian priestess; but I conjec-
ture what is probable, Hke a plain man; and where, I ask,
am I to search for anything more than verisimilitude t"
And again: " The characteristic of the Academy is never to
' Archor Butler, LaC. on Anc. PhiL ii. 8)6
interpose one's judgment, to approve what seems most pro-
bable, to compare together different opinions, to see what
may be advanced on either side, and to leave one's listeners
free to judge without pretending to dogmatise."
AcADEliY, in its modem acceptation, signifies a society
or corporate body of learned men, established for the ad-
vancement of science, literature, or the arts.
The first institution of this sort we read of in history
was that founded at Alexandria by Ptolemy Soter, which
he named the Museum, ji.ovaiiov. After completing his
conquest of Egypt, he turned his attention to the cultiva-
tion of letters and science, and gathered about him a large
body of literary ' men, whom he employed in collecting
books and treasures of art. This was the origin of the
library of Alsxandria, the most famous of the ancient world.
Passing .by the academies which were founded by the
Moors at Grenada, Corduba, and as far east as Samarcand,
the next instance of an academy is that founded by Charle-
magne at the instigation of the celebrated Alcuin, foi
promoting the study of grammar, orthography, rhetoric,
poetry, history, and mathematics. In order to equalise all
ranks, each member took the pseudonym of some ancient
author or celebrated person of antiquity. For instance,
Charlemagne himself was David, Alcuin became Flaccua
Albinus. Though none of the labours of -this academy
have come down to us, it undoubtedly exerted considerable
influence in modelling the lan^age and reducing it to rules.
In the following century Alfred founded an academy at
Oxford. This was rather a grammar school than a society
of learned men, and from it the University of Oxford
originated.
But the academy which may be more justly considered
as the mother of modern European academies is that of
Floral Games, founded at Toulouse in the year 1325, by
Clemens Isaurus. Its object was to distribute prizes and
rewards to the troubadours. The prizes consisted of
flowers of gold and silver. It was first recognised by the
state in 1694, and confinned by letters-patent from the
king, and its numbers limited to thirty-six. It has, except
during a few years of the republic, continued to the present
day, and distributes annually the following prizes : — An
amaranth of gold for the best ode, a silver violet for a
poem of sixty to one bundled Alexandrine lines, a silver
eglantine for the best prose composition, a silver marigold
for an elegy, and a silver lily presented in the last century
by M. de Malpoyre for a hymn to the Virgin.
It was the Pienaissance which was par excelle^ice the era
of academies, and as the Italians may be said to have dis-
covered anew the buried world of literature, so it was in
Italy that the first and 'by far the most numerous academies
arose. The earliest of these was the Platonic Academy,
founded at Florence by Cosmo de Medici for the study of
the works of Plato, though subsequently they added the
explanation of Dante and other Italian authors.
Marsilius Ficinus, its principal ornament, in hxsTiieologica
Platonica, developed a system, chiefly borrowed from the
later Platonists of the Alexandrian school, which, as it
seemed to coincide with some of the leading doctrines ol
Christianity, was allowed by the church. His Latin trans-
lation of Plato is at once literal, perspicuous, and coirect
and as he had access to MSS. of Plato now lost, it has in
several places enabled us to recover the original reading.
After the expulsion of the Medici from Florence, tht
Platonic Academy was dissolved.
In giving some account of the principal acadelnies o<
Europe, which is all that this article professes to do, we
shall, as far as possible, arrange them under difl'erent heads,
according to — \st, The object which they were designed
to promote; id. The countries to which they belong.
Tliis classification, though, perhaps, the best available, is
70
ACADEMY
necessarily imperfect, inasmuch as several of those we shall
mention were at onco literary and scientific, and many
associations for similar objects were known by some other
naino. Thus, with the doubtful exception of the Royal
■ Academy of Arts, England has no academics in the proper
senao of the word. For those institutions in England which
answer to Italian academies, wo must refer the roader to
the article Society.
L SciENTiKio Academies. — Italy. — The first society
for the prosecution of physical science was that established
at Naples, 1560, under the presidency of Baptisla Porta.
It Was called Academia Secretorum Naturae or de Secreti.
It arose from a meeting of some scientific friends, who
issembled at Porta's house, and called themselves the Otiosi.
No member was admitted who had«ot made some useful
discovery in medicine or natural philosophy. The name
suggested to an ignorant public the prosecution of magic
&nd the black arts. Porta wont to Rome to justify himself
before Paul III. He was acquitted by the Pope, but tho
academy was dissolved, and ho was ordered to abstain for
the future from the practice of all illicit arts.
At Rome he was admitted to the Lincei, an academy
founded by Federigo Ccsi, tho Marcese di Monticelli. The
device of the Lincei was a lynx with its eyes turned towards
heaven tearing a Cerberus with its clav,-s, intimating that
they were prepared to do bat1,le vdth. error and falsehood.
Their motto was the verse of Lucretius describing rain
dropping from a cloud — " Redit agmine dulcL" Besides
Porta, Galileo and Colonna were enrolled among its mem-
bers. The society devoted itself exclusively to physical
science. Porta, aiidor its auspices, published his great work,
Mar/i(B Naturalii lihri xx., 1589, in foL; his Fhytor/no-
manica, or, tho occult virtue of plants; his De JIumanaPby-
tiognomia, from which Lavater largely borrowed ; also various
works on optics and pneumatics, in which he approached
the true theory of vision. He is even said by some to
have anticipated QalUeo in the invention of the telescope.
But the principal monument still remaining of the zeal
and industry of Cesi and his academy is the Phytobasanos,
a corapendiuni of the natural history of Me.\ico, written by
a Spaniard, Ilernendez. During fifty ye.ars the MS. had
been neglected, when Cesi discovered it, and employed
Terentio, Fabro, and Colonna, all Lynceans, to edit it and
enrich it with notes and emendations. Cesi's own great
work, Tlieatrum Natures, was never published. The MS.
still exists m the Albani Library at Rome. After Cesi's
death, 1630, the academy languished for some years under
the patronage of Urban VIIL An fxiademy of the same
name was inaugurated at Rome 17'&4, and still flourishes.
It numbers among its members some of our English philo-
sophers. But the fame of the Lincei was far outstripped
by that of the Accadcmia del Cimento, established in
Florence 1657, under the patronage of the Grand Duke
Ferdinand II., at tho instigation of his brother Leopold,
acting under the advice of Viviani, one of the greatest
geometers of Europe. The object of this academy was
(as the name implies) to make experiments and relate them,
abjuring all preconceived notions. Unfortunately for
science, it flourished for only ten years. Leopold in 16G7
was made a cardinal, and tho society languished without
ils head. It has, however, left a record of its labours in
k volume containing an account of the experiments, pub-
lished by the secretary in 1667. It is in the form cf a
beautifully printed folio, with numerous full print pages of
illustrations. It contains, among others, those on the
supposed incompressibility of water, on the pressure of the
air, and on the universal gravity of bodies. Torricelli, the
inventor cf the barometer, was one of its members.
Passing by numerous other Italian Academics of Science,
We come to those ot modern timea.
Tho Royal Academy of Sciences at Turin originated in
1757 as a private society; in 1759 it published a volume
of Miscellanea Philoaophtco-MalJtematica Societatu privala
3'aurinettsis ; shortly after it was constituted a Royal
Society by Charlss Emanuel IIL, and in 1783 Victor
Amadous IIL made it a Pujyal Academy of Science It
consists of 40 membars, residents of Turin, 20 non-
resident, and 20 lorei^ members. It publishes each
year a quario volume of proceedings, and has crowned
and awarded prizes to many learned works.
France, — Tho Old Academy of Sciences originated in much
the same way as the French Academy. A private society
of scientific men had for some thirty years been accustomed
to meet first at the house of Montmort, tho militre de«
requetes, afterwards at that of Thevenot, a great traveller
and man of universal genius, in order to converse on their
studies, and comhiunicate their discoveries. To this
society belonged, among others, Descartes, Gassendi,
Blaise Pascal, and his father. Hobbes, the philosopher
of Malmcsbury, was presented to it during his visit .to
Paris in 1640. Colbert, just as Richelieu in the case
of the French Academy, conceived the idea of giving an
official status to this body of learned men. Seven eminent
mathematicians, among whom were Huyghens and De
Bessy, the author of a famous treatbe on magic squares,
were chosen to form the nucleus of the new society. A
certain number of chemists, physicians, and anatomists
were subsequently added. Pensions were granted by
Loub XIV. to each of tho members, and a fund for
instruments and experimentations placed at their disposal.
They commented their session the 22d December 1666
in tho Royal Library. They met twice a week — the
mathematicians on tho Wednesdays, the physicists (as the
naturalists and physiologists were then called) on the
S.aturdays. Duhamel was appointed secretary by the
king. This post ho owed more to his polished Latinity
than to his scientific attainments, all the proceedings
of the society being recorded in Latin. A treasurer
was also nominated, who, notwithstanding his pretentious
title, was nothing more than conservator of the scientific
instruments, &c. At first the academy was rather a
laboratory and observatory than an academy proper.
Experiments were undertaken in common and results
discussed. Several foreign savap-ts, in particular the
Danish astionomer Rocmer, joined the society, attracted
by the liberality of the Grand Monarque; and the German
physician and geometer Tschimhausen and Sir Isaac
Newton were made foreign a-ssociates. The death of
Colbert, who was succeeded by Louvois, exercised a disas-
trous effect on tho fortunes of the academy. The labours
of the academicians were diverted from the pursuit of
pure science to such works as the construction of fountains
and cascades at Versailles, and tho mathematicians were
employed to calculate the odds of the games of lansquenet
and bassett. In 1699 the academy was reconstituted
by M. do Pontchartrain, under whose department as
secretary of state the academies came. By its new con-
stitution it consisted of ten honorary members, men of
high rank, who interested themselves in science, fifteen
pensionaries, who were the working members, viz., three
geometricians, and the same number of astronomers,
mechanicians, anatomists, and chemists. Each section of
three had two associates attached to it, and besides, each
pensionary had the power of naming a pupil There were
eight foreign and four free associates. The officers were,
a president and a vice-president, named by tho king from
among the honorary members, and a secretary and treaisurer
chosen from tho pensionaries, who held their offices for
life. Fontenelle, a man of wit, and rather a populariser of
sciences than an original investigator, succeeded Duhamel as
ACADEMY
7j
secretary. Tte constitution, as is evident, was purely aristo-
cratical, and unlike that of the French Academy, in which
the principle of equality among the members was never
violated. Science was not yet strong enough to dispense
with the patronage of the great. The two leading spirits
of the academy at this period were Clairaut and Reaumur.
Clairaut was the first to explain capillary attraction, and
predicted within a f^w days of the correct time the return
of HaUey's comet. His theory on the figure of the earth
was only superseded by Laplace's Mecanique Celeste.
R&,umur was principally distinguished by his practical
discoveries, and a thermometer in common use at the
present day bears his name.
To trace the subsequent fortunes of this academy would
far exceed our limits, being equivalent to writing the history
of the rise and progress of science in France. It has
reckoned among its members Laplace, BufFon, Lagrange,
D'Alembert, Lavoisier, and Jussieu, the father of modern
botany. Those of our readers who wish for further informa-
tion we would refer to M. Alfred Maury's excellent history.
On 21st December 1792, the old Academy of Sciences
met for the last time. Many of the members fell by the
guillotine, many were imprisoned, more reduced to indi-
gence. The aristocracy of talent was almost aa much
detested and persecuted by the Revolution as that of rank.
In 1795 the Convention decided on founding an Insti-
tute, which was to replace all the academies. The first
class of the Institute corresponded closely to the old
academy. See iNsnruTE.
In 1816 the Academy was reconstituted as a branch of
the Institute. The new academy has reckoned among its
members, besides many other brilliant names, Camot the
engineer, the physicians Fresnel, Ampere, Arago, Biot, the
chemists Gay-Lussao and Thtoard, the zoologists G. Cuvier
and the two Geoffroy Saint-Hilaires.
The French had also consider8.ble academies in most of
their large towns. Montpellier, for example, had a Royal
Academy of Sciences, founded in 1706 by Louis XIV., on
nearly the same footing as that at Paris, of which, indeed,
it was in some measure tho counterpart. It was recon-
stituted in 1847, and organised under three sections —
medicine, science, and letters. It has continued to publish
annual reports of considerable value. Toulouse also had
an academy under the denomination of Lanternists; and
there were analogoiis institutions at Nlmes, Aries, Lyons,
Dijon, Bordeaux, and other places. Of these several, we
believe, are stUl in existence, if not in activity.
Before passing on to German academies, we may here
notice a private scientific and philosophical society, the
precursor of the French Academy of Sciences. It does not
appear to have had any distinguishing name ; but the pro-
moter of it was Euscbius Renaudot, Counsellor and Phy-
sician in Ordinary to the King of France, and Doctor
Regent of the Faculty of PlrjBjic at Paris, by whom a full
account of its conferences was published, translated into
English by G. Havers, 1664. In the preface it is said to
be " a production of an' assembly of the choicest wits of
France.'' We will quote a few of the subjects of these
discussions in order to show the character of the society : —
"Why the loadstone draws iron;" "Whether the soul's
immortality is demonstrable by natural reason ;" " Of the
little hairy girl lately seen in this city." . On subjects of
popular superstition their views were far in advance of the
time. Of judicial astrology it is said, "Why should we
seek in heaven the causes of accidents which befall us if
we can find them on earth!" Of the philosopher's stone —
" This most extravagant conceit, that it is the panacea,
joined to the othw absurdities of that chimerical art, makes
us believe that it is good for nothing but to serve for
'maginary consolation to tho miserablo."
Germany. — The ■ Collegium Curiosum was a scientific
society, founded by J. C. Sturm, professor of mathematics
and natural philosophy in the University of Altorfi', in
Franconia, in 1672, on the plan of the Accademia del
Cimento. It originally consisted of 20 members, and con-
tinued to flourish long after the death of its founder. The
early labours of the society were devoted to the repetition
(under varied conditions) of the most notable experiments
of the day, or to the discussion of the results. Two volumes
of proceedings were published by Sturm in 1676 and 1685
respectively. The Programma Invitatwium is dated June
3, 1672; and Sturm therein urges that, as the day of dis-
putatious philosophy had given way to that of experi-
mental philosophy, and as, moreover, scientific societies had
been founded at Florence, London, and Rome, it would
therefore seem desirable to found one in Germany, fof the
attainment of which end he requests the co-operation of
the learned.
The work of 1676, entitled Collegium Experimentode sive
Curiosum, commences with an account of the diving-bell,
" a new invention ; " next follow chapters on the camera
obscura, the Torricellian experiment, the air-pump, micro-
scope, telescope, &c. The two works have been pronounced
by a competent authority ' to constitute a nearer approach
to a text-book of the physics of the period than any pre-
ceding work.
The Royal Academy of Sciences at Birlin was founded
in 1700 by Frederic I. after Leibnitz' ccsiprehensive plan,
but was not opened tiU 1711. Leibnitz was the first presi-
dent. Undfer Maapertuis, who succeeded him, it did good
service. Its present constitution dates from January 24,
1812. It is divided into four sections — physical, mathe-
matical, philosophical, and historical Each section is imder
a paid secretary elected for life ; each secretary presides in
turn for a quarter of a year. The members are — \st. Re-
gular members who are paid; these hold general meetings
every Thursday, and sectional meetings every Monday. 2rf,
Foreign members, not to exceed 24 in number. ?>d, Hon-
orary members and correspondents. Since 1811 it has
published yearly, Meinoires de I'Academie Eoyale des Scienceg,
et Belles Leltres d Berlin. For its scientific and philoso-
phical attainments the names of W. and A. v. Humboldt,
Ideles, Savigny, Schleiermacher, Bopp, and Eanke, will
sufiiciently vouch.
The Academy of Sciences at Mannheim was established
by Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, in the year 1755.
The plan of this institution was furnished by Sch^pflin,
according to which it was divided into two classes, the his-
torical and physical In 1780 a sub-division of the latter
took place into the physical, properly so-called, and the
meteorologicaL The meteorological observations are pub-
lished separately, under the title of l^hemerides Societatis
Meteorologies PalatincB. The historical and physical me-
moirs are published under the title of Acta Academim
Theodoro-Palatince.
The Electoral Bavarian Academy of Scie/ices at Munich
was established iu 1759, and publishes its memoirs under
the title of Abhandlungen der Baierisc/)en Akademie. Soon
after the Elector of Bavaria was raised to the rank of king,
tho Bavarian government, by his orders, directed its atten-
tion to a new organisation of the Academy of Sciences of
MunicL The design of the king was, to render its labours
more extensive than those of any similar institution in
Europe, by giving. to it, under the direction of the ministry,
the immediate superintendence over all the establishments
for public instruction in the kingdom of Bavaria. The Privy-
Councillor Jacobi, a man of most excellent character, and of
considerable scientific attainments, was appointed president
^ Mi O. F. BodwtO. In tbo Chanical Neun,.JiiM 21, 1867.
ACADEMY
Tlic Electoral Academy at Erfurt was establitiliecl by llie
Elector of Meutz, in tho year 1754. It consists of a pro-
tector, president, director, assessors, adjuncts, and asso-
ciiatcs. Its object is to promote the useful Bcicnccs. Tho
memoirs were originally published in Latin, but afterwards
in German. Tho Ilessiin Academy of Sciences at Oie&sen
publish their transactions under the title of Acta Philo-
tophico-Medica Academicc Scientiarum I'rincipalis Uesaiacce.
lu the Nethe-lands there are scientific acaduinies at Flush-
ing and Brussels, both of which have published their
transactions.
litissia.—'Yha Imperial Academy of Sciences at St
Petersburg was projected by tho Czar Peter the Great.
Having in tho course of his travels observed tho advan-
tage of public societies for tho encouragement and promo-
tion of literature, ho formed the design of founding an
academy of sciences at St Petersburg. By tho advice
of Wollf and Loibnitz, whom ho consulted on this occasion,
the society was accordingly regulated, and several learned
foreigners were invited to become members. Peter him-
self drew the plan, and signed it on the lOlh of .February
1721; blithe wms jirevented, by the suddenness of his
death, from carrying it into execution, llis decease, how-
ever, did not prevent its completion; for on the 2l6t of
December 1725, Catharine L established it occording to
Peter's plan, and on the 27th of the same month the society
assembled for the first time. On the Ist of August 1726,
Catharine honourfed the meeting with her presence, when
Professor Bulf-nger, a German naturijist of great eminence,
pronounced an oration upon the advances made in the
theory of magnetic variations, and also on the progress of
research in so far lis regarded tho discovery of the longi-
tude. A short tiuio afterwards the empress settled a fund
of i4982 per annum for the support of the academy; and
15 members, all eminent for their learning and talents,
were admitted and pensioned, under tho title of professors
in the vaiious branches of science and literature. Tho most
distinguished of these professors were Nicholas and Daniel
BeniouilU, the tv o Do Lislcs, Bulfinger, and Wolff.
During the short reign of I'etcr IL the salaries of the
members wcro discontinued, and the academy utterly
neglected by the Court; but it was again patrouiscd by the
Kmpress Anne, who even added a seminary for tho educa-
tion of youth under the superintendence of the professors.
Both institutions flourished for some time under the
direction of Baron Korf ; but upon his death, towards the
end of Anne's reign, an ignorant person being appointed
president, many of the moot able members quitted Kussia.
At the accession of Elizabeth, however, new life and vigour
were infused into the academy. Tho original plan was
enlarged and improved ; some of the most learned foreigners
■were again drawn to St Petersburg ; and, what was considered
as a good omen for the Hterature of Russia, two natives,
Lamonosof and Bumovsky, men of genius and abilities,
Avho had prosecuted their studies in foreign universities,
were enrolled among its members. Lastly, the annual
income was increased to X10,G59, and sundry other advan-
tages were conferred upon the institution.
The Empress Catharine II., with her usual zeal for
promoting the diffusion of knowledge, took this useful
society under her immediate protection. She altered tho
court of directors greatly to the advantage of tho whole
body, corrected many of its abuses, and infused a new
vigour and spirit into their researches. By Catharine's
particular recommendation the most ingenious professors
visited the various provinces of her vast dominions ; and as
tho funds of the academy were not sufficient to defray the
whole expense of these expeditions, tho empress supplied
the deficiency by a grant of £2000, which was renewed as
occasion required.
Tlio jiurpose and object of these travels will appear from
tho instructions givon by the academy to the several per-
sons who engaged in them. They were ordered to iustituto
inquiries respecting tho dilferent sorts of earths and waters;
tho best methods of cultivating barren and desert spots;
tho local disorders incident to men and animals, together
with tho most efficacious means of reIie\Tng them; tho
breeding of cattle, particularly of sheep; the rearing of bees
and silk-worms; the different places and objects for fishing
and hunting; minerals of all kinds; the arts and trades;
and tho formation of a Flora Kussica, or collection of mdi-
genoua plants They were particularly instnicted to rectify
the longitude and latitude of the principal towns; to make
astronomical, geographical, and meteorological obscrva
tions; to trace tho courses of rivers; to construct the most
exact charts; and to bo very distinct and accurate in re
marking and describing tho manners and customs of the
different races of people, their dresses, languages, anli-
(piitics, traditions, history, religion ; in a word, to gain
every information which might tend to illustrate the real
state of tho whole liussian empire. Jloro ample instruc-
tions cannot well bo conceived; and they appear to have
been very zealously and faithfully executed. The conse-
quence was that, at that lime, no country could boast,
within tho space of so few years, such a number of excellent
publications on its internal state, its natural productions,
its topography, geography, and history, and on the manners,
customs, and languages of the different tribes who inhabit
it, as issued from the press of this academy. In its researches
in Asiatic languages, and general knowledge of Oriental
customs and religions, it proved itself the worthy rival of
our own Boyal Asiatic Society.
The first transactions of this society were published in
1728, and entitled Commentarii Academiw Scientiarum
Imperial is Petropolitance ad annum 1726, with a dedica-
tion to Peter II The publication was continued under
this form until tho year 1747, when the transactions wero
called A'^oi'i Cummentarii Academiae, ilc;.and in 1777, the
academy agitin changed tho title into Aria Academics Scim-
tiarum Imperialis I'etropoliiance, and likewise made some
alteration in the arrangements and plan of tho work. The
papers, which had been hitherto published in the Latin
language only, were now written indiflcrently either in
that language or in French, and a preface added, entitled
Partie Hislorique, which contains an account of its pro-
ceedings, meetings, the admission of new members, and
other remarkable occurrences. Of tho Commentaries, H
volumes were published: the first of the Kew Commen-
taries made its appeaiancc in 1750, and the twentieth in
1776. Under the new title of Acta Academice, a number of
volumes have been given to the public; and two are printed
every year. These transactions abound with ingenious and
elaborate disquisitions upon various parts of science and
natural history; and it may not be an exaggeration to assert,
that no society in Europe has more distinguished itself for
the excellence of its publications, particularly in the more
abstruse parts of pure and mixed mathematics.
The academy is stiU composed, as at first, cf 15 pro-
fessors, besides the president and director. Each of these
prof essors has a house and an annual stipend of from £200
to £G00. Besides the professors, there are four adjuncts,
with pensions, who are present at the sittings of the society,
and succeed to the first vacancies. The direction of the
academy is generally entrusted to a perion of distinction.
The buildings and apparatus of this academy are on a
vast scale. There is a fine library, consisting of 36,000
curious books and manuscripts ; together with an extensive
museum, in which the various branches of natural hietory,
(tc, are distributed in different apartments. The latter is
extremely rich iJi native productions, havine been cousi-
ACADEMY
73
dorably augmented by the collections made by Pallas,
Gmeliu, Guldenstaedt, and other professors, during their
expeditions, tbrough the various parts of the Russian em-
pire. The stuffed animals and birds occupy one apartment.
The chamber of rarities, the cabinet of coins, ic, contain
innumerable articles of the highest curiosity and value.
The motto of the society is exceedingly modest; it consists
of only one word, J'aulaiim.
Sweden. — The Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, or the
RoyaX Swedish Academy, owes its institution to sis persons
of distinguished learning, among whom was the celebrated
Linn.T.us. They originally met on the 2d of June 1739,
when they formed a private society, in which some dis-
sertations were read ; and in the end of the same year
their first publication made its appearance. As the meet-
ings continued and the members increased, the society
attracted the notipe of the king; and, accordingly, on the
31st of March l741, it was incorporated under th« name
of the Koyal Swedish Academy. Not receiving any pen-
sion from the crown, it is merely under the protection of
the king, being <lirected, like our Royal Society, by its own
members. It has now, however, a large fund, which has
chiefly arisen from legacies and other donations ; but a pro-
fessor of experimental philosophy, and two secretaries, are
still the only persons' who receive any salaries. Each of
the members resident at Stockholm becomes president by
rotation, and continues in office during three months.
There are two kinds of members, native and foreign ; the
election of the former take places in April, that of the latter
in July; and no money is paid at the time of admission.
The dissertations read at each meeting are collected and
pubUshed four times in the year : they are written ia the
Swedish language, and printed in octavo, and the annual
publications make a volume. The first 40 volumes, which
were completed in 1779, are caUed the Old Transactions.
Denmark. — The Royal Academy of Sciences at Copen-
Tiagen owes its institution to the zeal of tis: individuals,
whom Christian -VX, in 1742, ordered to r.rrange his cabinet
of medals. These persons were John Gram, Joachim Fre-
deric Ramus, Christian Louis Scheid, Mark Woldickey,
Eris Pontopidan, and Bernard Moeknan, whe, occasionally
meeting for this purpose, extended their designs; associated
with them others who were eminent in several branches of
science ; and f erming a kind of literary society, employed
themselves in searching into, and explaining the history and
ailtiquities of their countr)'. The Count of Holstein, the
first president, warmly patronised this society, and recom-
mended it so strongly to Christian VI. that, in 1743, his
Danish majesty took it imder his protection, called it the
Royal Academy of Sciences, "endowed it with a fund, and
ordered the members to join to their former pursuits
natural history, physics, and mathematics. In consequence
of the royal favour the members engaged with fresh zeal
in their pursuits ; and the academy has. published 15
volumes in the Danish language, some of which have been
translated into L^tin,
Utigland. — In 161G a scheme for founding a Royal
Academy was started by Edmund Bolton, an eminent
scholar and antiquary. Bolton, in his petition to King
Jamee, which was supported by George Villiers, Marquis of
Buckingham, proposed that the title of the academy should
be " King Jame."!, his Academe or College of honour."
In the list of members occurs the name of Sir Kenelm
Digby, one of the original membora of the Royal Society.
The death of the king proved fatal to the undertaking.
In 1635 a second attempt was made to found an academy,
nudfff the patronage of Charles I., with the title of
" Minerva's Musaeum," for the instruction of young noble-
men in the liberal arts and sciences, but the project was
30on dropped. About 1645 seme of the more ardent followers
1—4*
of Bacon used to meet, some in London, some at Oxford,
for the discussion of subjects connected with expeiimental
science. This was the origin of the Royal Society, vrhich
received its charter in 1662. See RoTAi SociEry.
Ireland. — The Royal Irish Academy arose out of a
society established at Dublin about the year 1782, and
; Sonsisting of a number of gentlemen, most of whom
belonged to the university. They held Weekly meetings,
and read es.-ays in turn on various subjects. The members
of this society afterwards formed a more extensive plan,
and, admitting only such names as might add dignity to
their new institution, became the founders of the Royal
Irish Academy. They professed to unite the advancement
of science with the history^ of mankind and polite literature.
The first volume of their transactions (for 1787) appeared
in 1788, and seven volumes were afterwards published.
A society was formed in Dublin, similar to the Royal
Society in London, as early as the year 1683 ; but the
distracted state of the country proved unpropitious to the
cultivation of philosophy and literature.
Holland. — The Royal Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam,
erected by a royal ordinance 1852, succeeded the Royal
Institute of the Low Countries, founded by Louis Napoleon,
King of Holland, 1808. In 1855 it had pubHshed 192
volumes of proceedings, and received an annual subsidy of
14,000 florins from the state.
Spain. — The Academy of Sciences at Madrid, founded
1774, after the model of the French Academy.
Portugal. — The Academy of Sciences at Lisbon is divided
into three classes — natural history, mathematics, and ■
national literature. It consists of 24 ordinary and 33
extraordinary members. Since 1779 it has published
Mejxorias de Letteratura Poirlvgueza ; Memorias Rcmiomicas :
CoHec^ao de Livros ineditos di Historia Portvgueza.
II. Academies op BeIxLes Lettees. — Italy. — Italy in the
16th century was remarkable for the number of its literary
academies. Tiraboschi, in his History of Italian Literature,
has given a list of 171 ; and Jarkius, in his Specimen^
Histories Academiarti'Tn, Conditarum, enumerates nearly
700. Many of these, with a sort of Socratic irony, gave
themselves lames expressive of ignorance or simply ludi-
crous. Such were the Lunatici of Naples, the listravaganti,
the Pulminales, the Trapsssati, the Drcrxsy, the Sleepers,
the Ajixiovs, the Confused, the Unstable, the Fantastic,
the Transformed, the ditherial. " The first academics of
Italy chiefly directed their attention to classical literature ;
they compared manuscripts; they suggested new readings, or
new interpretations; they deciphered inscriptions or coins;
they sat in judgment' on a Latin ode, or debated the pro-
priety of a phrase. Their own poetry had; perhaps, neves
been neglected ; but it was not tiU the writings of Bembo
furnished a new code ef criticism in the Italian language,
that they began to study, it with the same minuteness as
modem Latin." " They were encouragera of a numis-
matic and lapidary erudition, elegant in itself, and thi-ow-
ing for ever Uttle specks of light on the still ocean of the
past, but not very favourable to comprehensive observation,
and tending to bestow on an unprofitable p£d.".ntry the
honours of real learning."- The Italian nobility, excluded
as they mostly were from politics, and living in cities,
found in literature a consolation and a career. Sucb
academies were oligarchical in their constitution ; they
encouraged culture, but tended to hamper genius and
extingui.sh originality. Of their academies, by far the
most celebrated was the Accademia delta Crusca or Fiir-
f-aratorum ; that is, of Bran, or of the Sifted.^ The title
was borrowed from a p.revious society at Perugia, the
Accademia flegli Scosti, of the Well-shaken. Its device
' Qallam'a [nt. to Lit. qf Euro^, vol.
65 1. ai.<1 v.il. U. 60?.
L — lO
74
A C A D E 2il r
was a sieve ; its motto, " 11 pit bel fior ne coglie," it
collects the fiaest flour of it ; its principal object the puri-
6catioa of the language. Its great work was the Vocahu-
lario delta Crusca, the first edition of which was published
1613. It was composed avowedly oq Tuscan principles,
iind regarded the Hth century as tTie Augustan period of
the language. Beni assailed it in his ArUi-Cruaca, and
this exclusive Tuscan spirit has disappeared in subsequent
editions. The Accademia della Crusca is now incorporated
with two older societies — the Accademia degli Apatici
(the Impartials) and the Accademia Fiorentina.
Among the numerous other literary academies of Italy
we may mention the Academy of Naples, founded about
mo by Alfonso, the king; the Academy of Florence,{o\iuded
1540, to illustrate and perfect the Tuscan tongue, especially
by a close study of Petrarch ; the IrUronati of Siena, 1525;
the IiifiamTnati of Padua, 1634 ; the Jiossi of Siena, sup-
pressed by Cosmo, 1568.
The Academy of Humourists, Umoristi, had its origin at
Rome in the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a Roman gentle-
man, at wliich several persons of rank were guests. It
was carnival time, and so to give the ladies some diversion,
they betook themselves to the reciting of verses, sonnets,
Bpteches, first extempore, and afterwards pre^ieditately,
which gave them the denomination of Belti Uumori.
After some experience, and coming more and more into
the taste of these exercises, they resolved to form an
academy of belles lettres, and changed the title of Belli
Uumori for that of II umoristi.
In 1690 the Academy or Society of Arcadians was
established at Rome, for the purpose of reviving the study
of poetry. The founder Crescimbeni is the author of a
well-known history of Italian poetry. It numbered among
its members many princes, cardinals, and other ecclesias-
tics; and, to avoid disputes about pre-eminence, aU appeared
massed after the manner of Arcadian shepherds. Within
ten years from its first establishment the number of
academicia7i3 amounted to 600.
The Royal Academy of Savoy dates from 1719, and was
made a royal academy by Charles Felix in 1848. Its
emblem is a gold orange tree fuU of flowers and fruit; its
motto " Flores fructusque perennes," being the same as
those of the famous Ftorimentane Academy, founded at
Annecy by St Francis de Sales. It has published valuable
memoirs on the history and antiquities of Savoy.
Germany. — Of the German literary academies, the
most celebrated was Die Fruchtbrinyende Gesellschaft, the
Fruitful Society, established at Weimar 1617. Five
princes enrolled their names among the original members.
The object was to purify the mother tongue. The German
academies copied those of Italy in their quaint titles and
petty ceremonials, and exercised little permanent influence
on the language or literature of the country.
France. — The French Academy was established by order
of the king in the year 1635, but in its original form it came
into existence some four or five years earlier. About the
year 1629 certain literary friends in Paris ag?eed to meet
weekly at the house of one of their number. These meet-
ings were quite informal, but the conversation turned mostly
on literary topics; and when, as was often the case, one of
the number had composed some work, he read it to the
rest, and they gave their opinions upon it. The place of
meeting was the house of M. Conrard, which was chosen
as being .the most central. The fame of these meetings,
though the members were bound over to secrecy, reached at
length the ears of Cardinal Richelieu, who conceived so
high an opinion of them, that he at once promised them
his protection, and ofl'ercd to incorporate them by letters
patent. Nearly all the members would have preferred the
charms of privacy, b'lt, considering the risk they would run in
incurring the cardinal's displcaaure, and that by tbo letter
of the law all meetings of any sort or kind were prohibited,
they expressed their gratitude for the high honour the
cardinal thought fit to confer on them. They proceeded
at once to organise their body, settle their laws and constitu-
tion, appoint officers, and choose their name. Their oflBcera
consisted of a director and a chancellor, both chosen by
lot, and a permanent secretary, chosen by votes. They
elected besides a publisher, not a member of the body.
The director presided at the meetings, being considered
iis primus inter pares, and performing much the same part
as the speaker in the English House of Commons. The
chancellor kept the eeab, and sealed all the oflicial docu-
ments of the academy. The office of the secretary explaim
itself. The cardinal was ex oficio protector. The meet-
ings were weekly as before.
The letters patent were at once granted by the king, but
it was otdy after violent opposition and long 'delay that the
president, who was jealous of the cardinal's authority, con-
sented to grant the verification required by the old con-
stitution of France.
The object for which the academy was founded, as set forth
in its statutes, was the purification of the French language.
" The principal function of the academy shall be to labour
with all care and diligence to give certain niles to our
language, and to render it pure, eloquent, and capable of
treating the arts and sciences" (Art 24). They proposed
" to cleanse the language from the impurities it has con-
tracted in the mouths of the common people, from the
jargon of the lawyers, from the misusages of ignorant
courtiers, and the abuses of the pulpit" — Letter of Academy
to Cardinal Richelitu.
Their numbers were fixed at forty. The original members
who formed the nucleus of the body were eight, and it was
not till 1639 that the fuU number was completed. Their
first undertaking consisted of essays written by all the
members in rotation. To judge Iiy the titles and speci-
mens which have come down to us, these possessed no
special originality or merit, but resembled the «ri8«'^is of
the Greek rhetoricians. They next, at the instance of
Cardinal Richelieu, undertook a criticism of CorneUle's
Cid, the most popular work of the day. It was a rule of
the academy that no work could be criticised exccjit at the
author's request. It was only the fear of incurring the
cardinal's displeasure which wrung from Comeille an tin-
willing consent. The critique of the academy was re-
written several times before it met with the cardinal's
approbation. After six months of elaboration, it was pub-
lished imder.tho title. Sentiments de t Academic Fran^oise
sur le Cid. This judgment did not satisfy Comeille, as a
saying attributed to him on the occasion shows. " Ilora-
tius," he said, referring to his last play, " was condemned
by the Duumviri, but ho was absolved by the people."
But the crowning labour of the academy, commenced in
1639, was a dictionary of the French language. By the
twenty-sixth article of their statutes, they were pledged to
compose a dictionary, a grammar, a treatise on rhetoric,
and one on poetry. lu. Chapelain, one of the original
members and leading spirits of the academy, pointed out
that the dictionary would naturally be the first of these
works to be undertaken, and drew tip a plan of the work,
which was to a great extent carried out A catalogue was
to be made of all the most approved authors, prose and verse :
these were to be distributed among the members, and aU
words and phrases of which they approved to be marked
by them in order to be incorporated in the dictionary.
For this they resolved themselves into two committees,
wliich sat on other than the regular days. M. de Vaugelas'
' A ion mot of bis is w^rth recording. Wbeu returning thrnks foi
A C A D E M if
76
frus appointed editor in chief. To remunerate Mm for his
labours, he received from the cardi^ai a peii"ion of 2000
francs. The first edition of thi." dictionary appeared in
1691, the last Complement in 185-1.
Instead of following the history of the French Academy, —
which, like its two younger sisters, the Academy of
Sciences and the Academy of Inscriptions, was suppressed
in 1793, and reconstituted in 1795, as a class of the Insti-
tute,— a history which it would be impossible to treat
adequately in the limit of an article, we will attempt
briefly to estimate its influence on French literature and
language, and point out its principal merits and defects.
To begin with its merits, it may justly boast that there is
h.ardly a single name of the first rank among French
litterateui-s that it has not enrolled among ita members.
Moliire, it is true, was rejected as a player; but we can
hardly blame the academy for a social prejudice which it
shared with the age; and it is well known that it has, ao
far as was in its power, made the amende honorable. In
the Salle 'cles Seances is placed the bust of the greatest
of modern comedians, with the inscription, " Rien ne
manque \ si gloire ; il manquait Ji la notre." Descartes
was excluded from the fact of his residing in Holland.
Scarron was confined by paralysis to his own house.
Pascal is the only remaining exception, and Pascal was
better known to his contemporaries as a mathematician
than a writer. His Lettres Provinciales were published
anonymously; and just when his fame was rising he
retired to Port-Koyal, where he lived the life of a recluse.
On the other hand, it cannot be denied that the fauteuils
have often been occupied by men of no mark in literature.
Nor is the academy wholly exonerated by M. Livet's in-
genious defence, that there are but eight marshals in the
French army, and yet the number has never appeared too
restricted ; for its most ardent admirers vnR not assert that
it has, as a rule, chosen the forty most distinguished living
authors. Court intrigue, rank, and finesse have too often
prevailed over real merit and honesty. Though his facts
are incorrect, there is much truth in Courier's caustic
satire : — " Dans une compagnie do gens faisant profession
d'esprit ou de savoir, nul ne veut pris de soi un plus habile
quo soi, mais bien un plus noble, un plus riche : un duo
et pair honore I'Acadimie Fran(;aise, qui ne veut point de
Boileau,^ refuse la Bruyfere, fait atteudre Voltaire, mais
reyoit tout d'abord Chapelain et Conrart."
We have next to consider the influence of the French
Academy on the language and literature, a subject on which
the most opposite opinions have been advanced. On the
one hand, it has been asserted that it has corrected the
judgment, purified the taste, and formed the language of
French writers, and that to it we owe the most striking
characteristics of French literature, its purity, delicacy, and
flexibility. Thus Mr Matthew Arnold, in his well-known
Essay on the Literary Influence of Academies, has pro-
nounced a glowing panegyric on the French Academy as a
high court of letters, and rallying point for educated opinion,
as asserting the authority of a master in matters of tone
and taste. To it ho attributes in a great measure that
thoroughness, that openness of mind, that absence of
vulgarity which he finds everywhere in French literature ;
and to the want of a similar institution in England he
traces that eccentricity, that provincial spirit, that coarse-
ness, which, as he thinks, is barely compensated by English
genius. JTlius, too, M. Kendn, one of its most distinguished
living members, says that it is owing to the academy "qu'on
Lia Tension, the cirtlinal rem&rked, " Well, Monsieur, you will not
forgot the vfor^ pension in your dictionary.*' "No, Mouscignour,"
l*oplied Vaugelas, "and atill Icaa tho word gratitude."
^ Boiloau was eloctud to the French Academy 1G84, La Bruy^ro
iniaes.
peut tout dire Bans appareil scholastiqne avec la langue
des gens du monde." " Ah ne dites," he exclaims, " qu'Us
n'ont rien fait, ces obscures beaux esprits dont la vie se
passe h, instruire le proces des mots, ^'peser les syllables,
lis ont fait un chef-d'ceuvre — la langue franyaise." On the
other hand, its inherent defects have been so well ..ummed
up by M. Lanfrey, that we cannot do better than quote
from his recent History of Napoleon. " This institution,"
he says, speaking of the French Academy, " had never
shown itself the enemy of despotism. Founded by the
monarchy and for the monarchy, eminently favourable to
the spirit of intrigue and favouritism, incapable of any
sustained or combined labour, a stranger to those great
works pursued in common which legitimise and glorify
the existence of scientific bodies, occupied exclusively with
learned trifles, fatal to emulation, which it pretends to
stimulate, by the compromises and calculations to which it
subjecto it, directed in everything by petty considerations,
and wasting all its energy in childish tournamentB, in
which tho flatteries that it showers on others are only tho
foretaste of the compliments it expects in return for itself,
the French Academy seems to have received from its
founders the special mission to transform genius into be/
es]mt, and it would be hard to produce a man of talent
whom it has not demoralised. Drawn in spite of itself
towards politics, it alternately pursues and avoids them ;
but it is specially attracted by the gossip of politics, and
whenever it has so far emancipated itself as to go into
opposition, it does so as the champion of ancient prejudices,
li we examine its infiuenee ou the national genius, we
shaU see that it has given it a flexibility, a brilliancy, a
polish, which it never possessed before,; but it has dono
so at the expense of il-3 masculine qualities, its originality,
its spontaneity, its vigour, its natural grace. It has dis-
ciplined it, but it has emasculated, impoverished, and
rigidified it. It sees ia taste, not a sense of the beautiful,
but a certain type of correctness, an elegant form of medio-
crity. It has substituted pomp for grandeur, school
routine for individual inspiration, elaborateness for sim-
plicity, fadeur and the monotony of literary orthodoxy for
variety, the source and spring of intellectual life; and in
the works produced under its auspices we discover tho
rhetorician and the writer, never the man. By all its
traditions the academy was made to be the natural orna-
ment of a monarchical society. Richelieu conceived and
created it as a sort of superior centralisation applied to
intellect, as a high literary court to maintain intellectual
unity, and protest against innovation. Bonaparte, aware of
all this, had thought of re-establishing its ancient privileges;
but it had in his eyes one fatal defect — esprit. Kings of
France could condone a witticism even against themselves,
a, parvenu could not."
In conclusion, we would briefly state our own opinion.
The influence of the French Academy has been conservative
rather than creative. While it has raised tho general
standard of willing, it has tended to hamper and crush
originality. It has done much by its example for stylo,
but its attempts to impose its laws ou language have, from
the nature of tho case, failed. For, however perfectly a
dictionary or a grammar may represent the existing lan-
guage of a nation, an original genius is certain to arise — a
Victor Hugo, or an Alfred de Musset, who will set at do-
fiance all dictionaries and academic rules.
Spain. — The Royal Spanish Academy at Madrid held
its first meeting in July 171.3, in the palace of its founder,
the Duke d'Escalona. It consisted at first of 8 academicians,
including the duke; to which number H others were
afterwards added, the founder being chosen president or
director. In 1714 the king granted them the royal con-
firmation and protection. Their device is a crucible in
76
ACADEMY
the middle of the fire, with this motto, Limpia, flxa, y
da esplmdo) — " It purifies, fixes, and gives brightness."
The number of its members tvas limited to 24; the Duke
d'Escalona was chosen director for life, but bis successors
were elected yearly, and the secretary for life. 'l^hcir
object, as marked out by the royal declaration, was to
cultivate and improve the national language. They were
to begin with choosing carefully such words and phrases
as have been used by the best Spanish writers ; noting
the low, barbarous, or obsolete ones ; and composing a
dictionary wherein these might be distinguished from the
former.
Sweden. — The Eoycd Swedith Academy was founded in
the year 1786, for the purpose of purifying and perfecting
the Swedish language. A medal is struck by its direction
every year in honour of some illustrious Swede. This
academy docs not publish its transactions.
Belgium. — Belgium has ahvays been famovui for its
literary societies. The little town of Dicst boa-sts that it
pcssessed a society of poets in 1 302( and the Catherimsts
of AJost date from 1107. Whether or hot there is any
foundation for these claims, it is certain that numerous
Chamhers of liheioric (so academics were then called)
existed in the first years of the rule of the house of Bur-
gundy.
The present Royal Academy of Belgium, was founded by
the. Count of Coblenzl at Briissels, 1769. Count Stahreu-
berg obtained for it in 1772 letters patent from Maria
Theresa, who also granted pensions to all the members,
and a fund for printing their works. All academicians
were ipso facto ennobled. It was reorganised, and a class
of fine arts added in' 1845 through the agency of M. Van
de Weyer, the learned Belgian ambassador at London. It
has devoted itself principally to national history and anti-
quities.
III. Academies of Aiich.sology and History. —
Italy. — Under this class the Academy of Hercnlaneum pro-
perly ranks. It was established at Naples about 1755, at
which period a museum was formed of the antiquities
fo",u!d at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and other places, by the
Marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of state. Its ob-
ject was to explain the paintings, &c., which were discovered
at those places; and for this purpose the members met
every fortnight, and at each meeting three paintings were
submitted to three academicians, who made their report
on them at their next sitting. The first volume of their
labours appeared in 1775, and they have been continued
under the title of Antichita di Ercolano. They contain
engravings of the principal paintings, statues, bronzes,
marble figures, medals, utensils, ic, with explanations.
In the year 1807, an Academy of History and Antiquities,
on a new plan, was established at Naples by Joseph Bona-
parte. The number of members was lunitecl to forty;
twenty of whom were to be appointed by the king, and
these twenty were to present to him, for his choice, thi'ee
names for each of those wanted to complete the fiiU num-
ber. Eight thousand ducats were to be annually allotted
for the current expenses, and two thousand for prices to
the authors of four works which should be deemed by the
aiademy most deserving of such a reward. A grand meet-
ing was to be held every year, when the prizes were to be
distributed, and analyses of the works read. The first
meeting took place on the 25th of April 1807; but the
subsequent changes in the political stats of Naples pre-
vented the full and permanent establishment of this insti-
tution. In the same year an academy was established at
Florence for the illustration of Tuscan antiquities, which
published some volumes of memoirs.
I'rancc. — The old Academy of Inscriptions and Belles
Lettret was an off-shoot from the Franch' Academy, which
then at least contained the UiU of French learrung. Loms
XIV. was of all French kings the one moat .occupied with
his own aggrandiijement. Literature, and even science, be
only encouraged so far as they redounded to hia own glbry.
Nor were literary men inclined to assert their independence.
Boileau well represented the spirit of the age when, in
dedicating hiii tragedy of Berenice to Colbert, he wrote —
" The least things become important if in any degree
they can seivo the glory and pleasure of the king." Thu«
it was that the Academy of Inscriptions arose. At the
suggestion of Colbert, a company (a committee we should
now call it) had been ap)X)iuted by the king, chosen from
the French 'Academy, charged with the o£Bce of fumishing
inscriptions, devices, aiid legends for medals. It consisted
of four academicians : Chapelain, then considered the poet
laureate of France, one of the authors of the critique on
the Cid (see above); I'abbd do Bourzais; Franfois Car-
pentier, an antiquary of high repute among his contom-
l/oraries ; and I'abbi de Capagnes, who owed his appoint-
ment more to the fulsome fiatterj' of his odes than his
reiUy learned translations of Cicero and Sallnst. This
company used to meet in Colbert's library in the winter,
at his country-house at Sceaux in the summer, generally
on Wednesdays, to serve the convenieiice of the minister,
who was constantly present. ITieir meetings were princi-
pally occupied with discussing the inscriptions, statues,
and pictures intended for the decoration of Versailles; but
M. Colbert, a really learned man and an enthusiastic col-
lector of manuscripts, was often pleased to converse with
them on matters of art, history, and antiquities. Their
first published work was a collection of engravings, accom-
panied by descriptions, designed for some of the tapestries
at Versailles. Louvois, who succeeded Colbert as a super-
intendent' of buildings, revived the company, which had
begun to relax its labours. F^libien, the learned architect,
and the two great poets Racine and Boileau, were added
to their number. A series of medals was commenced,
entitled Medailles de la Grande Bistoire, or, in other word^
the histoiy of le Grand Monarque.
But it was to M. de Portchartrain, comptroller-general
of finance and secretary of state, that the academy owed
its institution. He added to the company Kenaudot and
TourreO, both men of vast learning, the latter tutor to hia
son, and put at its head his nephew, I'abbe Bignon, librarian
to the king. By a new regulation, dated the 16th July
1701, the Eoyal Academy of InscriptioTis and MedaU
was instituted, "being composed of ten honorary members,
ten pensioners, ten associates, And ten pupUs. On ita
constitution We need not dwell, as it was an almost exact
copy of that of the Academy of Science. ■ Among the
regulations wo find the following, which indicates clearly
the transition from a staff' of learned officials to a learned
body : — " The academy shall concern itself with all that can
contribute to the perfection of inscriptions and legends, of
designs for such monuments and decorations as may ba
submitted to its judgment; also Avith the description of all
artistic works, present and future, and the historical ex-
planation of the subject of such works; and as the know-
ledge of Gr>eet and Latin antiquities, arid of these two
languages, is the best guarantee for success in labours of
this class, the academicians shall apply themselves to all
that this division of learning includes, as one of the .most
worthy objects of their pursuit."
Among the first honorary members we find the indefa-
tigable MabiUou (excluded from the pensioners by reason
of his orders), Piro La Chaise, the king^s confessor, and
Cardinal Rohan-; among the associates Fontenelle, and
Rollin, whose Ancient History was submitted to the
academy for revision. In 1 7 1 1 tnty completed L'Uistoirc
Metalli^ve du Hoi, of which Saint-Siinon was asked- to
ACADEMY
T'J'
■writo the preface. In 1716 the regent changed its title
to that of the Academij of Inscriptions and Belles Leitres,
a title which better suited its new character.
In the great battle between the Ancients and the Modems
which divided the learned world in the first half of the
18th century, the Academy of Inscriptions naturally
espoused the cause of the Ancients, as the Academy of
Sciences did that of the Moderns. During the earlier
years of the French Revolution the academy continued
its labours uninterruptedly; and on the 22d of January
1793, the day after the death of Louis XVI., we find in
the Fi'oceedings that M. Brequigny read a paper on the
projects of -marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the
Dukes of Anjou and Alen9on. in the same year were
published the 45th and 46th vols, of the Memoires de
I' Acadimie. On the 2d of August of the same year the
last seance of the old academy was held. More fortunate
than its sister Academy of Sciences, it lost only three of its
members by the guillotine. One of these was the astro-
nomer Sylvain Bailly. Three others sat as members of
the Convention ; but for the honour of the academy, we
must add that all three were distinguished by their mode-
ration.
In the first araught of the new Institute, October 25,
1795, no class corresponded exactly to the old Academy
of Inscriptions ; but most of the members who survived
found themselves re-elected either in the 2d class of moral
and political science, under which history and geography
were included as sections, or more generally under the 3d
class of literature and fine arts, which embraced ancient
languages, antiquities, and monuments.
In 18 iC the academy received again its old name.
The Proceedings of the Society embijaco a vast field, and
are of very various merits. Perhaps the subject.; on which
it has shown most originality are comparative mythology,
the history of science among the ancients, and the geo-
graphy and antiquitijes of France. The old academy has
reckoned among its menvbers De Sacy the Orientalist,
Dansse de VUloison the philologist, Du Perron the traveller,
Saintc-Croix and Du Theil the antiquarians, and Le Beau,
who has been named the last of the Romans. The new
academy has already inscribed on its lists the well-known
names of Chanqiolliou, A. Remusat, Raynouard, Burnouf,
and Augustin Thierry.
Celtic Academy. — In consequence of tire attention of
several literary men in Paris having been directed to Celtic
antiquities, a Celtic Academy was established in that city in
the year 1 800. Its objects were, first, the (jlucidation of the
history, customs, antiquities, manners, and monuments of
the Celts, particularly in France; secondly, ihe etymology
of all the European languages, by the aid of the Celto-
British, Welsh, and Erse ; and, thirdly, reL^earches relating to
Druidism. The attention of the members was also parti-
cularly called to the history and settlements of the Galata;
in Asia. Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of French
monuments, was appointed president. The academy still
exists as La SociSle Jioyale des Antiqnaires dc France.
IV. Academies op Medicine and Suegeky.- — Germany.
— The Academy of Naturae Curiosi, called also the Leo-
poldine Academy, was founded in 1062, by J. L. Bausch,
a physician of Leipsic, who, imitating the example of the
English, published a general invitation to medical men to
communicate all extraordinary cases that occlirred in the
course of their practice. The works of the Naturae Curiosi
were at first published separately ; but this being attended
with considerable inconvenience, a new arrangement was
formed, in 1770, for publishing a volume of observations
annually. From some cause, however, the first volume
did not make its aiipearance until 1784, when it came
'orth under the title of Ephemeridcs. In 1 687, the Emperor
Leopold took tne society under his protection, and estab'
lished it at Vierma; hence the title of Leopoldine which i'
ia consequence assumed. But though it thus acquired ;
name, it had no fixed place of meeting, and no regular
assemblies ; instead of which there was a kind of bureau
or office, first established at Breslau, and afterwards re-
moved to Nuremberg, where communications from corre-
spondents were received, and persons properly qualified
admitted as members. By its constitution the Leopoldine
Academy consists of a president, two adjuncts or secretaries,
and colleagues or members, without any limitation as tc
numbers. At their admission the last come under a two
fold obligation — first, to choose some subject for discussion
out of the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom, provided
it has not been previously treated of by any colleague of
the academy; and, secondly, to apply themselves to furnish
materials for the annual Epliemerides. Each member also
bears about with him the sj-mbol of the academy, consist-
ing of a gold ring, whereon is represented a book open^
with an eye on one side, and on the other the academical
motto of Nunquam, otiosus.
The Academy of Surgery at Vienna was instituted by
the present emperor, under the direction of the celebrated
Brambella. In it there were at first only two professors ;
and to their charge the instruction of a hundred and thirty
young men was committed, thirty of whom had formerly
been surgeons in the army. But latterly the number both
of teachers and pupils was considerably increased. Gab-
rielli was appointed to teach pathology and practice ;
Boecking, anatomy, physiology, and physics; Streit, medica}
and pharmaceutical surgery; Hunczowsky, surgical ope-
rations, midwifery, and chirurgia forensis ; and Plenk,
chemistry and botany. To these was also added Beindel,
as prosecutor and extraordinary professor of surgery and
anatomy. Besides this, the emperor provided a large and
splendid edifice in Vienna, which affords accommodation
both for the teachers, the students, pregnant women,
patients for clinical lectures, and servants. For the use
of this academy the emperor also purchased a medical
libraiy, which is open every day ; a complete set of chirur-
gical instruments; an apparatus for experiments in natural
philosophy; a collection of natural history; a number of
anatomical and pathological preparations ; a collection of
preparations in wax, brought from Florence ; and a variety
of other useful articles. Adjoining the building there
is also a good botanical garden. With a view to encourage
emulation among the students of this institution, three
prize medals, each of the value of 40 florins, are annually
bestowed on those who return the best answers to questions
proposed the year before. These prizes, however, are not
entirely founded by the emperor, but are iik part owing to
the bbei-ality of Brendellius, formerly protochimrgus at
Vienna.
France. — lioyal Academij of Medicine. — Jledicino is a
science which has always engaged the atteution of the
kings of France. Charlemagne established a school of
medicine in the Louvre, and various societies have been
founded, and privileges granted to the faculty by his suc-
cessors. The Royal Academy of Medicine succeeded to the
old Pioyal Society of Medicine and the Academy of Sur-
gery. It was erected by a royal ordinance, dated December
20, 1820. It was divided into three sections — medicine,
surgery, and pharmacy. lu its constitution it closely
resembled the Academy of Sciences {vid. sup.) Its function
was to preserve or propagate vaccine matter, and answer
inquiries addressed to it by the Government on the subject
of epidemics, sanitary reform, and public health generally.
It has maintained an enormous correspondence, in all
quarters of the globe, and published extensive minutes.
V. Academies of the Fin? Akts. — Rua.a.- — Tltf
A C A D E :\1 Y
academy at St Petersburg was established by the Empress
Elizabeth, at the suggestion of Count Shuvaloff, and
annexed to the Academy of Sciences. The fund for its
support was X4000 per annum, and the foundation
admitted forty scholars. Catharine II. formed it into a
sep.imto institution, augmented the annual revenue to
£12,000, and increased the number of scholars to three
hundred ; she also constructed, for the use and accommo-
dation of the members, a large circular building, which
fronts the Neva. The scholars are admitted at the age of
•^ix, and continue until they have attained that of eighteen.
They are clothed, fed, and lodged at the expense of the
crown ; and arc all instructed in reading and writing,
arithmetic, the French and German languages, and draw-
ing. At the age of fourteen they are at liberty to choose
any of the following arts, di^nded into four classes, viz.,
first, painting in all its branches of history portraits, war-
pieces, and landscapes, architecture, mosaic, enamelling,
&c. ; secondly, engraving on copperplates, seal-cutting, &c. ;
thirdly, carving on wood, ivorj', and amber; io\irthly, watch-
making, turning, instrument making, casting statues in
bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in
paste and other compositions, gildirig, and varnishing.
Prizes are annually distributed to those who excel nn any
particular art ; and, from those who have obtained four
prizes, twelve are selected^ who are sent abroad at the
charge of the crown. A certain sum is paid to defray
their travelling e-Tpenses ; and when they are settled in
any town, they receive an annual salary of .£60, which is
continued during four years. There is a small assortmeut
of paintings for the use of the scholars ; and those who
have made great progress are permitted to copy the pictures
iu the imperial collection. For the purpose of design,
there are models in plaster, all done at Rome, of the best
antique statues in Italy, and of the same size with the
originals, which the artists of the academy were employed
to cast in bronze.
France. — The Academy of Painting and Sculpture at
Parii was founded by Louis XIV. in 1 G48, under the title of
Academic Royale des Beaux Arts, to which was afterwards
united the Academy of Architecture, erected 1671. The
academy is composed of painters, sculptors, architects,
engravers, and musical composers. From among the
members of the society, who are painters, is chosen the
director of the French Academic des Beaux Arts at Berne,
also instituted by Louis XIV. in 1677. The director's pro-
vince is to superintend the studies of the painters, sculptors,
i-c, who, having been chosen by competition, are sent to
Italy at the expense of the Government, to complete their
studies in that country. Jlost of the celebrated French
painters have begun their career in this way.
The Hoyal Academy of Music is the name which, by a
strange perversion of language, is given iu France to the
grand opera. In 1571 the poet Baif established in his
house an academy or school of music, at which ballets and
masquerades were given. In 1645 Mazarin brought from
Italy a troupe of actors, and established them in the Rue
du Petit Bourbon, where they executed Jules Strozzi's
" AchiUe in Scire," the first opera performed in France.
After Jloliire's death in 1673, his theatre in the Palais
P.oyal was given to Stdli, and there were performed all
Gluck's great operas ; there Vcstris d.inced, and there was
produced Jean Jacques Rousseau's " lievin du Village."
Italy. — In 177& an Academy of Painting and SciJp-
ture was established at Turin. The meetings were held
in the palace of the king, who distributed prizes among
the most successful members. In Milan an Academy of
Architecture was established so early as the year 13S0, by
Galeas ViscontL A'oout the middle of t'ne last century an
Academy of the Arts was established there, after the
example of those at Paris and Itome. Tho pupils were
furnished with originals and models, and prizes were dis-
tributed annually. The prize for painting was a gold
medal, and no prize was bestowed till all tho competing
pieces had been subjected to the examination and criticism
of competent judges. Before the effects of the French
Revolution reached Italy this was one of the best establish-
ments of the kind in that kingdom. In the hall of the
academy were some admirable pieces of Correggio, as well
as several ancient paintings and statues of great merit, —
particularly a small bust of Vitellias, and a statue of
Agrippina, of most exquisite beauty, though it wants the
head and arms. The Academy of the Arts, which had
been long estabUshed at Florence, fell into decay, but was
restored in the end of last centur}-. In it there are halls
for nude and plaster figures, for the use of the sctJptor and
tho painter. The hall for plaster figures had modeb of all
the finest statues in Italy, arranged in two lines; but thf
treasures of this and the other institutions for the fine art*
were greatly diminished during the occupancy of Italy by
the Frenclu In the saloon of the Academy of the Arts at
Modena there are many casts of antique statues ; but after
being plundered by the French it dwindled into a petty
school for drawings from living models ; it contains the
skull of Correggio. There is also an Academy of the Fine
Arts in Mantua, and another at Venice.
Spain. — In Madrid an Academy for Painting, Sculp-
ture, and Architecture, was founded by Philip V. Tho
minister for foreign affairs is president. Prizes are dis-
tributed every three j-ears. In Cadiz a few students
are supplied by Government with the means of drawing
and modelling from figures ; and such as are not able
to purchase the reqi^^ite instruments are provided with
them.
Sweden. — An Academy of the Fine Arts was founded at
Stockholm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall
are the ancient figures of plaster presented by Lotiis XIV.
to Charles XI. The works of the students are publicly
exhibited, and prizes are distributed annually. Such of
them as display distinguished ability obtain pensions from
Government, to enable them to reside in Italy for some
years, for the purposes of investigation and improvement.
In tliis academy there are nine professors, and generally
about four hundred students. In the year 1705 an
Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture was
established at Vienna, with tho vie* of encouraging and
promoting the fine arts.
England. — The Jloyal Academy of ArU in London was
instituted for the encouragement of designing, painting,
sculpture, &c., in the year 1768, with Sir J. Re>-nolds
for its president. This academy is under the immediate
patronage of the queen, and under the direction of forty
artists of the first rank in their several professions. It
furnishes, in winter, living models of different characters
to draw after ; and in summer, models of the same kind
to paint after. Nine of the ablest academicians are
annually elected out of the forty, whose business it is to
attend by rotation, to set the figures, to examine the
performance of the students, and to give them necessary
instructions. There are like\\ise professors of painting,
sculpture, architecture, anatomy, and chemistry, who
annually read public lectures en the subjects of theii
several departments ; besides a president, a council, and
other officers. The admission to this academy is free to
all students properly qualified to reap advantage from the
studies cultivated in it ; and there is an annual exhibition
at Burlington House of paintings, sculptures, and designs,
open to aU artists of distinguished merit.
The Academy of Ancient Music was established in Lon-
don in 1710, by several persons of distinction, and other
A C A — A C G
79
amateurs, in conjimction with the most eminent masters of
the time, with the view of promoting the study and practice'
of Tocal and instrumental harmony. This institution,
which had the advantage of a library, consisting of the most
celebrated compositions, both foreign and domestic, in
manuscript and in print, and which was aided by the per-
formances of the gentlemen of the chapel royal, and the
choir of St Paul's, with the boys belonging to each, con-
tinued to flourish for many years. In 1731a charge of
plagiarism brought against Bononcini, a member of the
academy, for claiming a madrigal of Lotti of Venice as
his own, threatened the existence of the institution. Dr
Greene, who had introduced the madrigal into the aca-
demy, took part with Bononcini, and withdrew from the
society, taking with him the boys of St Paul's. In 1734
Mr Gates, another member of the society, and master of
the children of the royal chapel, also retired in disgust;
so that the institution was thus deprived of the assistance
which the boys afforded it in singing the soprano parts.
From this time the academy became a seminary for the
instruction of youth in the principles of music and the
laws of harmony. Dr Pepusch, who was one of its foun-
ders, was active in accomplishing this measure; and by
the expedient. of educating boys for their purpose, and
admitting auditor members, the subsistence of the aca-
demy was continued. The Royal Academy of Music
was formed by tha principal nobility and gentry of the
kingdom, for iho performance of operas, composed by
Handel, and conducted by him at the theatre in tiie Hay-
market. The subscription amounted to X50,000, and the
king, besides subscribing XIOOO, allowed the society to
assume the title of li'jyal Academy. It consisted of a
governor, deputy-governor, and twenty directors. A con-
tost .between Handel and Senesino, one of the performers,
in which the directors took the part of the latter, occa-
sioned the dissolution of the academy, after it had subsisted
with reputation for more than nine years. The present
Royal Academy of Music dates from 1822, and was incor-
porated in 1830 under the patronage of the queen. It
instructs pupOa of both sexes in music, charging 33 guineas
per annum; but many receive instruction free. It also
gives public concerts. In this institution the leading"
instrumentalists and vocalists of England have received
their education. (See Musical Directory published by
Rudall, Carte, and Co.)
Academy is a term also applied to those royal coUegiat •
seminaries in which young men are educated for the navj
and army. In our country there are three colleges of
this description — the Royal Naval CoDege at Portsmouth,
the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and the Royal
Military College, Sandhurst.
ACADIE, or Acadia, the name borne by Nova Scotia
while it remained a French settlement.
ACALEPHvE (from o.KaXrj'fiv, a nettle), a name given to
the animals commonly known as jcily-fish, sea-Uubber,
Medusce, sea-nettles, &c.
ACANTHOCEPHALA (from ^KavBa, a thorn, and
Ke4>a\q, the head), a group of-parasitic worms, having the
heads armed with spines or hooks.
ACANTHOPTERYGII (from aKavBa, a thorn, and
Trripv^, a wing), an order of fishes, having bony skeletons
witl^ prickly spinous processes in the dorsal fins.
ACANTHUS, a genus of plants belonging to the natural
order Acanthaceae. The species are natives of the southern
parts of Europe. The most common species is the Acan-
thus mollis or Branhursine. It has large, deeply-cut, hairy,
shining leaves, which are supposed to have suggested the
decoration of the Corinthian column. Another species.
Acanthus spinosus, is so called from its spiny leaves.
ACAPULCO, a town and port in Mexico, on a bay of
the Pacific Ocean, about 190 miles S.S.W. of Mexico, in
N. kt. 16° 50', W. long. 99° 46'. The harbour, which is
the best on the Pacific coast, is almost completely land-
locked. It is easy of access, and the anchorage is so
secure that heavily-laden ships can lie close to the rocks
which surround it. The town lies N.W. of the harbour,
and is defended by the castle of San Diego, which stands
on an eminence. During a part of the dry season the air
is infected with the putrid cfHuvia of a morass eastward of
the town. This, together with the heat of the climate,
aggravated by the reflection of the sun's rays from the
granite rocks that environ the to^v^l, renders it very un-
healthy, especially to Europeans, though a passage cut
through the rocks, to let in the sea breeze, has tended to
improve its salubrity. Acapulco was in former times the
great depot of the trade of Spain with the East Indies.
A 'galleon sailed from this port to Manilla in the Philippine
Islands, and another returned once a year laden with the
treasures and luxuries of the East. On the arrival of this
galleon a great fair was held, to which merchants resorted
from all parts of lleiico. The tca.de between Acapulco
and Mamlla was annihilated when Mexico became inde-
pendent; and, from this cause, and also on account of tha
frequent earthquakes by which the town has been visited,
it had sunk to comparative insignificance, when the dis-
covery of gold in California gave its trade a fresh impetus.
It 13 now the most important seaport in Mexico, and is
regularly touched at by the Pacific mail steamers. Besides
having a large transit trade, it exports wool, skins, cocoa,
cochineal, and indigo; and the imports include cottons,
silks, and hardware. Population about 5000.
ACARNANIA, a province of ancient Greece, now called
Carnia. It was bounded on the N. by the Ambracian
gulf, on the N.E. by Amphilochia, on the W. and S.AV.
by the Ionian Sea, and on the E. by .(Etolia. It was
a hiUy country, with numerous lakes and tracts of rich
pasture, and its hiUs are to the present day crowned with
thick wood. It was celebrated for its" excellent breed of
horses. The Acarnanians, according to Mr Grote, though
admitted as Greeks to the Pan-Hellenic games, were more
akin in character and manners to their barbarian neighbours
of Epirus. Up to the time of the Peloponnesian war, they
are mentioned only as a race of rude shepherds, divided
into numerous petty tribes, and engaged in continual strife
and rapine. They were, however, favourably distinguished
from their jEtolian neighbours by the fidelity and stead-
fastness of their character. They were good soldiers, and
excelled as slingers. At the date above mentioned they
begin, as the allies of the Athenians, to make a more pro-
:mnent figure in the history of Greece. The chief toivn
was Stratos, and subsequently Leucas.
ACARUS (from iKopt, a mite), a genus of Arachnides,
represented by the cheese mite and other foims.
ACCELERATION is a term employed to denote gene-
rally the rate at which the velocity of a body, whoso
motion is not uniform, either incroascs or decreases. As
the velocity is continually changing, and cannot therefore
be estimated, aj in uniform motion, by the space actually
passed over in a certain time, its value at any instant haa
to be measured by the space the body would describe in
the unit of time, supposing that at aiul frora the instant ia
80
A C C — A C C
question tho motion became and continued uniform. If
tlio motion is such that the velocity, thus nifcasurcd, in-
creases or decreases by equal amounts in equal iuter»als of
time, it is said to bo uniformly accelerated or retarded.
In that Ciiso, if/ denote tho amount of increase or decrease
of velocity corresponding to tho unit of time, tho whole of
such increase or decrease in t units of time will evidently
bo ft, and therefore if « bo the initial and v tho final
velocity for that interval, ti — u ^fl, — the upper sign apply-
ing to accelerated, the lower to retarded, motion. To find
the distance or space, i, gone over in i units of time, let i
bo divided into n eaual intervals. Tho velocities at the
^ 2/
end of the succossive intervals will be u ± / - , « ■<=/ — ,
m
u ••■/ — , iKo. Let it now be supposed that during each
of those small intervals the body has moved uniformly
with its velocity at tho end of the interval, then (since a
body moving uniformly for x seconds with a velocity of y
feet per second will move through tsy feet) the epaces
describod in tho successive intervals would be the product
of tho velocities given above by - , and tho whole spaoo in
the time t would bo the sum of these spaces; i,s.,
« = j(-(l + 1 .... repeated n times) */• -j(l -I- 2 -H 3 +n)
II''
^ii ="->(..!).
It is evident, however, tuat as tho increase or decrease of
velocity takes place continuously, this sum will be too
large; but the greater n is taken, or (which is the same
thing) tho smaller the intervals are during which the
velocity is Bupposed to be uniform, tho nearer will tho
result be to the trutL Hence making n as largo as pos-
sible, or - as small as possible, i.e., — 0, we obtain as the
correct expression s = ut ± - /t'.
In the case of motion
0, and the above formulae become «=_/?,
from rest,
"We have a familiar instance of uniformly accelerated
and uniformly retarded motion in the case of bodies fall-
ing and rising vertically near the earth's surface, where, if
the resistance of tho air be neglected, the velocity of the
body is increased or diminished, in consequence of the
earth's attraction, by a uniform amount in each second of
time. To this amount is given the name of the accelera-
tion of gravity (usually denoted by the letter <?), the value
of which, in our latitudes and at the surface of the sea, is
very nearly 32J feet per second. Hence the space a body
falls from rest in any number of seconds is readily found
by multiplying IG-,', feet by the square of th« number of
seaonds. For a fuller account of accelerating force, — tx-
preased in the notation of the Differential Calculus by
/=■ ^ J- or/= !t —J, — the reader is referred to the article
Dynamics.
ACCENT, ill reading or spedking, is the stress or
pressure of tho voice upon a s^iaUe of a word. The deriva-
tion of the term (Lat. accerUus, quasi adcantus) clearly shows
that it was employed by the classical grammarians to
express the production of a musical effect. Its origin is
therefore to be sought in the natural desire of man to
graiify the ear by modulated sound, and probably no
lang;«ige exists in which it does not play a more or less
important part. " Only a machine," says Professor Blackie
( Place and Poioer of Accent in Language, in the Transac-
tions of the Roi/al Society of Edinbun/h, iS71), "could
produce a continnoos series of sounds in andistinguifihcd
monotonous repetitions like tlie tUm, tUm, turn, of a drum;
a rational being using words for a rational purpose tck
manifest his .thoughts and feelings, necessarily accents both
words and sentences in some way or other." That tha
accentuation of some languages is more distinct, various,
and effective than that of others is beyond question, but
there are none, so far as wo know, in wliich its power ia
not felt The statement sometimes made, that the French
have no accent in their words, can only mean that their
accent is less emphatic or less variously so than that
of certain other nations. If it means more, it is not
merely an error, but an absurdity. From this conception
of the subject, it is obvious that accent must be funda-
mentally the same thing in all languages, and must aim
more or less successfully at the same results, however
diverse the rules by which it is governed. But there are,
nevertheless, important differences between the conditions
under which accent operated in the cbssical, and those in
which it operates in modem tongues. It did not wholly
determine the rhythm, nor in tho least affect the metre of
classical verse ; it did not fix the quantity or length of
classical syllables. It was a mu.sical clement superadded
to the measured structure of prose and verse.
Passing over the consideration of the accentual system of
the Hebrews with the single remark, that it exhibits, thuugh
with more elaborate and complicated expression, most of
the characteristics both of Greek and English accent, we
find that the Greeks employed three gi-ammatical accents,
viz., the acute accent ('), which shows when the tone of the
voice is to be raised ; the grave accent ("), when it is to be
depressed ; and the circumflex accent {^), composed of both
the acute and the grave, and pointing out a kind of undula-
tion of the voice. Tho Latins have made the same use as the
Greeks of these three accents, and various modem nations,
French, English, ic., have also adopted them. As to the
Greek accents, now seen bott in manuscripts and printed
books, there has been great dispute about their antiquity
and use. But the following things seem to be undoubtedly
taught by the ancient grammarians and rhetoricians: — (1.)
That by accent (Trpoow&ia, toi'os) the Greeks understood^e
elevation or falling of the voice on a particular syllable
of a word, either absolutely, or in rektion to its position
in a sentence, accompanied with an intension or remisnon
of the vocal utterance on that syllable (cTriTao-t?, ay«rtt),
occasioning a marked predominance of that syllable over
the other syllables of the word. The predominance thus
given, however, had no effect whatever on the quantity
— long or short — of the accented syllable. The accented
syllable in Greek as in English, might be long or it might
be short ; elevation and emphasis of utterance being one
thing, and prolongation of tho vocal sound quite another
thiug, as any one acquainted with the first elements of
music will at once perceive. The difficulty wliich many
modern schokrs have experienced in conceiving how a
syllable could be accented and not lengthened, has arisen
partly from a complete want of distinct ideas on the nature
of the elements of which human speech is composed, and
partly also from a vicious practice which has long pre-
vailed in the English schoob, of reading Greek, not accord-
ing to the laws of its own accentuation, but according to
the accent of Latin handed down to us through the Roman
Catholic Church. For the rules of Latin accentuation are,
as Quinlilian and Cicero and the grammariiins expressly
mention, very different from the Greek; and the long syllable
of a word has the accent in Latin in a hundred cases, where
the musical habit of the Greek car placed it upon the short.
There is, besides, a vast number of words in Greek accented
on tho last sylhble (like volunteer, amhusca'de, in EngUsh),
of which not a single instance occurs in the Latin lau>
ACCENT
81
gtiage.. Partly, however, from ignorance, partly from care-
lessness, and partly perhaps fi;om stupidity, our scholars
tianaferre^i the pronunciation of the more popular learned
language to that which waa lesa known; and with the
help of time and constant usage, bo habituated themselves
to identify the accented with the long syllable, according
to the analogy of the Latio, that they began seriously
!io doubt the possibility of pronouncing otherwise. Eng-
lish scholars have long ceased to recognise its existence,
and persist in reading Greek as if the accentual marks
meant nothing at alL Even those who allow (liko Mr
W. G. Clark and Professor Munro) that ancient Greek
accent denoted an elevation of voice or tone, are still of
opinion that it is impossible to reproduce it in modern
times. " Here and there," says the former (Cambridge
Jaunud of Philology, vol. L 1868), "a person may be
found with such an exquisite ear, and such plastic organs
li speech, as to be able to reproduce the ancient distinction
between the length and tone of syllables accented and
unaccented, and many not so gifted may fancy that they
reproduce it when they do nothing of the kind. For the
mass of boys and men, pupils as well as teachers, the dis-
tinction is practically ioapossible." But, in spite of such
pessimist views, it may, on the whole, be safely asserted
that since the appearance of a more pldlosophicad spirit in
philology, under the guidance of Hermaim, Boeckh, and
other master-minds among the Germans, the best gram-
marians have come to recognise the importance of this
element of ancient Hellenic enunciation, while not & kvf
carry out their principles into a consistent practice. The
only circumstance, indeed, that prevents oiu' English
scholars from practically recognising the element of accent
in classical teaching, is the apprehension that this Would
interfere seriously with the practical inculcation of quantity ;
an apprehension in which they are certainly justiiied by
the practice of ohe modem Greeks, who have given such a
predominance to accent, as altogether to subordinate, and
in many cases completely overwhelm quantity; and who
also, in public token of this departure from the classical
habit of pronunciation, regularly compose their versos with
a reference to the spoken accent only, leaving the quantity
— as in modern language generally — altogether to the dis-
cretion of the poet. But, as experiment wiU teach any
one that there is no neoes.^ity whatever in the nature of
the human voice for this confusion of two essentially
different elements, it is not unlikely that English scholars
will soon follow the example of the Germans, and mad
Greek prose at least systematically according to the Taws
of classical speech, as handed down to us by the gram-
marians of Alexandria and Byzantium. In the recitation
of classical verse, of course, as it was not constructed on
accentual principles, the skilful reader will naturally allow
the musical accent, or the emphasis of the rhythm to over-
bear, to a great extent, or altogether to overwhelm, the
accent of the individual word; though with regard to the
recitation of verse, it will always remain a problem how far
the ancients themselves did not achieve an " accentwum
eum quantitaie apta conciliatio," such as that which Her-
mann (De aneiulanda, ratione, dtc.) describes as the per-
fection of a polished classical enunciation. A historic
survey of the course of learned opinion on the subject of
accent, from the age of Erasmus down to the present day,
forms an interesting and important part of Professor
Blackie's essay quoted above. See Permington's work on
Greek Pronunciation, Cambridge, 1844; the German work
on Greek Accent by Qdttling (English), London, 1,831 ; and
Blackie's essay on the Place and Power of Accent, in the
^Transactions of the lioyal Society of Edinburgh, 1870-71.
If there is any perplexity regarcUng the nature or influ-
ence of classical accent, there Is none about English. /{
does not conflict e r combine with the modulations of quan-
tity. It is the sole determining element in our metrical
system. Almost the very earliest of our authors, the
Venerable Bede, notices^ this. In defining rhythm he
says — "It is a modulated composition of words, net
according to the laws of .metre, but adapted in the number
of its syllables to the judgment of the ear, as are tlie vers'
of omr vulvar poets" {Bede, Op, voL i. p. 57, ed. 1553}
We have, of course, long vowels and short, like the Greeks
and the Romans, but we do not regulate our verse by
them; and our mode of accentuation is sufficiently despotic
to occasionally almost change their character, so that a
long vowel shall seem short, and vice versa. In reality
this is not so. The long vowel remains long, but then ita
length gives it no privilege of place in a verse. It may
modify the enunciation, it may increase the roU of sound,
but a short vowel could take its place without a violation
of mstre. Take the word far, fov example; there the
vowel a ia long, yet in the line
" 0 Moon, far-spooming Ocean Dowa to thep
it is not necessary that the a in far should be long; a
short vowel would do as well for metrical purposes, and
would even bring out more distinctlv the accentuation of
the syllable spoom.
Originally English accent was upon the root, and not
upon inflectional syllables. Qottling finds the same prin-
ciple operating in Greek, but in that language it certainly
never exercised the \iniversal sway it does in the earlier
forms of English. In the following passage from Beowulf,
the oldest monument of English literature, belonging, in its
first form, to a period even anterior to the invasion of
Britain by the Angles and Saxons, we shall put the
accented or emphatic syllables in italics: —
Strdet waes sid/n-fah . . The street was of variegated stoof^
stig wisode the path directed
gumam aet-gaedexe . . the men together ;
yiid-'hyiue scan .... the war-coiselet shon
heard, hand-looen . . . hard, hand-locked ;
hring-iien scir .... the ring-iron bright
s<mg m sea/rvfum . . . sang in their trappings,
p4 hie ti5 »«Ze fuidura . when they to the half forward
m hyra gr^rt-geatwum . in their terrible armour
gaTtgaji. owomon . , . came to go.
It will be observed that in these verses the accent (not to
be confounded with the mark which is used in Anglo-Saxon
to show that the vowel over which it is placed is long) is
invariably on a monosyllable, or on the root part of a
word of more than one syllable. The passage is also a
good illustration of what has previously been stated, that
the metre or rhythm in English is determined not by the
vowel-quantity of a syllable, but by the stress of the voice
on particular syllables, whether the vowels are long or
short. In the older forms of English verse the accent It.
somewhat irregular; or, to put it more accurately, the
number of syllables intervening between the recurrent
accents is not definitely fixed. Sometimes two or more'
intervene, sometimes none at all. Take, for example, the
opening lines of Langland's poem, entitled the Vision of
Piers the Ploiimian: —
" In a 5omer scson
Whan Boft was the Sonne,
I sAflpe me in shroudca.
As I a sJupe were, *
In habit as an Aeremite
UnAoly of workea.
Went unde in this world
lyonias to here.
Ac on a May vwrnyn^c
On Malaeme huUes,
Me by/rf a/crly,
Of /airy, mo thoaghtc ;
I W.-1S wery {orwandni,
And wcxt me to rjste
Under a brode hanke
By a homes aide.
And as I luy (tnd Iffnci^
And lokei in the waters,
I sfonibrcd in a slepyng,
It sacyuei so meija."
But no matter how irregular the time elapsing between the
T. — II
82
ACCENT
recurrence of the accents they are always on the root-
syllables.
Tbu Norman Conquest, however, introduced a different
Bysteci, which gradually modified the rigid uniformity of
the native English accentuation. The change 19 visible as
early as the end of the 12th century. By the middle of
the 14 th, that is to say, in tlio age of Chaucer, it h in full
operation. Its origin is thus explained by Mr Marsh, in
his Origin and Uislory of the £n{/lis/i Language (Lond.,
18G2) : — " The vocabularj- of the French language is de-
rived, to a great extent, from Latin words deprived of their
terminal inflections. The French adjectives mortal and
fatal are formed from the Latin mortalis and faialu, by
dropping tlie inflected syllable; the French nouns nation
and condition from the Latin accusatives nationem, condi-
iioncm, by rejecting the em final In most cases, the last
syllable retained in the French derivatives was prosodically
long in the Latin original ; and either because it was also
accented, or because the slight accent which is perceivable
in the French articulation represents temporal length, the
stress of the voice was laid on the final syllable of all these
words. 'When we borrowed such words froffi the French
we took them with their native accentuation ; and as ac-
cent is much stronger in English than in French, the final
syllable was doubtless more forcibly enunciated in the
former thau in the latter language." The new mode of ac-
centuation soon began to affect even words of pure English
origin — e.g., in Robert of Gloucester we find falsA«fe instead
of fatshede, tidinje instead of tidinge, tieviehede instead
of treivehede, gladrfore instead of gladdoxe, wis/tcAe instead
of u'iiliche, begynny«(/ instead of bcgj/nnyng, endyng in-
stead of eht/yng. In the Proverbs of Hendyng we have no-
thyng for no(/ang, habitvj for Aatben, fomon for/omon ; in
Jiobert of Bninne, haiydom for halydom, c\othyng for clot/t-
ing, gietand for gretand. Chaucer furnishes numerous in-
stances of the same foreign influence revolutionising the
native accent ; hedom forfredora, hethenewe for hethenesse,
worthiness for wo/-(/i inesse, lowly for lowly, vrynnynge for
U'yn7iyBge, weddynge for weddynge, comynge for comynge ;
and it is traceable even in Spenser. On the other hand,
a contrary tendency must not be overlooked. We see an
effort, probably unconscious, to compel words of French
origin to submit to the rule of English accentuation. It is
noticeable in the century before Chaucer : in Chaucer him-
self it begins to work strongly ; mortal becomes mortal ;
\^mpest, tempest; snhstante, suistance ; amyable, amyMe ;
morsel, morsel; service, servise ; duchfjsf, diichesae ; cosyn,-
cosyn, <fcc. ; while a multitude of words oscillate between
the rival modes of accentuation, now following the French
and now the English. Before and during the Elizabethan
period, the latter began to prove the stronger, and for the
last 300 years it may be said to have, for the most part.
Anglicised the accent and the nature of the foreign additions
to our vocabulary. Nevertheless, many French words stiU
retain their own accent. Morris {Historical Outlines of
English Accidence, p. 75) thus classifies these : —
*' (1.) Nouns in -ade, -icr {-«r), -e', -«e, or -oon, -ine, {-in), as cas-
cade', crusade', &c. ; cavalier', charulcIU/, &c ; gazcticci' , pioneer',
kc. {in conformity with these we say harpooneer^, mountaineer',) ;
le'jatee', payec^, &c. ; balloon', cartoon', &c ; chagrin', violin', ic. ;
routing, marine', &c.
"Also the follow-in^ words :—iw<fe(', bruneltc^, gaseUtf, cravat",
canal', control', gazelle ,. amateur', fatigued, antique', police', &c
"(2.) Adjectives (a) from Lat. adj. imus, as august, benign', ro-
bust, ke^; (6) in -ose, as morose^, verbose', kc ; (c) -esqiu, as bur-
lesjue , grotesque', ic
"(3.) Some verbs, as laptiz/f, cajoW, cares^, carouse, chastise',
escape', esteem', &c"
To these may be added the Greek and Latin words
which have been introduced into English for scientific and
other learned purposes, and which, not having been altered
in form, retain their original accentuation — as auro'ra,
coro'na, colot'svt, idea, hypoth'eiis, eauu'ra, dice'resit, diag-
no'tit, diluvium, diplo'ma, effluvium, ilyt'ium, <L'c. ; besides
the still larger number that have suffered a slight modifi-
cation of form, but no change cf accent, as dialectic, diag-
nos'tic, ejjlores'cent, elliptic, emer'sion, emol'lient, kc. The
Italian contributions to our tongue retain their original
accent when the form is untouched, as mulatto, tona'ta, vol-
ca'no, but lose it when the form is shortened, as Lan'dii
(It. handi'to).
A change in the position of the accent serves a variety
of purposes in EnglisL It distinguishes (1.) a noun from
a verb, as ac'ceut, accent'; augment, augment'; torment,
torment'; com'ment, comment'; con'sort, consort'; con'tcst,
contest'; con'trast, contrast'; di'gest, digest'; dis'count, dis-
count'; in'sult, insult', &c. ; (2.) an adjective iTom. n verb,
as ab'sent, absent'; fre'quent, frequent'; pre'sent, present';
com'pound, compound', &c ; (3.) an adjective from a noun,
as cx'pert, expert'; com'pact, compact'. It also denotes a
difference of meaning, e.g., con 'jure, conjure'; in'cense,
incense'; au'gust, august'; su'pine, supine'.
Accent has exercised a powerful influence in changing
the/orTHj of words. The unaccented syllables in tho
course of time frequently dropped off. This process was
necessarily more rapid and thorough in English than in
many other languages which were not subjected to equal
strain. The Norman Conquest made havoc of the English
tongue for a time. It was expelled from the court, the
schools, the church, and the tribunals of justice ; it ceased
to be spoken by priests, la^v)•er3, and nobles ; its only
guardians were churls, ignorant, illiterate, indifferent to
grammar, and careless of diction. VTho can wonder if,
in circumstances like these, it suffered disastrous eclipse 1
The latter part of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle furnishes
melancholy evidence of the chaos into which it had fallen,
jet out of this chaos it rose again into newness of life,
reforming and re-accenting its half-mined vocabulary, and
drawing from the very agent of its destruction the elements
of a richer and more plastic expression. For it cannot bo
doubted that the irregularities now existing in English
accent, though perplexing to a foreigner, copiously vary
the modulation, and so increase the flexibility and power
of the language. The older forms of EngUsh, those in use
before the Conquest, and down to the period of Chaucer,
are stiff, monotonous, and unmusical A hard strength is
in the verse, but no liquid sweetness or nimble grace.
Now, it is possible, in spite of our. deficiency in vowel
endings, to produce the noblest melody in accent words
known to the modern world. Almost every kind of metre,
swift or slow, airy or majestic, has been successfully
attempted since the age of the Canterbury Tales. AVhen
we compare the drone of Caedmon with the aerial melody
of the Skylark, the Cloud, and the Areihusa of Shelley,
we see what an infinite progress has been made by
the development of accent in the rhythm of our native
tongue.
See Lectures on the English Language, by G. P. Marsh
(Lond. 1861); the Origin and History of the English
language, ic, by G. P. Marsh (Lond. 1862) ; Hi.'^torisclit
Grammatik der Englische Sprache, von. C. Friedrich Koch
a863-69); The English Language, by R. G. Latham
(1855); Philological Essays, hy the Rev. Richard Gamett
(Lond. 1853); On Early English Pronunciation, uith
especial reference to Shaispere and Chaucer, by A. J. Ellis
(Lond. 1SG7-71) ; Historical Outlines of English Accidence,
by Dr R. Morris (Lond. 1872). (j. M. E.)
ACCEPTANCE is the act by which a person binds
himself to comply with the request contained in a bill of
exchange addressed to him by the drawer. IiJ all cases it
is understood to be a promise to pay the bill in money, the
law not recognising an acceptance in which the promise is
A 0 C — A C C
83
to pay in some otJ»er way, as, for example, partly in money
and partly by another biU. Acceptance may be absolute,
conditional, or partial Absolute acceptance is an engage-
ment to pay the bill strictly according to its tenor, and is
made by the drawee subscribing his name, with or without
the word " accepted," at the bottom of the bUl, or across
the face of it Conditional acceptance is a promise to pay
on a contingency occurring, as, for example, on the sale of
■jertain goods consigned by the drawer to the acceptor. No
contingency is allowed to be mentioned in the body of the
bUl, but a contingent acceptance is ciuite legal, and equally
binding with an absolute acceptance upon the acceptor
when the contingency has occurred. Partial acceptance is
where the promise is to pay only part of the sum mentioned
in the bUl, or to pay at a different time or place from
those specified. In all cases acceptance involves the
signature of the acceptor either by himself or by some
person duly authorised on his behalf. A biU can be
accepted in the first instance only by the person or persons
to whom it is addressed ; bpt if he or they faU to do so, it
may, after being protested for non-acceptance, be accepted
by another " supra protest," for the sake of the honour of
one or more of the parties concerned in it
ACCESSION is applied, in a historical or constitutional
sense, to the coming to the throne of a dynasty or line of
sovereigns, as the accession of the House of Hanover. The
corresponding term, when a single sovereign is spoken of,
is " succession." In law, accession is a method of acquiring
property, by which, in things that have a close connection with
or dependence on one another, the property of the principal
draws after it the property of the accessory, according to the
principle, accessio cedet principali, or accessorlum sequitur
principale. Thus, the owner of a cow becomes likewise the
owner of the calf, and a landowner becomes proprietor of
what is added to his estate by alluvion. Accession produced
by the art or industry of man has been called industrial
accession, and- may be by specification, as when wine is made
cut of grapes, or by confusion or commixture. Accession
sometimes likewise signifies consent or acquiescence. ' Thus,
in the bankrupt law of Scotland, when there is a settlement
by a trust-deed, it is accepted on the part of each creditor
by a deed of accession.
ACCKSSORY, a person guilty of a felonious offence,
not as principal, but by participation ; as by advice, command,
aid, or concealment. In treason, accessories are excluded,
every individual concerned being considered as a principal
In crimes under the degree of felony, also, all persons
concerned, if guilty at all, are regarded as principals. (See
24 and 25 Vict. c. 94. s. 8.) There are two kinds of
accessories — before the fact, and after it. The first is he
who commands or procures another to commit felony, and
is not present himself ; for if he be present, he is a principal
The second is he who receives, assists, or comforts any
man that has done murder or felony, whereof he has
knowledge. An accessory before the fact is liable to th "
same punishment as the principal ; and there is now indeed
no practical difference between such an accessory and a
principal in regard either to indictment, trial, or punishment
{24 and 25 Vict. c. 94). Accessories after the fact are in
general punishable with imprisonment for a period not
exceeding two years {ih. s. 4) The law of (Scotland makes
no distinction between the accessory to any crime (called
art and part) and the principal Except in the case of
treason, accession after the fact is not noticed by the
law of Scotland, unless as an element of evidence to prove
previous accession.
ACCL4 JUOLI, DoNATO, was born at Florence in 1428.
He was famous for his learning, especially in Greek and
mathematics, and for his scriices to his native state.
Having previously been intrusted with several important
embassies, he became Gonfalonier of Florence in 1473. He
died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris to ask the
aid of Louis XI. on behalf of the Florentines against Pope
Sixtus IV. His body was taken back to Florence, and
buried in the church of the Carthusians at the public
expense, and his daughters were portioned by his fellow-
citizens, the fortune he left being, owing to his probity and
disinterestedness, very small He wrote a Latin translar
tion of some of Plutarch's Lives (Florence, 1478); Com-
mentaries on Aristotle's Ethics and Politico ; and the livea
of Hannibal, Scipio, and Charlemagne. In the work on
Aristotle he had the co-operation of his master Argyropylus.
ACCIDENT. An attribute. of a thing or class of things,
which neither belongs to, nor is in any way deducible from,
the essence of that thing or class, is termed its accident.
An accident may be either inseparable or separable : the
former, when we can conceive it to be absent from that
with which it is found, although it is always, as far as we
know, present, i.e., when it is not necessarily but is uni-
versally present ; the latter, when it is neither necessarily
nor universaDy present. It is often difficult to determine
whether a particular attribute is essential or accidental to the
object we are investigating, subsequent research frequently
proving that what we have described as accidental ought to
be classed as essential, and vice versa Practically, and
for the time being, an attribute, which neither directly nor
indirectly forms part of the signification of the term~ used
to designate the object, may be considered an accident ;
and many philosophers look upon this as the only intelligible
ground for the distinction. Propositions expressing the
relation between a thing or class and an accident, and also
between a thing or class and its property (i.e., something
deducible from, but not strictly forming part of, its essence),
are variously styled "accidental," "synthetical," "real,"
"ampUative," in contradistinction to "essential," "analy-
tical," "verbal," and "explicative" propositions. The
former give us information that we could not have dis-
covered from an analysis of the subject notion — e.y., "man
is found in New Zealand ;" the latter merely state what we
already know, if we understand the meaning of the language
employed, e.g., "man is rational."
ACCIUS, a poet of the 16th century, to whom is
attributed A Paraphrase of .^sop's Fables, of which Julius
Scaliger speaks with great praise.
ACCIUS (or Attius), Lucius, a Latin tragic poet, was
the son of a freedman, born, according to St Jerome, in
the year of Rome 583, though this appears somewhat
uncertain. He made himself known before the death of
Pacuvius by a dramatic piece, which he exhibited the same
year that Pacuvius brought one on the stage, the latter being
then eighty years of age, and Accius only thirty. We do
not know the name of this piece of Accius's, but the titles
of several of his tragedies are mentioned by various authors.
He wrote on the most celebrated stories which had been
represented on the Athenian stage ; but he did not always
take his subject from Grecian story ; for he composed at
least one dramatic piece wholly Roman, entitled £ridus,
and referring to the expulsion of the Tarquins. Only
fragments of his tragedies remain. He did not confine
himself to dramatic writing, having left other productions,
particularly his Annals, mentioned by Macrobius, Priscian,
Festus, and Nonnius Marcellus. H« ha.s been censured
for the harshness of his stylo, but in other 'icspccts he has
been esteemed a gi'eat poet. He died at an advanced age ;
and Cicero, who evidently attaches considerable weight to
his opinions, speaks of having conversed with Lim in his
youtL
ACCLAMATION, the exi'ression of the opinion, favour-
able or unfavourable, of any assembly by means of the
voice. Applause denotes strictly a similar e.\'pression by
84
A C C — A C C
clapping of hands, hut this diatincHon in tlio usage of tho
'words is by no means uniformly maintained. Among tho
Romans acclamation was varied both in form and purpose.
At marriages it was usual for tho spectators to shoat lo
Jlymen, Hymencee, or Talassio ; a Wctorious army or general
was greeted with lo tnumpke ; ii the theatre acclamation
was called for at the close of the play by the last actor,
who said, J'laudiie ; in the senate opinions were expressed
and votes pa.ssed by acclamation in such forms as Omnea,
omnes, ^guum est, Justum est, ifec ; and the praises cf tho
emperor were celebrated in certi'in pre-arranged sentences,
which seem to havo been chanted by tho whole body of
senators. The acclamations wliich authors and poets who
recited their works in public received were at first spon-
taneous and genuine, but in time became very largely
mercenary, it being customary for men of fortune who
affected literary tastes to keep applauders in their service
and lend them to their friends. When Nero performed in
the theatre his praUes were chanted, at a given signal, by
five thousand soldiers, who were called Aiu/uslals. The
wholo was conducted by a music-master, mesochonu or
jmusarius. It was this case of Nero which, occurring to
the recollection of the French poet Dorat, may be said to
have originated the well-known Paris claque. Buying up
a number of the tickets for a performance of one of his
plays, he distributed them gratuitou.sly to those who pro-
mised to express approbation. From that time the claque,
or organised body of professional applauders, has been a
recognised institution in connection with the theatres of
Paris. In the early ages of the Christian church it was by
no means uncommon for an audience to express their appro-
l)alion cf a favourite preacher during the course of his
Bermon. Chrysostom especially was very frequently inter-
rupted both by applause and by acclamations. In eccle-
siastical councils vote by acclamation is very common, the
question being usually put in the form, placet or non placet.
This differs from the acclamation with which in other
aiiscmblies a motion is said to be carried, when, no amend-
ment being proposed, approval is expressed by shouting
Kuch words as ./(ye or Agreed.
ACGLISIATISATION is the process of adaptation by
wliich animals and plants are gradually rendered capable
of .surviving and flourishing in countries remote from their
original habitats, or under meteorological conditions dif-
ferent from those which they have usually to endure, and
which are at first injurious to them.
Tho subject of acclimatisation is very little understood,
and some writers have even denied that it can ever take
place. It is often confoimded with domestication or with
naturalisation ; but these are both very different pheno-
mena. A domesticated animal or a cultivated plant need not
liecessarily be acclimatised ; that is, it need not be capable
of enduring the severity of the seasons without protection.
The canary bird is domesticated but not acclimatised, and
many of our most extensively cultivated plants are in the
same category. A naturalised animal or plant, on tho
other hand, must be able to withstand all the vicissitudes
cf the seasons in its new home, and it may therefore be
thought that it must have become acclimatised. But in
many, perhaps most cases of naturalisation, there is no
evidence of a gradual adaptation to new conditions which
were at first injurious, and this is essential to the idea of
acclimatisation. On the contrary, many species, in a new
country and under somewhat different climatic coi.ditions,
seem to find a more congenial abode than in their native land,
and at once flourish and increase in it to such an extent as
oftentoexterminatethe indigenous inhabitants. ThusAgassiz
(in his work on Lake Supenor) tells us that the road-side
weeds oi.the north-eastern United States, to the number of
130 species, are all European, the native weeds having dis-
appeared westwards; wbik- in New Zealand there are,
according to Mr T. Kirk ( Tratuactiont of the /fete Zealand
/nsliiute, ToL iL p. 131), no less than 250 species of
naturalised plants, more than 100 of which spread widely
over tho country, and often displace tho nativo vegetation.
Among animah, the European rat, goat, and pig, are
naturalised in New Zealand, where they multiply to such
an extent as to injure and probably exterminate many
native productions. In neither of these cases is there
any indication that acclimatitation was necessary or ever
took place.
On the other hand, the fact that an animal or plant
cannot be naturalised is no proof that it is not acclimatised.
It has been sho^vn by Mr Darwin that, in the case of m6st
animals and plants in a state of nature, the competition of
other organisms is a far more efficient agency in limiting
their distribution than the mere influence of climate. We
havo a proof of this in the fact that so few, comparatively,
of our perfectly hardy garden plants ever run wild; and
even the most persevering attempts to naturalise them
usually fail. Alphonse de CandoUe (Geographic liotaniqut,
p. 798) informs us that several botanists of Paris, Geneva,
and especially of Montpellier, have sown the seeds of many
hundreds of species of exotic hardy plants, in what appeared
to be the most favourable situations, but that in hardly
a single case has any one of them become naturalised.
Attempts have also been made to naturalise continental
insects in this country, in places where the proper food-
plants abound and the conditions seem generally favour-
able, but in no case do they seem to have succeeded
Even a plant like the potato, so largely cultivated and so
perfectly hardy, has not established itself in a wild state
in any part of Europe.
Different Degrees of Climatal Adaptation in Animali and
Plants. — Plants differ greatly from animals in the closeness
of their adaptation to meteorological conditions. Not only
will most tropical plants refuse to live in a temperate
climate, but many species are seriously injured by removal
a few degrees of latitude beyond their natural limits. This
is probably due to the fact, established by the experiments
of M. Becquerel, that plants pcssess no proper temperature,
but are wholly dependent on that of the surrounding
medium.
Animals, especially the higher forms, are much less
sensitive to change of temperature, as shown by the exten-
sive range from north to south of many specie.'. Thus,
the tiger ranges from the equator to northern Asia as far
as the river Amour, and to the isothermal of 32° Fahr. The
mountaia sparrow [Passer montana) is abundant in Java
and Singapore in a uniform equatorial climate, and abo
inhabits this country and a considerable portion of northern
Europe. It is true that most terrestrial animals are
restricted to countries not possessing a great range of
temperature or very diversified climates, but there is reason
to believe that this is due to quite a different set of causes,
such as the presence of enemies or deficiency of appropriate
food. When supplied with food and partially protected
from enemies, they often show a wonderful capacity of
enduring climates very different from that in which they
originally flourished. Thus, the horse and the domestic
fowl, both natives of very warm countries, flourish without
special protection in almost every inhabited portion of the-
globe. The parrot tribe form one of the most pre-eminently
tropical groups of birds, only a few species extending into
the warmer temperate regions ; yet even tho most exclu-
sively tropical genera are by no means delicate birds as
regards climate. In the Annals and Magazine of Natural
History iox 18G8 (p. 381) is a most interesting accotmt, by
Mr Charles Buxton, M.P., of the naturalisation af parrots
at Northreps Hall, Norfolk. A considerable number oL
A C C L I ]\i A T 1 S A T 1 O N
85
4.frican and Amazonian parrots, Bengal parroquets, four
ipecies of vihiie and rose crested cockatoos, and two speciKS
of crimson lories, have been at large for many years.
Several of these birds have bred, and they almost all live
in the woods the whole year through, refusing to take
shelter in a house constructed for tlieir use. Even when
the thermometer fell 6° below zero, all appeared in good
S-pirits and vigorous health. Some of these, birds have
lived thu.s exposed for nearly twenty, years, enduring our
cola easterly winds, rain, hail, and snow, all through the
winter, — a marvellous contrast to the equable equatorial
temperature (hardly ever less than 70'') which many of them
had been accustomed to for the first year or vears of their
?xisteiice.
Mr Jenner Weir records somewhat similar facts in the
Zoolojist for 1865 (p. 9411). He keeps many small birds
in an open aviary in his garden at Blackheath, and among
these are the Java rice bird {Padda oryzivora), two West
Airican weaver birds (tlyplumtoniis textor and Uuplectes
mnguinirostris), and the blue bird of the southern United
States (Spiui cyanea). These denizens of the tropics prove
quite as hardy as our native birds, having hved during
the severest winters yithout the slightest protection
against the cold, even when their drinking wat^r had to be
repeatedly melted.
Hardly any group of Mammalia ia more exclusively
tropical than the Quadrnmana, yet there is reason to believe
that, if other conditions are favourable, some of them can
withstand a considerable degree of cold. Ihe Semnopithecus
seJiistaceus was found by Captain Hutton at an elevation of
11,000 feet in the Himalayas, leaping actively among fir-
trees whose branches were laden vnXh. snow-T\Teaths. In
Abyssinia a troop of dog-faced baboons were observed by
Mr Blandford at 9000 feet above the sea. We may there-
fore conclude that the restriction of the monkey tribe to
(vam latitudes is probably determined by other causes than
tempi'iature alone.
Similar indications are given by the fact of closely allied
species inhabiting very extreme climates. The recently
extinct Siberian mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were
closely allied to species now inhabiting tropical regions
exclusively. Wolves and foxes are found alike in the
coldest and hottest parts of the earth, as are closely allied
species of falcons, owls, sparrows, and numerous genera of
waders and aquatic birds.
A consideration of these and many analogous facts might
induce us to suppose that, among the higher animals at
least, there is little constitutional adaptation to climate,
and that in their case acclimatisation is not required. But
there are numerous examples of domestic animals which
sh'jw that such adaptation docs exist in other cases. The
yak of Thibet cannot long survive in the plains of India,
or even on the hills below a certain altitude ; and that this
is due to climate, and not to the increased density of the
atmosphere, is shown by the fact that the same animal
appears to thrive well in Europe, and even breeds there
readily. The Newfoundland dog ■wOl not live in India, and
the Spanish breed of fowls in this country suifer more
from frost than most others. When we get lower in the
r'ale the adaptation is often more marked. Snakes, which
are so abundant in waPtn countries, dinainish rapidly as
we go north, and wholly cease at lat. G2°. Most insects are
also very susceptible to cold, and seem to be adapted to
very narrow limits of temperature.
From the foregoing facts and observations we may con-
clude, firstly, that some plants and many animals are not
constitutionally adapted to the climate of their native
country only, but are capable of endurmg and flourishing
under a more or less extensive range of temperature and
other climatic conditions ; and, secondly, that most plants
and flome animals are, more or less closely, adapted to
climates similar to those of ihcu- native habitats. In order
to domesticate or naturalise the former class ia countries
not extremely differing from that from ^vhich the species
was brought, it will not bo necessary to acclimatise, in
the strict sense of the word. In the case of the latter
olass, however, acclimatisation is a necessary preliminary
to naturalisation, and in many cases to useful domestica-
tion, and we have therefore to inquije whether it is
possible.
Acclimatisation hy Individual Adajjiaiion. — It is evi-
dent that acclimatisation may occur (if it occurs at all) in
two ways, either/ by modifying the constitution • of tha
individual subnij?ted to the new conditions, or by the
production of offspring which may be better adapted to
those conditions than their parents. The alteration of the
constitution of individuals in this direction is not easy to
detect, and its possibility has been denied by many writers.
Mr Darwin believes, however, that there are indications
that it occasionally occurs in plants, where it can be best
observed, owing to the circumstance that so many plants
are propagated by cuttings or buds, which really continue
the existence of the same individual almost indefinitely.
He .adduces the example of vines taken to the West Indies
from Madeira, which have been found to succeed better
than those taken directly from France. But in most cases
habit, however prolonged, appears to have little effect on
the constitution of the individual, and the fact has no
doubt led to the opinion that acchmatisation is impossible.'
There is indeed little or no evidence to show that anj
animal to which a new cUmate is at first prejudicial can
be so acclimatised by habit that, after subjection to it for .i
few or many seasons, it may live as healthily and with as
little care as in its native country ; yet we may, on general
principles, believe that urider proper conditions such accli^
matisatiou would take place. In his Principles of Biologj^
(chap, v.), Mr Herbert Spencer his shown that every organ
and every function of living beings undergoes modificatioa
to a limited extent under the stimulus of any new con-
ditions, and that the modification is almost always such as
to produce an adaptation to those conditions. We may feel
pretty sure, therefore, that if robust and healthy individuals
are chosen for the experiment, and if the change they are
subjected to is not too great, a real individual adaptation
to the new conditions — that is, a more or less complete
acclimatisation — niU be brought about If now animals
thus modified are bred from, we know that their descendants
will inherit the modification. They ■naU thus start more
favourably, and being subject to the influence of the same
or a slightly more extreme climate during their whole hves,
the acclimatisation wiU be carried a step further; and
there seems no reason to doubt that, by this process alone,
if cautiously and patiently carried out, most animals whrch
breed freely in confinement could in time be acclimatised
in alihost any inhabited country. There is, however, a
much more potent agent, which renders the process of
adaptation almost a certainty.
Acclimatisation hy Variation. — A mass oicHdence exists
showing that variations of every conceivable kind occur
among the offspring of all plants and animals, and that, in
particular, constitutional variations are by no means un-
common. Among cultivated plants, for example, hardier
and more tender varieties often arise. The following cases
are given by Mr Darwin : — Among the numerous fniit-trees
raised in North America, some are well adapted to the
climate of the Northern States and Canada, whilo others
only succeed well in the Southern States. Adaptation oi
this kind is sometimes very close, so that, for e.xample, few
English varieties of wheat will thrive, in Scotland. Seed-
wheat from India produced a miserable crop when planted
86
ACCLIjMATISATION
by tho Ror. M. J. Berkeley on land which would have
produced a good crop of English wheat. Conversely,
French wheat taVon to the West Indies produced only
barren spikes, wliile native wheat by its side jielded an
enormous harvest. Tobacco in Sweden, raised from home-
grown seed, ripens its seeds a month earlier than plants
grown from foreign seed. In Italy, as long as orange
trees were propagated by grafts, they were tender; but
after many of the trees were destroyed by tlic severe frosts
of 1709 and I7G3, plants were raised from seed, and these
were found to be hardier and more productive than the
former kinds. Where plants are raised from seed in largo
quantities, varieties always occur diifering in constitution,
a-i well as others ditl'erijig in form or colour; but the former
cannot bo perceived by us unless marked out by their
behaviour under exceptional conditions, as in the foUomng
cases. After tho aevere winter of 1860-61, it was observed
that in a largo bed of araucarias some plants stood quite
unhurt among numbers killed around them. In Mr Darwin's
garden two rows of scarlet ranners were entirely killed by
frost, e-ijcept three plants, which had not even tho tips of
their leaves browned. A very excellent example is to be
found in Chinese Iiistory, according to M. Hue, who, in
his L'Empire Chinois (torn. iL p. 359), gives the following
extract from the Mtmoirs of the Emperor Kluxng : — "On
the 1st day of the 6lh moon I was walking in some fields
where rice had been so%vn to be ready for the harvest in
the 9 th moon. I observed by chance a stalk of rice
which was already in ear. It was higher than all the rest,
and was ripe enough to bo gathered. I ordered it to be
brought to me. The grain was very fine and well grown,
which gave mo the idea to keep it for a trial, and see if the
following year it would preserve its precocity. It did so.
All the stalks which came from it showed ear before
the usual time, and were ripe in the 6th moon. Each year
has multiplied the produce of the preceding, and for thirty
years it is this rice which has been served at my table. The
grain is elongate, and of a reddish colour, but it has a sweet
smell and very pleasant taste. It is called Yu-mi, Imperial
rice, because it was first cultivated in my gardens. It is
the only sort which can ripen north of the great wall,
where the winter ends late and begins very early ; but in
the southern provinces, where the climate is milder and the
land more fertile, two harvests a year may be easily ob-
tained, and it is for me a sweet reflection to have procured
this advantage for my people." M. Hue adds his testimony
that this kind of rice flourishes in Mandtchuria, where uo
other will grow. We have here, therefore, a perfect
example of acclimatisation by means of a spontaneous con-
stitutional variation.
That this kind of adaptation may be carried on step by
step to more and more extreme climates is illustrated by
the following examples. Sweet^peas raised in Calcutta
from seed imported from England rarely blossom, and never
yield seed ; plants from French seed flower better, but are
stiU sterile ; but those raised from Darjeeling seed (originally
imported from England) both flower and seed profusely. The
peach is belioijed to have been tender, and to have ripened
its fruit mth difficulty, when first introduced into Greece; so
that (as Darwin observes) in travelling northward during
two thousand years it must have become much hardier.
Dr Hooker ascertained the average vertical range of
flowering plants in the Himalayas to be 4000 feet, while in
some cases it extended to SOOO feet. The same species can
thus endure a great difference of temperature ; but the
important fact is, that the individuals have become accli-
matised to the altitude at which they grow, so that seeds
gathered near the upper limit of the range of a species will
be more hardy than those gathered near the lower limit.
This was proved by Dr Hooker to be the case with
Himalayaa conifers and rhododendrons, raised ia thie
country from seed gathered at diilcrcnt altitudes.
Among animals exactly analogous facts occur. II. Roulin
states that when geese were first introduced into Bogota
they laid few eggs at long intervals, and few of the young
survived. By degrees the fecundity improved, and iu
about twenty years became equal to what it is in Europe.
The game author tells us that, according to Garcilaso,
when fowls were first introduced into Peru they were not
fertile, whereas now they are as much bo as in Europe.
Mr Darwin adduces tho following examples. Jlerino sheep
bred at the Cape of Good Hope have Vjcen found far better
adapted for India than those imported from England ; and
while the Chinese variety of the Ailanthus silk-moth is
quite hardy, the variety iound in Bengal will only flourish
in warm latitudes. Sir Darwin also calls attention to the
circumstance that writers of agricultural works generally
recomniend that animals should be removed from one
district to another as little as possible. This advice occurs
even in classical and Chinese agricultural books as well
as in those of our own day, and proves that tho close
adaptation of each variety or breed to the country in which
it originated has always been recognised.
Conslilutional Adaptation often accompanied hy External
Modificatwn. — ; Although in some cases no perceptible altera-
tion of form or structure occurs when constitutional adapta-
tion to climate has taken place, in others it is very marked.
Mr Darwin has collected a large number of cases in his .-f n tmaU
and Plants under Domestication (vol ii. p. 277), of which the
following are a few of the most remarkable. Dr Falconer
observed that several trees, natives of cooler chmates,
assumed a pyramidal or fastigiatc form when grown in the
plains of India ; cabbages rarely produce heads in hot
climates ; the quality of the wood, the medicinal products,
the odour and colour of tho flowers, all change in many
cases when plants of one country are gro'ivn iu another.
One of the most curious observations is that of Mr Sleehan,
who " compared twenty-nine kinds of American tree;
belonging to various orders, with their nearest European
allies, all grown in close proximity in the same garden, and
under as nearly as possible the same conditions. In the
American species Mr Meehan finds, with the rarest excep-
tions, that the leaves fall earlier in the season, and assume
before falling a brighter tint; that they are less deeply
toothed or serrated ; that the buds are smaller ; that the
trees are more diflfuse in growth, and have fewer branchleu;
and, lastly, that the seeds are smaller ; — all in comparison
with the European species." Mr Darwin concludes that
there is no way of accounting for these uniform difi"erencc!
in the two series of trees than by the long-continued action
of the different climates of the two continents.
In animals equally remarkable changes occur. In
Angora, not only goats, but shepherd-dogs and cats, have
fine fleecy hair ; the wool of sheep changes its character in
the West Indies in three generations ; M. Costa states
that young oysters, taken from the coast of England,
and placed in the Mediterranean, at once altered their
uanner of growth and formed prominent diverging rays,
like those on the shells of the proper Mediterranean
oyster.
In his Contributions to tlte Theory of N'alural Selection
(p. 167), Mr Wallace has recorded cases of simultaneous
Tdriation among insects, apparently due to climate or other
strictly local causes. He fijids that the butterflies of the
family PapHionid<e, and some others, become sunilarly
modified in different islands and groups of islands. Thus,
the species inhabiting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, are
almost always much smaller than the closely allied species
of Celebes and the Moluccas ; the species or varieties of
the «mnll island of Amboyna are larger than the same
ACCLIMATISATION
87
species or closely allied forms inhabiting tne eurrounding
ialands; the species found in Celebes possess a peculiar
form of wing, qni^p distinct from that of the same or
closely allied species of adjacent islands; and, lastly,
nnmerous species which have tailed wings in India and the
western islands of the Archipelago, gradually lose the tail
as we proceed eastward to New Guinea Mid the Pacific.
Many of these curious modifications mas', it is true, be
due to other causes than cUinate only, but they serve to
show how powerfully and ipysteriously local conditions
affect the form and structure of boVh plants and anipials ;
and they render it probable that changes of constitution
are also continually produced, although we have, iu the
majority of cases, no means of detecting them. It is also
impossible to- determine how. far the effects described are
produced by spontaneoiis favourable variations or by the
direct action of local conditions; but it is probable that in
every case both causes are concerned, e'though in constantly
a varying proportions.
The Infiuence of Heredity. — ^Adaptation by variation
would, however, be a slo'iv and uncertain process, and might
for considerable periods of time cease to act, did not heredity
come into play. This is the tendency of every organism to
produce its like, or more exactly, to produce a set of newforms
varying slightly from it in many directions — a group of which
the parent form is the centre. If now one of the most ex-
treme of these variations is taken, it is found to become the
centre of a new set of variations ; and by continually taking
the extreme in the same direction, an increasing variation in
that direction can be effected, until checked by becoming
so great that it interferes with the healthy action of the
organism, or is in any other way prejudicial It is also
found that acquired constitutional pecuharities are equally
hereditary; so that by a combination of those two modes of
variation any desired adaptation may be effected with
greater rapidity. The manner in which the form or
constitution of an organism can be made to change con-
tinuously in one direction, by means of variations which
are indefirJte and in ail directions, is often misunderstood.
It may perhaps be illustrated by showing how a tree or
grove of trees might, by natural causes, be caused to travel
during successive generations in a definite course. The
tree has branches radiating out from its stem to perhaps
twenty feet • on every side. Seeds are produced on the
extremities of all these branches, drop to the ground, and
produce seedlings, which, if untouched, would form a ring
of young trees around the parent. But cattle crop off
every seedling as soon as it rises above the ground, and
none can ever airive at maturity. If, however, one side is
protected from the cattle, young trees will grow up on that
side only. This protection may exist in the case of a grove
of trees which we may suppose to occupy the whole space
between two deep ravines, the cattle existing, on the lower
side of the wood only. In this case young trees would
reach maturity on the upper side of the wood, while on the
lower side the trees would successively die, f&U, and rot
away, no young ones taking their place. If this state of
things continued unchanged for some centuries, the wood
might march regularly up the side of the mountain tdl it
occupied a position many miles away from where it once
stood ; and this would have taken place, not because more
seed was produced on one side than the other (there might
even be very much less), nor because soil or climate were
better on the upper side (they might be worse), nor because
any intelligent being chose which trees should be allowed
to live and which should be destroyed; — but simply because,
for a series of generations, tine conditions permitted the
existence of young tress on one side, and wholly prevented
it on the other. Just in an analogous way animals or
plants arc caused to varj in definite directions, either by
the influence of natural agencies, which render existence
impossible for those that vary in any other direction, or
by the action of the judicious breeder, who carefully selects
favourable variations to be the parents of his future stock ;
and in either case the rejected variations.may far outnumber
those which are preserved.
Evidence has been adduced by Mr Darwin to show that
the tendency to vary is itself hereditary; so that, so far
from variations coming to an end, as some persons imagine,
the more extensively variation has occurred in any specie."}
in the' past, the more likely it is to occur in the future.
There is also reason to believe that individuals which have
varied largely from their parents in a special direction will
have a greater tendency to produce offspring varying in
that direction than in any other ; so that the facUities for
adaptation, that is, for the production and increase of
favourable variations in certain definite directions, are fur
greater than the facilities for locomotion in one direction in
the hypothetical illustration just given.
Selection and Survival of the Fittest as Agents in UTaiura-
lisaiion. — We may now take it as an established fact, that
varieties of animals and plants occur, bothin domesticity and
m a state of nature, which are better or worse adapted to
special climates. There is no positive evidence that the
influence of new climatal conditions on the parents has any
tendency to produce variations in the offspring better adapted
to, such conditions, although some of the facts mentioned
in the preceding sections render it probable that such may
be the case. Neither does it appear that this cla.ss of
variations are very frequent. It is, however, certain that
whenever any animal or plant is largely propagated con-
stitutional variations will arise, and some of these wiU be
better adapted than others to the climatal and other
conditions of the looahty. In a state of nature, every
recurring severe winter or otherwise unfavourable season,
weeds out those individuals of tender constitution or
imperfect structure which may have got on very well during
favourable years, and it is thus that the adaptation of the
species to the climate in which it has to exist is kept up.
Under domestication the same thing occurs by what Mr
Darwin has termed "unconscious selection." Each culti-
vator seeks out the kinds of plants best suited to his soil
and climate, and rejects those which are tender or otherwise
unsuitable. The farmer breeds from such of his stock as
he finds to thrive best with him, and gets rid of those
which suffer from cold, damp, or disease. A more or less
close adaptation to local conditions is thus brought about,
and breeds or races are produced which are sometimes
liable to deterioration on removal even to a short distance
in the same country, as in numerous cases quoted by Mr
Darwin {Animah and Plants under Domestication^ voL ii.
p. 273).
The Method of Acclimatisation. — Taking into considera-
tion the foregoing facts and illustrations, it may be con-
sidered as proved — \st, That habit has little (though it
appears to have some) definite effect in adapting the
constitution of animals to a new cKmate ; but that it has a
decided, though stUl slight, influence in plants when, by
the process of propagation by buds, shoots, or grafts, the
individual can be kept under its influence for long periods ;
2c?, That the offspring of both plants and animals vary
in their constitutional adaptation to climate, and that
this adaptation may be kept up and increased by means
of heredity; and, Zd, That great and sudden changes
of climate often check reproduction even when the health
of the individuals does not appear to suffer. In order,
therefore, to have the best chance of acclimatising any
animal or plant in a cUmate very dissimilar from that uf
its native country, and in which it has been proved thit
the g)ecicR in question cannot live and maintain itsdl
88
ACCLIMATISATION
vrithout acclimatisation, wo must adopt somo such plan
as the following : —
1. AVe must transport as largo a numoer as possible of
adult healthy individuals to some intermediato station,
and increase them as much as possible for some years.
Favourable variations of constitution will soon show thom-
Bclves, and these should be carefully selected to breed from,
the tender and unhealthy individuals being rigidly elimi-
nated.
2. As soon as the stock has been kept a sufficient time
to pass through all the ordinary extremes of climate, a
number of the hardiest may bo removed to the moro remot*
station, and the same process gone through, gi^^ng protection
if necessary while the stock is being increased, but as soon
as a largo number of healthy individuals are produced, sub-
jecting them to all the vicissitudes of the climate.
It can hardly be doubted that in most cases this plan would
succeed It has been recommended by Mr Darwin, and at
one of the early meetings of the Socidt^ Zoologique d' Acclim-
atisation, at Paris, M. Geoffroy St Hilaire insisted that it was
the only method by which acclimatisation was possible.
But in looking through the long series of volumes of Repprts
published by thi^ Society, there is no sign that any systematic
attempt at -icclimatisation has even once been made. A
number of foreign animals have been introduced, and more or
loss domesticated, and some useful exotics have been culti-
vated for the purpose of testing their applicability to French
agriculture or horticidture ; but neither in the case of
animals nor of plants has there been any systematic effort
to modify the constitution of the species, hy breeding lai-gdy
and selecting the favourable variatiojis t/uxt appeared.
Take the case of the Eucalyptiu globulus as an example.
This is a Tasmanian gum-tree of very rapid growth and
great beauty, which will thrive in the extreme south of
France. In the Bulletin of the Society a large number of
attempts to introduce this tree into general cultivation in
other parts of France are recorded in detail, w-ith the failure
of almost all of them. But no precautions such as those
above indicated appear to have been taken in any of these
experiments ; and we have no intimation that either the
Society or any of its members are making systematic
efforts to acclimatise the tree. The first step would be, to
obtain seed from healthy trees growing in the coldest
climate and at the greatest altitude in its native country,
sowing these very largely, and in a variety of soils and
situations, in a part of France where the cUmate is some-
what but not much more extreme. It is almost a certainty
that a number of trees would be found to be quite hardy.
A3 soon as these produced seed, it should be sown in
the same district and farther north in a climate a little
more severe. After an exceptionally cold season, se^d
should be collected from the trees that suffered least, and
should be sown in various districts all over France. By
such a process there can bo hardly any doubt that the tree
would be thoroughly acclimatised in any part of France,
and in many other countries of central Europe ; and more
good Tvould be effected by one well-directed effort of this
kind than by hundreds of experiments with individual
animals and plants, which only serve to show us which are
the species that do not require to be acclimatised.
Acclimatisaiion of Man. — On this subject we have, un-
fortunately, very little direct or accurate information. The
general laws of heredity and variation have been proved to
apply to man as well as to animals and plants ; and nume-
rous facts in the distribution of races show that man mus^, in
remote ages at least, have been capable of constitutional
adaptation to climate, if the human race constitutes a single
species, then the mere fact that man now inhabits every
region, and is in each case constitutionally adapted to the
climate, proves that acclimatisation has occurred. But we
have the same phenomenon in single 7arieties of man, such at
the American, which inhabits alike the frozen wastes of
Hudson's Bay and Terra del Fuego, aq^ the hottest regions
of the tropics, — the low equatorial valleys and the lofty
plateaui of the Andes. No doubt a sudden transference
to an extremo climate is often prejudicial to man, as it it
to most animaU and plants ; but there is every reason to
believe that, if the migration occurs step by step, man can
bo acclimatised to almost any part of the earth's surface
in comparatively few generations. Some eminent writers
have .denied this. Sir Ranald ilartin, from a consideration
of the effects of the climate of India on Europeans and
their offspring, believes that there is no such thing aa
acclimatisation. Dr Hunt, in a report to the British
Association in 1861, argues that "time is no agent," and
— " if there is no sign of acclimatisation in one generation,
there is no such process." But he entirely ignores th«
effect of favourable variations, as well as the direct in-
fluence of climatto acting on the organisation from infancy. ,
Professor Waitz, in his Introduction to Anthropology,
adduces many examples of the comparatively rapid con-
stitutional adaptation of man to new clijuatic conditions.
Negroes, for example, who have been for three or four
generations acclimatised in North .Ajuerica, on returning to
Africa become subject to the same local diseases as other
unaccUmatised individuals. He well remarks, that the
debility and sickening of Europeans in many tropical
countries are wrongly ascribed to the climate, but are
rather the consequences of indolence, sensual gratification,
and an irregular mode of life. Thus the English, who
cannot give up animal food and spirituous liquors, are leaf
able to sustain the heat of the tropics than the more sobei
Spaniards and Portuguese. The excessive mortality of
European troops in India, and the delicacy of the children
of European parents, do not affect the real question of
acclimatisation under proper conditions. They only show
that acclimatisation is in most cases necessary, not that it
cannot take place. The best examples of partial or com-
plete acclimatisation are to be found where European races
have permanently settled in the tropics, and have maintained
themselves for several generations. There are, however,
two sources of inaccuracy to be guarded against, and these
are made the most of by the writers above referred to, and
are supposed altogether to invalidate results which ara
otherwise opposed to their views. In the first place, we
have the possibility of a mixture of native blood having
occurred ; in the second, there have almost always been a
succession of immigiants from the parent country, who
continually intermingle with the families of the early
settlers. It is maintained that one or other of tliese
mixtures is absolutely necessary to enable Europeans i»
continue long to flourish in the tropics.
There are, however, certain cases in which the sources
of error above mentioned are reduced to a minimum, and
cannot seriously affect the results ; such as those of the
Jews, the Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope and in the
Moluccas, and the Spaniards in South America.
The Jews are a good example qf acclimatisation, because
they have been established for many centuries in climates
very different from that of their native land ; they keep
themselves almost wholly free from intermixture with the
people around them ; and they are often so populous in a
countr}- that tho intermixture with Jewish immigrants from
other lauds cannot seriously affect the local purity of the
race. They have, for instance, attained a population of near
two millions in such severe climates as Poland and Russia ;
and according to Mr Brace {Haces of the Old World, p. 1S5),
" their increase in Sweden is said to be greater than that
of the Christian population'/ in the towns of Algeria they
are the only race able to maintain its numben; and in
i^ C G L 1 1\I A T I S A T I 0 N
89
•Cocliin Cliina and AJeu tlifty succeed in rearing children
and forming permanent communities."
In some of the hottest parts of South America Europeans
arc perfectly acclimatised, and where the race is kept pure
it seems to be even improved. Some very valuable notes
on tliis subject have been furnished to the present writer
by tho well-known botanist Dr Richard Spruce, who resided
many years in South America, but who has hitherto been
prevented by ill health from giving to the world the results
of his researches. . Aa a careful, judicious, and accurate
observer, both of man and nature, he has few superiors.
Ce saySf—
^.5 The white inhabitants of Guayaquil (lat. 2° 13' S.) are
kept pure by careful selection. The slightest tincture of
red or black blood bars entry into any of the old families
who are descendants of Spaniards from tho Provincias
Vascongadas, or those bordering the Bay of Biscay, where
the morals are perhaps the purest (as regards the intercourse
of the sexes) of any in Europe, and where for a girl, even
of the poorest class, to have a child before marriage is the
rarest thing possible. Tho . consequence of this careful
breeding is, that the women' of Guayaquil are considered
(and justly) the finest along the whole Pacific coast. They
are often taU, sometimes very handsome, decidedly healthy,
iJthough pale, and assuredly prolific enough. Their sons
are big, stout men, but when they lead inactive lives are
apt to become fat and sluggish. Those of them, however,
who have farms in the savannahs, and are accustomed to
take long rides in aU weathers, and those whose trade
obb'ges them to take frequent journeys in the mountainous
interior, or even to Europe and North America, are often as
active and as little burdened with superfluous flesh aa a
Scotch farmer
" The oldest Christian town in Peni is Piura (lat. 5° S.),
which was founded by Pizarro himself. The climata is
very hot, especially in the three or four months following
the southern solstice. In March 1813 the temperature
only once fell as low as 83", during the whole month, the
usual lowest night temperature being 85°. Yet people of
all colours find it very healthy, and the whites are . veiy
prolific. I resided in tho town itself nine months, and in
tho neighbourhood seven months more. The population
(in 18G3-4) was about 10,000, of which not only a
considerable proportion was white, but was mostly descended
torn the filrst emigrants after the conquest. Purity of
descent was not, however, quite so strictly maintained as
at Guayaquil. The military adventurers, who have often
risen to high or even supreme rank in Peru, have not seldom
been of milled race, and fear or favour has often availed to
procure thorn an aUiauco with tho oldest and purest-blooded
families."
These instances, so well stated by Dr Spnice, seem to
demonstrate the complete acclimatisation of Spaniards in
some of the hottest parts of South America. Although
wo have here nothing to do with mixed races, yet the want
of fertility in these has been often tc.ken to be a fact
inlierent in the mongrel race, and has been also sometimes
held to prove that neither the European nor his half-bred
oQ'spring can maintain themselves in the tropics. Tho
following observation is therefore of interest : —
" At Guayaquil for a lady of good family — married or
tmmarricd — to be of loose morals is so uncommon, thst
when it does happen it is felt as'a calamity by tho whole
community. , But here, and perhaps in most other towns
in South America, a poor girl of mixed race — -especially if
good-looldng — rarely thinks of marrying 'one of her own
cla.s3 until she has — as the Brazilians say — ' approveitada
de sua mocidade' (made the most of her youth) in recfiviny
presents froih gmtUmen. If she thus bring a good dowTy
to.bjjr husband,. he does not care to inquire, or is not
sensitive, about the mode in wliich it was acquiied. The
consequences of this indiscriminate sexual intercourse, espe-
cially if much prolonged, is to diminish, in some cases to
paralyse, the fertility of tho female. And as among people
of mixed race it is almost universal, the population of
these must fall off both in numbers and quality."
The following example of divergent acclimatisation of
the same race to hot and rold zones is very interesting,'
and will conclude our extracts from Dr. Spruce's valuable
notes :^.
"One oi the most singular cases _ connected with this
subject that have fallen under my own observation, is the
difficulty, or apparent impossibility, of acclimatising the
Red Indian in a certain zone of the Andes. Any person
who has compared the physical characters of the native
races of South America must be convinced that these have
aU originated in a common stirps. Many local differences
exist, but none capable of invalidating this conclusion.
The warmth yet shade-loving Indian of the Amazon ; tho
Indian of the hot, dry, and treeless coasts of Fern and
Guayaquil, who exposes his bare head to the sun with aa
much zest as an African negro ; the Indian of the Andes,
for whom no cold seems too great, who goes constantlj
bare-legged and often bare-headed, through whose rude
straw hut the piercing wind of the ■ paramos sweeps, and
chills the white man to the very bones ; — all these, in the
colour and texture of tho skin, the hair, and other important
features, are plainly of one apd the same race
"Now there is a zone of the equatorial Andes, ranging
between about 4000 and COOO feet altitude, where the vcjy
best flavoured coffeo is grown^ where cane is less luxuriant
but more saccharine than in the plains, and which is
therefore very desirable to cidtivate, but whore the red
man sickens and dies. Indians taken down from the sierra
get ague and dysentery. Those . of the plains find the
temperature chilly, and are stricken' down with influenza
and pains in the Umbs.'. I -have seen the difficulty
experienced in getting fands cultivated in this zone, on
both sides of the CordiUcra. The permanent residents are
generally limited to the major domo and his family ; and
in the diy season labourers are hired, of any colour that
can bo obtained — some from the low country, others from
tho highlands — for three, four, or five months, who gathei
in and grind the cane, and plant for the harvest of the
following year; but a staff of resident Indian labourers,
such as exists in the farms of the sierra, cannot be kept up
in the Yungas, as these half-warm valleys are caUei
\Miite men, who take proper precautions, and are not
chronically soaked with ca'ae-spirit, stand the climate
perfe(;tly, but tho Creole whites are still too much cahalleros
to devote themselves to agricultural work. .
"In what is now tho :opublic of Ecuador, tho onlj
peopled portions are the central valley, between tho two
ridges of the Andes— height 7000 to 12,000 feet— and tjio
hot plain at their western base ; nor do the wooded slopes
appear to have been inhabited, except by scattered savage
hordes, even in the time of the Incas The Indians of tho
highlands are the des^^cndants of others who have inhabited
that region exclusively for untold ages ; and a similar
affirmation may be made of the Indiajis of the plain. Now,
there is little doubt that the progenitors of both these
sections came from a temperate region (in North America) ;
so that here we?have one moiety acclimatised to endure ex-
treme heat, and the other extreme cold ; and at this day
exposure of either to the opposite extreme (or even, as wo
have seen, to the climate of an intermediate zone) is always
pernicious and often JataL ^'Bitt if this great difl'erence has
been brought about in the red man, might not the same
have happened to the white man 1 Plainly it might, time
being given ; for one cannot doubt that tho inherent adapts
I. — 12
90
A C C— A C C
bility is the- same in both, or (if not) that the white man
possesses it in a higher degree."
The observations of Dr Spruce are of tnemselves aunost
couclusive as to the possibility of Europeans becoming ac-
climatised in the tropica ; and if it is objected that this
eWdence applies only to the darli-haired southern races, we
are fortunately able to point to facts, ohnost equally well
authenticated and conclusive, in the case of one of the typi-
cal Germanic races. At the Cape of Good Hope the Dutch
have been settled and nearly isolated for about 200 years,
and have kept themselves almost or quite free from native
intermixture. They are described as being still perfectly
fair in complexion, while physically they are the finest body
of men in the co'ony, being very tall and strong. They
marry young, and have large families The population,
according to a census taken in 1798, was under 22,000.
In 1865 it was near 182,000, the majority being (according
to the Slates7naii's Year Book ioi 1873) of "Dutch, German,
or French origin, mostly descendants of original settlers."
We have here a population which has doubled itself every
twenty-two years ; and the greater part of this rapid in-
crease must certainly be due to the old European immi-
grants. In the Moluccas, where the Dutch have had settle-
ments for nearly 250 years, some of the inhabitants trace
their descent to early immigrants; and the^(;, as well as
most of the people of Dutch descent in the East, are quite
as fair as their European ancestors, enjoy excellent health,
and are very prolific. But the Dutch accommodate them-
selves admirably to a tropical climate, doing much of their
work early in the morning, dressing very lightly, and living
a quiet, temperate, and cheerful life They also pay great
attention to drainage and general cleanliness. In addition
to these examples, it may be maintained that the rapid in-
crease of English-speaking populations in the United States
and in Australia, only a comparatively small portion of
which can be due to direct imnugration, is far from support-
ing the view of Dr Knox, that Europeans cannot per-
manently maintain themselves in those coimtries. Mr
Brace expressly denies that the American physique has
degenerated from the English type. He asserts that manu-
facturers and others find that " for labours requiring the
utmost physical endurance and muscular power, such as
iron-puddling and lumbering in the forests and on the
streams, and pioneer work, foreigners are never so suitable
as native Americans. The reports of the examining sur-
geons for volunteers — such as that of Dr W. H.' Thomson
to the Surgeon-General in 1862, who examined 9000 men
— show a far higher average of physique in the Americans
examined than in the English, Germans, or Irish. It is a
fact wcU known to our life insurance companies, that the
average length of life here is greater than that of the
English tables."— rAe Races of tlt€ Old World, p. 375.
Although the comparisons here instituted may not be quite
fair or contlusive, they furnish good arguments against those
who maintain that the Americans are physicaUv deteriorat-
ing.
On the whole, we seem justified in concluding that, under
favourable conditions, and with a proper adaptation of means
to the end in view, man may become acclimatised with at
least as much certainty and rapidity (counting by generations
rather than by years) as any of the lower animals. ( a. R. w.)
ACCOLADE (from collum, the neck), a ceremony an-
ciently used in conferring knighthood ; but whether it was
an embrace (according to the use of the modern French word,
accolade), or a slight blow on the neck or cheek, is not
agreed. Both these customs appear to be of great antiquity.
Gregory of Tours \4Tites that the early kings of France, in
conferring the gilt shoulder-l;elt, kisoeu the knights on the
left cheek ; and Wiliiam the Conqueror is said to have
made use of the blow in conferiiug the honour of knight-
hood on his son Henry. At first it was given iN^th the
naked fist, a veritable box on the ear, but for this was
substituted a gentle stroke on the shoulder with the flat of
the sword. A custom of a similar kind is still fallowed in
•icstowing the honour of knighthood.
ACCOLTI, Benedict, was born in 1415 at Arczzo, in
Tuscany, of a noble family, several members of which were
distinguished like himself for their attainments in law.
He vss for some time professor of jurisprudence in the
University of Florence, and on the death of the celebrated
Poggio in 1459 became chancellor of the Florentine re-
pubha He died in 1466. In conjunction ^nth his brother
Leonard, he wrote in Latin a history of the first crusade,
entitled De Bella a ChrUliania contra Barbaros, pro Chriati
Sepulchre et Judafa recuprrandis, libri trei, which, though
itself of little interest, furnished Tasso with the hLstoric
basis for his Jerusalem Delivered. This work appeared at
Venice in 1432, and was translated into Italian in 1543,
and into French in 1620. Another work of Accolti's — De
Prccstantia, Virorum sui jEvi — vras published at I'arma in
1GS9.
ACCOLTI, Beenaed (1465-1535), son of tno preced-
ing, known in his own day as I'Unico Aretino, acquired great
fame as a reciter of impromptu verse. He was listened to by
large crowds, composed of the most learned men and the most
distinguished prelates of the age. Among others. Cardinal
Eembo h.as left on record a testimony to his extraordinary
talent. His high reputation v\-ith his contemporaries seems
scarcely justified by the poems he published, though they
give evidence of brilliant fancy. It is probable that he
succeeded better in his extemporary productions than in
those which were the fruit of deliberation. His works,
under the title Virginia, Comedia, Capitoli e Stramhotli di
Messer Bernai/lo Accolti Aretino, were published at Florence
in 1513, and have been several times reprinted.
ACCOLTI, PiETRO, brother of the preceding, was bom
at Florence in 1455, and died there in 1549 He was
abbreviator under Leo X., and in that capacity drew up
in 1520 the famous bull against Luther. In 1527 ho was
made a cardinal by Clement VII., who had emploved him
as his secre'iary.
ACCOMilODATION, a term used in Biblical interpre-
tation to denote the presentation of a truth not absolutely
as it is in itself, but relatively or under some modification,
with the view^ of suiting it either to some other truth or to
the persons addressed. It is generally distinguished into
formal and material, — the accommodation in the one case
being confined to the method uf teaching, and in the other
being extended to the matter taught To the former head
may be referred teaching by symbols or parables, by pro-
gressive stages graduated according to the capacity of the
learner, by the application of prophecy to secondary fulfil-
ments, ic. To the latter head are to be referred the alle-
gations of the anti-supranaturalistic school, that Christ and
the writers of Scripture modified or perverted the truth
itself in order to secure wider acceptance and speedier
success, by speaking in accordance with contemndrary ideas
rather th.in with absolute and eternal truth.
ACCOMMODATION, in commerce, denotes generally
temporary pecuniary aid given by one trader to another, oi
by a banker to his customers, but it is used more par-
ticularly to describe that class of bills of exchange which
represents no actual exchange of real Value between the
parties.
ACCOEAMBONI, Vittoria, an Italian lady remarK-
able for her extraordinary beauty and her tragic history.
Her contemporaries regarded her as the most captivating
woman that had ever been seen in Italy. She was sought
in marriage by Paolo Giordano Orsini, Duke of Bracciano,
who, it was generally telieve<l. had murdered his wife,
A C C — A C C
91
Isabella- de Medici, with his own hand; but her father
gave her in preference to Francesco Peretti, nephew of
Cardinal Montalto. Peretti was assassinated (1581), and
a few days afterwaMs Vittoria fled from the house of the
Cardinal, where she had resided, to that of the Duke of
Bracciano. The opposition of Pope Gregory XIII., who
even went so far as to confine Vittoria to Fort St Angelo
for nearly a year, did not prevent her marriage with the
duke. On the accession of Montalto to the papal throne
as Sixtus V. (1585), the duke thought it prudent to take
refuge with his wife in the territory of the Venetian
republic. After a few months' residence at Salo, on the
Lake of Garda, he died, bequeathing nearly the whole of
his large fortune to his widow. This excited the anger of
Ludovico Orsini, a relative, who caused Vittoria to be
murdered in her residence at Padau (Dec. 22, 1585). The
history of this beautiful and accomplished but unfortunate
woman has been written by Adry (1800), and recently by
Count Gnoli, and forms the basis of Webster's tragedy. The
While Devil, and of Tieck's romance, Vittoria Accoramboni.
ACCORDION' (from the French accord), a small musical
instrument in the shape of a bellows, which produces sounds
by the action of wind on metallic reeds of various sizes.
It is played by being held in both hands and puUed back-
wards and forwards, the fingers being left free to touch
the keys, which are ranged along each side. The instru-
ment is akin to the concertina, but differs from it in having
the chords fixed by a mechanical arrangement. It is manu-
factured chiefly in Paris.
ACCORSO (in Latin Accursim), Fkancis, an eminent
lawyer, born at Florence about 1182. After practising
for some time in his native city, he was appointed professor
at Bologna, where he had great success as a teacher. He
undertook the great work of arranging into one body the
almost innumerable comments and remarks upon the Code,
the Institutes, and Digests, the confused dispersion of which
among the works of different writers caused much obscurity
and contradiction. 'When he was employed in this work,
it is said that, hearing of a similar one proposed and begun
by Odofred, another lawyer of Bologna, he feigned indis-
position, interrupted his public lecture's, and shut himself
up, till he had, with the utmost expedition, accomplished
his design. His work has the vague title of the Great Gloss,
and, though written in barbarous Latin, has more method
than that of any preceding writer on the subject. The
best edition of it is that of Godefroi, published at Lyons in
1589, in C vols. foUo. Accursius was greatly extolled by
the lawyers of his own and the immediately succeeding age,
and he was even called the Idol of Jurisconsults, but those
of later times formed a much lower estimate of his merits.
There can be no doubt that he has disentangled with
much skill the sense of many laws ; but it is equally un-
deniable that his ignorance of history and antiquities has
often led him into absurdities, and been the cause of many
defects in his explanations and Commentaries. He died at
Bologna in 1260. His eldest son Francis, who filled the
chair of law at Bologna with great reputation, was invited
to Oxford by King Edward L, and in 1275 or 1270 read
lectures on law in that university. In 1280 he returned to
Bologna, where ho died in 129.3.
ACCORSO (or Acoursios), Maeiangelo, a learned and
ingenious critic, was born at Aquila, in the kingdom of
Naples, about 1490. He was a great favourite with
Charles V., at v.-hose court he resided for thirty-three years,
and by wliom he was employed on various foreign mi.ssions.
To a perfect knowledge of Greek and Latin he added an
intimate acquaintance with several modern languages. Tn
discovering and collating ancient manuscripts, for which his
travels abroad gave him special opportunities, he displayed
nncomraon diligence. Hia work entitled Dialribac in
Avwmwm, Solin.um, ei Oindium, pnnted at Rome, in folio,
in 1524, is a singular monument of erudition and critical
skiU. He bestowed, it is said, unusual pains on Claudian,
and made, from different manuscripts, above seven hundred
corrections on the works of that poet. Unfortunately thtese
criticisms were never published. He was the first editor
of the Letters of CcLssiodorus, with his Treatise on the Soul;
and his edition of Ammianus Marcellinus (1533) contains
five books more than any former one. The affected use of
antiquated terms, introduced by some of the Latin writers
of that age, is humorously ridicided by him, in a dialogue
published in 1531 (republished, with his name, in 1574),
entitled Osco, ■ Volsco, Romaiw.que Eloquentia Interlocu-
toribus, Dialogtis I/udia Romania actus. Accorso was
accused of plagiarism in his notes on Ausonius ; and the
determined maimer in which he repelled, by a most solemn
oath, this charge of literary theft, presents us with a singular
instance of anxiety and care to preserve a literary reputa-
tion unstained.
ACCOUNT, a Stock Exchange term : e.gr., " To Buy or
Sell for the Account," &c. The word has different, though
kindred, significations, all derived from the making up and
settling of accounts on particular days, in which stricter
sense the word " Settlement " is more specially used.
The financial importance of the Account may be gathered
from the Clearing House returns. Confining ourselves to
the six years, from the 30th of April 1867 to the 30th of
April 1873, we have the following figures, furnished by
the Clearing House to Sir John Lubbock, and communi-
cated by him to the Times: —
On fourths On Stock Excli&nge On Consols
April April of the Month. Account Oavs. Settling Days.
1867 to 1868 £147,113,000 £444,443,000 £132,293,000
1868 to 1869 161,861,000 550,622,000 142,270,000
1869 to 1870 168,523,000 594,763,000 148,822,000
1870 to 1871 186,517,000 635,946,000 169,141,000
1871 to 1872 229,629,000 942,446,000 233,843,000
1372 to 1873 265,965,000 1,032,474,000 243,561,000
During the year ending April 30, 1873, the total amount of bills,
checks, &c., paid at the Clearing House showed an increase of
£643,613,000 during the same period ending April 1872, and of
£2, 745,924, 000 over 1868. The amounts passing through on the
iths of the month amounted to £265,965,000, showing an increase
of £36,336,000 over 1872. The payments on Stock ExchaT^ge
Account Days formed a sum of £1,032,474,600, being an increase
of £00,028,000 over 1872. The payments on Consols Account Days
for the same period amounted to £243,561,000, giving an iccrfease
of £9,718,000 over 1872.
In English and Indian- Government Securities, the settle-
ments are monthly, and for foreign, railway, and other
securities, generally speaking, they are tortnightly. It
follows therefore that in 1867-1868, an ordinary Stock
Exchange Account Day involved payments, on Stock
Exchange accounts only, averaging about X10,000,000
sterling, and ia 1872-3 something like £25,000,000 ster-
ling; and these sums again, enormous aa they are, repre-
sent for the most part only the balance of much larger
transactions. The London Account is, in fact, probably
the greatest and most important periodical event in the
financial world. The great European centres have their
own Account Days and methods of settlement, but the
amounts dealt in are very much less than on the London
market. The leading cities in the United Kingdom have
also their Stock Exchanges, but their practice follows more
or less that of London, where the bulk of their business is
transacted by means of post and telegraph.
The Account in Consols or other English Government
Securities, or in the securities of the Government of India,
or in Bank of England Stock, or other Stocks transferable
at the Bank of England, extends over a month, the settle-
ments being monthly, and in them the committee of the
Stock Exchange does not take cognisance of any bargain
for a future account, if it shall have been effected mon
y2
A C C - A C E
than eight days previously to tho close of tlio existing
account.
The Account in Securities to Bearer, ana, with the above
exceptions, in Registered Senirities also, extends over a
period of from tw^ve to nineteen days. Tliis period is in
each case terminated by the "settlement," which occurs
twice in each mouth (generally about the middle and end),
on days fi.\ed by tho committee for general pui-posee of the
Stock E.xcliange in tho preceding month.
This "settlement" occupies three continnous days, which
are all termed Account days, but the third day is the true
Account, Settling, or Pay Day.
Continuation or Carrj-ing-over is tlio operation by which tho
sottlement of a liargain Iransactod for money, or for a given account,
may for a consideration (called either a "Contango" or a "back-
wardation") bo deferred for "the period of another account. Such
a continuation is equiTnlent to a sale "for the day," and a repur-
cha.'io for the suocaeding account, or to a purchase " for the day,"
ud a re-sale for tho succeediug account. The price at which such
transactions are adjusted is tho "Making-Up" price of the day.
CotUango is a technical term which expresses the rate of in-
terest charged for the loan of money upon the security of stock
transferred for the period of an account or otherwise, or the rate of
interest paid by the buyer to the seller to be idlowed to defer paying
for the stock purchased, until the next settlement day.
Bacbtvardation, or, aa it is more often called, Back (for brevity),
in contradistinction to contango, is the amount charged for the
loan of stock from one account to tho other, and it is paid to the
purcliaser by the seller in order to allow the seller to defer tho deli-
very of the stock.
A Bull AccoujU is one in which either the ptirchasea have pre-
dominated over the sales, or the disposition to purchase hafl ))cen
more marked than the disposition to sell.
A Bear Account is one in which either the sales have preponderated
over the purcha.ses, or in which the disposiition to sell has been
more strongly displayed than the disposition to buy.
Sometimes the Bull or tho Bear disposition extends to the great
majority of securities, as when there are general falls or general
rises. Sometimes a Bull Account in one set of securities is con-
temporaneous with a Bear Account in another. — Vide Cracroft's
Stock Exchanijc ilaniuil,
ACCOUNTANT, earlier form Accomptant, in the
most general sense, is a person skilled in accounts. It k
appHed to the person who has tho charge of the accounts
in a pubUo office or in the counting-house of a large private
bu.sine3.s. It is also tho designation of a distinct profession,
ivhich deals in any required way with mercantile accounts.
ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL, an officer in the English
Court of Chancery, who receives all monies lodged in court,
and by whom they are deposited in bank and disbursed.
ACCRA or Acr.^, a town, or rather a collection of
forts, in a territory of tho same name, on the Gold Coast of
Africa, about 75 miles east of Cape Coast Castle. Of the
forts. Fort St James is a British settlement, Crivecoeur
was established by the Dutch, and Christianborg by the
Danes ; but the two last have since been ceded to Britain —
Christianborg in 1850, and Crfevecceur in 1871. Accra
is considered to be one of the healthiest stations on the west
coast of Africa, and has some trade in the productions of
the interior, — ivory, gold dust, and pabn-oil ; while cotton
goods, tobacco, rum, and beads are imported in exchange.
It is the residence of a British civil commandant.
ACCRINQTON, an important manufacturing town of
England, in Lancashire, lies on the banks of a stream caUed
the Hindbnm, in a deep valley, 19 miles N. from Man-
chester and 5 miles E. of Blackburn. It has increased rapidly
in recent years, and is the centre of the Manchester cotton-
printing trade. There are large cotton factories and prints
works, besides bleach-fields, Ac, employing many hands.
Coal is extensively wrought in the neighbourhood. The
town has a good appearance, and amongthe more handsome
buildings are a fine church, in the Gothic style, erected in
• 1838, and the Peel In^itution, an Italian structure, contain-
ing an assembly room, a lecture room, &c., The sanitary
arrangements generally are good, and a reservoir capabb
of containing 140,000,000 gallons has been constructed for
tho water supply of the town. Accrington is a station on
tho Lancasliiro and Yorkshire Railway. The population of
the two townships of Old and New Accrington was in 18C1,
17,688 ;. and in 1S71, 21,788.
ACCUM, Fkkdeeick, chemist; bom at BiickeDurg in
1709, came to London in 1793, and was appointed teacher
of ohemij-'try and mineralogy at the Surrey Institution in
1801. While occupying this position he published several
scientific manuals {VlteviUtry, 1803; Mineralogy, 1808;
Crystodlography, 1813), but his name will be chiefly re-
membered in connection with gas-lighting, the introduction
of which was mainly due to him and to the enterprising
printseller, Ackennann. His excellent Practical Treatise
on Gaslight appeared in 1815; and he rendered another
valuable service to society by his Treatise on Adulterations
of Food and Culinary Poisons (1820), which, attracted
much notice at the time it appeared. Both works, as well
as a number of his smaller pubUcations, were translated
into German. In consequence of charges affecting his
honesty, Accum left London for Germany, and in 1822
was appointed professor in the Industrial Institute and
Academy of Architecture at BerUn. He died there in 1838.
ACCUMULATOR, a term applied frequently to a
powerful electrical machine, which generates or accumu-
lates, by means of friction, electric currents of high ten-
sion,— manifested by sparks of considerable length.
Accumulators have been employed in many places for
exploding torpedoes and mines, for blasting, &c An
exceedingly powerful apparatus of this kind was employed
by tho Confederate authorities during the civil war in
America for discharging subinarine and river torpedoes.
Whatever the nature of the materials employed in the con-
struction of the accumulator, or the form which it may
assume mechanically, it is simply a modification of, or an
improvement upon, the ordinary cylindrical or the plate-
glass frictional electrical machine, — the fundamental
scientific principles being the same in nearly every easa The
exciting body consists generally of a large disc or circular
plate of vulcanite, — more frequently termed by electricians
" ebonite," in consequence of its resemblance, in point of
hardness and of polish, to polished ebony,^the vulcanite
disc taking the ulace of the ordinary circular plate •(
thick glas?.
ACE, the received name for the single poiat on cards or
dice — the unit. Mr Fox Talbot has a speculation (English
Etymologies, p. 262) that the Latins invented, if not the
game of dice, at least the name for the smgle point, which
they called unus. The Greeks corruptc-d this into wos,
and at length the Germanic races, learning the game from
the Greeks, translated the word into ass, which has now
become ace The fact, however, is, that the root of the
word lies in the Latin as, the monetary unit, which is to
be identified with the Greek cts; Doric, ats or &
ACEPHALA, a name sometimes given to a section of
thei molluscous animals, which are diidded into encephala
and acephala, according as they have or want a distinctly
differentiated head. The Acephala, or Lamellibranchiata,
as they are also called, are commonly known as bivalve
shell-fish.
ACEPHALI (from d privative, and kci^oXtJ, a head), a
term applied to several sects as having no head or leader;
and in particular to a sect that separated itself, in the end
of the 5th century, from the rule of the patriarchs of Alex-
andria, and remained without king or bishop for more than
300 years {Gibbon, c. xlviL)
AcEPHAii was also the name given to the levellers in
the reign of Henry L, who are said to have been so poor
as to have no tenements, in virtue of which they might
acknowledge a superior lord.
A C E — A C H
93
AcEPHALi, or Aceptialous Persons, fabulous monsters,
described by some ancient natiiralists and geoOTanliers as
having ni5 heads.
ACER. See Maple.
■ACERBI, Giuseppe (Joseph;, an Italian traveller, bprn
at Castel-Goffredo, near Mantua, on the 3d May 1773,
studied at Mantua, and devoted himself specially to i»atural
science. In 1798 he undertook a journey through Den-
mark, Sweden, Finlari and Lapland; and in the follow-
ing year he reached the North Cape, which no Italian had
previously visited- He was accompanied in the latter part
of the journey by the Swedish colonel Skioldebrand, an
e.tcellent landscape-painter. On his return Acerbi stayed
for some time in England, and published his Travels
through Sweden, &c. (London, 1802), which was translated
into German (Weimar, 1803), and, under the author's per-
sonal superintendence, into French (Paris, 1804). The
French translation received numerous corrections, but even
in this amended form the work contains' many mistakes.
Acerbi rendered a great service to Italian literature by
starting the Bihlioteca Italiana (1816), in which he
opposed the pretensions of the Academy della Crusca.
Being appointed Austrian consul-general to Egypt in
1826, he entrusted the management of the Bihlioteca to
Gironi, contributing to it afterwards a series of valuable
articles on Egypt. While in the East he obtained for the
museums of Vienna, Padua, MUan, and Pavia many
objects of interest. He returned from Egypt in 1836,
and took up his residence in his native place, where he
occupied himself with his favourite study till his death in
August 1846.
ACEKNUS, the Latinised name oy -wmcn oebastian
Fabian Klonowicz, a celebrated Polish poet, is generally
known, was born at Sulmierzyce in 1551, and died at
Lublin in 1608. He was for some time burgomaster and
president of the Jews' civil tribunal in the latter town,
where he had taken up his residence after studying at
Cracow. Though himself of an amiable disposition, his
domestic life was very unhappy, the extravagance and
misconduct of his wife driving him at last to the pubUc
hospital of Lublin, where he ended his days. He wrote
both Latin and PoUsh poems, and the genius they dis-
played won for him the name of the Sarmatian Ovid.
Tlie titles of fourteen of his works are known; but a
number of these were totally destroyed by the Jesuits and
a section of the Polish nobility, and copies of the others
are for the same reason exceedingly rare. The Victoria
Deonim, ubi continetur Veri Eerois Educatio, a poem in forty-
four cantos, cost the poet ten years' labour.
ACERRA, in Antiquity, a little box or pot, wherein were
put tha incense and perfumes to be burned on the altars of
the gods, and before the dead. It appears to have been
the same with what was otherwise called ihmihulum and
pyxis. The censers of the Jews were acerras ; and the
Romanists still retain the use of acerra: under the name
of incense pots.
The name acerra was aiao applied to an altar erected
among the Romans, near the bed of a person recently de-
ceased, on which his friends offered incense daily till his
burial. The real intention probably was to fumigate the
apartment The Chinese have still a somewhat similar
custom.
ACERRA, a town ot italy, in tne province of Terra
di Lavoro, situated on the river Agno, 7 miles N.E. of
Naples, with which it is connected by raiL It is the an-
cient Acerrae, the inhabitants of which were admitted to
the privileges ot Roman citizenship so early as 332 B.C.,
and which was plundered and burnt by Hannibal during
the second Punic war. A few inscriptions are the only
traces time haa left of the ancient city. _ Tho town stands
in a fertile distcict, but is rendered veiy unhealthy by the
malaria rising from the artificial water-courses of the sur-
rounding Campagna. It is the seat of a bishop, and haa a
cathedral and seminary. Flax is grown in the neighbour-
hood. Population, 11,717.
ACETIC ACID, one of the mosL important organic acids.
It occurs naturally in the juice of many plants, and in cer-
tain animal secretions ; but is generally obtained, on the
large scale, from the oxidation of spoiled wines, or from the
destructive distillation of wood. In the former process it
.is obtained in the form of a dilute aqueous solution, in which
also the colouring matters of the wine, salts, &c., are dis-
solved ; and this impure acetic acid is what we ordinarily
term vinegar. The strongest vinegar sold in commerce
contains 5 per cent, of real acetic acid. It is used as a
mordant in calico-printing, as a local irritant in medicine,
as a condiment, and in the preparation of various acetates,
varnishes, &c Pure acetic acid is got from the distillation
of wood, by neutralising with lime, separating tho tarry
matters from the solution of acetate of lime, evaporating
off the water, and treating the dry residue with sulphuric
acid. On appljring heat, pure acetic acid distills over as
a clear liquid, which, after a short time, if the weather
is cold, becomes a crystalline mass known by the name of
Glacial Acetic Acid. For synthesis, properties, &c., see
Chemibtey.
ACH-'\.I.4, in Ancient Geograpny, a name differently
appUed at diit'erent periods. In the earliest times the name
was borne by a small district in the south of Thessaly, and
was the first residence of the Achasans. At a later period
Achaia Propria was a narrow tract of country in the north
of the Peloponnesus, running 65 miles along the Gulf of
Corinth, and bounded by the Ionian Sea on the W., by
EUs and Arcadia on the S., and by Sicyonia on the E.
On the south it is separated from Arcadia by lofty moun-
tains, but the plains between the mountains and the sea are
very fertile. Its chief town was Patra?. The name of
Achaia was afterwards employed to denote collectively the
states that joined the Achcean League. When Greece was
subdued by the Romans, jfcAata was the name given to the
most southerly ot the provinces into which they divided the
country, and included the Peloponnesus, the greater part of
Greece Proper, and the islands.
Achceans and the AckcEan League. — The early inhabitants
of Achaia were called Achceam. The name was given also
in those times to some of the tribes occupying the eastern
portions of the Peloponnesus, particularly Argos and Sparta.
Afterwards the inhabitants of Achaia Propria appropriated
the name. This republic was not considerable, in early times,
as regards either the number of its troops, its wealth, or
the extent of its territory, but was famed for its heroic
virtues. The Crotonians and Sybarites, to re-establish
order in their towns, adopted tho laws and customs of
the Achseans. After the famous battle of Leuctra, a dif-
ference arose betwixt the Lacedaemonians and Thebant,
who held the virtue of this people in such veneration, thai
they terminated the dispute by their decision. The govern-
ment of the Achajans was democratical. ITiey preserved
their liberty till the time of Philip and Alexander; but in
tho reign of these princes, and afterwards, they wcro either
subjected to tho Macedonians, who had made themselves
masters of Greece, or oppressed by domestic tyrants. The
Achaean commonwealth consisted of twelve inconsiderable
towns in Peloponnesus. About 280 years before Christ the
republic of the Achaeans recovered its old institutions and
unanimity. This was the renewal of tho ancieiit confede-
ration, which subsequently became so famous under the
name of the Acn.EAN League — having for its object, not
as formerly a common worship, but a substantial political
union. Though dating from the yea-r B.C. 280, its import-
94
A C H — A C H
ance maybe referred to its connection with Aratiw of Sicycn,
about 30 years later, as it was further augmented by the
splendid abilities of PhUopoemen. Thus did ihis people, so
celebrated in the hcroid age, once more emerge from com-
parative obscurity, and become the greatest among the states
of Greece in the last days of its national independence. The
inhabitants of Patrse and of DjTne were the first assertors of
ancient liberty. The tyrants were banished, and the towns
again made one commonwealth. A public council was then
held, in which affairs of importance were discussed and deter-
mined ; and a register was provided for recording the trans-
actions of the counciL This assembly had two presidents,
who were nominated alternately by the different towns.
But instead of two presidents, they soon elected but one.
Many neighbouring towns, which admired the constitution
of this republic, founded on equality, liberty, the love of
justice, and of the public good, were incorporated with the
Achieans, and admitted to the full enjoyment of their
laws and privileges. The Achaean League afl'ords the most
perfect example in antiquity of the federal form of govern-
ment; and, allowing for difference of time and place, its
resemblance to that of the United States government is
very remarkable. (See Arts. AMrniCTYONY and Fedkkal
GovEitNMENT; also Freeman's Federal Government, 2 vols.
8vo. 1863, and Comparative Politics, 8vo. 1873; Droysen,
Getchichte dcs Hellenismus, 2 vols. ; Helwing, Geschichte
del Ar.hauchen. Bundes.)
ACHAN, the son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah, at
the taking of Jericho concealed two hundred shekels of
silver, a Babylonish garment, and a wedge of gold, con-
trary to the express command of God. This sin proved
fatal to the Israelites, who were repulsed at the siege of
Ai. In this emergency Joshua prostrated himself before
the Lord, and begged that he would have mercy upon his
people. Achan was discovered by .casting lots, and he
and his children were stoned to deatL This expiation
being made, Ai was taken by stratagem. (Josh. vii. viii.)
ACHARD, Franz Cam,, a Prussian chemist, bom at
Berlin on the 28th April 1753, was the first to turn
Marggraff's discovery of the presence of sugar in beet-root
to commercial account. He erected a factory on an estate
in Silesia, granted to him about 1800 by the king of Prussia,
_ and produced there large quantities of sugar to meet
the scarcity occasioned by the closing of the West Indian
ports to continental traders. In 1812 a similar establish-
ment was erected by Napoleon at Rambouillet, although
the Institute of France in 1800, while honouring Achard
for his researches, had declared his process to have little
practical value. At the close of the war the manufacture
of beet-root sugar was protected by duties on other sugars
that were almost prohibitive, so that the real worth of
Achard's discoveries could not be tested. Achard was a
frequent contributor to the Memoirs of tlie Academy of Berlin,
and published in 1780 Ckymisch-Physiscke Schriften, con-
taining descriptions and results of his very numerous and
carefully conducted experiments on the adhesion of bodies.
He died in 1821.
ACHAMUSj Erik, a Swedish physician and botanist,
born at Gefle in 1757. The son of a comptroller of
customs, he studied first in his native town, and then in
1773 at the University of Upsal, where Linnaus was one
of his teachers. In 1782 he took the degree of M.D. at
the University of Lund, and practised thereafter in various
districts of Sweden. But the direction of his studies had
been determined by his contact with Linnaeus, and he
found his appropriate sphere when he vras appointed
Professor of Botany at the Wadstena Academy in 1801.
Five years before he had been admitted a member of the
Academy at Stockholm. He devoted himself to the study
of the cryptogamic orders of plants, and especially of the
family of lichens. All his publications were connected
with this subject, the Lichmographia Univrrtalis (Gc't-
tingen, 1804) being the most important Acharius died
of apoplexy in 1819. His name has been given by
botanists to more than one species of plants.
ACHATES, the faithful friend and companion of JJncns,
celebrated in Virgil's jEneid as Adus Achates.
ACHEEN. See Ach{n.
ACHELOUS, the largest river in Greece, rises in Mount
Pindus, and dividing .^tolia from Acamania, falls into
the Ionian Sea,. In the lower part of its course the river
winds in an extraordinary manner through very fertile but
jnarshy plains. Its water descends from the mountains,
heavily charged with fine mud, which is deposited along
its banks and in the sea at its mouth, where a number of
small islands have gradually been formed. It was formerly
called Thoas, from its impetuosity in its upper portion, and
Homer gave it the name of king of rivers. It has a course
of 130 miles. The epithet Acheloius is used for aqveus
(Virgil), the ancients calling all water Achelous, according
to Ephorus. The river is now called Aspro Potamo.
ACHENWALL, Goitfhied, a German writer, cele-
brated as ha^^ing formulated and developed the science
( Wissenechaft der Staaten), to which he was the first to
apply the name scientia statistica, or statistics. Born at
Elbing, in East Prussia, in October 1719, he studied at
Jena, Halle, and Leipsic, and took a degree at the last-
named university. He removed to Marburg in 1746,
where for two years he read lectures on history, and on the
law of nature and of nations. Here, too, he commenced
those inquiries in statistics by which his name became
known. In 1748, having been invited by Munchhausen,
the Hanoverian minister, to occupy a chair at the univer-
sity, he removed to Gcittingen, where he resided till his
death in 1772. His chief works were connected with
statistics. The Statitsverfassunffen der europdischen Reiclte
appeared first in 1752, and revised editions — corrected
from information which he . travelled through England,
France, and other countries to collect^were published in
17G2 and 1768. He was married in 1752 to a lady
named Walther, who obtained some celebrity by a volume
of poems published in 1750, and by other writings.
ACHERON, in Classical MyOiology, the son of Ceres,
who, for supplying the Titans with drink when they were
in contest with Jupiter, was turned into a river of Hades,
over which departed souls were ferried on their way to
Elj'sium. The name eventually was used to designate the
whole of the lower world.
ACHILL, or " Eagle" Island, off the west coast of Ire-
land, forms part of the count}- of Mayo. It is of triangular
shape, and extends 15 miles from east to west, and 12
from north to south, its total area being 51,521 acres.
The island is very mountainous; its extreme western point,
Achill Head, is a bold and rugged promontory rising to a
height of 2222 feet above the sea. Large bogs, incapable
of cultivation, alternate with the hills of this desolate isle,
of whose extensive surface not more than 500 acres have
been reclaimed. The inhabitants earn a scanty subsistence
by fishing and tillage ; their dwellings are miserable
hovels. There is a mission-station on the island, and
remains of ancient churches are stiQ extant
ACHILLES ('AxtUa;s). When first taken up by the
legendary history of Greece, the ancestors of Achilles were
settled in Phthia and in jEgina. That their original seat,
however, was in the neighbourhood of Dodona and the
Achelous is made out from a combination of the following
facts: That in the Iliad (xvi 233) Achilles prays to Zeus
of Dodona; that this district was the first to bear the
name of Hellas ; that the followers of Achilles at Troy were
the only persons named Hellenes in the time of Homer
A G H — A C H
95
(ThucyiL i .3 ; of. Iliad, ii 684, where tte more usual name
of Myrmidones also occurs) ; that in jEgina Zeus was styled
"Hellanios;" and that the name of SeDoi, applied to the
priesthood at Dodona, is apparently identical with the name
Hellenes. \\Tiether from this local connection the derivation
of the name of Achilles from the same root as 'A;^e,Vu)os
should be preferred to the other derivations, such as
'A^t-kcvi = 'Ex^lXacK, " ruler," or 'A^-iXii^, — " the bane of
the rUans," remains undecided. But this is gained, that we
see in what manner the legend of Achilles had its root in
the earlier Pelasgic religion, his adherence to which in the
prayer just cited would otherwise appear very strange on
the part of a hero who, through the influence of Homer and
his successors, is completely identified with the Olympian
system of gods. According to the genealogy, J^acus had
two sons, Peleus and Telamon, of whom the former became
the father of AchiUes — the latter, of Ajas ; but of this
relationship between Achilles and Ajax there is no sign in
the Iliad. - Peleus ruled in Phthia ; and the gods remark-
ing his piety, rewarded him with, among other presents, a
wife in the person of the beautiful nereid Thetis. After
her son was born, Thetis appears to have returned to her
life in the sea. The boy was placed under his father's
friend, the centaur Cheiron. '^Tien six years old he slew
lions and boars, and could run down a stag. When nine,
he was removed from his instructor to the island of Scyrus,
where, dressed as a girl, he was to be brought up among
the daughters of Lycomedes, his mother preferring for
him a long inglorious life to a brief but splendid career.
The same desire for his safety is apparent in other legends,
which describe her as trying to make him invulnerable
when a child by placing him in boUing water or in a fire,
and then salving him with ambrosia ; or again, in later
story, by dipping him in the river Stj's, from which he
came out, all but the heel which she held, proof against
wounds. When the aid of Achilles was found indispensable
to the expedition against Troy, Odysseus set out for Scyrus
as a pedlar, spread his wares, including a shield and spear,
before thg king's daughters, among whom was Achilles
in disguise. Then he caused an alarm of danger to be
Bounded, upon which, while the girls fled, Achilles seized
the arms, and thus revealed himself. Provided with a
contingent of 50 ships, and accompanied by the aged
Phoenix and Patroclus, he joined the expedition, which
after occupying nine years in raids upon the towns in the
neighbourhood of Troy and in Mysia, as detailed in the
epic poem entitled the Cypria, culminated in the regular
siege of Troy, as described in the Iliad, the grand object
of which is the glorification of our hero. Estranged from
his comrades, because his captive Briseis had been taken
from him, Achilles remained inexorable in his tent, while
defeat attended the Greeks. At length, at their greatest
need, he yielded so far as to allow Patroclus to ta.ke his
chariot and to assume his armour Patroclus fell, and
the news of his death roused Achilles, who, now equipped
with new armour fashioned by Hephaestus, drove back the
Trojans, slew Hector, and after dragging his body thrice
round the Trojan walls, restored it to Priam. With the
funeral rite? of Patroclus the Iliad concludes, and the story
is taken up by the ^ihiopis, a poem by Arctinus of Miletus,,
in which is described the combat of AchiUes first with the
amazon Penthesilca, and next with Memnon. When the
latter fell, Achilles drove back the Trojans, and, impelled
by fate, himself advanced to the Scaean gate, where an
arrow from the bow of Paris struck his vulnerable heel,
and he fell, bewailed through the whole camp. (a. 3. M.)
ACHILLES TATIUS, a Greek writer, born at Alexan-
dria. The precise time when he flourished is uncertain, but
it cannot have been earlier than the 5th century, as in his
principal work he evidently imitates Heliodorus. Suidas,
who caUs him AchiUes Statins, says that he was converted
from heathenism and became a Christian bishop, but this
is doubtful, the more so that Suidas also attributes to him
a tv-ork on the sphere (irtpi <r</)ai'pas) which is referred to
by Firmicus (330-50), and must, therefore, have been
written by another person. The erotic romance of AchiUes
Tatius, entitled The Loves of ClitophoR and Leucippe, is
almost certainly the work of a heathen WTiter. The style
of the work is ornate and rhetorical, while the story is
often unnatural, and sometimes coarse, and the develop-
ment of the plot irregular and frequently interruptei Its
popularity at the time it appeared is proved by the maiq;
manuscripts of it which stiU. exist, and the value attached
to it by modern scholars and critics is seen in the frequency
with which it has been reprinted and translated. A Latin
translation by Annibal Crucceius was published, first in
part at' Leyden in 1544, and then complete at Basel in
155-4. The Greek text was first printed by Commelin, at
Heidelberg, in 1 601. Other editions by Salmasius (Leyden,
16401, MitscherUch (Biponti, 1792), and Jacobs (Leipsic,
1821), have been superseded by the editions of Hirschig
(Paris, 1856), and Hercher (Leipsic, 1857).. An EngUsh
translation by A. H. (Anthony Hodges) appeared at
Oxford in 1638.
ACHILLINI, Alexanbee (1463-1512), a naiive of
Bologna, was celebrated as a lecturer both in medicine and
in philosophy, and was styled the second Aristotle. He and
Mundinus were the first at Bologna to avail themselves of
the permission given by Frederick EL to dissect dead
bodies. His phUosophical works were printed in one
volume foUo, at Venice, in 1508, and reprinted with con-
siderable additions in 1545, 1551, and 1568. He also
wrote several medical works, chiefly on anatomy.
ACHIN (pronounced Atcheen), a town and also a state of
Northern Sumatra; the one state of that island which has
been powerful at any time since the discovery of the Cape
route to the East, and the only one that stiU remains indepen-
dentof the Dutch, though that independence is nowmenaced.
De Barros names Achln among the twenty-nine states
that divided the sea-board of Sumatra when the Portuguese
took Malacca. Northern Sumatra had been visited by
several European traveUers in the Middle Ages, such as
Marco Polo, Friar Odorico, and Nicolo ContL Some of
these as weU as Asiatic writers mention Lambri, a state
which must have nearly occupied the position of Achfn.
But the first voyager to visit Achln, by that, name, was
Alvaro TeUez, a captain of Tristan d'Acunha's fleet, in
-1506. It was then a mere dependency of the adjoining
state of Pedir; and the latter, with Pasei, formed the only
states 'on the coast whose chiefs claimed the title of Sultan.
Yet before twenty years had passed Achln had not only
gained independence, but had swaUowed up aU other states
of Northern Sumatra. It attained its climax of power in
the time of Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607-1636), under
whom the subject coast extended from Am opposite
Malacca round by the north to Padang on the west coast,
a sea-board of not less than 1100 mUes ; and besides this,
the king's supremacy was owned by the large island of
Nyds, and by the continental Malay states of Johor,
Pihing, Quedah, and Perdk.
The present limits of Achfn lupremacy in isumatra are
retkoced tcf be, on the east coast the River Tamiang, in
about 4° 25' N. lat., which forms the frontier of territories
tributary to Sidk; and on the west coast a line in about
2° 48' N., the frontier of Trumon, a smaU modern state
lying between Achln and the Dutch government of Padang.
Even within these limits the actual power of Achln is p.re-
carious, and the interior boundary can be laid down only
from conjecture. This interior couutrj' is totaUy unex-
plored. It is believed to be inhabited by tribes kindred
ye
A C H I N
to the Battas, that remarltablo race of anthropophagi who
adjoin on the soutli. The whole area of Acliin territorj-,
defined to the best of our ability, will contain about 10,400
English square milesi. A rate of 20 per square mile, per-
haps somewhat too largo an average, gives a probable
population of 328,000.
The production of rice and pepper forms the chief
industry of the Achin territory. From Pcdir and other
ports on the north coast largo quantities of betel-nut are
exported to continental India, to Burmah, and to Penang
for China. Some pepper is got from Pedir, but the chief
export is from a number of small ports and anchorages on
the west coast, where vessels go from port to port making
up a cargo. Achin ponies are of good repute, and are
exported. Slinor articles of export are sulphur, iron,
sappan-wood, gutta-percha, damnier, rattans, bamboos,
benzoin, and camphor from the interior forests. The
camphor is that from the Dryahalanops camphora, for
which so high a price is paid in China, and the whole goes
thither, the bulk of that whole being, however, extremely
small Very little silk is now produced, but in the 16th
century the quantity seems to have been considerable.
\Vhat is now wanted for the local textures, which are in
some esteem, is imported from China.
The chief attraction to the considerable trade that existed
at Achin two centuries ago must have been gold. No
place in the East, unless Japan, was so abundantly sup-
pUed with gold. AVe can form no estimate of the annual
export, for it is impossible to accept Valentyn's statement
that it sometimes reached 80 bahars (512,000 ounces !).
Crawford (1820), who always reckoned low, calculated the
whole export of Sumatra at 35,530 ounces, and that of
Achin at 10,450; whilst Anderson (1S26), who tends to
put figures too high, reckoned the whole Achfn export
alone at 32,000 ounces. The chief imports to Achin are
opium (largely consumed), rice (the indigenous supply
being imidequato), salt, iron ware, piece-goods, arms and
ammunition, vessels of copper and pottery, China goods of
sorts, and a certain kind of dried fish.
The great repute of Achin at one time as a place of
trade is shown by the fact, that to this port the first Dutch
(1599) and first English (1602) commercial ventures to
the Indies were du-ected. Lancaster, the English com-
modore, carried letters from Queen Elizabeth to the king
of Achfn, and was well received by the prince then reign-
ing, AlAuddin ShJih. Another exchange of letters took
place between King James I. and Iskandar Mudain 1613.
But native caprice and natural jealousy at the growing
force of the European nations in those seas, the reckless
rivalries of the latter and their fierce desire for monopoly,
were alike destructive of sound trade; and the English
factory, though several times set up, was never long main-
tained. The French made one great effort under Beaulieu
(1621) to establish relations with Achfn, but nothing
came of it.
Still the foreign trade of Achfn, though subject to spas-
modic inten-uptions, was important. Dampier and others
speak of the number of foreign merchants settled there, —
English, Dutch, Danes, Portuguese^ Chinese, Banyans
from Guzcrat, &c. Dampier says the roads were rarely
without ten or fifteen sail of different nations, bringing
vast quantities of rice, as well as silks, chintzes, muslins,
and opium. Besides the Chinese merchants settled at
Achfn, others used to come annually with the junks, ten
or twelve in number, which arrived in June. A regular
fair was then established, which lasted two months, and
was known as the China camp, — a lively scene, and great
resort of foreigners.
The A.chluese are not identical with the Malays proper
either in aspect or language. Thpy are said to be taller.
handsomer, and darker, aa if with a mixture of blood from
India proper. Their language is little known; but though
it baa now absorbed much Malay, the original part of it ia
said to have characteristics connecting it both with the
Eatta and with the Indo-Chinese tongues. The Achfn
literature, however, is entirely ilalay; it embraces poetry,
a good deal of theology, and several chronicles.
The namo of the state Ls properly AduK This the
Portuguese made into Acfiem; whilst we, with the Dutch,
learned to call it Achin. The la.'jt appears to have been a
Persian or Indian form, suggested by jingling analogy with
MAcUn (China).
The town itself lies very near the north-west extremity
of Sumatra, known in charts as Achin Head. Hero s
girdle'of ten or twelve small islands afforoa protection to
the anchorage. This faib in N.W. winds, but it is said
that vessels may find safe riding at all seasons by shifting
their berths. The town lies between two and three miles
from the sea, chiefly on the left bank of o river of no great
size. This forms a sv/ampy delta, and discharges by threo
mouths. The central and chief mouth is about 100 yards
wide, and has a depth of 20 to 30 feet within the bar.
But the latter has barely 4 feet at low tide; at high tida
it admits native ci'aft of 20 or 30 tons, and larger craft in
the rainy season. The town, like most Malay towns, con-
sists of detached houses of timber and thatch, clustered in
enclosed groups called kamjKmga, and buried in a forest of
fi-uit-trees. The chief feature is the palace of -the Sultan,
.which communicates with the river by a canal, and ia
enclosed, at least partially, by a wall of cut stone.
The valley or alluvial plain in which Achfn lies is low,
and subject to partial inundation; but it is shut in at a
short distance from the to^vn, on the three landward sides,
by hills. It is highly cultivated, and abounds in small
villages and kampongs, ■with white mosques interspersed.
The hills to the eastward are the spurs of a great volcanic
mountain, upwards of 6000 feet in height, called by natives
Yamuria, by mariners " the Golden Mountain." ^ Of the
town population we find no modem estimate.
The real original territory of the Achfnese, called by
them Great Achfn (in the sense of Achfn proper), consists
of threo districts immediately round the city, distinguished
respectively as the 26, the 25, and the 22 miikima' (or
hundreds, to use the nearest English term).
Each of these three districts has two heads, called pomg-
limas; and these, according to some modem accounts,
constitute the council of state, who are the chief adminis-
trators, and in whose hands it lies to depose the sovercigu
or to sanction his choice of a successor. Late notices
speak of a chief minister, apparently distinct from these;
and another important member of fhe government is the
Shdbandar, who is over all matters of customs, shippirg,
and commerce.
The court of Achfn, in tne 17th century, maintained a
good deal of pomp; and, according to Beaulieu, the king
had always 900 elephants. These animals, though found
throughout Sumatra, are now no longer tamed or kept.
Hostilities with the Portuguese began from the time of
the first independent king of Achfn; and they had little
remission tUl the power of Portugal fell with the loss of
Malacca (1641). Not less than ten times before that
event were armaments despatched from Achin to reduce
Malacca, and more than once its garrison was very hard
pressed. One of these armadas, equipped by Iskandar
Muda in 1615, gives an idea of the king's resources. It
consisted of 500 sail, of which 250 were galleys, and
* Several other great Tolcanic cones eii^t in the AcMn territory, axul
two visible from seaward rise to a height of 11,000 feet or more in ths
unexplored interior.
' A miikini is said prooc-rlv xo emoroca 44 household
A C H — A C I
97
among these a hundred were greater than any tnen used in
Europe. 60,000 men were embarked, with the king and
his women.
On the death of Iskandar's successor in 1641, the widow
was placed on the throne; and as a female reign favoured
the oligarchical tendencies of the Malay chiefs, three more
queens were allowed to reign successively. Though this
series of female sovereigns lasted only fifty-eight years alto-
gether, so dense is apt to be the ignorance of recent history,
that long before the end of that period it had become an
accepted beUef among foreign residents at Achfn that there
never had been any sovereigns in Achin except females;
and hence, by an easy inference, that the Queen of Sheba
had been Queen of Achin !
In loy9 the Arab or fanatical party suppressed female
government, and put a chief of Arab blood on the throne.
The remaining history of Achin is one of lapid decay.
Thirty sovereigns in all have reigned from the beginning
of the 16th century to the present day.
After the restoration of Java to the Netherlands in 1816,
a good deal of weight was attached by the neighbouring
English colonies to the maintenance of our influence in
Achin; and in 1819 a treaty cf friendship was concluded
with the Calcutta Government, which excluded other
European nationalities from fixed residence in Achfn.
When the home Government, in 1824, made a treaty with
the Netherlands, surrendering our remaining settlements
in Sumatra in exchange for certain possessions on the con-
tinent of Asia, no reference was made in the articles to the
Indian treaty of 1819; but an understanding was exchanged
that it should be modified by us, whilst no proceedings
hostile to Achin should be attempted by the Dutch.
This reservation was formally abandoned by our Qovern-
ment in a convention signed at the Hague, November 2,
1871; and little more than a year elapsed before the
government of Batavia declared war upon Achfn. Doubt-
less there was provocation, as there always will be between
such neighbours; but the necessity for war has been
greatly doubted, even in Holland. A Dutch force landed
at Achfn in April 1873, and attacked the palace. It was
defeated with considerable loss, including that of the
general (Kbhler). The approach of the south-west mon-
soon was considered to preclude the immediate renewal of
the attempt ; but hostilities were resumed, and Achin fell
in January 1874. ,
(De Barros; Faria y Souza; Valentyn, vol. v.; Beaulieu
(in Th^venot's Collection); Dampier; Marsden; Crawfurd's
Hist, and Decl. of the Ind. Archip.; J. of Ind. Archip.;
Dulaurier in J. Asiatique, 3d s. vol viii.; Anderson's Acheen,
1840; Veth, Atchtn, &.c. Leyden, 1873, &c.) (h. y.)
ACHMET, or Ahmed, the name of three emperors or
sultans of Turkey, the first of the name reigning from 1603
to" Ml 7, the second from 1691 to 1695. Achmet III.
succeeded his brother Mustapha II., whom the Janissaries
deposed in 1703. After the battle of Pultowa in 1709,
Charles XII. of Sweden took refuge with him, and incited
him to war with Peter the Great, Czar of Russia. Achmet
recovered the Morea from the Venetians (1715); but his
expedition into Hungary -was less fortunate, his army being
defeated at Peterwardein by Prince Eugene in 1716, and
again near Belgrade the year after. The empire was dis-
tracted during his reign by political disturbances, which
were occasioned, in part at least, by his misgovemment ;
and the discontent of his feoldiers at last (1730) drove him
from the throne. He died in pri.son in 1736.
ACHRAY, a small picturesque lake in Perthshire, near
Loch Katrine, 20 miles W. of Stirling, which has obtained
notoriety from Scott's allusion to it in the Lady of the Lake.
ACHROMATIC GLASSES are so named from being
Bi>ecially constructed with a view to prevent the confusion
1—5
of colours and distortion of images that result from the
use of lenses in optical instruments. Wben white light
passes through a lens, the different-coloured rays that con-
stitute it are refracted or bent aside at different angles, and
so converge at different foci, producing a blurred and
coloured image. To remedy this compound lenses havo
been devised, which present a well-defined image, unsur-
rounded by coloured bands of light. To instruments fitted
with lenses of this kind has been given the name achromatic,
from d privative, and )(pit)^a, colour. The celebrated opti-
cian, John Dollond, was the first to surmount this practical
difficulty, about the year 1757, by the use of a combination
of crown and flint glass. See Optics, Microscope, &c.
ACI KEALE, a city and seaport of SicUy, in the
Italian province of Catania, near the base of Mount Etna.
It stands on solidified lava, which has here been deposited
by different streams to a depth of 560 feet. The town,
which has been almost entirely re-erected since the earth-
quake of 1693, is built of lava, contains many handsome
edifices, and is defended by a fortress. Linen, silks, and
cutlery are manufactured, and the trade in cotton, flax,
grain, and wines is considerable. The place is celebrated
for its cold sulphurous mineral waters. Near Aci Eeale
is the reputed scene of the mythical adventures of Acis and
Galatea; and on this account several small towns in the
neighbourhood also bear the name of Aci, such as Aci
CasteUo, Aci Terra, &c. Aci Reale has a population of
24,151.
ACID, a general term in chemistry, applied to a
group of compound substances, possessing certain very
distinctive characteristics. All acids have one essential
property, viz., that of combining chemically with an alkali
or base, forming a new compound that has neither acid
nor alkaline characters. The new bodies formed in this
way are termed salts. Every acid is therefore capable of
producing as many salts as there are basic substances to be
neutralised; and this salt-forming power is the best de-
finition of an acid substance. •
The majority of acids possess tne following contingent
propenies : —
1. When applied to the tongue, they excite that sensation
■which is called sour or acid.
2. They change the blue colours of vegetables to a red.
The vegetable blues employed for this purpose are generally
tincture of htmus and syrup of violets or of radishes, which
have obtained the name of re-agents or tests. If these
colours have been previously converted to a, green by alkalies,
the acids restore them.
All these secondary properties are variable; and if we
attempted to base a definition on any one of them, many
important acids would be excluded. Take the case of a
body like silica, so widely difl'used in nature. Is pure
silicious sand or flint an acid or a neutral substance 1 When
it is examined, it is found to be insoluble in water, to be
devoid of taste, and to possess no action on vegetable colour-
ing matters; yet this substance is a true acid, because when
it is heated along with soda or lime, it forms the new body
commoiJy called glass, which is chemically a salt of silicic
acid. Many other acids resemble silica in properties, and
would be mistaken for neutral bodies if the salt-forming
power was overlooked.
Another method of regarding an acid, which is found of
great importance in discussing chemical reactions, is to say
an acid is a salt whose base is water. This definition is
very apparent if we regard what takes place in separating
the acid from a salt. In this decomposition the acid would
appear to be left without having any substitute for tha
removed alkalL This is not however the case, as water is
found to enter into union instead of the base. Thus every
true acid most contain hydrogen; and if this is 'displaced
I- — 13
t)8
A C I — A C O
by a metal, salts are formed directly. An acid is there:
fore a salt, whoso metal is hydrogen. The full importance
of the definition of an acid will be learned under the head-
ing Chemistry.
ACIDALIUS, Valens, a very distinguished scholar
end critic, born in 1567 at Witt.stock, in Brandenburg.'
After studying at Rostock and Ilelmataedt, and residing
about three years in Italy, ho took up his residence at
Breslau, where he professed the Roman Catholic religion.
His excessive application to study was supposed to have
caused his untimely death, which occurred in 1095, when
he had just completed his twenty-eighth year. He wrote
notes on Tacitus and Curtius, a commentary on Plautus,
and a number of poems, which are inserted in the Dclicics
of the Gorman poets. BaiUct gave him a place among his
Enfarui Celebrea, and tells that he wrote the commentary
on Plautus and several of the Latin poems when he was
only seventeen or eighteen years of ago.
ACINACE.S, an ancient Persian sword, short and
straight, and worn, contrary to the Roman fashion, on the
right side, or sometimes in front of the body, as shown in
the bas-reliefs found at Persepolis. Among the Persian
nobility they were frequently made of gold,- being worn aa
a badge of distinction. The acinaces was an object of
religious worsliip with the Scythians and others {Herod.
iv. 62).
ACIS, in ilylhology, the son of Faunus and the nymph
Symiethis, was a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, who being
beloved by Galatea, Polyphemus the giant was so enraged
that he crushed his rival with a rock, and his blood gush-
ing forth from under the rock, was metamorphosed into
the river bearing his name (Ovid, Met. xiii. 750; Sil. Ital.
xiv. 221). This river, now .^'jMme di Jaci,OTAeque Grandi,
rises under a bed of lava on the' eastern base of Etna, and
passing Aci Reale, after a rapid course of one mile, falls
into the sea. The waters of the stream, once celebrated
for their purity, are ifow sulphureous.
ACKERJlANN, John Christian Gottlieb, a learned
physician and professor of medicine, bom at Zeulenroda,
in Upper Saxony, in 1756. At the early age of fifteen he
became a student of medicine at Jena, where he soon
attracted the favourable notice of Baldinger, who undertook
the direction of his studies. When Baldinger was trans-
ferred to Gdttingen in 1773, Ackermann went with him,
and afterwards studied for two years at Halle. A few
years' practice at Stendal (1778-99), where there were
numerous factories, enabled him to add many valuable
original observations to his translation of Ramazzini's
Treatise of t/te Diseases of Artificers (1780-83). In 1786
ha became professor of medicine at the university of
Altorf, in Franconia, occupyiiig first the chair of chemistry,
and then, from 179-1 till his death in 1801, that of patho-
logy and therapeutics. Dr Ackermann's knowledge of the
history of medicine may be estimated by his valuable con-
tributions to Harless's edition of Fabricius' BiUiotheca
Groeca. He wrote numerous origijjal works, besides trans-
lations.
ACCEMET^E (dKoi/iT/ros, sleepless), an order of monks
instituted by Alexander, a Syrian, about the middle of
the 6th century. Founding on the precept, Pray without
ceasing, they celebrated divine service uninterruptedly night
and day, for which purpose they divided themselves into
three . sections, that relieved each other in turn. The
chief seat of the Acoemetse was the cloister Studium at
Constantinople, whence they were sometimes called Studites.
Having adopted the monophysite heresy, they were put
under the Papal ban about the year 536.
ACOLYTE (from cutoAovflos, an attendant, one of a
minor order of clergy in the ancient church, ranking
next to the sub-doacon. We leam from the canons of the
fourth Council of Carthage that the archdeacon, at their
ordination, put into their hands a candlestick with a taper
and an empty pitcher, to imply that they were appointed
to light the candles of the church and to furnish win*
for the eucharist. Their dress was the cassock and sur-
plice. The name and office still exist in the church.
ACONCAGUA, a province of Chile, South America, is
about 100 miles long by 40 miles wide, and lies between
Sr 30' and 33° 20' S. lat, and 70° and 71° 30' W. long.,
between the provinces of Valparaiso and Santiago on the N.
and Coquhnbo on the S. A large part of the province
is mountainous, but it contains several rich and fertile
valleys, which yield wheat, maize, sugar-cane, fruits, and
garden produce in abundance. In the agricultural dis-
tricts there are raised from 50 to 60 fanegas of wheat for
every quadra, equal to about 35 bushels per English acre.
The province has also mineral resources, but not to such
extent as Coquimbo or Atacama. Its chief town is San
Felipe. The mountain Aconcagua, one of the loftiest
peaks of the Andes, rises to the height of 23,910 feet
above the sea on the frontier between this province and
Mendoza, a department of the Argentine Republic A
river of the same name rises on the south side of the
mountain, and after a course of 230 miles falls into the
Pacific 12 miles N. of Valparaiso. Pooulation Q870),
134,178.
ACONITE, AcONiTOM, a genus of planta commonly
known as Aconite, Monkshood, Friar's Cap, or Helmet
flower, and embracing about 18 species, chiefly natives of
the mountainous parts of the northern hemisphcra They
are distinguished by having one of the five blue or yellow
coloured sepals in the form of a helmet ; hence the English
name. Two of the petals placed under the hood of the
calyx are supported on long stalks, and have a hollow
spur at their apex. The genus belongs to the natural
order Ranunculaceae, or the Buttercup family. Aconitum
Napellus, common monkshood, is a doubtful native of
Britain. It is an energetic irritant and narcotic poison.
It causes death by a depressing effect on the nervous system,
by producing palsyof the muscles concerned in breathing, and
by fainting. A tincture prepared by the action of spirit
on the roots is used medicinally to allay pain, especially
in cases of tic. Its roots have occasionally been mistaken
for horse-radish. The Aconite has a short underground
stem, from which dark-coloured tapering roots descend. The
crown or upper portion of the root gives rise to new plants.
When put to the lip, the juice, o/ the Aconite root pro-
duces a feeling of numbness and tingling. The horse-
radish root, which belongs to the natural order Cnici-
ferse, is much longer than that of the Aconite, and it i»
not tapering ; its colour is yellowish, and the top of the
root has the remains of the leaves on it. It has a pun-
gent taste. Many species of Aconite are cultivated in
gardens, some having blue and others yellow flowers.
Aconitum Lycoctonum, Wolfsbane, is a yellow-flowered
species common on the Alps of Switzerland. One species,
Aconitum heterophyllum, found in the East Indies, and
called Butees, has tonic properties in its roots. The roots
of Aconitum ferox supply the famous Indian (Nipal)
poison called Bikh, Bish, or Nabee. This species is con-
sidered by Hooker and Thomson as a variety of Aconitum
Napellus. Aconitum palmatum yields another of the
celebrated Bikh poisons. Aconitum luridum, of the Hima-
layas, also furnishes a poison.
ACONTIUS, the Latinised form of the name of GlAqpno
AcoNCiO, a philosopher, jurisconsult, engineer, and theolo-
gian, bom at Trent on the 7th September 1492. He em-
braced the reformed religion; and after having taken refuge
for a time in Switzerland and Strasburg, he came to Eng-
land about 1558. He was very favourably received by
A C O — A 0 O
99
Queen Elizabeth, at whoso court, it is saia, taougli on
doubtful authority, that he resided for a considerable period.
With the sanction of Parliament, he carried on for several
years extensive works for the embankment of the Thames,
and so reclaimed a large quantity of waste land, part of
which was bestowed upon him by way of recompense. His
gratitude to Queen Elizabeth was expressed in the dedica-
tion to her of his celebrated Collection of the Stratagems of
Satan, which has been often translated, and has passed
through many editions. Various opinions have been given
of this work, which advocated toleration to an extent that
many considered indifference. The nature of its doctrine
may perhaps be best gathered from the fact that it gained
for the author the praise of Arminius, and the strong con-
demnation of the Calvinists. Acontius also wrote a treatise,
De Mcthodo, which was published at Basel in 1558. He
died in London about the yeai 15G6.
ACOPiUS, a genus of monocotyledonous plants belonging
to the natural order Aroideie, and the sub-order Orontiacete.
Acorns Calamus, sweet-sedge or sweet-flag, is a native of
Britain. It has an agreeable odour and has been used as
a strengthening remedy, as well as to aUay spasms. The
starchy matter contained in its running stem or rhizome
is associated with a fragrant oil, and it is used as hair-
powder. Confectioners form a candy from the rhizomes
of the plant, and it is also used by perfumers in preparing
aromatic vinegar.
ACOSTA, Cheistoval d', a Portuguese naturahst, born
at Jlozambique in the early part of the IGth century. On
a voyage to Asia he was taken captive by pii'ates, who
exacted from him a very large ransom. After spending
some years in India, chiefly at Goa, a Portuguese colony,
he returned home, and settled as a surgeon at Burgos.
Here he published his Tratado de las drogas y medecinas
de las Indias orientcles (1578). This work was translated
into Latin, Italian, and French, became well known through-
out Europe, and is stiU consulted as .an authority. Acosta
also wrote an account of his travels, a book in praise of
women, and other works. He died in 1580.
ACOSTA, Joseph d', a celebrated Spanish author, was
born at Medina del Campo about the year 1539. In 1571
he went to Peru as a provincial of the Jesuits ; and, after
remaining there for seventeen years, he returned to his
native country, where he became in succession visitor for
his order of Aragon and Andalusia, superior of VaUadolid,
and rector of the university of Salamanca, in which city he
died in February 1 600. About ten years before his death
he published at Seville his valuable Historia Natural y
Moral de las Indias, part of which had previously appeared
in Latin; with the title De Natttra Novi Orhis, libri duo.
This work, which has been translated into all the principal
languages of Europe, gives exceedingly valuable informa-
tion regarding the condition of South America at the time.
On the subject of climite Acosta was the first to propound
the theory, afterwards advocated by Bufl'on, which attri-
buted the different degrees of heat in the old and new con-
tinents to the agency of the winds. He also contradicted,
from his own experience, the statement of Aristotle, that
the middle zone of the earth was so scorched by the sun as
to be destitute of moisture, and totally uninhabitable. Even
after the discovery of America this AristoteUan dogma was
an article of faith, and its denial was one ground of the
charge of scepticism and atheism brought against Sir Walter
Raleigh. Acosta, however, boldly declared that what he
had seen was so different from what ho had expected, that
he could not but " laugh at Aristotle's meteors and his
philosophy." In speaking of the conduct of his country-
men, and the means they employed for the propagatioit- of
their faith, Acosta is in no resjicct superior to the other
prejudiced writers of his country and age. Though he
acKnowledges that the career of Spanish conquest was
marked by the most savage cruelty and oppression, he yet
represents this people as chosen by God to spread the gospel
among the nations of America, and recouuts a variety of
miracles as a proof of the constant interposition of Heaven
in favour of the merciless and rapacious invaders. Besides
his History, Acosta wrote the following works : — 1. De Fro-
mulgatione £vangelii apud Barbaras ; 2. De Chris'to Heve-
lato; 3. De Temporibus Novissimis, lib. vi; 4. Concionum
tomi Hi.
ACOSTA, Ukiel d', a Portuguese of noble familj', waa
born at Oporto towards the close of the ICth century.
His father being a Jewish convert to Christianity, he was
brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, and strictly ob-
served the rites of the church tiU the course of his inquiries
led him, after much painful doubt, to abandon the religion
of his youth for Judaism. Passing over to Amsterdam, ho
was received into the sjTiagogue, having his name changed
from Gabriel to Uriel. He soon discovered, however, that
those who sat in Moses' seat were shameful perverters of
the law ; and his bold protests served only to exasperate
the rabbis, who finally punished his contumacy with the
greater excommunication. Persecution seemed only to
stimulate his temerity, and he soon after pubUshed a de-
fence, Examen, das iradicocns Phariseas, iii., in which he
not merely exposed the departures of the Jewish teachers
from the law, but combated the doctrine of a future life,
holding himself supported in this position by the silence of
the Mosaic Books. For this he was imprisoned and fined,
besides incurring public odium as a blasphemer and atheist.
Nothing deterred, he pursued his speculations, which ended
in his repudiating the divine authority of the law of Moses.
Wearied, however, by his melancholy isolation, and longing
for the benefits of society, he was drivea, in the inconsis-
tency of despairing scepticism, to seek a return to the Jewish
communion. Having recanted his heresies, he was re-
admitted after an excommunication of fifteen years, but
was soon excommunicated a second time. After seven
years of miserable exclusion, he once more sought admis-
sion, and, qn passing through a humiliating penance, was
again received. These notices of his singular and unhappy
life are taken from his autobiography, Exemplar Uumamx
Yitce, published, with a " refutation," by Limborch, and
republished in 1847. It has. been said that he died by
his own hand, but this is, to say the least, doubtful. His
eventful history forms the subject of a talc and of a tragedy
by Gutzkow.
lACOTYLEDONES, the name given to one of tne Classes
of the Natural System of Botany, embracing flowerless
plants, such as ferns, lycopods, horse-tails, mosses, Kverworts,
lichens, sea-weeds, and mushrooms. The name is derived
from the character of the embryo, which has no cotyledon.
Flowering plants have usually one or two cotyledons, that
is, seed-leaves or seed-lobes connected with their embrj'o ;
while in flowerless plants the body representing the embryo
consists of a cell, called a spore, without any leaves. The
plants have no flowers, and their organs of reproduction arc
inconspicuous, hence they are called by Linnaeus crypto-
gamous. Some flowering plants, such as dodders, have no
cotyledons ; and some have the cotyledons divided into
more than two, as in conifers. Some acotyledonous spores,
when sprouting, produce a leaf-like expansion called a pro-
thallus, on which the organs of reproduction, consisting
of antheridia and archegonia, are produced. This is well
seen in the case of ferns. In the interior of the antheri
dian cells, moving filamentous bodies, called spermatozoids,
have been observed These fertilise the archegonial cells,
whence new plants are produced. In the article Botany
these plants will be noticed under Class III. of the NaturaJ
System.
100
ACOUSTICS
DelniUon.
1. 1. \ COUSTICB (from iKovia, to hear) is that branch of
XJL. Natural Phtlosophy which treats of the nature of
Bound, and the laws of its production and propagation, in so
far as tlieso depend on phyaical principles. The description
of the mechanism of the organ of voice and of the ear, and
the difficult (questions connected with the processes by
■which, when sound reaches the drum of the car, it is trans-
mitted to the brain, must be dealt with in separate articles
of this work. It is to the physical part of the science of
acoustics that the present article is restricted.
Pakt L
»
General notions as to Vibrations, Waves, <tc.
Souml la 2. We may easily satisfy ourselves that, in every in-
line lo Btince in which the sensation of sound is excited, the body,
vibrations, whence the sound proceeds, mtist have been thrown, by a
blow or other means, into a state of agitation or tremor,
implying the existence of a vibratory motion, or motion to
and fro, of the particles of which it consists.
Thus, if a common glass-jar be struck so as to yield an
audible sound, the existence of a motion of this kind may
be felt by the finger lightly applied to the edge of the
glass ; and, on increasing the pressure so as to destroy this
motion, the sound forthwith ceases. Small pieces of cork
put in the jar will be found to dance about during the con-
tinuance of the sound ; water or spirits of wine poured into
the glass will, under the same circumstances, exhibit a
ruffled surface. The experiment is usually performed, in a
more striking manner, with a beU-jar and a number of
small light wooden balls suspeftded by silk strings to a
fixed frame above the jir, so as to be just in contact, with
the widest part of the glass. On drawing a violin bow
across the edge, the pendulums are thrown off to a con-
siderable distance, and falling back are again repelled,
It is also in many cases possible to follow with the eye
the motions of the particles of the sounding body, as, for
instance, in the case of a violin string or any string fixed
at both ends, when the string will appear, by a law of
optics, to occupy at once aU the positions which it suc-
cessively assumes during its vibratory motion.
Sound is 3. It is, moreover, essential, in order that the ear may
propagated be affected by a sounding body, that there be interposed
to Oio ear between it and the ear one ot more intermefliate bodies
by VI >ra- („i^j,'(j), themselves capable of molecular vibration, which
v„ ' shall receive such motion from the source of sound, and
transmit it to the external parts of the car, and especially
to the memlrana tympani or drum of the ear. This state-
ment is confirmed by the well-known effect of stopping the
car with soft cotton, or other substance possessing little
elasticity.
The air around us forms the most important medium of
communication of sound to our organs of hearing ; in fact,
were air devoid of this property, we should practically be
without the sense of hearing. In illustration of the part
€hu3 assigned to the atmosphere in acoustics, an apparatus
has been constructed, consisting of a glass receiver, in which
is a bell and a hammer cxannected with clock-work, by
which it can be made to strike the bell when required.
The receiver is closed air-tight by a metal plate, through
which passes, also air-tight, into the interior, a brass rod.
By jjroperly moving this rod with the hand, a detent is
released, which checks the motion of the wheel-work, and
the hammer strilvcs the bell continuously, till the detent is
pushed into its original position. As long as the air in
Ac
the receiver is of the usual atmospheric density, the sound
is perfectly audible. But on rarcfj-ing the air by means'
of an air-pujjip (the clock-work apparatus having been
separated from the plate of the pump by means of a pad-
ding of soft cotton), the sound grows gradually fainter,
and at last becomes inaudible when the rarefaction of iba
air has reached a very low point. If, however, at this
stage of the experiment, the metal rod be brought into
contact with the bell, the sound will again be heard
clearly, because now there is the necessary communication
with the ear. On readmitting the air, the sound recovers
its original intensity. This experiment was first performed
by Uawksbee in 1705.
4. Inasmuch, then, as sound necessarily implies the L»w« of
existence in the sounding body, in the air, Ac, and (we libratoiy
may add) in the ear itself, of Wbratory motion of the par- """tion.
tides of the various media concerned in the phenomenon,
a general reference to the laws of such motion is essential
to a right understanding of the principles of acoustics.
The most familiar instance of this kind of motion is
afforded by the pendulum, a small heavy ball, for instance,
attached to a fine string, which is fixed at its other end.
There is but one position in which the ball will remain at
rest, viz., when the string is vertical, there being then
equilibrium between the two forces acting on the body,
the tension of the string and the earth's attractive force or
gravity. Thus, in the adjoining fig., if C is the point of
suspension, and CA the vertical through that point of
length I, equal to the string, A is the equilibrium position
of the particle.
Let now the ball be removea from A to P, the string being
kept tight, so that P describes
the arc AP of a circle of radius
equal to I, and let the ball be
there dropped. The tension of
the string not being now directly
opposite in direction to gravity
(g), motion will ensue, and the
body will retrace the arc PA
In doing so, it will continually
increase its velocity until it
reaches the point A, where its
velocity will be a maximum, and
will consequently pass to the
other side of A towards Q. But now gravity tends to
draw it back towards A, and heuce the motion becomes
a retarded one ; the velocity continually diminishes, and
is ultimately destroyed at some point Q, which wotdd be,
at a distance from A equal to that of P, but for the
existence of friction, resistance of the air, ic, which make
that distance less. From Q it will next move down with
accelerated motion towards A, where it will have its greatest
velocity in the direction from left to right, and whence it
will pass onwards towards P, and so on. Thus the body
wiU vibrate to and fro on either side of A, its amplitude of
vibration or distance between its extreme positions gradually
diminishing in consequence of the resistances before men-
tioned, and at last being sensibly reduced to nothing, the
body then resuming its equilibrium-position A.
If the amplitude of vibration is restricted withiii incon-
siderable limits, it is easy to prove that the motion takes
place just as if the string were removed, the ball deprived
altogether of weight and urged by a force directed to the
point A, and proportional to the distance from tiat point.
For then, if m be any position of the baU, the cbcrd mA.
may be regarded as coincident with the tangent to the
Fig. 1.
ACOUSTICS
101
circle at m, and therefore as being perpendicular to Um.
Hence g, acting parallel to CA, being resolved along Cm
and m&., the former component is counteracted by the
tension of the string, and there remains as the ordy effec-
tive acceleration, the tangential component along mA,
■wticii, by the triangle of forces, is equal io g^^;— or v- Am,
and is therefore proportional to Am.
On this supposition of indefinitely small vibrations, the
pendulum is isochronous; that is, the time occupied in
passingfrom one extreme position to the other is the same,
for a given length I of the pendulum, whatever the extent
of vibration.
A\'e conclude from this that, whatever may be the nattire
of the forces by which a particle is urged, if the resultant
of those forces is directed towards a fixed point, and is
proportional to the distance from that point, the particle
will oscillate to and fro about that point in times which
are independent of the amplitudes of the vibrations, pro-
vided these are very small
5. The particle, whose vibratory motion we have been
Acoustic considering, is a solitary particle acted on by external
viljratious. forces. But, in acoustics, we have to do with the motion
of particles forming a connected system or medium, in
which the forces to be considered arise from the mutual
actions of the particles. These forces are in equilibrium
with each other when the particles occupy certain relative
positions. But, if any new or disturbing force act for a
short time on any one or more of the particles, so as to
cause a mutual approach or a mutual recession, on the
removal of the disturbing force, the disturbed particles
will, if the body be elastic, forthwith move towards their
respective positions of equilibrium. Hence arises a vibra-
tory motion to and fro of each about a given point,
analogous to that of a pendulum, the velocity at that point
being always a maximupi, alternately in opposite directions.
Thus, for example, if to one extremity of a pipe contain-
ing air were applied a piston, of section equal to th*t of
the pipe, by pushing in the piston slightly and then remov-
ing it, we should cause particles of air, forming a thin
section at the extremity of the pipe, to vibrate in directions
parallel to its axis.
In order that a medium may be capable of molecular
vibrations, it must, as we have mentioned, possess elasticity,
that is, a tendency always to return to its original condi-
tion when slightly disturbed out of it.
6. We now proceed to show how the disturbance where-
Transmis- ^7 certain particles of an elastic medium are displaced from
Sinn of theii- equilibrium-positions, is successively transmitted to
vib.-iiions. the remaining particles of the medium, so as to cause these
also to vibrate to and fro.
Let us consider a line of sucn particies y, x, a, b, itc.
y X a^aa^b c d e f g h i h I m n 0 p
equidistant from each other, as above; and suppose one of
them, say a, to be displaced, by any means, to a,. As we
have seen, this particle will swing from a, to a„ and back
again, occupying a certain time T, to complete its double
vibration. But it is obvious that, the distance between a
and the next particle h to the right being diminished by
the displacement of the former to a^, a tendency is gene-
rated in b to move towards a,, the mutual forces being
no longer in equilibrium, but having a resultant in the
direction ba^. The particle b will therefore also suffer
displacement, and bo compelled to swing to and fro about
the point b. For similar reasons the particles c, d . . .
will all likemse bo thrown into vibration. Thus it is, then,
that the disturbance propagates itself in the direction under
consideration. There is evidently also, in the case sup-
posed, a transmission from a to x, y, Sec, i.e., in the opposite
direction.
Confining our attention to propagation in the direction
abc . . ., we have next to remark that each particle in that
line will be affected by the disturbance always later than
the particle immediately preceding it, so as to be found in
the same stage of vibration a certain interval of time, after
the preceding particle.
7. Two particles which' are in the same stage of vibra- tuase
tion, that is, are equally displaced from their equDibrium-
positions, and are moving in the same direction and with
equal velocities,- are said to be in the same phase. Hence
we may express the prfeceding statement more briefly thus :
Two particles of a disturbed medium at different distances
from the centre of disturbance,- are in the same phase at
different times, the one whose distance from that centre is
the greater being later than the other.
8. Let us in the meantime assume that, the intervals
ah, be, cd . . . . being equal, the intervals of time which
elapse between the like phases of b and a, of c and b . . . ,
are also equal to each other, and let us consider what at
any given instant are the appearances presented by the
different particles in the row.
T being the time of a complete vibration of each particle,
let — be the interval of time requisite for any phase of a
to pass on to b. If then at a certain instant a is displaced
to its greatest extent to the right, b will be somewhat short
of, but moving towards, its corresponding position, c still
further short, and so on. Proceeding in this way, we shall
come at length to a particle p, for which the distance
ap=p. ab, which therefore lags in its vibrarions behind a
T
by a time = ;d x — = T, and is consequently precisely in
the same phase as a. And between these two particles
a, p, we shall evidently have particles in all the possible
phases of the vibratory motion. At h, which is at distance
from a'=iap, the difl'erence of phase, compared with a,
■n-ill be AT, that is, h will, at the given instant, be dis-
placed to the greatest extent on the opposite side of its
equilibrium-position from that in which a is displaced; in
other words, A is in the exactly opposite phase to a.
9. In the case we have just been considering, the vibra- Longitu
tions of the particles have been supposed to take place in '•'"»' ""•'
a direction coincident with that in which the disturbance''"' '
passes from one particle to another. The vibrations are
then termed longitudinal.
But it need scarcely be observed that the vibrations may
take place in any direction whatever, and may even be
curvilinear. If they take place in directions at right
angles to the lino of progress of the disturbance ^ they are
said to be transversal.
10. Now the reasoning employed in the preceding case Wave of
will evidently admit of general application, and wil), in <ransTera»l
particidar, hold for transversal vibrations. Hence if we I'f})!^'^''
mark (as is done in fig. 2) the positions Oj 6, c, . . ., occupied
by the various particles, when swinging transversely, at the
instant at -which a has its maximum displacement above its
equilibrium-position, and trace a continuous line running
through the points so found, that line will by its ordinates
indicate to the eye the state of motion at the given 'nstauti
VCTS.!)
vibr.atiouk.
ments.
5-^--*
Fig. 2.
Thus a and p are in the same phase, as are also h and
y, c and r, itc. a and h are in opposite phases, as are also
0 aud i, c and k, ikc.
102
ACOUSTICS
Distances ap, bq, &c., separating particles in the same
phase, and each of which, as we have seen, is passed over
by the disturbance in the time T of a complete vibra-
tion, include within them all the possible phases of the
motion.
Beyond this distance, the curve repeats itself exactly,
that is, the phases recur in the same order as before.
Now the figure so traced offtrs an obvious resemblance
to the undulating surface of a lake or other body of water,
after it has been disturbed by wind, exiiibiting a wave
with its trough A/i,B, and its c^est Bpfi. Hence have
been introduced into Acoustics, as also into Optics, the
terms wave and undulation. The distance ap, or bq . . .
or A-C, which separates two particles in same phase,
or which includes both a wave-crest and a wave-trough,
is termed the lenr/lh of the tvave, and is usually denoted
byX.
As the curve repeats itself at intervals each ■= X, it
follows that particles are in the same phase at any given
niomcut, when the distances between them in the direction
of transmission of the disturbance = A, 2X, 3A . . . and gena-
ully = n\, where n is any whole number.
Particles such as a and A, 6 and i, ic, which are at
distances = -\ , being in opposite phases, so will also be
1 3
particles separated by distance, -X-fX= -X, or, in general,
by -X -I- »nX = (2m -f 1 ); , that is, by any odd multiple of - .
Wave oi 11. Alike construction to the one just adopted for the
velocities, displacements of the particles at any given instant, may be
also applied for exhibiting graphically their velocities at
the same instant. Erect at the various points a, 6, c, ic,
perpendiculars to the line joining them, of lengths pro-
portional to and in the direction of their velocities, and
draw a line through the extreme points of these perpendi-
culars; this line will answer the pi(rpose required. It is
indicated by dots in the previous figure, and manifestly
forms a wave of the same length as the wave of displace-
ments, but the highest and lowest points of the one wave
correspond to the points in which the other wave crosses
the line of equilibrium.
VtoTc» ibr 12. In order to a graphic representation of the displace-
longitu- menta and velocities of particles vibrating longitudinally,
dinal vilira- j{ jj convenient to draw the lines which represent those
°^^' quantities, not in the actual direction in which the motion
takes place and which coincides with the line ab c . . ., but
at right angles to it, ordinates drawn upwards indicating
displacements or velocities to the right (i.e., in the direc-
tion of transmission of the disturbance), and ordinates
drawn downwards indicating displacements or velocities in
the opposite direction. ^Vhen this is done, waves of dis-
placement and Telocity are figured identically with those
for transversal vibrations, and are therefore subject to the
same resulting laws,
fropaga- 13. But not only will the above waves enable us to see
tion of at a glance the circumstances of the vibratory motion at
wavci. jjjQ instant of time for which it has been constructed, but
also for any subsequent moment. Thus, if we desire to
T
consider what is going on after an interval — , we have
simply to conceive the whole wave (whether of displace-
ment or velocity) to be moved to the right through a dis-
tance = a 6. Then the state of motion in which a was
before will have been transferred to b, that of b will have
been transferred to c, and bo on. At the end of another
such interval, the state of the particles will in like manner
be represented by the wave, if pushed onward through
another equal space. In short, the whole circumstances
Jiiiy be pictured to the eye by two waves (of displacement
and of velocity) advancing continuously in the line a he . ..
with a velocity V which t^tH take it over the distance ab in
the time --,V being therefore = ^ = ^^ -= -^ or V = ^ .
This is termed the velocity of propagation of the wave,
and, as we see, is equal to the length of the wave divided
by the time of a complete vibration of each particle.
If, as is usually more convenient, wo express T in terms
of the number » of complete vibrations performed in u
given time, say in the unit of time, we shall have tr =< n ,
and hence
V = /a.
1-t. There is one very important distinction between the V»riatit>n»
two cases of longitudinal and of transversal vibrations which °' <1«"'V
now claims our attention, viz., that whereas vibrations of •'iuji'nj''
the latter kind, when propagated from particle to particle vibr»tio«».
in an clastic medium, do not alter the relative distances of
the particles, or, in other words,, cause no change of density
throughout the medium; longitudinal vibrations, on the
other hand, by bringing the particles nearer to or further
from one another than they are when undisturbed, are
necessarily accompanied by alternate condensations and.
rarefactions.
Thus, in fig. 2, wo see that at the instant to which that
fig. refers, the displacements of the particles immediately
adjoining a are equal and in the same direction ; hence at
that moment the density of the medium at a is-equal to
that of the undisturbed medium. The same applies to the
points h, p, (tc, in which the displacements are at their
ma.xima and the velocities of ■s'ibration = 0.
At any point, such as c, bet^veen a and A, the displace-
ments of the two adjoining particles on either side are both
to the right, but that of the preceding particle is now the
greater of the two, and hence the density of the medium
throughout aX exceeds the undisturbed density. So at
any point, such as/, between A and A, the same result holds
good, because now«the displacements are to the left, but
are in excess on the right side of the point /. From a
to k, therefore, the medium is condensed.
From A to B, as at k, the displacements of the two
particles on either side are both to the left, that of the pre-
ceding particle being, however, the greater. The medium,
therefore, is here in a state of rarefaction. And in like ,
manner it may be shown that there is rarefaction from B
to ^;' so that the medium is rarefied from A to p.
At A the condensation is a maximum, because the dis-
placements on the two sides of that point are equal and
both directed towards A. At B, on the other hand, it is
the rarefaction which is a maximum, the displacements on
the right and left of that point being again equal, but
directed outwards from B.
It clearly follows from all this that, if we trace a curve
of which any ordinate shall be proportional to the differ-
ence betweeu the. density of the corresponding poir.* of the
disturbed medium and the density of the untb'dturbed
medium — ordinates drawn upwards indicating condensation,
and ordinates drawn downwards rarefaction — that curve
will cross the line of rest of the particles abc. . . in the
same points as does the curve of velocities, and will there-
•fore be of the same length X, and will abo rise above that
line and dip below it at the same parts. But th" connec-
tion between the wave of condensation and rarefaction and
the wave of velocity, is still more intimate, when the
extent to which the particles are displaced is very small, .j
is always the case in acoustics. For it may be shown t'nat
then the degree of condensation or rarefaction at any point
of the medium is proportional to the velocity of vibr atioi
at that point . The same ordinates, therefore, will repro
ACOUSTICS
IOC
^eut th'e clogreo3 of condensation, whicli represent the
I elocitiea, or, in other words, the waTe of condensation and
rarefaction may be regarded as coincident with the velocity
wave.
Past IL
Vdocily of proparjatian of waves of longitudiiiat, disturbance
thronr/h any elastic medium.
15. Sir Isaac Newton was tlie first who attempted to de-
termine, on theoretical grounds, the velocity of sound in
air and other fluids. The formula obtained by him gives,
however, a numerical value, as regards air, falling far short
of the result derived from actual experiment ; and it was
not till long afterwards, when Laplace took up the ques-
tion, that complete coincidence was arrived at between
theory and observation. We are indebted to the late Pro-
fessor Rankine, of Glasgow {Phil. Trans. 1870, p. 277)i,
for a very simple and elegant investigation of the question,
which we will here reproduce in an abridged form.
Let us conceive the longitudinal disturbance to be pro-
])agated through a medium contained in a straight tube
having a trensverse section equal to unity, but of indefinite
length.
Let two transverse planes A, A, (fig. 3) be conceived
as moving along the in- ,
terior of the tube in the
same direction, and with
the same velocity V as the
disturbance-wave itself.
fJzTji.
Fig. 3.
Let M; «. be the velocities of displacement of the particles
of the medium at A, A. respectively, at any given instant,
estimated in the same direction as V; and p^p^ the corre-
sponding densities of the medium.
The disturbances under consideration, being such as
preserve a permanent type throughout their propagation,
it follows that the quantity of matter between A, and A,
remains constant during the motion of these planes, or that
as much must pass into the intervening space through one
of them as issues from it through the other. Now at \^
the velocity of the particles relatively to A, itself is V - u^
inwards, and consequently there flows into the space A, Aj
through A, a mass (V - a,)p, in the unit of time.
Forming a similar expression as regards A^, putting m for
the invariable mass through which the disturbance is pro-
pagated in the unit of time, and considering that if p de-
note the density of the undisturbed medium, m is evidently
equal to Vp, we have —
V-«.)p, = (V-«>, = Vp = m. . (I.)
Now, PiPj being the pressures at A,, A, respectively,
and therefore p,-p^ the force generating the acceleration
«, — «|, in unit of time, on the mass m of the medium, by the
second law of motion,
p,-p, = m{u,-u,) . . . (2.)
Eliminating «„ u^ from these equations, and putting for
— , — , - the symbols s^, s^, a (which therefore denote the
volumes of the unit of mass of the disturbed medium at
A,, A„ and of the undisturbed medium), we get :
m^ = ^Z!l andV^..= ?i^ '
Now, if (as is generally tne case in sound) the changes
of pressure and volume occurring during the disturbance of
the medium are very small, we may assume that these
changes are proportional one to the other. Hence, denot-
ing the ratio which any increase of pressure bears to the
diminution of the unit of volume of the substance, and
' See also Maiwell. Theory of Ueat, p-JOlt
or V =
which is termed the elasticity of the substance, by f, we
shall obtain for the velocity of a wave of longitudinal dis-
placements, supposed small, the equation:
yil "■',
16. In applying this formula to the determination of
the velocity of sound in any particular medium, it is
requisite, as was shown by Laplace, to take into account
the thermic efi'ects produced by the condensations and-
rarefactions which, as we have seen, take place in the sub-
stance. The heat generated during the sudden compres-
sion, not being conveyed away, raises the value of the
elasticity above that which otherwise ii -^jould have, and
which was assigned to it by Sir Isaac Newton,
Thus, in a perfect gas, it is demonstrable by the priii
ciples of Thermodynamics, that the elasticity e, which, in
the undisturbed state of the medium, would be simply
equal to the pressure p, is to be made equal to yp, where
y is a number exceeding unity and represents the ratio of
the specific heat of the gas under constant pressure to its
specific heat at constant volume.
Hence, as air and most other gases may be practically
regarded as perfect gases, we have for them :
V= ^s= f^ . . . (II.)
17. From this the following inference may be drawn: —
Xhe velocity of sound in a given gas is unafi'ected by
chaiige of pressure if unattended by change of temperature.
P .
For, by Boyle's law, the ratio - is constant at a given
temperature. The accuracy of this inference has been con-
firmed by recent experiments of Regnault.
18. To ascertain the influence of change of temperature
on the velocity of sound in a gas, we remark that, by Gay
Lussac's law, the pressure of a gas at different tempera-
tures varies proportionally both to its density p and to
I +at, where t is the number of degrees of temperature
above freezing point of water (32° Fahr.), and a is the expan-
sion of unit of volume of the gas for every degree above
32°.
If, therefore, p, p„, p, p„ denote the pressures and densities
corresponding to temperatures Z2° + t° and 32°, we have:
^ = -1 (1 + aO
Po Pa
and hence, denoting the corresponding velocities of sound
by V, V„ we get
^= 7(1 +"0
whence, o being always a very small fraction, is obtained
very nearly:
V
1
Laplace's
correction.
Velocity of
sOUQtl ill
.lir is inde-
pendent
of the
prebsure.
EfTect of
change of
tenipera-
:nre.
v„
-i--«andV-V,= 2.<.V,
The velocity increases, therefore, by - V„ for every de-
gree of rise of temperature above 32°.
19. The general expression for V given in (II.) may be
put in a difi'erent form : if we introduce a height H of the
gas, regarded as having the same density p throughout and
exerting the pressure p, then p=ffpTl, where g is the
acceleration of gravity, and there results :
V
Another
expressioiv
for V.
Now JiU. or ^2?.
7^
2
(in.'i
is the velocity U which would
bo acquired by a body falling in vacuo from a height —
Hence V = U Jy.
J 04
ACOUSTICS
JJnmcricul
fraluo of V
' »ir.
.1-110 ft.
<>
in ■lifTv.
it (jases
[Rx|»rl-
nienta for
'determiii-
(iiig V in
sir.
V ileppiicis
onintensity
of aouuil.
y depends
en the
pitch of
Bound.
If y were equal to 1, V ■= U, which is the result obtained
fcy Newton, nii'i would indicate that the velocity of sound
in a gas equals the velocity of a body falling from a height
equal to half of that of a homogeneous atniosphero of the
gas.
20. In common dry air at 32° Fahr., g being 32-2 ft., and
the mercurial barometer 30 ins. or 25 ft., the density of
air is to that of mercury as 1 : 10,485 '6 ; hence H =
10,458-6 x2-d ft. = 26,214 ft.
Also y= 1-408
Hence V,- ^1,408 x 32,2 x 26,214 = 1 090 ft.
and, by § 18, the increase of velocity for each degree of rise
/ , . IN. 1090 545
of temperature [a being — j 's — or -^
•crj' n(Jlfrly.
21. If the value of y were the same for different gases,
it is obvious from formula V= /y ? that, at a given
temperature, the velocities of sound in those gases would be to
each other inversely as the square roots of their den.sities.
Eegiiault has foiuid that this is so for common air, carbonic
acid, nitrous oxide, hydrogen and ammoniacal gas (though
less so as regards the two la.st).
22. The experimental determination of the velocity of
sound in air has been carried out by ascertaining accurately
the time intervening between the flash and report of a gnn
as oljserved at a given distance, and dividing the distance
by the time. A discussion of the many experiments con-
ducted on this principle in various countries and at various
periods, by Van Der Kolk (Land, and Edin. /'hi!. May.,
July 1865), assigns to the velocity of sound in dry air at
32° Fahr., 1091 ft. 8 in. per second, with a probable error
of ±3-7 ft; and .still more recently (in 1871) Mr Stone,
the Astronomer Royal at the Cape of Good Hope, has
found 1090-6 as the result of careful experiments by him-
self there. The coincidence of these numbers with that
we have already obtained theoretically suificiently estab-
lishes the general accuracy of the theory.
23. Still it cannot be overlooked that the formula for
V is founded on assumptions which, though approximately,
are not strictly correct. Thus, the air is not a perfect gas,
nor is the variation of elastic force, caused by the passage
through it of a wave of disturbance always very small in
comparison with the elastic force of the undisturbed air.
Eamshaw (1858) first drew attention to these points, and
came to the conclusion that the velocity of sound increases
with its loudness, that is, with the violence of the disturb-
ance. In confirmation of this statement, he appeals to a
singular fact, viz., that, during experiments made by
Captain Parry, in the North Polar Regions, for determin-
ing the velocity of sound, it was invariably found that the
report of the discharge of cannon was heard, at a distance
of 2J miles, perceptibly earlier than the sound of the word
fire, which, of course, preceded the discharge.
As, in the course of propagation in unlimited air, there
is a gradual decay in the intensity of sound, it would fol.
low that the velocity must also gradually decrease as the
sound proceeds onwards. This curious inference has been
verified experimentally by Regnault, who found the velocity
of sound to have decreased by 2 2 ft. per second in passing
from a distance of 4000 to one of 7500 feet.
24. Among other interesting results, derived by the
accurate methods adopted by Regnault, but which want of
space forbids us to describe, may be mentioned the de-
pendence of the velocity of sound on its pitch, lower notes
being, ccet. par., transmitted at a more rapid rate than higher
ones. Thus, the fundamental note of a trumpet travels
faster than ita harmonies.
25. The velocity of sound in liquids and BoKds (the di»- V inli(tni4«
placements being longitudinal), may be obtained by formula »"<* eolida
(I.), neglecting the thermic effects of the compresr.ions and
expansions as being comjjaratively inconsiderable, and may
be put in other forms:
Thus, if wp denote by • the change in length of one foot
of a column of the substance produced by its own weight
w, then e being = - or — , -we have - - - and hence:
• I - I
v^y?. . . . (IV.)
or, replacing - (which is the length in feet of a column
that would be increased 1 foot by the weight of 1 cubio
foot) by /,
V- ^/ir . . (V.)
which shows that the velocity la that due to a fall through
2 •
Or, again, in the case of a liquid, if ij denote the change
of volume, which would be i^roduced by an increase of
pressure equal to one atmosphere, or to that of a column
H of the liquid, since i is the change of volume due to
11 H 1
weight of a column 1 of the liquid, and .-. - = — end -
H
, we get
V =
,!?H
Ex. 1. For water.
(VL
2u,000 very nearly; H = 34 ft. V in water.
and hence V = 4680 feet.
This number coincides very closely with the value ob-
tained, whether by direct experiment, as by CoUadon and
Sturm on the Lake of Geneva in 1826, who found 4708,
or by indirect means which assign to the velocity in the
water of the Eiver Seine at 59° Fahr. a velocity of 4714 ft.
(Wertheim).
Ex. 2. For iron. Let the weight necessary to double V in iron.
the length of an iron bar be 4260 millions of lbs. on the
square foot. Then a length I will bo extended to / -1- 1 by
, 4260 millions lbs. , , rm • , ,
a force of on the sq. ft. ihis, therefore,
by our definition of I, must be the weight of a cubic foot
of the iron. Assuming the density of iron to be 7-8, and ,
62-32 lbs. as the weight of a cubic foot of water, we get
7-8 X 62-32 or 486 lbs. as the weight of an equal bulk of
iron. Hence
4260 millions
which gives V = ^gl
. 486 and I = —-r- miUions,
i ■.,,.
millions
-/
ir5? X 1000 = 1000 V284'
15
or V = 17,000 feet per second nearly.
As in the case of water and iron, so, in general, it may
be stated that sound travels faster in liquids than in air,
and stiU faster in solids, tlie ratio - being least in gases
f
and greatest in solids.
26. Biot, about 50 years ago, availed himself of the Eiperi-
great difference in the velocity of the propagation of sound Tnental de-
through metals and through air, to determine the ratio of termina-
the one velocity to the other. A bell placed near one ex- ''^■'' "' ^
tremity of a train of iron pipes forming a joint length of
upwards of 3000 feet, being struck at the same instant as
the same extremity of the pipe, a person placed at the
other extremity heard first Ae sound of the blow on the
pipe, conveyed through the iron, and then, after an interval
ACOUSTICS
105
of time, -which was noted as accurately as possible, the
sound of the bell transmitted through the air. The
result was a velocity for the iron of 10'5 times that in air.
Simil&r experiments on iron telegraph wire, made more
recently near Paris by Wertheim and Brequet, have led to
an almost identical number. Unfortunately, owing to
the metal in those experiments not forming a continuous
whole, and to other causes, the results obtained, which fall
short of those otherwise-found, cannot be accepted as correct.
Other means therefore, of an indirect character, to which
we will refer hereafter, have been resorted to for deter-
mining the velocity of sound in solids. Thus Wertheim,
from the pitch of the lowest notes produced by longitudinal
friction of wires or rods, has been led to assign to that
velocity values ranging, in different metals, from 16,822
feet for iron, to 4030 for lead, at temperature 68° Fahr.,
and which agree most remarkably with those calculated by
means of the formula V = / - . He points out. however,
tiat these values refer only to solids whose cross dimensions
are small in comparison with their length, and that in order
to obtain the velocity of sound in an unlimited solid mass,
it is requisite to multiply the value as above found by
J i OT ^ nearly. For while, in a solid bar, the extensions
and contractions due to any disturbance take place laterally
as well as longitudinally ; in an extended solid, they can
only occur in the latter direction, thus increasing the
vtiue of e.
27. To conyplete the discussion of tho velocity of the
propagation of sound, we have still to consider the case of
transversal vibrations, such as are executed by the points
of a stretched wire or cord when drawn out of its position
of rest bv a blow, or by the friction of a violin-bow.
Fig. i.
Velocity of Lgj q^ (gg 4) ^^ ^fjg position of the string when nndis-
tion of ' turbed, mnp when displaced. We wiU suppose the amount
ttensversal "^f displacement to be very small, so that we may regard
vibrations, the distance between any two given points of it as remain-
ing the same, and also that the tension P of tho string
is not changed in its amount, but only in its direction.
which is that of the string.
Take any origin 0 in ox, and ab = hc = Ix (a very small
quantity), then the perpendiculars am, In, cp, are the dis-
placements of abc. Let k, I be the middle points of mn,
np; then U (which = ot7i or ah very nearly) may be re-
garded as a very small part of the string acted on by two
forces each = P, and acting at n in the directions np, nm.
These give a component parallel to ac, which on our sup-
position is negligible, and another F along nb, such that
F = P^8in9-sin(9'1 = P. ("ll-^^^V.
\mn nqj
nq-pr
nqJ Jx
Now if c = a length of string of weight equal to P, and
the string be suppo.-ed of uniform thickness and density,
P P
the weight of ld = - .U = -. Ix, and the mass to of W =
P.
Ix.
Hence the acceleration / in direction nb \
J-
If we denote ma by y, oa by x, and the time by t, via
ehaU readily see that this equa'ion becomes ultimately,
(Py cpy
■which is satisfied by putting
y = 0 (a; -f Jge. t) + ili (x- Jgc. t)
where ^ and \p indicate any functions.
Now we know that if for a given value of t, x be in-
creased by the length A of the wave', the value of y remains
unchanged; hence,
4> {^+ Jff':- t) + iiC.^-*^(x + \+ Jfc. f) &c.
But this condition is equally satisfied for a given value of
... '^
X, by increasing J gc. t. by X, i.e., increasing t by ~y=^ .
This therefore must — T ''the time of a complete vibration
of any point of the string j. But V = =;. Hence,
V = V^ (VIL)
is the expression for the velocity or sound when due to
very small transversal vibrations of a thin wire or chord,
which velocity is consequently the same as would be
acquired by a body falling through a height equal to one
half of a length of the chord such as to have a weight
equal to the tension.
The above may also be put in the form —
9P
where P is the tension, and w the weight of the unit of
length of the chord.
28. It appears then that while sound is propagated by
longitudinal vibrations through a given substance with the
same velocity under all circumstances, the rate of its trans-
mission by transversal vibrations through the saiae sub-
stance depends on the tension and on the thickness. Tte
former velocity bears to the latter the ratio of J~l: J~c,
(where / is the length of the substance, which would be
lengthened one foot by the weight of one foot, if we take
the foot as our unit) or of /- : 1, that is, of the square
root of the length which would be extended one foot by
the weight of c feet, or by the tension, to 1. This, for
ordinary tensions, results in the velocity for longitudinal
vibrations being verv much in excess of that for transversal
vibrations.
29. It is a well known fact that, in all but very excep-
tional cases, the loudness of any sound is less as the dis-
tance increases between the source of sound and the ear.
The law according to which this decay takes place is the
same as obtains in other natural phenomena, viz., that in
an unlimited and uniform medium the loudness or intensity
of the sound proceeding from a very small sounding body
(strictly speaking, a point) varies inversely as the square
of the distance. This follows from considering that the
ear AC receives only the conical portion OAC of the whole
volume of sound emanating from O, and that in order that
an ear BD, placed at a
greater distance from O,
may admit the same
quantity, its area must be
to that of AC : as OB^ :
0A2. But if A' = AC
be situated at same dis- ^ig- 6-
tance as BD, the amount of sound received by it and by
BD (and therefore by AC) will be as th<> area of A' or
Compari-"
son of V
for trans- '
versal and
for loDgi- •
tudinal
vibrations.
Law ot >
decay of '
intensity 0^
sounds
with in-
creased dia^
tance.
AC to that of BD.
Hence, the intensities of the sound
L — 14
106
ACOUSTICS
heard by the same ear at the difitanucs OA and OB are to
each other as OB- to OA''.
Iiifluenceot 30. In order to verify the above law when the atmo-
iliminished Bptere forms the intervening medium, it would be necessary
density of jg fggj jj. ^j ^ considerable elevation above the earth's
inU!n8ity"of surface, the car and the source of sound being separated
sound. 'by air of constant density. As the density of the air
diminishes, we should then find that the loudness of the
sound at a given distance would decrease, as is the case in
the air-pump experiment previously described. Thia arises
from the decrease of the quantity of matter impinging on
the ear, and the consequent diminution of its vis-viva.
The decay of sound due to this cause is (fbServable in the
rarefied air of high mountainous regions. De Saussure, the
celebrated Alpine traveller, mentions that the report of a
pistol at a great elevation appeared no louder than would
a small cracker at a lower level.
But it is to be remarked that, according to Poisson,
when air-strata of different densities are interposed between
the source of sound and the ear placed at a given distance,
the intensity depends only on the density of the air at the
source itself; whence it follows that sounds proceeding
from the surface of the earth may be heard at equal dis-
tances as distinctly by a person in a floating balloon as by
one situated on the surface itself; whereas any noise origi-
nating in the balloon would be heard at the surface as
faintly as if the ear were placed in the rarefied air on a
level with the balloon. This was exemplified during a
balloon ascent by Glaiaher and Coxwell, who, when at an
elevation of 20,000 Itet, heard with great distinctness the
whistle of a locomotivo jissing beneath them.
Tart m.
Reflexion and Refraction of Sound.
31. When a wave of sound travelling through one
medium meets a second medium of a different kind, the
vibrations of its own particles are communicated to the
particles of the new medium, so that a wave is excited in
the latter, and is propagated through it with a velocity de-
pendent on the density and elasticity of the second medium,
and therefore differing in general from the previous velocity.
The direction, too, in which the new wave travels is dif-
ferent from the previous one. This change of direction is
termed refraction, and takes place according to the same
laws as does the refraction of light, viz., (1.) The new
direction or refracted ray lies always in the plane of
incidence, or plane which contains the incident ray (i.e.,
the direction of the wave in the first medium), and the
normal to the suriace separating the two media, at the
point in which the incident ray meets it; (2.) The sine of
the angle between the normal and the incident ray bears to
the sine of the angle between the normal and the refracted
ray, a ratio which is constant for the same pair of media.
For a theoretical demonstration of these laws, we must
refer to the art. Optics, where it will be shown that the
ratio involved in the second law is always equal to the
ratio of the velocity of the wave in the first medium to the
velocity in the second ; in other words, the sines of the
angles in question are directly proportional to the velocities.
32. Hence sonorous rays, in passing from one medium
into another, are bent in towards the
normal, or the reverse, according as the
velocity of propagation in the former
exceeds or falls short of that in the latter.
Thus, for instance, sound is refracted
towards the perpendicular when passing
into air from water, or into carbonic acid
gas from air; the converse is the case when
the passage takes place the opposite way.
Laws ot
refraction.
Refraction
is to or
Irom the
norraal ac-
cording to
relative
values of
tlie velo-
cities.
Limiting
angle and
toUl ra
fiejdon.
Fig. 6.
33. It further follows, as in the analogous case of light,
that there is a certain angle termed the limiting anffle,
whose time is found by dividing the less by the greater
velocity, such that all rays of sound meeting the surface
separating two different bodies will not pass onwar<l,
but suffer total reflexion back into the first Ixxly, if
the velocity in that body is less than that in the other
body, and if the angle of incidence exceeds the limiting
angle.
The velocities in air and water oeing respectively 1090
and 4700 feet, the limiting angle for these media may bo
easily shown to be slightly above 15J°. Hence, rays of
sound proceeding from a distant source, and therefore
nearly parallel to each other, and to PO (fig. 6), the angle
POM being greater than 15 J", will not pass into the water
at all, but suffer total reflexion. Under such circumstances,
the report of a gun, however powerftil, would be inaudible
by an ear placed in the water.
34. As light is concentrated into a focus by a convex Aconstio
glass lens (for which the velocity of light is less than for •'-'"'"■
the air), so sound ought to be made to converge by passing
through a convex lens formed of carbonic acid gas. On
the other hand, to produce convergence with water or
hydrogen gas, in both which the velocity of sound exceeds
its rate in air, the lens ought to be coTieave, These results
have been confirmed expcriiiientally by Sondhaus and
Hajech, who also succeeded in verifj-ing the law of the
equality of the index of refraction to the ratio of the
velocities of sound.
35. When a wave of sound falls on a surface separating Laws of
two media, in addition to the refracted wave transmitted 'flesion-
into the new medium, which we have ju.st been consider-
ing, there is also a fresh wave formed in the new medium,
and travelling in it in a different direction, but, of course,
with the same velocity. This reflected wave is subject to
the same laws as regulate the reflexion of light, viz., (1.)
the coincidence of the planes of incidence and of reflexion,
and (2.) the equality of the angles of incidence and
reflexion, that is, of the angles made by the incident and
reflected rays with the normal.
36. As in an ellipse (fig. 7), the normal PG at any point Refleiun
bisects the angle SPH (S, H by - sphe-
being the foci), rays of sound — '""'-
diverging from S, and falling on
the spheroidal surface formed by
the revolution of tlie ellipse about
the longest diameter AB, will be
reflected to H. Also, since SP
+ PH is always = AB, the times in which the different rays
will reach H will all be equal to each other, and hence a
crash at S wiU be heard as a crash at H.
37. At any point P of a parabola (fig. 8) of which S is Kelleiioii
the focus, and AX the axis, the normal. PQ bisects the ^.P^
angle SPX, PX being
drawn parallel to AX.
Hence rays of sound
diverging from S, and
falling on the paraboloid
formed by the revolution
of the parabola about its
axis, wiU all be reflected
in directions parallel to
the axis. And vice versa
rays of sound XP, XQ,
bolic np
faces.
Fig. 8.
A-c, from a very distant source, and parallel to the axis of
a paraboloid, will be reflected into the focus. Con
sequently, if two reflecting paraboloids be placed at a
considerable distance from and opposite to each other,
with their axis coincident in direction (fig. 9), the tick of
a watch placed at the focus S of one will be heard di»
tinctly by an ear at S'. the focus of the other.
ACOUSTICS
107
Echoes.
Fig. 9.
38. As a Imninous object may give a succession of
images ■when placed between two or more reflecting sur-
faces, so also in like circum-
jStances may a aound suffer
[repetition.
To these principles are
easily traceable all the pecu-
liarities of echoes. A wall
or steep cliff may thus send
back, somewhat reduced in
intensity, a shout, the report
of a pistol, ifcc. The time
which elapses between the sound and its echo may be
easily deduced from the known velocity of sound in air,
if the distance of the wall be given. Thus, for a distance
of 37 yards, the interval will be found by dividing the
ilouble of that or 74 yards by 370 yards, the velocity of
Eound at 50° Fahr., to amount to ^ of a second. Hence, if
we assume that the rate at which syllables can be distinctly
uttered is five per second, the wall must be at a distance
iD-xceeding 37 yards to allow of the echo of a word of one
syllable reaching the ear after the word has been uttered,
74 yards for a word of two syllables, and so on.
If the reflecting surface consists of one or more walls,
cliffs, itc, forming together a near approach in shape to
that of a prolate spheroid or of a double parabolic surface,
then two points may be found, at one of which if a source
cf sound be placed, there will be produced, by conver-
gence, a distinct echo at the other. As examples of this
may be mentioned the whispering gallery in St Paul's,
I..ondon, and the stOl more remarkable case of the
Cathedral of Girgenti i;? Sicily mentioned by Sir John.
Herschel.
Sonnrl con. 39. On similar principles of repeated reflexion may be
»ej-ed over explained tie well-known fact that sounds may be con-
water, &.C. veyed to great distances with remarkably slight loss of
intensity, on a level piece of ground or smooth sheet of
water or ice, and still more so in pipes, chimneys, tunnels,
itc Thus, in one of Captain Parry's Polar expedi-
tions, a conversation was on one occasion carried on,
at a distance of IJ nule, between two individuals sepa-
rated by a frozen sheet of water. M. Biot heard distinctly
from jne end of the train of pipes f cf a mile long,
previously referred to, a low whisper proceeding from
the opposite end.
Practical illustrations are afforded by the system of
communication by means of tubing now so extensively
adopted in public and private buildings, and by the speak-
ing trumpet and the far trumpet
40. The prolonged roll of thunder, with its manifold
varieties, is partly to be ascribed to reflexion by moun-
tains, clouds, (tc. ; but is mainly accounted for on a diffe-
rent acoustic principle, viz., the comparatively low rate of
transmission of sound through air, as was first shown
by Dr Hooke at the close of the 17th century. The ex-
planation will be more easily understood by adverting
to the case of a voUey fired by a long line of troops. A
person situated at a point in that line produced, will first
it is evident hear the report of the nearest musket, fol-
lowed by that of the one follo-vring, and so down to the
last one in the line, which will close the prolonged roU
thus reaching his ear j and as each single report will appear
to him less intense according as it proceeds from a greater
distance, the roll of musketry thus heard will be ore of
gradaally decreasing loudr.ess. But if he were to place
himself at a relatively great distance right opposite to
the centre of the line, the separate reports from each of
the two wings would reach him nearly at the same moment,
and .hence the sound of the volley would now approach
more nearly to that of a single loud crash. If the line of
Thimiler.
Boldiers formea an arc of a circle having Its centre in his
position, then the distances gone over by the separate
reports being equal, they would reach his ear at the same
absolute instant of time, and with exactly equal intensi-
ties; and the effect produced would be strictly the same
as that of a single explosion, equal in violence to the sum
of all the separate discharges, occurring at the same dis-
tance. It is easy to see that, by varying the form of the
line of troops and the position of the observer, the sonorous
effect win be diversified to any extent desired. If then
we keep in view the great diversity of form exhibited by
bghtning-flashes, which may be regarded as being Hies, at
the points of which are generated explosioms at the same
instant of time, and the variety of distance and relative
position at which the observer may be placed, we shall
feel no difficulty in accounting for all those acoustic pheno-
mena of thunder to which Hooke's theory is applicable.
Pam IV.
The Principles of Musical SarTnpny.
41. A few words on the subject of musical Tiurmon^
must be introduced here for the immediate purposes of
this article, further details being reserved for the special
article on that subject.
Sounds in general exhibit three different qualified, so
far as their ett'ect on the ear is concerned, viz., loudness,
pitch, and timbre.
Loudness depends, ccet. par., on the violence with which
the vibrating portions of the ear are excited; and there-
fore on the extent or amplitude of the Wbrations of the
body whence the sound proceeds. Hence, after a bell has
been struck, its effect on the ear gradually diminishes as
its vibration becomes less and less extensive. By the
theory of vibrations, loudness or intensity is measured by
the vis-viva of the vibrating particles, and is consequently
proportional to the square of their maximum velocity or
to the square of their maximum displacement. Helm-
holtz, however, in his remarkable work on the perception
of tone, observes that notes differing in pitch differ also in
loudness, where their vis viva is the same, the higher note
always exhibiting the greater intensity.
42. Difference of pitch is that which finds expression in
the common terms applied to notes : Acute, shrill, high,
sharp, grave, deep, low, fiat. We will point out presently in
what manner it is established that this quality of sound de-
pends on the rapidity of vibration of the particles of air in
contact with the external parts of the ear. The pitch of
a note is higher in proportion to the number x>l vibrations
of the air corresponding to it, in a given time, such as one
V
second. If n denote this number, then, by § 13, n =—,
and hence, V being constant, the pitch is higher the less
the length X of the wave.
43. Timbre, or, as it is termed by German authors,
Maruf-farbe, rendered by TyndaU into clang-colour or clang-
lint,\>VL\. forwhich we wouldsubstitute the expression acojisiw;
colour, denotes that peculiarity of impression produced on
the ear by sounds otherwise, in pitch, loudness, ic, alike,
whereby they are recognisable as different from each other.
Thus human voices are readily interdistioguishable ; so
are notes of the same pitch and intensity, produced by
different instruments. The question whence arises this dis-
tinction must be deferred for the present.
44. Besides the three qualities above mentioned, there
exists another point in which sounds may be distinguished
among each other, and which, though perhaps reducible to
difference of timbre, requires some special remarks, viz.,
that by which sounds are characterised, either as noises or
as muMcal notes. A musical note is the result of reeular.
Loudness
depends on
e-vteut of
vibration.'
Pitch de-
pends cir
rapidity of
vibration.
Timbre.
DistincttoD
between
noises and
musical
notes.
108
ACOUSTICS
Laws of
musical
Iiarmony.
Patios of
vibrutions.
Unison.
Octave.
Tivel!'tl>
aijj Fillli
periodic vibrations of the air-particles acting on the car,
and therefore also of the body whence they proceed, each
]inrticIo pa.ising through the same phase at stated intervals
ijf time. On the other hand, the motion to which noise is
due is irregular and flitting, alternately fast and slow,
and creating in the mind a bewildering and confusing
effect of a more or less unpleasant character. Noise may
also bo produced by combining in an arbitrary manner
several musical notes, as when one leans with the forearm
against the keys of a piano. In fact, the composition of
regular periodic motions, thus effected, is equivalent to an
irregular motion.
'45. We now proceed to state the laws of musical har-
mony, and to desonbe certain instrnments by means of
which they admit of being experimentally established.
The chief of these laws are as follow : —
(1.) The notes employed in music alwiiya TOrrespond
to certain deGnite and invariable ratios between the num-
bers of vibrations performed in a given time by the air
\vhen conveying these notes to the ear, and these ratios
are of a very simple kind, being restricted to the various
permutations of tho first four prime numbers 1, 2, 3, 5,
and their powers.
(2.) Two notes are in unison whose corresponding vibra-
tioift are executed exactly at the same rate, or for which
{denoting by n, n, the numbers per second) -» — 1. This
ratio or interval (as it is termed) is the simplest possible.
2, and is
termed the octave.
(4.) The interval -1 — 3 is termed the twelfth, and if
we reduce the higher note of the pair by an 8", i.e., divide
its number of vibrations by 2, we obtain the interval
-^ = -, designated as the interval of the f/th.
Major
third.
Major
sixth.
Minor
third.
Foolth.
Second.
jeventb.
Diatonic*
cale.
(3.) The next interval is that in which — ■
n
(5.) The interval
5 has no particular name at-
tached to it, but if we lower the higher note by two
8™ or divide n, by 4, we get the interval --^ - -, or the
interval of the mqjor third.
(6.) The interval -^ - - is termed the myor sixth,
n 3
The interval -^ - — — =- - is termed the minor
n 5
(7.
third.
(S.) The interval ^
2x2
3
- is termed the fourth
another fifth, which
9 . 3 3
(9.) The interval - which, being — r x -, may be r&-
~2~
garded as formed by taking in the first place a note one-
fifth higher than the key-note or fundajuental, i.e., higher
3
than the latter by the interval -, thence ascending by
3 3
gives us - X - and lowering this by
g
an octave, which results in - , which is called the second
8
(10.) The interval -r or t x - may be regarded as the
o 2 4
major tliird' (- j of the fifth (- j,and is called the interval
of the seventh.
46. If the key-note or fundamental be denoted by C,
and the notes, whose intervals above C are those just
enumerated, by D, E, F, G, A, B, C, we form what is
known in music aa tho natural or diatonic: scale, in which
therefore the intervals reckoned from C are successively
9 S 4 3 8 IS
8' 4' 3' 2' 3' 8' "
and therefore, tho intervals between each Lote and the
ono following are
9
10
16
9
10
9
18
8'
8"
16'
8"
9'
8'.
i's
Of these last intervals the first, fourth, and eirtA are
g
each — -, which is termed a mcy'or tone. The second and
8'
ilojortone.
ilLDOr t0t;*j
10
jifih are each - — , which is a ratio slightly less than
tho former, and hence is called a miner tone. The third
and seventh ore each — — , to which is given the name uf
semi-tone.
By interjxising an additional note between each pair of
notes whoso intcr\'al is a major or a minor tone, the result-
ing series of notes may bo made to exhibit a nearer ap-
proach to equality in the intervals successively separating
them, which will be very nearly semi-tonet. This sequence
of twelve notes forms the cl.tomcUic scale. Tho note inter-
posed between C and D is either C sharp (Cf) or D flat
(Db), according as it is formed by raisivj C a eeniitone or
lowering D by the same amount.
47. Various kinds of apparatus have been contrived with
a view of confirciing expenmentaUy tho truth of the laws
of musical harmony as above stated.
Savart's toothed wheel apparatus consists of a brass
wheel, whose edge is divided into a number of equal pro-
jecting teeth distributed uniformly over the circumference,
and which is capable of rapid rotation about an axis per-
pendicular to its plane and passing through its centre, by
means of a series of multiplying wheels, the last of which
is turned round by the hand. Tho toothed wheel being
set in motion, the edge of a card or of a funnel-shaped
piece of common note paper is held against the teeth,
when a note will bo heard arising from the rapidly suo-
ceeding displacements of the air in its vicinity. The pitch
of this note will, agreeably to the theory, rise as the rat»
of rotation increases, and becomes steady when that rota-
tion is maintained uniform. It may thus be brought into
unison with any sound of which it may be required to
determine the corresponding number of vibrations per
second, as for instance the note Aj, three 8"* higher than
the A which is indicated musically by a small circle placed
between the second and third lines of the G clef, which
A is the note of the tuning-fork usually employed for
regtJating concert-pitch. A; may be given by a piano.
Now, suppose that the note produced with Savart's appa-
ratus is in unison with Aj, when the experimenter turns
round the first wheel at the rate of 60 turns per minute or
one per second, and that the circumferences of the various
multiplying wheels are such that the rate of revolution of
the toothed wheel is thereby increased 44 times, then the
latter wheel will perform 44 revolutions in a second, and
hence, if the number of its teeth be 80, the number of
taps imparted to the card every second will amount to
44 X 80 or 3520. This, therefore, is the number of vibra-
tions corresponding to the note A3. If we divido this by
2^ or 8, we obtain 440 as the number of vibrations answer-
ing to the note A. This, however, tacitly assumes that
the bands by which motion is transmitted from wheel to
wheel do not slip during the experiment. If, as is always
more or less the case, slipping occurs, a different mode for
determining the rate at which the toothed wheel revolves,
such as is employed ia the syren of De la Tour {vide below),
must be adopted.
Scmlton*.
OiroraaW"
»ca]e.
Sarart'i
toothed
'Jrheel ftp.
parator
COUSTICS
109
If, for the single toothed wheel, be substituted a set
of four with a common axis, in which the teeth are in
the ratios 4:5:6:8, and if the card be rapidly passed
along their edges, we shall hear distinctly produced the
fundamental chord C, E,G, C\ and shall thus satisfy our-
selves that the intervals C, E : C, G, and C C, are (as they
5 3
ought to be) -, -, and 2 respectively.
48. The st/ren of Seebeck is the simplest form of appa-
ratus thus designated, and consists of a large circular disc
of pasteboard mounted on a central axis, about which it
may be made to revolve with moderate rapidity. This disc
13 perforated with smaU round holes arranged in circles
tibout the centre of the disc. , In the first series of circles,
rsckoning from the centre, the openings are so made as to
divide the respective circumferences, on which they are
found, in aliquot parts bearing to each other the ratios of
the numbers 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32, 40, 48,
64. The second series consists of circles each of which is
formed of two sets of perforations, in the first circle arranged
as 4 : 5, in the next as 3 : 4, then as 2 : 3, 3 : 5, 4 : 7.
In the outer series is a circle divided by perforations into
four sets, the numbers of aliquot parts being as 3 : 4 : 5 : 6,
followed by others which we need not further refer to.
The disc being started, then by means of a tube held at
cue end between the lips, and applied near to the disc at
the other, or more easily with a common bellows, a blast
of air is made to fall on the part of the disc which con-
tains any one of the above circles. The current being
alternately transmitted and shut off, as a hole passes on
and off the aperture of the tube or bellows, causes a vibra-
tory motion of the air, whose rapidity depends on the
number of times per second that a perforation passes the
mouth of the tube. Hence the note produced with any
given circle of holes rises in pitch as the disc revolves
more rapidly; and if, the revolution of the disc being kept
as steady as possible, the tube be passed rapidly across the
circles of the first series, the notes heard are found to pro-
duce on the ear, as required by theory, the exact impres-
sion corresponding to the ratios 2:4: &c., i.e., of a series
of notes, which, if the lowest be denoted by C, form the
sequence C C, Ej G, C, &c., &;. In Hke manner, the first
circle in which we have two sets of holes dividing the circum-
ference, the one into say 8 parts, and the other into 10, or
in ratio 4 : 5, the note produced is a compound one, such
as would be obtained by striking on the piano two notes
separated bv th« iutecyal of a major third ( - ]. Similar
results, aU agreeing with the theory, are obtainable by
means of the remaining perforations.
A still simpler form of syren may be constituted with a
good spinning top, a perforated card disc, and a tube for
blowing with.
49. The syren of Cagnard de la Tour is founded on the
same principle as the preceding. It consists of a cylindrical
chest of brass, the base of which is pierced at its centre
with an opening in which is fixed a brass tube projecting
outwards, and intended for supplying the cavity of the
cylinder with compressed air or other gas, or even liquid.
The top of the cylinder is formed of a plate perforated near
its edge by ioles distributed uniformly in a circle concen-
tric with the plate, and which are cut obliquely through
the thickness of the plate. Immediately above this fixed
plate, and almost in contact with it, is
another of the same dimensions, and
furnished with the same number, n, of
openings similarly placed, but passing
obliquely through in an opposite direction
frum those in the fixed plate, the one set
being inclined to the loft, the other to the right.
\'
Fie. 10.
This second plate is capable of rotation about a steel
axis perpendicular to its plane and passing through its
centre. Now, let the movable plate be at any time in a
position such that its holes are immediately above those in
the fixed plate, and let the bellows by which air is forced
into the cylinder (air, for simplicity. Being supposed to be
the fiuid employed) be put in action ; then the air in ita
passage will strike the side of each opening in the mov-
able plate in an oblique direction (as shown in fig. 10), and
Wl therefore urge the latter to rotation round its centra.
After -th of a revolution, the two sets of perforations wiH
again coincide, the lateral impuliTe of the air repeated, and
hence the rapidity of rotation increased. This will go on
continually as long as air is suppUed to the cylinder, and
the velocity of rotation of the upper plate will be accelerated
u^ to a certain maximum, at which it may be maintained
by keeping the force of the current constant.
Now, it is evident that each coincidence of the perforar
tions in the two plates is followed by a non-coincidence,
during which the air-current is shut off, and that con-
sequently, during each revolution of the upper plate, there
occur n alternate passages and interceptions of the current.
Hence arises the same number of successive impulses of
the external air immediately in contact with the movable
plate, which is thus thrown into a state of vibration at the
rate of n for every revolution of the plate. The result is
a note whose pitch rises as the velocity of rotation increases,
and becomes steady when that velocity reaches its constant
value. If, then, we can determine the number m of revolu-
tions performed by the plate in every second, we shall at
once have the number of vibrations per second correspond-
ing to the audible note by multiplj-ing m by re.
For this purpose the steel axis is furnished at its upper
part with a screw working into a toothed wheel, and driv-
ing it round, during each revolution of the plate, through
a. space equal to the interval between two teeth. An
index resembling the hand of a watch partakes of this
motion, and points successively to the divisions of a
graduated dial. On the completion of each revolution of
this toothed wheel (which, if the number of its teeth be
100, will comprise 100 revolutions of the movable plate),'
a projecting pin fixed to it catches a tooth of another
toothed wheel and turns it round, and with it a correspond-
ing index which thus records the number of turns of the
first toothed wheel. As an example of the application of
this syren, suppose that the number of revolutions of the
plate, as shown by the indices, amounts to 5400 in a
minute of time, that is, to 90 per second, then the number
of vibrations per second of the note heard amounts to
90n, or (if number of holes in each plate = 8) to 720.
50. Dove, of Berlin, has produced a modification of the ^°''^ '
syren by which the relations of different musical notes "^"^^^
may be more readily ascertained. In it the fixed and
movable plates are each furnished with four concentric
series of perforations, dividing the circumferences into
different aliquot parts, asp. ex., 8, 10, 12, 16. Beneath-
the lower or fixed plate are four metallic rings furni.shed
with holes corresponding to those in the plates, and which
may be pushed round by projecting pins, so as to admit
the air-current through any one or more of the series of
perforations in the fixed plate. Thus, may be obtained,
either separately or in various combinations, the four notes
whose vibrations are in the ratios of the above numbers,
and which therefore form the fundamental chord (GEO Cj).
The invenior has given to this instrument the name of the
many-voiced syren.
61. Heknholtz has further adapted the syren for more |,j,jj^j
extensive use, by the addition to Dove's instrument ofdoui,!^
another chest containiuB its own fixed and movable per-svrea..
ilO
ACOUSTICS
ViHo-,
graphs
The Plion
fiato<
forated plates and perforated rings, both the moveable plates
being driven by the same current and revolving about a com-
mon axis. Annexed is a figure of this instrument (fig. 1 1).
02. The relation between the pitch of a note and the
frequency of the correspond-
ing Wbrations has also been
studied by yraphic methods.
Thus, if an ela.stic metal slip
or a pig's bristle be attached
to one prong of a tuning-
fork, and if the fork, while
in Wbration, is moved rapidly
over a glass plate coated with
lamp black, the attiched slip
touching the plate lightly, a
vavy lino wUl be traced on
;he plate answering to the
vibrations to and fro of the
;ork. The same result will
be obtained with a stationary
fork and a movable glass
plate; and, if the time oc-
cupied by the plate in moving
through a given distance can " •
be ascertained, and the number of complete undulations ex-
hibited on the plate for that distance, which is evidently
the number of vibrations of the fork in that time, is
reckoned, we sliaU have determined the numerical vibra-
tion-value of the note yielded by the fork. Or, if the same
plate be moved in contact with two tuning-forks, we shall,
by comparing the number of sinuosities in the one trace
with that in the other, be enabled to assign the ratio of
the corresponding numbers of vibrations per second. Thu.',
if the one note be an octave higher than the other, it will
give double the number of waves in the same distance. The
motion of the plate may be simply produced by dropping
it between two vertical grooves, the tuning-forks being
properly fixed to a frame above.
53. Greater accuracy may be attained with the so-called
Yibrograph or I'honautogrciph (Duhamel's or Ktenig's),
consisting of a glass cylinder coated with lamp-black, or,
better still, a mutallio cylinder round which a blackened
sheet of paper is wrapped. The cylinder is mounted on a
Vorizontal axis and turned round, while the pointer attached
to the vibrating body is in light contact with it, and traces
therefore a wavy circle, which, on taking off the paper and
flattening it, becomes a wavy straight line. The superiority
of this arrangement arises from the comparative facility
with which the number of revolutions of the cylinder in a
given time may be ascertained. In Koenig's phonauto-
graph, the axis of the cylinder is fashioned as a screw,
which works in fixed nuts at *he ends, causing a sliding as
well as a rotatory motion of the cyKnder. The lines traced
ont by the vibrating pointer are thus prevented from over-
lapping when more than one turn is given to the cylinder.
Any sound whatever may be made to record its trace on
the paper by means of a large parabolic cavity resembling
a speaking-trumpet, which is freely open at the wider ex-
tremity, but is closed at the other end by a thin stretched
membrane. To the centre of this membrane is attached a
small feather-fibre, which, when the reflector is suitably
placed, touches lightly thfi surface of the revolving cylinder.
Any sound (such as that of the human voice) transmitting
its rays into the reflector, and communicating vibratory
motion to the membrane, will cau.«e the feather to trace a
sinuous Une on the paper. If, at the same time, a tuning-
fork of known number of vibrations per second be made to
trace its own line close to the other, a comparison of the
two Unes gives the number corresponding to the sound
nnder consideration.
Paet V.
Stationary Wavet.
54. We hcve hitherto, in treating of the propagation of Stationtry
waves of sound, assumed that the. medium through which «avM pro-
it took place was unlimited in all directions, and th^t the ''"'^'" "^
source of sound was single. In order, however, to under- Msiu pro-
stand the principles of the production of sound by musical gieseivo
instruments, we must now direct our attention to the case wave*,
of two waves from different sources travelling through the
same medium in opposite directions. Any particle of the
medium being then affected by two different vibrations at
the same instant will necessarily exhibit a different state
of motion from that due to either wave acting sepai'ately
from the other, and we have to inquire what is the result of
this mutual interference (as it is termed) of the two given
waves. Supposing, as sufficient for our purpose, that the
given waves are of equal lengths and of equal amplitudes,
in other words, tha*. the corresponding notes are of the
same pitch and equally loud; and supposing, further, that
they are ad\'ancing in exactly opposite directions, we shall
now show that the result of the mutual interference of two
such waves is the production of a stationary wave, that
is, taking any line of particles of the medium along
the direction of motion of
the component waves, cer- i S > •; '
tain of them, such as a, c,
e ... at intervals each F'J- ^-■
= -, will remain constantly in their usual undisturbed posi-
tions. All the particles situated between a and c will
Wbrate (transversely or longitudinally, as the case may
be) to and fro in the same direction as they would if
affected by only one of the interfering waves, but with
different amplitudes of vibration, ranging from zero at a to
a ma.ximum <vt b and thence to zero at c. Those between c
and e will vibrato in like manner, but always in an opposite
direction to the similarly placed jiaiticles in ac, and so on
alternately.
The annexed figures will represent to the eye the states of
motion at intervals of time =- ^ of the time T of a complete
vibration of the particles. In fig. 13, 1, the particles in
ac are at their greatest distances from their undisturbed
positions (above or to the right, according as the motion is
transversal or longitudinal) In fig. 13, 2, they are all in
their undisturbed positions. In fig. 1 3, 3, the dis; lace
ments are all reversed relatively to fig. 13, 1. In fig. 13,
4, the particles are again passing through their equilibrium
positions, resuming the positions indicated Ln fig. 13. 1,
after the time T.
The points ace, &c., which remain stationary are termed Nwlwawl
nodes, and the vibrating Mrts between them ventral n:nlril
segments. «:gmcnt8..
54a. Proof. In fig. 14, 1, the fiill curved line represents Pioot
the two interfering waves at an instant of time such that
ACOUSTICS
111
in their progress towards eacn other, they are then coinci-
dent. It is obvious that the particles of the medium will
at the moment in question' be displaced to double the ex-
tent of the displacement producible by either wave alone,
80 that the resultant wave may be represented by the dotted
curve. In fig. 14, 2, the two interfering waves, repre-
sented by the full and dotted curves respectively, have each
Fir. H.
passed over a distance = \\, the one to the right, the other
to the left, and it is manifest that any disturbance of the
medium, producible by the one wave, is completely neutra-
lised by the equal and opposite action of the other. Hence,
the particles of the medium are now in their undisturbed
positions, .^n fig. 14, 3, a furth'er advance of the two
waves, each in its own direction, over a space = \\ has
again brought them into coincidence, and the result is the
wave represented by the dotted line, which, it will be re-
marked, has its crests, where, in fig. 1, are found troughs.
In fig. 14, 4, after a further advance = J A, we have a repeti-
tion of the case of fig. 14, 2, the particles are now again un-
affected by the waves. A stiU further advance of \ \, or
of \ reckoned from the commencement, brings us back to
the same state of things as subsisted in fig. 14, 1. An^in-
spection and inter-comparison of the dotted lines in these
figures are now sufficient to establish the accuracy of tb"
laws, before mentioned, of stationary waves.
Part VL
Musical Strings.
65. Wo have in musical string.? an instance of tlv
occurrence of stationary waves.
Let AB (fig. 15) be a wire or
Btring, supposed meanwhile to
be fixed only at one extremity B,
and let the wire be, at any part,
excited (whether by passing a
violin bow across or by friction
along it), so that a wave (whether of tranaversml or longi-
tudinal vibrations) is propagated thence towards B. On
reaching this point, which is fixed, refit tion will occur,
in consequence of which the particles there will sufTer a
complete reversal of velocity, just as when a perfectly
elastic ball strikes aj;ainst a smooth surface perpendi-
cularly, it rebounds with a velocity equal and opposite to
Oat it previously had. TTence, the displacement duo to
Fig. 16.
the incident wave being BlI, the displacement after re-
flcxiou wiU be BN equal and opposite to BM. and a
reflected wave will result) represented by the faint lino
in the fig., which will travels with the same velocity, but
in the opposite direction to the incident wave fully lined in
the fig. The interference of these two oppositely pro-
gressing waves will consequently give rise to a stationary
wave (fig. IG), and if we
take on the wire distances ""^ £ jj"
BC, CD, DE, &c. = i X, Fig-1«-
the points B, C, D, E, . . . wiU be nodes, each of which
separate portions of the wire vibrating in opposite direc-
tions, i.e., ventral segments.
5G. Now, it is obvious that, inasmuch as a node is a poini
which remains always at rest while other parts of tho
medium to which it belongs are vibrating, such point may
be absolutely fixed without thereby interfering with tho
oscillatory motion of the medium. If, therefore, a length
AB of wire be taken equal to any multiple oi-, A may bo
fixed as well as B, the motion remaining the same as
before, and thus we shall have the usual case of a musical
string. The two extremities being now both fixed, there
wiU be repeated reflexions at both, and a consequent
persistence of two progressive waves advancing in opposite
directions and producing together the stationary wave
above figured.
57. We learn from this that a musical string is suscep- Funda- .
tible of an infinite variety of modes of vibration corro-™^^^^_
vionding to different numbers of subdivision into ventral
segments.
"Thus, it may have'but one ventral segment (fig. 17), or
but two nodes formed by its
fixed extremities. In this carse, — -""^ "
the note emitted by it is the ^
lowest which can possibly be Fig. 17.
obtained from it, or, as it is called, its fundamental note.
If / denote the length of the wire, by what has been already
proved, i- -, and therefore the length of the wave \ =
21. " Hence, V being the velocity of propagation of the ware
through the wire, the number », of vibrations performed
in the unit of time with the fundamental note is — .
The next possible sub-division of tho wire is into tu-c
ventral segments, the three
nodes being the two fixed ^^ ~~^^c
ends A, B, and the middle ■*
point C (fig. 18). Hence, ? = A, Fig. 18.
and the number of vibrations n.
= — or double of those of the fundamental
The note,
therefore, now is an 8" higher.
Reasoning in a like manner for the cases of three, four,
&c., ventral segments, we obtain the foUowing general
law, which is applicable alike to tranMcrsely and to longi-
tudinally vibrating ■svires :
A wire or string fixed at both ends is capable of yielding, ir.
addition to its fundammtal note, any one of a scries of notet
corresponding to 2, 3, 4 times, etc., the number of vibrationi
per second of the fundamental, viz., he octave, twelfth, doublt
octave, &c.
These higher notes are termed the harmonics or (by the
Germans) the overtones of the string.
It is to be remarked that the overtones are in general
fainter the higher they are in the series, because, as the
number of ventral segments or independently ■i-ibrating
parts of the string increases, the extent or amplitude of j,[^y i,g
tho vibrations diminishes. liesrd to-
68. Not only may tho fundamental and its narmouio gether.
112
ACOUSTICS
Hannonics,
bow best
obtaiued.
Compari-
son of fun-
damentals
of strings
vibrating
transverse-
ly and Ion-
gitadiiuUy.
TransverRe-
ly vibrat-
ing string
1
nx -J
bo obtained independently of each other, but they are also
to bo heard Bimultaneously, particularly, for the reason
just given, those that are lower in the scale. A practised
ear easily discerns the coexistence of these various tones
when a pianoforte or violin string is thrown into Tibration.
It is evident that, in such case, the string, while vibrating
as a whole betweeh its fixed
extremities, is at the same
time executing subsidiary oscil-
lations about its middle point,
its pointa of trisection, &c., as ^'^- ^^■
shown in fig. 19, for the fundamental and the first har-
monic.
TiO. The easiest means for oringing out the harmonics of
a string consists in drawing a violin-bow across it near to
ono end, while the feathered end of a quill or a hair-pencil
is held lightly against the string at the point which it is
intended shall furina node, and is removed just after the bow
is withdrawn. Thus, if a node is made in this way, at J
of AB from A, the note heard will be the twelfth. If
light paper rings be strung on the cord, they will be
driven by the vibrations to tlio nodes or points of rest,
which will thus bo clearly indicated to the eye.
CO. The formula "i - ^ shows that the pitch of the funda-
mental nolo of a wire of given length rises with the velocity
of propagation of sound through it. Now we have learned
(§ 28) that this velocity, in ordinarj- circumstances, is
enormously greater for a wire vibrating longitudinally than
for the same -mre vibrating transversely. The fundamental
note, therefore, is far higher in piitch in the former than in
the latter case. ,
As, however, the quantity V depends, for longitudinal
vibrations, solely on the nature of the medium, the pitch of
the fundamental not« of a wire rubbed along its length
depends — the material being the same, brass for instance —
on its length, not at all on its thickness, &c
But as regards strings vibrating transversely, such as
are mct^ with in our instrumental music, V, as we have
Been (§ 27), depends not only on the nature of the sub-
stance used, but also on its thickness and tension, and hence
the pitch of the fundamental, even with the same length
of string, will depend on all those various circumstances.
61. If we put for V its equivalent expressions before
given, we have for the fundamental note of transversely
vibrating strings :
21
.1 A
21 \/
^
whence the following inferences may be easily drawn:
If a string, its tension being kept invariable, have its
length altered, the fundamental note wiU rise in pitch in
exact proportion with its diminished length, that is, »
varies then inversely as /
Hence, on the violin, by placing a finger successively on
"4323 8 1
any one of the strings at -
5' 4' 3' 5' 15' 2' '^^
shall ob-
tain notes corresponding to numbers of vibrations bearing
to the fundameatal the ratios to unity of the following,
. 9543 15-,., , ,,
''^^> o> 7' Z> 7,1 "S"! ^) IV Inch notes form, therefore, with
o 4 o J o
the fundamental, the complete scale.
ni 62. By tightening a musical string, ita length remaining
v'Teoaion. unchanged, its fundamental is rendered higher. In fact,
then, n is proportional to the square root of the tension.
Thus, hj quadrupling the tension, the note is raised an
octave. Hence, the use of keys in tuning the violin, the
ngt pianoforte, (fee.
1 63. Equal lengths of strings of the same density and
thic'meM. equally stretched, but of different thicknesses, give funda-
mentals which are higher in pitch in proportion to dimi-
nution of thickness {i.e., n varies inversely as the thickness^
Thus, of two strings of same kind of gut, same length anti
same tension, if one be twice as thick aa the other, ita
fundamental will be an octave lower. Hence, three of tb«
strings of the violin, though all nf gut, have differen
fundamentals, because unequally thick.
64. Equally long and equally stretched strings or wires "*
of different thickness and different material, have funda- }
mentals higher in pitch the less the weights of the strings; ^*"«''*^'
n hero varies inversely as the square root of the weight a ^^i,
of a given length of the string.
65. If, in last case, the thicknesses of the strings mr
which are to be compared together are equal, then n vpries ^
inversely as the square root of the density. VJenaily.
Hence, in the violin and in the pianoforte, the lower
notes are obtained from wires formed of denser material.
Thus, the fourth string of the violin is formed of gut
covered with silver wire.
66. A highlj ingenious and instructive method 'for MeliS'aei-
illustrating the above laws of musical strings, has been perimcntal
recently contrived by M. Melde, and consists simply in '""'''™"
attaching to the ventral segment of a vibrating body,
such as a tuning-fork or a beU-gla."iS, a silk or cotton thread,
the other extremity being either fixed or passing over a
pulley and supporting weights by which the thread may be
stretched to any degree required. The vibrations of the
larger mass are communicated to tho thread which, by
proper adjustment of its- length and tension, vibrates in
unison and divides itself into one or more ventral segments
easily discernible by a spectator. H the length of the
thread be kept invariable, a certain tension will give but
one ventral segment; the fundamental note of the thread
is then of same pitch as the note of the body to which it
is attached. By reducing the tension to J of its previous
amount, the number of ventral segments will be seen to be
increased to two, indicating that the first harmonic of the
thread is now in unison with the solid, and consequently
that its fundamental is 'an octave lower than it was with
the former tension; thus confirming the law that n varies
as ;^/P. In like manner, on further lowering the tension
to J, three ventral segments will be formed, and so on.
The law that, aet. par., n varies inversely as the thick-
ness may be tested by forming a string of four lengths of
the single thread used before, and consequently of double
the thickness of the latter, when, for the same length and '
tension, the compound thread will exhibit double the nuxa-
ber of ventral segments presented by the eingle thread.
The other laws admit of similar illustration.
Paet ^^L
Slif Rods, Plates, <tc
67. If, instead of a string or thin wire, we make use of Kod, fiied
a rod or narrow plate, sufficiently stiff to resist flexure, we °' °"' ""*•
may cause it to vibrate
transversely when fixed
at one end only. In this
case the number of vi-
brations corresponding to
the fundamental note
varies as the thickness
directly, and as the square
of the length inversely.
The annexed figures re-
present the modes of vi-
bration corresponding to
the fundamental and the
first two overtones, the
rod passing to and fro
between the positions AGKC and AHLD.
In all cases .\
ACOUSTICS
113
Tuning-
fork.
Thinplates
Chladni's
figurea.
Square
plates
being fixed ia necessarily a node, and B being free is the
middle of a ventral segment. We have thus a succession
of cases in which the rod contains I, % », Ac. ventral seg-
ments. The numbers of vibrations per second are as the
squares of these, or, as 1 : 9 : 25 : &c. Tha reason of this
is, that (taking the case of fig. 20, 3) the part FB, which
may be regarded as an- independent rod fixed at the end
F, is evidently j of the length of A3, and consequently,
since n<x -, has a proper note of 5^ or 25 times the
rapidity of vibration in fig. 20, 1.
By attaching, with a Utile bees' wax, stiff hog's bristles
to one prong of a tuning-fork, or to the edge of a bell-
glass, or even a common jar, and clipping them on trial to
suitable lengths, we shall find that, on drawing a note in
the usual way from the tuning-fork or glass, the bristles
will divide into one or more separately vibrating segments,
as in the above figs.
68. The tvninrj-fork itself may be re-
garded as belonging to the class of stiff
rods. When emitting its fundamental
note, it vibrates, as in fig. 21, with nodes
at b and d and extreme positions ahcde
and fbgdh.
69. The transversal vibrations of thin
square, circular, and other plates of metal
or glass, are interesting, because, if these are
kept in a horizontal position, light dry sand
or powder sifted over the upper surface, will be thrown off
the ventral segments to the nodal lines, which will thus be
rendered manifest to the eye, forming what are termed
Chladni' I figures. As in the case of a musical string, so
here we find that the pitch of the npte is higher for a given
plate the greater the number of ventral segments into
which it is divided ; but the converse of this does not hold
good, two different notes being obtainable with the same
number of such segments, the position of the nodal lines
being, however, different.
70. The upper line of annexed figures shows how
the sand arranges itself in three cases, when the plates
are square. The lower line gives the same in a sort of
i
i 1
~^(
a
Fig. 22.
idealised form, and as usually to be found in acoustical
work.9. Fig. 22, 1 corresponds to the lowest possible note
of the particular plate used; Fig. 22, 2 to the fifth
higher; Fig. 22, 3 to the tenth or octave of the third,
the numbers of vib'^tion in the same time being as 2
to 3 to 0.
If the plate be small, it is sufficient, in order to bring
out the simpler sand-figures, to hold the plate firmly
between two fingers of the same hand placed at any point
where at lea.st two nodal lines meet, for instance the centre
in (1) and (2), and to draw a vioUn bow downwards across
the edge near the middle of a ventral segment. But with
larger plates, which alone will furnish the more complicated
figiu'cs, a dump-screw must be used fur fixing the plate, and.
Fig. 23.
at the same time, one or more other nodal points ought
to be touched with the fingers while the bow is being
ajiplied. In this way, any of the possible configurations
may be easily produced.
1\. By similar methods, a circular plate may be made Circular
to exhibit nodal lines dividing the surface by diametral P'*'*'.
lines into four or a greater, but always even, number of
sectors, an odd number being incompatible with the general
law of stationaay waves that the parts of a body adjoining
a nodal line on either side must always vibrate oppositely
to each other.
Another class of figures consists of
circular nodal lines along with dia-
metral (fig. 23).
Circular nodal lines unaccompanied
by intersecting lines cannot be pro-
duced in the manner described ; but may be got either
by drilling a small hole through the centre, and draw-
ing a horse-hair along its edge to bring out the note, or
by attaching a long thin elastic rod to the centre of the
plate, at right angles to it, holding the rod by the middle
and rubbing it lengthwise with a bit of cloth powdered
with resin, till the rod gives a distinct note ; the vibra-
tions are communicated to the plate, which consequently
vibrates transversely, and causes the sand to heap itself
into one or more concentric rings.
72. The theory of the vibrations of plates has not yet Theory
been put on a quite satisfactoiy basis. The following law ofCbladni
may, however, be regarded as confirmed by experiment, S'"'°'-
viz., that when two different plates of the same substance
present, the same nodal configuration, the numbers of
vibrations are to each other directly as the thicknesses, and
inversely as the superficial areas.
73. Paper, parchment, or any other thin membrane Vibrations
stretched over a square, circular, Ac, Irame, when in the "^ m^ni-
vicinity of a suflSciently powerful vibrating body, will,
through the medium of the air, be itself made to vibrate
in unison, and, by using sand, a" in previous instances,
the nodal lines will be depicted to the eye, and seen to
vary in form, number, and position with the tension of the
plate and the pitch of the originating sound. The mem-
brana tympani or drum of the ear has, in like manner and
on the same principles, the property of repeating the
vibrations of the external air which it co&municates to the
internal parts of the ear. •
74. Rods vibrating longitudinally are, as we have already Loig'tii-
remarked, subject to the laws of stationary waves. If, for J^.'°^' "'"'*
instance, a wooden rod fixed at one end, be rubbed near ^^^
the top betiveen the finger and thumb previously coated
with powdered resin, it will yield a fundamental note when
it so vibrates as to have only one node (at the fixed
extremity) and half a ventral segment reaching from that
extremity to the other, that is, when the length / of the
V
rod is ^ \, or \ = il, and therefore n = -j. But it may
also give overtones corresponding to 2, 3, <kc. nodes, the
free end being always the middle of a ventral segment,
and for which therefore the lengths of waves are -— , -r,
<tc. (as will be easily seen by referring to figs, in § 67,
which may equally represent transversal and longitudinal
displacements). Hence, the fundamental and harmonics
of a rod such as wo are now considering, have vibrations
whose rates arc as the succesiiive odd numbers.
A series of like rod.^, earli fixed at one end into a block
of wood, and of lengths bcnrijig to each other, the mtios
I : f : 'A'c. (as in § 61), will give the common scale when
rubbed in the manner already mentioned. This follows
V I
from the fundamental hann; « = ";, and therefore nx -z,
L - ■»
114
ACOUSTICS
Air it! the
essential
Bourcfl of
eotind in
pipes.
Principles
of Bcr-
nouilii's
theory.
Glas3 rods or tubes may also be made to vibr.ite longi-
tudinally by moans of a moist piece of cloth ; but it is
edvisable to clamp them firmly at the centre, when each
half will vibrate according to the eamo laws as the wooden
rods above. The existence of a motion of the particles of
glass to and fro in the direction of its length may be well
exhibited, by allowing a small ball of stone or metal
suspended by a string to rest against one extremity of the
rod, when, as soon as the latter is made to sing by friction,
the ball will be thrown 'off with considerable violence.
Past YIU.
Theory of Pipes.
75. The longitudinal vibrations of air enclosed in pipes
are of greater practical importance than those of other
bodies, because made available to a very great extent for
musical purposes. In the flute, horn, tnunpet, and other
wind instruments, it is the contained air that forms
the essential medium for the production of sound, the wood
or metal enclosing it having no other effect but to modify
the timbre or acoustic colour of the note.
7G. In dealing with the theory of pipes, we must treat
the air precisely in the same manner as we have dealt with
elastic rods vibrating lengthwise, a pipe stopped at both
ends being regarded as equivalent to a rod fixed at both
ends, a pipe open at both ends to a rod free at both ends,
and a pipe stopped at one end and open at the other to a
rod fixed at one end and free at the other. When there-
fore the air within the pipe is anywhere displaced along
the length of the pipe, two waves travel thence in opposite
directions, and being reflected at the extremities of the
pipe, there results a stationary wave with one or more
fixed nodal sections, on one side of which the air is at any
moment being displaced in one direction, while on the
other side it is displaced in the opposite. Hence, when
the air on both sides of the node _
is moving in towards it, there is
condensation going on' at the
node, followed by rarefaction on
the reversal of the motion of the
air. The full lines in annexed
figs, are curves of displacements,
the dotted lines curves of velocity
and density [vid. § 10 and 14).
As a stopped end prevents any
motion of the air, a nodal section
is always found there. And as.
Pipe
stopped at
both ends.
Fig. 24.
Oven pipe.
pipe
stopped at
ODo eod
only.
at the open end, we may coneaive the internal air to be
maintained at the same density as the external air, we may
assume that such end coincides with the middle of a ven-
tral segment.
From these assumptions, which form the basis of
Bemouilli's Theory of Pipes, we infer :
77. That in a pipe stopped at both ends, as in a rod
fixed at both ends, the fundamental ^^_ _^
note (fig. 25, 1), corresponds to X = 2/,
V
and therefore to n = ^ , V denoting
the velocity of sound in air, and the
overtones to numbers of vibrations
= 2n, Zn, and so on. Fig. 25, 2,
represents the octave.
78. That in a pipe open at both ends thcsame holds
good as in the previous case. For (fig. 26, 1) AC = J A
. •. X = 4 AC = 2^, and in fig. 26, 2, AD = ^ X, and also
= \ I .'. X = ;, or ^ its value for the fundamental' and
similarly for the other harmonics.
79. That in a pipe open at one end and stopped at
A 2J. B
the other (or, as it is usually termed, a flopped pipe, case S
77, being purely imaginary),
the fundamental note has n "
V
—, and the overtones corres-
pond to 3n, 5n. . . .
For, in fig. 27, 1, AB or
i - i X, and in fig. 27, 3, CB
or I X is evidently = \ AB or
\ I, whence X = \l, which being
\ of value of X in previous
case, shows that the number
of vibrations is three times greater,
other overtones.
80. It follows from the above, that
(whether open or stopped) may
be made to emit, in addition
to or in combina'.ion with its
fundamental, a series of over-
tones, which, in an open pipe,
follow the natural numbers,
and hence aie the octave,
twelfth, (kc, but, in a stopped
pipe, follow the odd numbers,
so as to want the octave and
other notes represented by the
even numbers. The succession of
practically obtained by properly regulating
Fig. 26
Similarly for the
a given pipe
Harraonici
in pipes-
Fig. 27.
overtones may
be
the force
the blast of air by which the air-column is put into
vibration.
81. If the fundamental notes of two pipes of equal
lengths, but of which one is open, the other stopped, be
compared together, they will be found to differ in pitch by
an octave, the stopped being the lower. This fact is in
keeping with the theory, for the numbers of vibrations
V V .
being respectively — and — , are in the ratio of 2 to 1.
82. Ey altering the length of the same pipe, we can
vary the pitch of the fundamental at pleasure, since n
varies inversely as I. This is effected in the flute and
some other wind instruments by means of openings along
part of the pipe, which, being closed or opened by means
of keys and of the fingers, increase or diminish the length
of the vibrating air-column. In this manner the successive
notes of the scale are usually obtained within the range of
an octave. The scale is further extended by bringing into
play the Jiigher harmonics.
V V
83. Since in an open pipe n = —, and therefore ' = 5"i
if for V we put 1090 ft., and for n 264, which is the
number of vibrations per second usually assigned to the
note C, we get i = 2 ft. very nearly. This, accordingly, is
the length of the so-called C open pipe. The C stopped
pipe must, by what has been stated above, be 4 feet in
length.
84. Conversely it is obvious that the velocity V of sound
in air, and generally in any gas, may be deduced from the
equation V = 2nl, and that if two pipes of equal length
contain respectively air and any other gas, the velocities
in the two media being, to each other directly as the
number of vibrations of the notes they respectively emit,
we may, from the well-ascertained value of the velocity in
air, determine in this way the velocities in other gases,
and thence the values of their coeflicients y (vid. § 21).
85. AMiile the inferences drawn by means of Bemouilli's
theory agree, to a certain extent, v.ith actual- observation,
there are discrepancies between the two which point to
the existence of some flaw in one or both of the hypotheses
on which the theory rests. In truth, the conditions
assumed by Bernouilli are such as do not fully occur in
Notes o.
open anc
stopped
p\\KS of
equal
lengths.
Length o»
C pipe.
Velocity la
any gaa
derived
from pipes.
Defects of
Bernooilli'ft
theory.
A^COUSTICS
115
practice. The stopped extremity of a pipe is aiways to
Bome extent of a yielding nature, and does not therefore
exactly coincide with a nodal surface; nor can the internal
air immediately adjoining the open end be perfectly free
from variation of density during the ■vibrations of the
whole mass,' particularly so at the embotichure, where the
blast is introduced by which the tone is originated. It
would appear from recent experiments that the pitch of a
pipe is somewhat lower than the above theory would
indicate.
Heed pipes. 86. The reed-pipe differs in many respects from the
simple pipe which we have been considering. A small
elastic strip of metal, fixed at one extremity (the reed),
lies over a slit of the same shape, and is set in transverse
vibration by a current of air acting underneath. If, as is
the case in the accordion and harmonium, the reed is un-
provided with a pipe, the pitch of its note is regulated
altogether by the dimensions of the reed, in conformity
with the law of tranversely vibrating plates ; although, it
is to be remarked, the note is reaUy due to the vibrations
of the air which alternately escapes through the slit of the
reed, and is prevented doing so exactly as often as the
reed executes a movement to and fro. The proper note of
the reed itself is very poor and faint.
Inflaenceof 87. In the reed-pipe there is added above the reed a pipe
pipe on tiie air in which partakes of the vibratory motion, and im-
" ■ proves the quality of the sound. The pitch is, however,
not affected by this pipe, unless it exceed a certain length
I, when the pitch begins to fall, and continues to do so as
I is, increased, tUl, when the length of pipe is 21, the note
is again restored to its original pitch, &c.
Weber's 88. 5J. Weber, to whom we are indebted for these and
theory of other curious facts respecting reed pipes, has explained
'"^P'l* them thus:— If the reed be exactly at that part of the
vibrating air-column where the air-displacements are at
their maximum, and where consequently the air suffers no
variation of density during the vibratory motion of the
column, the oscillations of the reed are not. at aU affected
by the air-vibrations, and consequently the pitch of the
reed-pipe is the same as that of the reed itself. But if the
reed be situated at any other part of the air-column, and
especially at a nodal section, where the air is undergoing
alternate -condensation and rarefaction, then, when the air-
blast from the wind chest pushes in the reed, the air in
the pipe is in the act of rarefaction, and consequently tends
to accelerate the reed inwards, whereas the elasticity of
the reed tends in an opposite direction. When, again, the
reed is passing to the other extreme of its vibration, the
air in the pipe is in the act of condensation, and tends to
accelerate the reed outwards or in the opposite direction to
the elasticity of the reed. Hence the reed is affected just
as if its elasticity, and therefore the rapidity of its vibra-
tions, were dimiijished, and thus the pitch is lowered.
Paet IX.
Singing Flames.
Om har- 69. The chemical or gas harm/>nicon, which consists of
monicoD. ^ small flame of hydrogen or of coal gas, burning at the
lower part of the interior of a glass tube, and giving out a
very distinct not«, exhibits considerable analogy with the
reed-pipe. For, as Sondhaus seems to have established,
the primary cause of the note lies in the oscillations of the
gas within the burner and the feeding-pipe, which there-
fore play exactly the same part as does the roed portion of
the reed-pipe. The air in the glass tube being heated by
the flame ascends, and the pressure above the flame being
thence diminished, the flame is forced upwards by the gas
beneath, until an influx of atmospheric air at the top of
ihe tube forces the flame back. Thus a periodic agitation
of the flame ensues, accompanied by a corresponding di£-
turbance of the air-column in the glass tube. The size of
the flame and its position within the tube must be so
regulated as to bring out the best possible note, which will
then be found to be the same as the air in the tuV'C would
itself emit, according to the laws of pipes, allowance being
made for the high temperature of the air. A „8ries
of tubes may thus be arranged of suitable lengths to give
the ■ common scale. It sometimes happens, particularly
with short tubes, that the note will not come out spontanu- •
ously, all that is required, then, is either by blowing gently
at the top of the tube, or by singing in unison with the
expected note, to give to the air the requisite initial move-
ment
The flame, which burns steadily with a yellowish light
before the tube sounds, will, as soon as the note is heard,
be seen to flicker up and down, changing rapidly from
yellow to blue and blue to yellow, its intensity also chang-
ing periodically. These fluctuations are best seen by view-
ing the image of the flame reflected by a small plane mirror,
held in the hand and moved to and fro. Before the note
is heard, the image of the then quiescent flame, being im-
pressed on different points of the retina, appears as a con-
tinuous luminous strip ; but, when the harmonicon speaks,
the various images become quite detached from one another,
showing that the portion of the retina over which the
reflected light passes is sensibly affected only at certain
points of it, which evidently correspond to the instants of
time at which the flame, in its periodical fluctuations, is at
its brightest.
90. Naked flames, that is, flames unaccompanied by tubes. Naked
may also give out musical notJS, and many singular in- flames,
stances are mentioned by Tyndall and others of their
sensitiveness to external sounds.
91. Koenig of Paris has constructed an apparatus in- Flame
tended to indicate the modes of vibration of the different manom^tefl
parts of vibrating bodies, such as columns of air, &c., by
means of flames,, and to which he has given the name of
the Flame Manometer. We will here describe its applica-
tion to the case of organ-pipes. An open pipe has three
apertures along one side, one at the middle, o (fig. 28), i.e.,
at a node of the fundamental tone, and the two others, a, b,
half way between o and the extremities of the , ,
pipe, and coinciding therefore with the nodes of
the first overtone or octave. These openings, are
closed by thin flexible membranes forming the
ends of small boxes or capsules, the spaces within
which communicate by caoutchouc tubes with a
coal-gas reservoir, and also by separate tubes with
small gas burners arranged on a vertical stand.
The gas being introduced, and the three flames
kindled and adjusted to equal heights of about f
of an inch; if the pipe be made now to utter its first over-
tone, the flame connected with o will remain stationary
and of the same brightness as before, but those communi-
cating with a and t will become longer and thinner, and
assume a bluish and faint luminosity. But, if the funda-
mental be brought out of the pipe, then it is o's flame
that is violently affected, while those of a and b are scarcely
affected at all. If the flames be originally made les^ in
height (say J inch), those of a and b in the former case, and
of 0 in the latter, will be extinguished. These results are
due to the condensations and rarefactions of the air in the
pipe which arc at their maximum at a node, causing tha
membrane placed there to vibrato outwards and inwards,
and hence to force more or less of the gas into the burner.
In order to compare together the notes of different pipes,
four plane reflecting surfaces are connected together in tha
form of a cube, which is mounted on a vertical axis about
i which it is capable of being turned round. Kach pipe 15
Fig. 23.
116
ACOUSTICS
furnished wilii oue opening, a mcmoraue, iS:c. (as above),
at ita middle. As pointed out (§ 87), if any of the pipes
be made to sound, the reflector being at the same time put
in motion, a series of separate , images will be seen. On
Bounding another pipe, \t'hose fuiidamcutal ia an octave
higher, we shall have a second line of images separated
from each other by half the interval of those in the former
series. This is best observed when the two flames are placed
in the same vertical lino. If the note of the second pipe
is a fifth higher than the first, and consequently its vibra-
tions to those of the fir^t as 3 to 2, then the same space
which contains two images of the lower note will contain
tliroe of the higher, and so on, for other combinations.
AVhen more complicated ratios are to be tested, it is pre-
ferable to connect both capsules with the same burner,
either with or without the reflector.
Paet X.
Communication of Vibrationt.
Coramuni- 92. The cominujucation of sonorous vibrations from one
cation be- body to another plays so essential a part in acoustics that
tween j^ f^^ words must here be given to the subject. It appears
2oUdi and '" ^^ ^*'^ established that while the vibrations of e solid
liooiilk. '"'o in general most readily communicated to other solids
in contact with it, they are not so to liquids, and still less
80 to air and other aeriform fluids. Thus, a tuning-fork
is inaudible at any moderate distance unless applied to a
table, by whose extended surface the air can be more
intensely affected. So likewise a musical string sounds
Tery poorly unless connected with a re.sonant cavity or
•wooden chest, to the wood of which it first imparts its
vibratorj' motion, which then produces stationarj- waves in
the continued air.
Kunilt'sex- 93. A few years ago M. Kundt made known a method
pcriments. Jounded on the communicability of vibration, by which
the velocities of sound in different media may be compared
together with great facility. Take a glass tube 3 feet or up-
wards in length, drop into it a small quantity of the fine
powder of the club-moss or lycopodium, and turn the tube
round so as to spread the powder over the internal surface
of the tube. Stop both ends of the tube with corks, clamp
it at its centre, and rub one of its halves lengthwise with
a moist cloth, so as to cause the glass to sound a note. It
Avill then be found that, the air within the tube taking up
the motion, and a stationary wave being formed in it, the
]>owder is driven off from the ventral segments and forms
little heaps at the nodes. The dust-heaps are, by the laws
of stationaiy waves, separated therefore from each other
by intervals each equal to half the length of an air-wave, or
- . If. then, the number of heaps = m, and the length
21
of the tube = / : A = — .
m
But, by the laws of longitudinal vibrations of rods, the
lengtn X' of the glasS-wave =4(-j = 2;. Hence — = m,
that is, the number of dust-heaps is equal to the ratio of
the lengths of a wave of sound in glass and in air, and
consequently to the ratio of the velocities of sound in those
media. (For the vibrations being in unison, their number
in a given time must be the same for the glass and the
. . V V
air, t.«., -^ = ^ ; V, V being the velocitiesl
Kundt found 16 to be the number of heaps; prior
experiments of a different kind had, as we have before
mentioned, given this as the number of times that the
velocity of sound in glass exceeds its velocity in air.
Instead of producing the air-vibrations by friction of the
tube containing the air, it ia preferable to make use of a
smaller tube or rod, furnished with a cork at one end, which
tits like a ]jiston into the tube, and projecting at its ontei
end through an opening in the cork which closes the air-
tube. The rod thus inserted is the one which is rubbed
longitudinally and communicates its vibrations to the air
in the enclosing tube. By means of an apparatus of this
kind, Kundt determined the ratio to the velocity of sound
iji air of its velocity in various solids, and also (replacing
the air in the tube bv different gases) of its velocity in
these gases.
Pabt XL
InUrferenee of Sound.
94. When two or more sonorous waves travel through Meaning of
the same medium, each particle of the air being simultane- interfe^
ously affected by the disturbances due to the different '"*''•
waves, moves in a difl'erent manner than it would if only
acted on by each wave singly. The waves are said mutually
to interfere. We shall exemplify this subject by consider-
ing the case of two waves travelling in the same direction
through the air. We shall then obviously be led to the
following results : —
95. If the two waves are of equal length X, and are in Two wavM
the same phase (that is, each producing at any given of equal
moment the same state of motion in the air-particles), their '""gtlu.
combined effect is equivalent to that of a wave of the same
length X, but by which the excursions of the particles are
increased, being the
sum of those due
to the two com-
ponent waves re-
spectively.
If the two inter-
fering waves, being
still of same length
X, be in opposite
phases, or so that ^* ^'•
one is in advance of the other by -, and consequently one
produces in the air the opposite state of motion to the
other, then the resultant wave is one of the same length
X, but by which the excursions of the particles are de-
creased, being the difference between those duo to the
component waves. If the amplitudes of vibration which
thus mutually interfere are moreover equal, the effect is
the total mutual destruction of the vibratory motion.
Thus we learn that two musical notes, of the same pitch,
conveyed to the ear through the air, will produce the effect
of a single note of the same pitch, but of increased loudness,
if they arc in the same phase, but affect the ear very
slightly, if at all, when in opposite phases. If the differ-
ence of phase be varied gradually from zero to -X, the result-
ing' sound will gradually decrease from a maTunnni to •
minimum.
96. Among the many experimental confirmations which Eiperi-
may be adduced of these proportions,
we will mention the foDowing: —
Take a circular plate, such as is
available for the production of Chladni's
figures (§ 71), and cut out of a sheet
of pasteboard a piece of the shape
ABOCD (fig. 30), consisting of two
circular quadrants of the same diameter
as the plate. Let, now, the plate be
made in the usual manner to vibrate so as to exhibit two
nodal lines coinciding with two rectangular diameters. If
the ear be placed right above the centre of the plate, the
sound will be scarcely audible. But, if the pasteboard be
interposed so as to intercept the vibrating segments AOB,
DOC, the note becomes much more distinct. The reason
mental il-
lustrations.
Vibrating
plat«.
'Fig. »0.
ACOUSTICS
117
Hopkins's
experi-
ment.
TuDiDg
fork.
Double
BjTen.
Fhme
tn.iDometer.
Interfer*
enco of two
Beta ot
vibrations
for wliich
n m
of this is, that the segments of tie i:.late AOD, BOC
always vibrate in the same direction, but oppositely to
the segments AOB, DOC. Heijce, when the pasteboard
is in its place, there are two waves of same phase starting
from the two former segments, and reaching the ear after
equal distances of transmission through the air, are again
in the same phase, and produce on the car a conjunct im-
pression. But when the pasteboard is removed, then there
is at the ear opposition of phase between the first and the
second pair of waves, and consequently a minimum of sound,
97. A tubular piece of wood shaped as in fig. 31, and
having a piece of thin membrane stretched over
the opening at the top C, some dry sand being f\
strewn over the membrane, is so placed over a (i\\
circular or rectangular vibrating plate, that the v ^
ends A, B lie over the segments of the plate,
such as AOD, COB in the previous fig., which ^'*- ^^'
axe in the same state of moticm. The sand at C will
be set in violent movement. But if the same ends
A, B, be placed over oppositely vibrating segments (such as
AOD, COD), the sand will be scarcely, if at all, affected.
93. If a tuning-fork in vibration bo turned round before
the ear, four positions will be found in which it will be
inaudible, owing to the mutual interference of the oppo-
sitely vibrating prongs of the fork. On interposing the
hand between the ear and either prong of the fork when
in one of those positions, the sound becomes audible, be-
cause then one of the two interfering waves is cut off from
the ear. This experiment may be varied by holding the
fork over a glass jar into which water is poured to such a
depth that the air-column within reinforces the note of
the fork when suitably placed and then turning the fork
round.
99. Helmholtz's double syi-en (§ 51) is well calculated
for the investigation of the laws of interference of sound.
For this purpose a simple mechanism is found in the in-
strument, by means of which the fixed upper plate can be
turned round and placed in any position relatively to the
lower one. If, now, the apparatus be so set that the notes
from the upper and lower chest are in unison, the upper
fixed plate may be placed in four positions, such as to
cause the air-current to be cut off in the one chest at the
exact instant when it is freely passing through the other,
and vice versa. The two waves, therefore, being in opposite
phases, neutralise one another, and the result is a faint
Bound. On turning round the upper che.->t into any inter-
mediate position, the intensity of the sound will increase
lip to a maximum, wliich occurs when the air in both chests
is being admitted and cut off contemporaneously.
100. If two pipes, in exact unison, and furnished with
flame manometers, are in communication with the same
wind-cliest, and the two flames be placed in the same
vertical line, on introducing the current from the bellows,
we shall find that the two lines of reflected images will be
BO related that each image in one lies between two images
in the other. This shows that the air-vibrations in one
pipe are always in an opposite phase to the other, or that
condensation is taking place in the one when rarefaction
occurs in the other. This arises from the current from the
bellows passing alternately into the one and the other pipe.
There v/ill also be a remarkable collapse of the sound
when both pipes communicate with the wind-chest com-
pared with that produced from one pipe alone.
101. If the two interfering waves are such as produce
vibrations whose numbers per second are n, n respectively,
these being to each other in the ratio of two integers m, m
when expressed in its lowest terms, then the lengths of the
waves X, \' being inversely as n to Ji', will be to each
other as 7n' -.m, and consequently mX^m'V. Particles
thercfoie of the air separated by this distance from each
other will be in the same phase, that is, the length of tha
resvltant wave wUl be m A or m \', and if N denote the
corresponding number of vibrations N = — or — .
Thus, for the fundamental and its octave -7 =
n
therefore N = re or •— ; that is, the note of interfereuca
is of the same pitch as the fundamental.
For the fundamental and its major third, — = -. Hence
mental ar-*
N
or -— , that is, the resulting sound is two octaves
Tonda-
Tiiental and
majortbir'
lower than the fundametaL
For the fundamental and its maior sixth, — = -; n
mental anct
therefore
and the resultinj
niajor
sound is a twelfth ^ixth.
below the lower of the two interfering notes.
if m and hi' differ by 1 , then N = » - ?j' ; for m - m
or X = — - .-7- . Hence, if the ratio of the vibrations ^^^ °^,
N N m-m-
of two interfering sounds is expressible in its lowest tei'ms
by numbers whose difl'erence is unity, the resulting note
has a number of vibrations simply coual to the difference
of those of the interfering notes.
The results stated irrthis section may be tested on a har-
monium. Thus, if the notes B, C, at the extreme right of
the instrument be struck' together, there will be heard an
interference note four octaves lower in pitch than the
above C, because the interval in question being 'a semi-
tone, is -{-f , and, consequently, by last case, the interferencu
note is lower than the C by interval -j'j
Other notes may be heard resulting from the mutual
interference of the overtones.
102. When two notes are not quite in tune, the resultingBeats^
sound is found to alternate between a maximum and mini-
mum of loudness recurring periodically. To these periodic^^l
alternations has been given the name of Beats. Their
origin is easily explicable. Suppose the two notes to cor-
respond to 200 and 203 vibrations per second; at some
instant of time, the air-particles, through which the waves
are passing, will be similarly displaced by both, and coa-
sequently the joint effect will be a sound of some intensity.
But, after this, the first or less rapidly vibrating note will
fall behind the other, and cause a diminution in the joint
displacements of the particles, till, after the lapse of ^ of)
a second, it will have fallen behind the other by A a vibnt.
tion. At this moment, therefore, opposite displacements
will be produced of the air-particles by the two notes, and
the sound due to them will be at a minimtun. This will
be followed by an increase of intensity until the lapse of
another sixth of a second, when the less rapidly vibrating
note will have lost another half-ribration relatively to the
other, or one vibration reckoning from the original period
of thne, and the two component vibrations wUl again con-
spire and reproduce a maximum effect. Thus, an inter-
val of ^ of a second elapses between two successive maxima
or beats, and there are produced three beats per second.
By similar reasoning it may be shown that the number of
beats per second is always equal to the difference between
the numbers of vibrations in the same time corrcspondiiiij
to the two interfering notes. The more, therefore, these
are out of tune, the more rapidly'will the beats follow each
other.
Beats are also heard, though less distinctly, when other
concorfls such as thirds, Ji/l/is, i-c, are not perfectly in tune j
thus, 200 vibrations and 303 vibrations j'cr second, which
form, in combination, an imperfect fifth, produce h°sti
occurring at the rate of three oer secnn j
118
ACOUSTICS
Examples
of beatA.
Tuning by
beats.
Irri tiling
fffect of
rapid beats
103. The phenomena of boats may be coajy observed
with two organ-pipes put slightly out of tune by placing
the hand near the open end of one of them, with two
musical strings on a resonant chest, or with two tuning-
forks of same pitch held over a resonant cavity (such as a
glass jar, vid. § 97), one of the forks being put out of tune by
loading one prong vdih a small lump of becs'-wax. In the
last instance, if the forks are fixed on one solid i)iece of wood
which can be grasped with the hand, the beats will be
actually felt by the hand. If one prong of each fork be
furnished with a small plain mirror, and a beam of light
from a luminous point bo reflected successively by the two
mirrors, so as to form an image on a distant screen, when
orie fork alone is put in vibration, the image will move on
the screen and bo seen as a line of a certain length. If
both forks are in vibration, and are perfectly in tune, this
line may either bo increased or diminished permanently in
.length, according to the difference of phase between the
two sets of vibrations. But if the forks be not quite in
tune, then the length of the imago will be found to fluc-
tuate between a maximum and a minimum, thus making the
beats sensible to the eye. The vibrograph (§ 52, 53) is
also well suited for the same purpose, and so in an especial
manner is Helmholtz' double syren (§ 51), in which, by
continually turning round the upper box, a note is pro-
duced by it more or less out of tune with the note formed
by the lower chest, according as the handle is moved more
or less rapidly, and most audible beats ensue. The gas
harmonica and the flame manometer also afford excellent
illustrations of the lav.-s of beats.
101. Advantage has been taken of these laws for tht
pnrpose of determining the absolute number of vibrations
per second corresponding to any given nolo in music,
whence may be derived the number for all the other notes
(§ 45). The human ear may be regarded as most correctly
appreciating two notes differing by an octave. Two tuning-
forks then are taken, giving respectively the note A and
its lower octave, and a number of other forks are prepared
intermediate in pitch to these, say 54, and by means of
bees' -wax these are so tuned, that the first gives four beats
with the A fork, the second four beats with the fourth, and
so on up to the last, which also gives four beats with the
A_, fork. Now, if n = the unknown number of vibrations
for the note A, n- i; n-8 ... n - 55 x 4, will be the
numbers for all the successive forks down to the A_j fork,
which being an octave below A, we have — ■ = Jand
consequently n = 440.
105. Beats also afford an excellent practical guide in the
tuning of instruments, but more so for the higher notes of
the register, inasmuch aj the same number of beats, that
is, the same difference between the numbers of vibrations,
for two notes of high pitch, indicates greater deviation
from perfect unison, than it does for two notes of low
pitch. Thus, two low notes of 32 and 30 vibrations
32 16
respectively, whose interval is therefore — or — i.e., a semi-
tone, give two beats per second, while the same number of
beats are given by notes of 32 x 16 (four octaves higher
than the first of the preceding) or 512 and 514 vibrations,
which are only slightly out of tune.
1C6. As the interval between two notes, and con-
sequently the number of beats increases, the effect on thn ear
becomes more and more unpleasant, and degenerates at last
into an irritating rattle. With the middle notes of the musical
register, this result occurs when the niunber of beats comes
np to 20 or 30 per second, the musical interval between
the two interfering notes being then between half and
a whole tone. Helmholtz attributes the disagreeable im-
pression of beats on the ear, to the same physiological cause
to which is due the painful effect on the eye of a faint
flickering light, a.s, for instance, the Ught streaming through
a wooden paling with intervening openings when the
individual affected ia passing alongside. In this case, the
retina, which, when continuously receiving the same amount
of light, thereby loses its sensitiveness in a great degree, ia
unable to do so.
It is, however, remarked by the above-mentioned author
that the same number of beats, which has so irritating an
effect when due to two notes in the middle of the register,
is not attended by the same result when duo to notes of
much lower pitch. Thus, the notes C, D forming k tone
give together 33 beats per second, while a note two octavea
lower than C also gives 33 beats v^ith its fifth; yet the
former combination forms a discord, the hitter a most
pleasing concord.
107. When the number of beats reaches to 132 or Differenw.
upwards per Bocond, the result is a continuous and not lone*,
unpleasing impression on the ear, and it was formerly heia
tliat the effect .was always equivalent to that of a note
having that number of vibrations. Helmholtz has shown
that this opinion is inaccurate, except when the interfering
tones are very loud, and consequently accompanied by
Very considerable displacements of the particles of the
vibrating medium. These resultant tones being, as to
their vibration-number, equal to the difference between the
numbers corresponding to the two primaries, are termed
differcTice-tones, and may be best ob6er^"ed with the double
syren. The same author was led also, on theoretical
grounds, to surmise the formation of tummalion-tonet by Surama-
the iirtcrference of two loud primaries, the number of tion-tooes.
resultant vibrations being then equal to the sum of the
numbers for the two components, and appealed for experi-
mental proof to his syren. But, at the last meeting of the
British Association (1872), Koenig, the celebrated Parisian
acoustician, maintained that the notes of the syren, thus
held to be summation-tone.s, were in reality the diftrence-
tones of the harmonics.
108. By reference to the laws of the interference of Helm-
vibrations, Helmholtz has been enabled to offer a highly holtz't ei.
satisfactory explanation of the cause whence arises dii- Pj^'tion
ference of quality or timbre or acoustic colour between ^\^^
different sounds. He has shown conclusively that there
are but few sounds which are of a perfectly simple character,
that is, in which the fundamental is not accompanied by
one or more overtones. Now, when a note is Bimple, there
can be no jarring on the ear, because there is on room for
interference of sound. Hence, the softness of the tuning-
fork when its fundamental is reinforced by a resonant
cavity, and also of the flute. The same character of soft-
ness belongs also to those instruments in which the powerful
harmonics are limited to the vibration ratios 2, 3 ... G
(§ 57, 80); because the mutual interference of the funda-
mental and their harmonics give rise to concords only.
The piano, the open organ pipe, the violin, and the softer
tones of the human voice, are of this class. But if the odd
harmonics alone are present, as in the narrow stopped
organ pipe, and in the clarionet, then the sound is poor,
and even nasal; and if the higher harmonics beyond the
sixth or seventh are very marked, the result is very
harsh (as in reed-pipes).
109. The human voice {iot a description of the organ in Voice,
which it originates, we refer to Art. Phytiology — Voice and
Speech)ia regarded by the best authorities as being analogous
to a reed-pipe, the vocal chords forming the reed, and the
cavity of the mouth the pipe, and, like the reed, is rich in
harmonics, as many as sixteen having been detected in a basa
voice. But their number and relative intensities differ much
in different individuals, or even in the same person at dif-
ferent times; and it is on this variety that, agroeablv to Helm-
ACOUSTICS
119
Vowel
jounds.
holtz's theory of timbre, the peculiarities depend by which
any cue voice may be unmistakably distinguished from
every other. Voices in which overtones abound are sharp,
aud even rough ; those in which they are few or faint, are
soft aud sweet. In every voice, -however, the number and
relative intensity of the overtones depend on the form
assumed by the cavity of the mouth, which acts relatively
to the vocal chords precisely as a resonator does to a
tuning-fork, or a pipe to a reed. This may be easily tested
by holding a tuning-fork before the open mouth, when,
by giving to the cavity a suitable form, the fundamental
or some overtone of the ,fork may be heard distinctly
reverberated from the interior of the mouth. Each vowel
sound, as Helmlioltz hfis shown, is simply the result of
the reinforcements by the air in the csmty of the mouth,
and its prolongation towards the larynx, of one or in some
cases two overtones of determinate pitch, contained in the
sound which proceeds from the vocal chords. Koenig
assigns the following notes as characteristic of the _^
eimpler vowel sounds (adopting the foreign pro- ^^
nunciation) : — To U, the note Bb below the line Jji
ia the G clef, corresponding to 225 vibrations
t-o-
per second; to O, the next higher octave, consequently of
double the number of vibrations, and thence ascending
by octaves for A, E, and I, the last of which is therefore
characterised by r* iiote of 3600 vibrations per second.
The above the.'iry cf vowel sounds may be satisfactorily
confirmed by me'ins of tuning-forks, vibrating in front of
resonant cavities, which can, by suitabU combination, be
made to utter any vowel sound.
Works on Acoustics.
Chladni, Traiie cCAcoustique. r'aris, 1809.
Herschel, Sir John, Encycl. Metrop., art. " ^ound." Lon-
don, 1830.
TyiidaU, Lectures on Sound, 2d edit. London, 1869
Helmholtz, Die Lehre von der Tomempfindumjen, 3d edit
Braunschweig, 18V0, of which there is a Frenck trans-
lation, and an EnjjUsh one is promised.
Besides the above, SDme account of the subject is to be
found in such general works on Physics as Ganot's, 14th
edit, Paris, 1870, of -which a translation 'is published by
Longmans,- London ; Deschanel's Natural Philosophy,
translated by Prof. Evirett, London, 1873; Jamin, Co^rt
ds Physique, 3d edit., Paris, 1871; Wiilner Physik, 2d
edit., Leipzig, 1870. d. t.'*
An-, essential for hearing,
8
velocity of sound in,
17, 18, 22
A i^iplitude of vibrations,
i
Beats, how produced; .
102
examples of.
103
application to finding n fo
any note,
IM
cuning by.
105
rapid effect of, on ear,
IDS
Bell in vacuo,
3
Cbemical harmonicon, .
87
Chladni's figures,
69 to 71
Communication of Tibrationg,
92, 93
De la Tour's syren.
49
Density, variations in, by longitu
dinal vibrations,
1,4
Diatonic scale,
46
Difference tones, .
106
Dove's syren,
50
Echoes
38
■Elasticity
15
Flames, singing, .
89, 90
Flame manometer.
91, 103
Fundamental note,
67
Gas harn!ionica, .
87. 103
Gases, velocity of sound in, .
21,84,93
Harmonics in strings, .
57 to 60
rods.
67
pipes.
77 to 80
Harmony, laws o?,
45, 46
Helmholtz, his double syren.
61, 99
on resultant tones.
107
on timbre.
108
Intensity of sound—
at different distances,
29
in air of different densities,
30
promoted by sheet of water, &c.
depends on amplitude of vibra
89
tions, ....
41
Interference of sound —
laws of, . . . .
94, 95
examples of, .
Intervals, musical,
98 to 100
45
Kosnig's phonautograph,
name manometer, .
53
91, 100
denial of summation-tone
>, 107
Kundt's experiments, .
93
Laplace's corrected velocity o
f
sound in air, .
16
Lenseff, acoustic, .
34
Liquids, velocity of sound in,
25
Longitudinal vibrations.
9,28
ALPHABETICAL INFEX.
The numerals refer lo the sections.
Loudness {vid. intensity).
Strings, musical, comparison of fun-
Melde's experiments on vibrating
damental notes
strings, .....
66
due to trans-
Membranes, vibrations of, .
72
versal and -lon-
Musical sounds and noises, .
44
gitudinal vib-
notes, vibration-ratios of.
45
rations, .
60
Nevrton's investigation of velocity
influence on pitch
in air,
16
of length, ten
Nodes
54
sion, &c.,
61
Noises and musical sounds, .
44
Melde's experi-
mental illus-
Overtones (vid. harmonics).
ParaboUc reflectors, . •
37
trations.
66
Phase
7
Spheroidal reflectors. .
38
Phonautograph, ....
50
Summation tones,
106
Pipes, BernouiUi's theory of, .
75
Syren of Seebeck,
48
stopped (at both enda) .
77
of De la Tour, .
49
open, ....
78
of Dove, . . . .
50
stopped, ....
79
■of Helmholtz, .
61
harmonics in, .
80
Thunder, roll of, .
40
open and stopped, of equd
Timbre,
43, 108
lengths, ....
81
Tones, major, minor, and semi, .
46
infl'aence of length of, on pitch.
82
Transversal vibrations.
9, 28
length of C pipe.
83
Tuning by beats
105
defects of theory.
85
Tuning-forks, mode of vibration, .
68
illustrations by manometer.
91
interference in
97
Pitch, depends on «, .
42
beats in.
103
Plates, square, vibrations of.
69
70
"V entral segments, , , ,
64
circular, do.
71
Vibrations, sound due to, .
2
interference in.
96
97
laws of, .
4, 6
Rankine's investigation of velocity
of pendulum, .
4
of sound
16
transmission of.
6
Reeds and reed-pipes, .
86 to 88
longitudinal and trans-
Reflexion, la«s of, . . .
3S-
39
versal, .
9
total
33
relation between fre-
Refraction, laws of, . . .
31 to 34
quency of, and length
RodB, transversal vibrations of, .
67
of wave.
13
longitudinal vibrations of, .
74
communication of,
92, 98
Savart's toothed wheel apparatus,
47
number of, for any note
Scales, diatonic and chromatic.
46
determined by beats.
104
Seebeck's syren, ....
48
Vibrograph
62
Solids, velocity of sound in (longi-
Voice, its seat in vocal chords.
109
tudinal),
<s6
26
Vowel sounds, how accounted for.
109
Solids, velocity of sound in (trans-
versal), .....
Water, velocity of sound in.
30
27
28
"Waves of displacement,
10, 12
Solids, velocity of sound in, Kundt'i
of velocity,
11, 12
method
92
of condensation and rare
Stationary waves, . . •
.64
faction.
14
Strings, musical, laws of.
55 to 66
lengths of,
10
fundamental and
relation of, to n.
13
overtones of, .
57
68
propagation of, .
18
overtones how
Weber's theory of reed-pipes,
88
obtained from.
59
120
A C Q — A C K
ACQUI, 8 town of Northern Italy, in the province of
AJessaudria, 18 miles S.S.W. of the city of that name, on
the left bank of the Bormida. It is a jihco of ^cat
antiquity; and its hot sulphur baths, which are still much
frequented, were known to the Romans, who gave the place
the name of Aquw Statiellw. There are still to be found
numerous ancient inscriptions, and the remains of a Roman
aqueduct. The tovra is the seat of a bishop, and has a fine
cathedral, several convents, and a royal college. Good
wine is produced in the ■i-ineyards of the district, and great
attention is given to the rearing of silk-worms. There are
also considerable silk manufactures. Population, 8600.
ACRE, a measure of surface, being the principal deno^
mination of land-measure used in Great Britain. The
word (akin to the Sa.\on acer, the German acl-rr, and the
Latin ager, a field) did not originally signify a determinate
quantity of land, but any open ground. The English
standard or imperial acre contains 4840 square yards, or
10 square chains, and is also divided into roods, of which
it contains 4, the rood again being divided in 40 perches.
The imperial acre has, by the Act 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, super-
seded the acres, of very different extent, that were in use
in different parts of the country. ' The old Scottish acre
was equal to 1'26118345 imperial acres. The Irish acre
contains 7840 square yards The acre is equivalent to
•40467, i.e., about f ths, of the French hectare (now the basis
of superficial measurement in Germany, Italy, and Spain,
as well as in France), "7 of the Austrian joch, '37 of the
Russian desdiine, and 162 ancient Roman jugera. The
hectare correspond.? to 2 acres 1 rood 35 'SS perches.
ACRE, Akka, or St Jeam D'Acbe, a town and seaport
of Syria, and in ancient times a celebrated city. No town
has experienced greater changes from political revolutions
and the calamities of war. According to some this was the
Accho of the Scriptures ; and its great antiquity is proved
by fragm(?nt3 of houses that have been found, consisting of
that highly sun-burnt brick, with a mixture of cement and
sand, which was only used in erections of the remotest
^ges. It was known among the ancients by the name of
Ace, but it is only from the period when it was taken posses-
sion of by Ptolemy Soter, king of Egypt, and received
from him the name of Ptolemais, that history gives any
certain account of it. When the empire of the Romans
began to extend over Asia, Ptolemais came into their pos-
session. It is mentioned by Strabo as a city of great
importance; and fine granite and marble pillars, monu-
ments of its ancient grandeur, are still to be seen. During
the Middle Ages Ptolemais passed into the hands of the
Saracens. They were expelled from it in 1110 by the
Crusaders, who made it their principal port, and retained
it until 1187, when it was recovered by Saladin. In 1191
it was retaken by Richard L of England and Philip of
France, who purchased this conquest by the sacrifice of
100,000 troops. They gave the town to the knighta of St
John of Jei-usalem, from whom it received the name of St
Jean P'Acre. In their possession it remained for a century,
though subject to continual assaults from the Saracens.
It was at this time a large and extensive city, populous and
wealthy, and contained numerous churches, convents, and
hospitals, of which no traces now remain. Acre was finally
lost to the Crusaders in 1291, when it was taken by the
Saracens after a bloody siege, during which it suifered
severely. From this time its prosperity rapidly decUned.
In 1517 it fell into the hands of the Turkish sultan, Selim
I.; and in the beginning of the 18th century, with the
exception of the residences of the French factors, a mosque,
and a few poor cottages, it presented a vast scene of ruin.
Towards the end of that century Acre was much strength-
ened and improved by the Turks, particularly by Djezzar
PacJia, and again rose to some importance. It is memor-
able in modem history for tne gaiiantry with which it was
defended in 1799 by the Turks, as.sisted by Sir Sydney
Smith, against Bonaparte, who, after spending sixty-one
days before it, was obliged to retreat. It continued to
enjoy an increasing degree of prosf>erity till 1832. Though
fettered by imf>osts and monopolies, it carried on a con-
siderable foreign trade, and had resident consuls from most
of the great states of Europe. On the revolt of Mehemet Ali,
the pacha of Egj-pt, Acre was besieged by his son, Ibrahim
Pacha, in the winter of 1831-32. The siege lasted five
months and twcnty-ono days, and, before the city was
taken, its public and private buildings were mostly destroyed.
Its fortifications were subsequently repaired and improved
■ by the Egyptians, in whose hands it remained until 3d Nov.
1840, when the town was reduced to ruins by a three hours'
bombardment from the British fleet, acting as the aUies of
the sultan. The Turks were again put in possession of it
in 1641.
Acre is situated on a low promontory, at the northern
extremity of the Bay of Acre. The bay affords no shelter
in bad weather; and the port is scarcely capable of contain-
ing a dozen boats. Vessels coming to this coast, therefore,
generally frequent the anchorage of Caiffa, on the south
side of the bay. Acre is 80 r.iilcs N.N.W. of Jerusalem,
and 27 S. of Tyre. Population, 10,000.
ACROBAT (from uKpo/SaTt'w, to walk on tiptoe), a rope-
dancer. Evidence exists that there were very skilful per-
formers on the tight-rope (/unamhvli) among the ancient
Romans. Modern acrobats generally use a long pole,
loaded at the ends, and by shifting this are enabled to
maintain, or readily to recover, their equilibrium. By an
extension of the meaning of the term, acrobatic feats now
include trapeze leaping and similar performances.
AC'PkOCERAUNIA, in Ancient Geography, a promon-
torj' in the N.W. of Epirus, which terminates the Montes
C'eraunii, a range that nins S.E. from the promontory
along the coast for a number of miles, and is supposed to
have derived its name from being often struck withlight-
niug. The cape (now called Glossa by the Greeks, and Ziii-
guetta by the Italians) is in lat. 40° 25' N.
ACROGEN^E is the name applied to a division of acoty
ledonous or crypt ogamous plants, in which leaves are pre-
sent along with va.scular tissue. In the higher divisions of
Acrogens, as ferns and lycopods, the tissue consists of scalari-
form vessels, while in the lower divisions spiral cells are
observed, which take the place of vessels. The term Aero-
gen means summit-grower, that is, a plant in which the
stem increases specially by the summit. This is not. how-
ever, strictly accurate.
ACROLITH (a.Kp6\i6oi), statues of a transition penod
in the history of plastic art, in which the trunk of the
figure was of wood, and the head, hands, and feet of
marble. The wood was concealed either by gilding or,
more commonly, by drapery, and the marble parts alone
were exposed. Acroliths are frequently mentioned by
Pausanias, the best known specimen beine the Minerva
Areia of the Platseans.
ACRCJN, a celebrated physician, bom at Agngentum
in SicUy, who was contemporary with Empedocles, and
musti therefore have lived in the 5th century before Christ
The successful measure of lighting large fires, and purify-
ing the air with perfumes, to put a stop to the pestilence
that raged in Athens (430 ac), is said to have originated
with him; but this has been questioned on chronological
grounds. Pliny is mistaken in saying that Acron was the
founder of the sect of the Empiric!, which did not exist
until the 3d century before Christ. The error probably
arose from a desire on the part of the sect to establish for
itself a greater antiquity than that of the Dogmatici.
Suidas gives the titles of several works written by Acroa
A C R — A G T
121
on medical subject3, m the Doric dialect, but none of
these now exist
ACROPOLIS (^ AicpoVoXts), a -n-ora signifying tne upper
town, or chief place of a city, a citadel, usually on the
Bummit of a rock or hiU. Such buildings were common in
Greek cities; and they are also found elsewhere, as in the
case of the Capitol at Rome, and the Antonia at Jerusalem;
but the most celebrated was that at Athens, the remains of
which stOl delight and astonish travellers. It was enclosed
by walls, portions of which show traces of extreme antiquity.
It had nine gates; the principal one was a splendid struc-
ture of PenteUcan marble, in noble Doric architecture,
which bore the name of Propylaia. Besides other beauti-
ful edifices, it contains the TlapBevuiv, or temple of the
virgii goddess Athens, the most glorious monument cf
a&cient Grecian architecture.
Ground plan of tho Acropolis ci Athens.
a, PedSfltBl of Rome and Augustus.
b, c, oC, Sites cf tciuples of ^liDerra,
Di&na, and Venus,
t. Erecthcium.
/, Dlonysiac theatre,
ff, Odeon of Herodca.
h and 0, Grottoes.
i, Ruined mosque.
t, ?, Gate and portico,
m, Clioragic monument of Thrasyclet,
now cliurcli of our iady of the grotto,
n, n, Remains of Pelasgic wall,
y, t[. WaUs of outworjte, Ac.
«, Gate to Propylsea.
?, r, i. Forts.
tt, o, Ancient vralla.
ACROSTIC (from axpos and otlxk, meaning literally
the extremity of a verse), is a species of poetical composi-
tion, so constructed that the initial letters of the lines,
taten consecutively, form certain names or other particular
words. This fancy is of considerable antiquity, one of the
most remarkable examples of it being the verses cited by
Lactantius and Eusebius in the 4th century, and attri-
buted to the Erythr33an sibyl, the initial letters of which
form the words 'Irjcrov? Xptcrrog &€ov vto5 o-tim^p : *' Jesus
Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour," with- the addition,
according to some, of (pra-upoi, "the cross." The initials
of the shorter form of this again make up the word ix^u's,
to which a mystical meaning has been attached (Augustine,
De Civitate Dei, 18, 23), thus constituting another kind
of acrostic. Tho arguments of ita comedies of Plautus,
with acrostics on the names of the respective plays, are
probably of still earlier dato. Sir John Daviea (1070-
1G26) wrote twenty-six elegant Hymns to Aslracc, each an
acrostic ou " Elizabetha Regina;" and Mistress Mary Fage,
in Fame's Houle, 1637, commemorated 420 celebritii.'S ot
her time in acrostic verses. The same form of .composition
Ls often to bo met with in Ae writings of more recent
versifiers. Sometimes, the lines are so combined that the
final letters as well as the initials are significant. Edgar
Allan Poe, with characteristic ingenuity, worked two
names — one of them that of Frances Sargent Osgood — into
verses in such a way that the letters of the names corre-
sponded to the first letter of the first line, the second letter
of the second, tho third letter of the third, and so ou.
Generally speaking, acrostic verse is not of much value,
and is held in slight estimation. Dr Samuel Butler says,
in his " Character of a Small Poet," " He uses to lay the
outsides of. his verses even, like a bricklayer, by a liie of
rhyme and acrostic, and fill the middle with rubbish."
Addison (Spectator, No. 60) found it impossible to decide
whether the inventor of the anagram or the acrostic were
the greater blockhead; and, in describing the latter, says,
' ' I have seen some of them where the verses have not only
been edged by a name at each extremity, but have had the
same name running down Like a seam through the middle
of the poem." And Dryden, in Mac Flecknoe, scornfully
assigned ShadweU the rule of
'' Some peaceful province in acrostic land."
The name acrostic is also applied to alphabetical or
" abecedarian" verses. Of these wo have instances in some
of the Hebrew psalms {e.ff., Ps. xxv. and xxxiv.), the
successive verses of which begin with th2 letters of the
alphabet in their order. The structure of Ps. cxix. is still
more elaborate, each of the verses of each of the twenty-
two parts commencing with the letter which stands at the
head of the part in our English translation. Alphabetical
verses have been constructed with every word of the suc-
cessive lines beginning with the successive letters of the
alphabet.
By an extenaed use of the term acrostic, it is applied
10 the formation of words from the initial letters of other
words. 'Ix^"''i referred to above, is an illustration of this.
So also is the word " Cabal," which, though it was in use
before, with a similar meaning, has, from the time of
Charles II., been associated with a particular ministry,
from the accident of its being composed of CUiford, Ashley,
Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. Akin to this
are the names by which the Jews designated Uieir
Rabbis ; thus Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (better known
as Maimonides), was styled " Rambam," from the initials
R. M. B. M.; Rabbi David Kimchi (R, D. K,), " Radak," <fec.
A species of puzzle, scarcely known twenty years ago,
but very common now (see English Catalogue, 1863-71, s. v.
Acrostics), is a combination of enigma and double acrostic,
in which words are to be guessed whose initial and final
letters form other words that are also to be guessed. Thus
Sleep and Dream may have to be discovered from the first
and last letters of Sound, Lover, Europe, Elia, and Palm.,
aU expressed enigmatically.
ACT, in Dramatic Literature, signifies one of those
parts into which a play is divided to mark the change of
of time or place, and to give a respite to the actors and to
the audience. In Greek plays there are no separate acts,
the unities b-eing strictly observed, and the action being
continuous from beginning to end. If the principal actors
left the stage the chorus took up the argument, and con-
tributed an integral part of the play, though chietiy in the
form of comment upon the action. When necessary,
another drama, which is etymologically the same as an act,
carried o^ the history to a later time or in a different place,
and thus we have the Greek trilogies or groups of three
dramas, in which the same characters reappear. The
Roman poets first adopted the division into acts, and sus-
pended the stage business in the intervals between them.
Their number was usually five, and the pile was at last
laid down by Horace in the Ars J'oetica —
*' l^evo minor, neu eit quinto productior acta
FuL^Jo, quiB posci vult, et epectata repom."
" I;' you would have your play deserve succeaa,
Qivo it five acta complete, Dor more nor less. "
— 'J'YancU.
On tho seviya] of letteis this rule was almost nniversally
observed by dramatists and that there is an inherent coa
I. — i6
122
A C T — A C T
veiiience and fitncs's ia tho number fivo is evident irom the
fact that Shakespeare, who refused to be trammelled by
merely arbitrary rules, adopts it in all his plays. Some
critics hu fe laid down rules as to tho part each act should
Bustain iu the development of tho plot, but theso are not
essential, and are by no means universally recognised. In
comedy tho rule as to the number of acts has not been so
strictly adhered to as iu tragedy, a division into two acts
or three acts being quite usual since the time of Molicrc,
•who first introduced it.
It may bo well to mention hero Milton's Samson Aganutea
as a specimen in English literature of a dramatic work
founded on a purely Greek model, in which, consequently,
there is no division into acts.
ACT, in Law, is an instrument in writing for declaring
or justifying tho truth of anything; in which sense records,
decrees, sentences, reports, certificates, kc, are called acU.
The origin of the legal use of the word Act Ls in the acla
of the Roman magistrates or people, of their courts of law,
or of the senate, meaning (1) what was done before thn
magistrates, the people, or the senate; (2) the records of
such public proceedings.
ACT OF PARLLUIENT. An Act of ParUament may
bo regarded as a declaration of the Legislature, enforcing
certain rules of conduct, or defining rights and conferring
them upon or withholding them from certain persons or
classes of persons. The collective body of such declara-
tions constitutes tho statutes of the realm or written law
of the nation, in tho widest sense, from Anglo-Sa.xon times
to the present day. It is not, however, till Magna Charta
that, in a more limited constitutional sense, the statute-
took is generally held to open, and the Parliamentary
records only begin to assume distinct outlines late in the
reign of Edward I. The maladministration of the common
law by the royal judges hr.d gradually taught the people
the uecessity of obtaining written declarations of their
rights — often acknowledged, still oftener violated. Insen-
sibly almost, tho Commons, whose chief function it origin-
ally was to vote supplies to the crown, began to couple
their grants with petitions for tlie redress of grievances.
The substance of these petitions and of the royal responses
was in time made the groundwork of Acta which, as framed
by court redactors, and appearing annexed to proclamation-
writs after the dissolution of Parliament, were frequently
found seriously to misrepresent its will. To check this
evil an Act was passed (8 Henry IV.), authorising the
Commons to be represented at the engrossing of the Par-
liament roll; but even this surveillance was not enough,
for in the beginning of the reign of Henry V. it was enacted,
at the instance of the Commons, that in regard, to their
petitions the royal prerogative should in future be limited
to granting or refusing them simpliciter. In this way it
became a fixed constitutional principle that an Act of Par-
liament, to be valid, must express concurrently the will of
the entire Legislaiure. It was not, however, tQI the reign
of Hjnry VI. that it became customary, as now, to intro-
duce bills into Parliament in the form of finishec" Acts ; and
the enacting clause, regarded by constitutionalists as the
first perfect assertion, in words, of popular right, came into
general use as late as the reign of Charles IX It is thus
e.xpreGsed: — "Be it enacted by the King's most excellent
Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords
Sjiiritual and Temporal and Commons in this present Par-
liament assembled, and by the authority of the same."
The use of the preamble with which Acts are usually pre-
faced, is thus quaintly set forth by Lord Coke, — " The
rehearsal or preamble of the statute is a good meane to
find out the meaning of the statute, and, as it were, a key
to ojicn the understanding thereof." Originally, the col-
lective Acts of each session formed but one statute, to
which a general title was attached, and for this reason an
Act of Parliament is always cited as the chapter of a par-
ticular statutc^.y., 24 and 25 Vict. c. 101. Titles were,
however, prefixed to indiridual Acts as early as 1488.
Since 33 Geo. III. c. 13, an Act of Parliament is com-
plete whenever it receives the royal assent, and takes effect
from that date, unless the Act itself fix some other. British
Acts require no formal promulgation, for it is presumed that
every subject of the realm is cognisant of the resolutions
of Parliament, either by himself or his representativo
therein.
Modem Acts of ParUament are — 1. Public. These are binding on
all citizens, and are ex ojlcio cognisable by the judges. Since 1850
every Act is held to be public unless the contrary be expreaaly declared.
2. Private Acts. Theso relate to particular classes, persons, or places.
Private Acts ore (1.) Personal, viz., those which relate to name,
naturalisation, estate, kc, of particular persons. (2.) Ix>cal, affect-
ing bridges, canals, docks, turnpikes, railways, kc To j^revent such
Acti from being unduly passed, the promoters of private bills arj
required to comply with tho standing orders of the two Houses, by
which private bill procedure is regulated. Acta cf Parliament, fur
convenience of reference, ore cla.«ified as Public General Acts, Local
and Personal Acts declared Public, Private Acts printed, and Privala
Acts hot printed. Public General Acts (if no exception be expressed),
extend to Great Britain and Ireland, exclusively only of tho Channel
Islands and tho Isle of Man.
The firot complete edition of English Acts of Parliament published
by state authority appeared between the years 1810 and 1824. it
includes the eaily charters, and ends with the reign of Queen Anne.
Many private editions* of tho statutes had appeared previous to that
of the Record Commissioners. The practice of printing Acts of Par-
li.iment commenced in the reign of Richard III. The charters and
Acts \^re vnitten in Latin till the Slaintum de Scaccario, 51 Henry
III. (1266), which is in French. The Acts of Edward I. are indis-
criminately in Latm or French ; but from the fourth year of Henry
VII. Acts are exclusively in English.
Scotch Acts. — The earliest attempts at a written record of the pro-
ceedings of the ParUament of Scotland consisted of detached instru-
ments or indentures, and the next step was the entering of these
detached instruments on a roU for more permanent preservation.
Xo such record, however, is preserved before the disputed succes-
sion, which commenced in 1269. The earliest roU of placita in
parliainento is dated 1292 ; but the Blak Buik, containing a seriea
of proceedings in Parliament from 1357 to 1402, is the most im-
portant of th£ earliest records of ParUament. The original books of
ParUament of the reigus of James I. and James 11. are not preserved,
but from the year 1466 down to the Union a voluminous, but not
unbroken, series has been preserved. Down to the reign of Jamea
v., scarcely any Act in the original registers is distinguished by a.
title or rubric ; and even after that period the practice has not ia
this respect been uniform. In like manner there ia no numeration
of the Acts of ParUament during this period. The language of the
earliest Scotch records is in Latin ; but as early as 1398 some of tha
proceedings of ParUament or the Council-General were written in
Scots,- and subsequently to 1 424 always in that language. Unlike tho
English Acts, French was never used in Scotch lepslation. In 1541
a selection of the Acts of James V\ was printed. The lirst edition of
the Acts was published in 1566, the second in 1597, the third ia
1681 ; and the great national work, the complete record of Parlia-
ment, has just been completed, with a general index to the whold
.\ct3 from 1124 to 1707, which forms the great rei>ertory of the
legal, constitutional, and poUtical history of Scotland. In 1540 an
Act was passed requiring all the Acts of Parliament to be pronounced
in presence of the king and the estates, — the assent of the king
being indicated by his touching them with the sceptre ; and in 1641 it
was ordained that the Acts passed in 1640 be publi-shcd in the king's
name, and with the consent of the estates. But during the civil
war thi Acts of ParUament were passed in name of the estates alone.
These Acts, however, were rescinded after the restoration of Charles
H. by Act 1661, c. 126, because "the power of making laws is an
essential privilege of the royal prerogative." In 1457 an Act was
passed for procLiuning the Acts of Parliament in tha shires and
burghs, that none be ignorant; and in 1581 it was ordained that
Ai;ts need not be proclaimed at the market-cross of the head burgh
of each shire, but at the market-cross of Edinburgh only, the lieges
obeying them forty days thereafter. The clerk of register was
ahvay3''bound to give extracts of Acts to the Ueges in their parti-
cular affairs. In 1425 a committer consisting of an equal number
of each estate, was appointed to amend I.Ko books of law: and in
1567 a commission was issued to codify the laws, ci\-il and muni-
cipal, dividing them into heads like the Roman law,— the beads ai
they are ready to be brought to Parliament to be confirmed. Lord
Bacon recommended the Scotch .A.ct3 for their "exceLent brevity,'.'"
His loidihiiJ's praise appUes very properly to the Acts down to the
A C T -r- A C T
123
reign of Queen Mary and the early part of the reign of James Vi. ;
but the logomachy of Bubsequent legislation is intolerable to the
consxilter.
Irish Acts may be said to commence A.D. 1310, in the reign of
Edward II., and to close with the union with the British Parlia-
ment in 1801. From the former d3.te, however, there is a break
tUl 1429. In 1495 Foyning's Law provided that no bill should
he introduced into the Iriah Parliament which has not pre-
viously received tho royal assent in England ; and till 1782 the
Parliament of Ireland remained in tut*;lage to that of England.
Since 1801 it has been incorporated with the Parliament of Great
Britain.
ACT OF SEDERUNT, in Scotch Law, an ordinance for
regulating the forms of procedure before the Court of
Session, passed by the judges in virtue of a power con-
ferred by an Act of the Scotch Parliaiiient, 1540, q. 93. In
former times this power was in several instances clearly
exceeded, and such Acts of Sederunt required to be rati-
fied by the Scotch Parliament; but for more than a century
and a half Acts of Sederunt have been almost exclusively
confined to matters relating to the regiilation of judicial
procedure. Many recent statutes contain a clause empower-
ing the court to make the necessary Acts of Sederunt. A
quorum of nine judges is required to pass an Act of
Sederunt.
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, the fifth among the
canonical books of the New Testament. What has to be
said on this book will naturally fall under the following
heads: The state of the text; the authorship; tho object
of the work ; the date and the place of its composition.
The State of the Text. — The Acts is found in two MSS.
generally assigned to the 4th century, the Codex Sinai-
ticus, in St Petersburg, and the Codex Vaticanus, in Rome ;
in one MS. assigned to the 5th century, the Codex Alex-
andrinus, in the British Museum ; in two MSS. belonging
to the 6th century, the Codex Bezce, in Cambridge, and
the Codex Laudiamu, in Oxford ; and in one of the 9 th
century, the Codex Palimpsest us Porfirianus, in St Peters-
burg, with the <exception of chapter first and eight verses
of chapter second Large fragments are contained in a
MS. of the 5th century, the Codex Ephroemi, in Paris.'
Fragments are contained in five other MSS., none of which
is later than the 9th century. These are all the uncial
MSS. containing the Acts or portions of it.
The MSS. in Oxford and Cambridge differ widely from
the others. This is especially the case with the Cambridge
MS., the Codex Bezoe, which is said to contain no less
than six hundred interpolations. Scrivener, who has edited
this MS. with great care, says, " WMe the general course
of the history and the spirit of the work remain the same
as in our commonly received text, we perpetually encounter
long passages in Codex Bezoe which resemble that text
only as a loose and explanatory paraphrase recalls the
original form from which it sprung; save that there is no
difi'erence in the language in this instance, it is hardly an
exaggeration of the facts to assert that Codex D [i.e.,
Codex jB«ob] reproduces the textus receptus of the Acts
much in the same way that one of the best Chaldeo
Targums does the Hebrew of the Old Testament, so wide
are the variations in the diction, so constant and inveterate
the practice of expanding the narrative by means of inter-
polations." Scrivener here assumes that the additions of
the Codex Bezoe are interpolations, and this is the opinion
of nearly all critics. There is one, however, Bornemann,
who thinks that the Codex Bezos contains the original
text, and that tho others are mutilated. But even sup-
posing that we were quite euro that tho additions were
interpolations, the Codex Bezoe makes it more difficult to
determine what the real text was. Scrivener, with good
reason, supposes that the Codex Bezce is derived from an
original which would most likely belong to the third cen-
tury at the latest
Authorship of the Work. — In treating this subject we
begin with the external e\idence.
The first mention of the authorship of the Acts in a well-
authenticated book occurs in the treatise of Iren;eus against
heresies, written between the years 182 and 188 a.d.
Irenseua names St Luke as the author, as if the fact were well
known and undoubted. He attributes the third Gospel to
him, and calls him " a follower and disciple of apostles " (II.
iiL 10, 1). He states that "he was inseparable from Paul,
and was his fellow- worker in the gospel " {M. iii. 14, 1 ).
The next mention occurs in the Siromata of Clemens
Alexandrinus, written about 195 A.D., where part of St
Paul's speech to the Athenians is quoted with the words,
" Even as Luke also, in the Acts of the Apostles, records
Paul as saying" {Strom, v. xii. 82, p. 696, Pott). The
Acts of the Apostles is quoted by TertuUian as Scripture,
and assigned to St Luke {Adv. Mar. v. 2 and 3). Origen
speaks of " Luke who wrote the Gospel and the Acts "
(Eus. H. E. vi. 25); and Eu.sebius includes the Acts of
the Apostles in his summary of the books of the New
Testament {Hist. Eccl. iii. 25). The Muratorian canon,
generally assigned to the end of the second or beginning of
the third century, includes the Acts of the Apostles, assigns
it to St Luke, and says that he was an eye-witness of the
facts recorded. There is thus unanimous, testimony up to
the time of Eusebius that St Luke was the author of the
Acts. This unanimity is not disturbed by the circum-
stance that some heretics rejected the work, for they did
not deny the authorship of the book, but refused to
acknowledge it as a source of dogmatic truth.
After the time of Eusebius we find statements to the
effect that the Acts was little knowiL " The existence
of this book," Chrysostom says, " is not known to many,
nor the person who wrote and composed it." And Photius,
in the ninth century, says, " Some maintain that it was
Clement of Rome that was the writer of the Acts, others
that it was Barnabas, and others that it was Luke tho
Evangelist."
Irenaeus makes such copious quotations from the Acts
that we can feel sure that he had before him substantially
our Acts. We cannot go further back than Irenaeus with
certainty. If, as we shall see, the writer of the Acts was
also the writer of the third Gospel, we have Justin Martyr's
testimony (about 150 a.d.) for the existence of the third
Gospel in his day, and therefore a likelihood that the Acts
existed also. But -we have no satisfactory evidence that
Justin used the Acts, and there is nothing in the Apostolic
Fathers, nor in any work anterior to the Letter of tni
Churches of Vienne and Lyons, written probably soon after
177 A.D., to prove the existence of the Acts.
The weight of external evidence therefore goes entirely
for St Luke as the author of the Acts. But it has to bo
noticed, that the earliest testimony is more than a hundred
years later than the events described in the Acts. We
have also to take into account that Ireneeus was not
criticaL We find him calling tho Pastor of Bermas Scrip-
ture; Clemens Alexandrinus also calls the Pastor inspired;
and Origen not merely attributes inspiration to the work,
but makes tho author of it tho Hennas mentioned in the
Epistle to the Romans. All scholars reject the testimony
of Ireneeus, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Origen in this
matter. The question arises. How far are we to trust
them in others of a similar nature 1
We turn to the internal evidence. And in the very
commencement we find the author giving himself out as
tho person who wrote the third Gospel. This claim has
been almost universally acknowledged. There is a remark-
able similarity of stylo in both. The same peculiar modes
of expression continually occur in both; and throughout
i both there exist continual references backward and for-
124
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
■ward, wliich imply the same authorship. There are some
difficulties in the way of this conclusion. Two of these
deserve special notice. If wo turn to the last chapter of
the Gospel, wo find it staled there (ver. 13) that two dis-
ciples met Jesus on the d-iy of the resurrection, as they
were going to Emmaus. Towards nightfall (ver. 29) he
entered the village with them; and as ho reclined with
them, he became known to them, and disappeared.
Whereupon "at that very hour" (ver. 33) they rose up and
returned to Jerusalem. They found the eleven assembled,
and told them what had happened to them. " AVliile they
■were saying these things, he himself stood in the midst of
them" (ver. 36). The apostles gave him a piece of fish,
and he ate it. "But he said to them" (ver. 44), so the
narrative goes on, and it then relates his speech; and at
ver. 50 it says, " He led thorn out to Bethany," and then
disappeared from tliem. This disappearance was final;
and ii the words used in tjie Gospel make us hesitate in
determining it to bo his ascension, such hesitation is
removed by the opening words of the Acts. According
to the Gospel, therefore, all tho events now related took
place, or seem to havo taken place, on the day of the
resurrection, or they may possibly have extended into the
next morning, but certainly not later. • The Acts, on the
contrary, states that Jesus was seen by tho disciples for
forty days, and makes him deliver the speech addressed to
kis disciples and ascend into heaven forty days after the
resurrection. The other instance is perhaps still more sin-
gular, lu the Acts we have three accounts of the conversion
of St Paul — the first by the writer himself, the other two by
St Paul in his speeches. The writer states that (ix. 4, 7)
when the light shone round Paul, he fell to the ground,
" but the men who were journepng with him stood dumb."
St Paul himself says (xxvi. 14) that they aU fell to the
ground. The writer says (ix. .7) that St Paul's com-
panions heard the voice, but saw no one. St Paul himself
says (xxii. 9) that his companions saw the light, but did
not hear tho voice of him who spake to him. And finally,
all these accounts diller in their report of what was said
on the occasion. Notwithstanding these difl'erences, even
these very accounts contain evidence in them that they were
written by the same writer, and they do not destroj' the force
of the rest of the evidence. The case would be quite different
if Baur, Schwegler, and Wittichen were right in supposing
that the Gospel of Luke contained documents of opposite
tendencies. It would then be necessaiy to assume different
authors for the different parts of the Gospel, and stiU- an
other for the Acts. But this theory falls to tho ground if
tlie Tubingen theory of tendencies is rejected.
The Acts itself claims to be ■written by a companion of
St Paul. In chap. xvi. 10, the writer, without any previous
warning, passes from the third person to the first. St Paul
had reached the Troad. There he saw a \-ision inviting
him to go to Macedonia. " But when he saw the ■vision,
straightway we sought to go out into JIacedonia." The
use of the " we" continues until Paul leaves PhilippL In
chap. XX. Paul returns to PhUippi, and the "we" is
resumed, and is kept up till the end cf the work. Irenceus
{H. iii. 14, 1) quotes these passages as proof that Luke,
the author, was a companion of the apostle. The minute
character of the narrative, the accurate description of the
various journeyings, tho unimportance of some of the
details, and the impossibility of contriving aU the inci-
dents of the shipwreck without experiencing them, are
strong reasons for believing that we have the narrative of
an eye-witness. And if wa allow this much, we can
scarcely help coming to the conclusion that this eye-\\'itnes3
Ava-i the author of the work; for tho style of this eye-witness
is exactly the style of the writer who composed the prei-ious
portions. Suiae have supposed that we have here the per-
gonal narrative of Timothy or of Silas; but this supposition
would compel us to believe that the writer of the Acts was
so careless as to tack documents together without remem-
bering to alter their form. Such a procedure on the part
of the skilful writer of the Acts is unlikely in the highest
degree. The "we" is introduced intentionally, and can
bo accounted for only in two ways : either by supposing
that the writer was an eye-witness, or that he wished to
be thought an eye witness, and borrowed the narrative of
an eye-witness to facilitate the deception. Zeller has
adopted this latter alternative; and this latter alternative
is the only possible one for those who assign a very late
date to the Acts.
We may test the writer's claim to be regarded as a com-
panion of St Paul by comparing his statements with those
of the other books of tho New Testament. As might be
expected, tho great facts recorded in the Gospels are repro-
duced accurately in the Acts. There is only one marked
diUerence. St Matthew says (xxvii. 5, 7) that Judas cast
the traitor's money into the temple, and the priests bought
with it a field for the burial of strangers. St Peter in Acts
(i. 18) says, that Judas himself purchased a field with the
reward of his iniquity. St Matthew says that he went and
hanged himself, St Peter that he fell headlong and burst in
the middle. St Matthew says, or rather seems to say, that
the field was called the field of blood, because it was pur-
chased with blood-money; St Peter seems to attribute the
name to the circumstance that Judas died in it.
The Acts is divided into two distinct parts. The first
deals ■nith the church in Jerusalem, and especially narrates
the actions of St Peter. We have no external means of
testing this portion of the narrative. The Acts is the only
work from which information is got in regard to these
events. Tho second part pursues the history of the apostle
Paul; and here we can compare the statements made in the
Aces with those made in the Epistles. Now here again we
have a general harmony. St Paul travels in the regions
where his Eputles show that he founded churches. The
friends of St Paul mentioned in the Acts are also the
friends acknowledged in the Epistles. And there are
many minute coincidences. At the same time, we learn
from this comparison that St Luke is not anxious to give
minute details. Timet) v probably visited Athens wliile
St Paul was there. Th. we learn from 1 Thess. iii 1 , but
no mention is made of this visit iu the Acts. Again, we
gather from the Epistles to the Corinthians that St Paul
paid a visit to Corinth, which is not recorded in the Acts.
Moreover, no mention is made of Titus in the Acts. These,
however, are slight matters; and it must be allowed that
there is a general agreement. But attention has been
drawn to two remarkable exceptions. These are the ac-
count given by St I'aul of hb visits to Jerusalem in the
Epistle to the Galatians and that given by St Luke; and
the character and mission of the apostle Paul, as they
appear in his letters and as they appear in the Acts.
In regard to the first point, St Paul himself says in the
Epistle to the Galatians, that after his conversion straight-
way he held no counsel with flesh and blood, nor did he
go up to Jerusalem to the apostles who were before him;
but he went away to Arabia and returned to Damascus; that
then after three years he went up to Jerusalem to seek for
Cephas, and he remained with him fourteen days. He at
that time saw only two apostles, — Peter, and James the
brother of the Lord. He then went away to S)Tia and
Cilicia, and was unknown by face to the churches of Judea.
He says that fourteen years after this he went up to Jeru-
salem with Barnabas, taking Titus with him. On this
occasion he went up by revelation. St Paul introduces
these facta for a purpose, and this purpose is that he
might prove his inde])eiidcuce as an apostle.^ He had acted
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
125
solely on the revelation given to himself. He had neither
required nor obtained sanction from the other apostles,-
He was an apostle, not sent forth from men nor through
men, but through Jesus and God. When we turn to. the
Acts, we find that no mention is made of the journey to
Arabia. He stays some days at Damascus, and then
begins to preach the gospel. He continues at this work a
considerable time; and then, in consequence of the plots
of the Jews, he secretly withdraws from Damascus and
proceeds to Jerusalem. The brethren there are suspicious
in regard to him, and their fears are not quieted until
Barnabas takes him to the apostles; and after this intro-
duction he goes in and out amongst them, and holds dis-
cussions with the Hellenists. Finally, when the Hellenists
attempt to kill him, the brethren send him to Tarsus. In the
Epistle to the Galatiaus St Paul does everything for him-
self, instigated by his inward feeUngs. In the Acts he is
forced out of Antioch, and sent by the brethren to Tarsus. In
the GalatianS St Paul stays only a fortnight, and' sees only
St Peter and St James of the apostles, and "was imknown by
face to the churches of Judea. In the Acts Barnabas takes
him to the apostles, and he continues evidently for a period
much longer than a fortnight, going in and out amongst
them. Then in chap. xi. 30, he goes up a second time to
Jerusalem, — a visit which seems inconsistent with the narra-
tive in the Epistje to the Galatians. And finally, when he
goes up to Jerusalem, the Acts does not represent bim
going up by an independent revelation, but as being sent
up; ^nd it says nothing of his taking an independent part,
but represents hin. ag submitting to the apostles.
This, however, leads us to the treatment of the character
of St Paul by the writer of the Acts. Soma of the
Tubingen critics assert that the writer shows ill-wiU to St
Paul, but they are evidently wrong. Oil the contrary, the
character of the apostle as given in the Acts is fuU of gi-and
and noble traits. Yet still there are some singular pheno-
mena in the Acts. St Paul claimed to be an apostle by the
will of God. He had as good a right to be an apostle as
Bt Peter or St James. Yet the writer of the Acts never
calls him an apostle in the strict sense of the term. He
is twice called an apostle, namely, in Acts liv. 4 and
14. On both occasions his fellow-apostle is Barnabas;
but' Barnabas was not one of the twelve, and not an
apostle in the strict sense- of the term. And even in
these verses the reading is doubtful The Codex Beice
omits the word apostle in the 14th verse, and makes
the 4th liable to suspicion by inserting an addition to it.
St Luke also brings prominently forward as the proper mark
of an apostle, that he should have companied with the Lord
from his baptism to his ascension, and describes the filling
up of the number of the twelve by the election of Matthias.
And if St Luke's narrative of St Paul's conversion be
minutely examined, it will be perceived that not only does he
not mention that St Paul saw Jesus, but the circumstances
13 related scarcely permitted St Paul to see Jesus. He
was at once dazzled by the light, and fell to the ground.
[n this prostrate condition, with his eyes shut, he heard the
voice; but at first he did not know whose it was. And
when he opened his eyes, he found that he was bUnd. The
words of Ananias imply that St Paul really did see Jesus,
but 6t Luke abstains from any such statement. And St
Paul is not treated by the Jewish Christians in the Acts as
an independent apostle. He is evidently under submission
to the apostles at Jerusalem.
Furthennoro, the point on which St Paul specially insists
in the Epistle to the Qalatians is, that ho was appointed the
apostle to the Gentiles as St Peter was to the circumcision,
and that circumcision and the observance of the Jewish law
were of no importance to the Christian. St Paul's words on
this point in all his letters are strong and decided. But in
the Acts it is St Peter that opens up the way for the Gentiles.
In St Peter's mouth occurs the strongest language in regard
to the intolerable nature of the law. Not a word is said of
the quarrel between St Peter and St Paul. The brethren in
Antioch send St Paul and Barnabas up to Jerusalem to ask
the opinion of the apostles and elders. St Paul awaits the
decision of the apostles, and St Paul and Barnabas, cany
back the decision to Antioch. And throughout the whole
of the Acts St Paid never stands forth as the champiou
of the Gentiles. He seems continually anxious to reconcile
the Jewish Christians to himself, by observing the law of
Moses. He circumcises Timothy, and he performs his
vows in the temple. And he is particularly careful in his
speeches to show how deep his respect for the law of
Moses is. In this regard the letters of St Paul are very
different from his speeches as given in the Acts. In the
Epistle to the Galatians he claims perfect freedom for him-
self and the Gen tiles from the observance of the law; and
neither in it nor in the Epistle to the Corinthians does
he take any notice of the decision to which the apostles
are said to have come in their meeting at Jerusalem. And
yet the narrative of St Luke implies a different state of
affairs from that which it actually states in words ; for why
should the Jews hate St Paul so much more than the other
apostles if there was. nothing special in his attitude to-
wards them ?
We may add to this, that while St Luke gives a rather
minute acconnt of the sufferings of St Peter and the church
in Jerusalem, he has not brought prominently forward the
perils of St Paul. St Paul enumerates some of hia suffer-
ings in the second Epistle to the Corinthians (chap. xL
23-28). St Luke has omitted a great- number of thesei.
Thus, for instance, St Paul mentions that he was thrice
shipwrecked. St Luke does not notice one of these ship-
wrecks, that recorded in the Acts having taken place after
the Epistles to the Corinthians were written. Some also
think that St Luke detaila several occurrences which are
scarcely ha harmony with the character of St Paul. They
say that the dismissal of John Mark, as recorded in the
Acts, is a harsh act. St Paul's remark, " I wist not that
he is the high priest" (xxiii. 5), they regard as doubtful in
point of honesty. And the way by which ho gained the
Pharisees to his side, in opposition to the Sadducees, they
describe as an expedient imworthy the character of this
fearless apostle (xxui 6).
St Luke occasionally alludes, in the Acts, to events which
took place outside of the churcL We can test hia accu-
racy in recording these events by comparing his narrative
with the narratives of historians who treat of the same
period. These historians are Josephus, Tacitus, and
Suetonius. Now, here again we find that the accounts in
the Acts generaDy agree. Indeed, Holtzmann has noticed
that all the external events mentioned in the Acts are also
to be found in Josephus. We may therefore omit Tacitus
and Suetonius, and confine ourselves to Josephus. Three
narratives deserve minute examination. The first is the
death of Herod Agrippa. Josephus says {Ant. xix. 8, 2)
that Herod was at Caesarea celebrating a festival in honour
of the Caesar. On the second day of the spectacle, the
king put on a robe made entirely of silver, "and entered the
theatre early in the day. The sun's rays fell upon the
silver, and a strong impression was produced on the people,
so that his flatterers called out that ho was a god. Ha
did not check their impiety, but soon, on looking up he
saw an owl perched above his head on a rope. Ho at
once recognised in the bird the harbinger of oviL Imme-
diately he was attacked by violent pains in the bowels, and
after five days' illness died. The Acts says that Herod
was addressing a deputation of Tyrians and Sidonbns in
Cissarea, seated on the tribunal and arrayed in a roTal
126
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
robe. The pooplu called out, " The voice of a god, and uot
of a man." " Immediately an angel of the Lord 6tnick hiin
because he gave not God the glory, and becomiug worm-
eaten, he died"'(iiL 21-23). Both accounts agree in
representing Herod as suddenly struck with disease be-
cause he did not check the impiety of his flatterers, but
they agree in almost nothing else; and it is difficult to
conceive that the one writer knew the account of the other.
Which account is most to be trusted, depends upon the
answer given to the question which is the more credible his-
torian.
The second case relates to the Egyptian mentioned in
the question of the tribune to St Paul, in Acts xxi. 38,
" You are not then the Egyptian who, ooino time ago, made
a di.sturbanco, and led into the wilderness the four thousand
of the .sicariii" Joscphus mentions this Egj-ptian, both in
his Anliquitiea (xx. 8, 6) and in the Jewish War (iL 13, 5).
In the Jewish War (ii. 13, 3), Josephus describes the sicarii,
and then passes on, after a snort section, to the Egyptian.
He states that he collected thirty thousand people, led them
out of the wilderness " to the mount called the Mount of
Olives, which," ho 8ays.(jdw<. xx. 8, 6) in words similar to
these in Acts L 12," lies opposite to the city five furlongs
distant." On this Felix attacked him, killed some, cap-
tured others, and ' scattered the band. The Egyptian,
however, escaped with some followers. Hence the question
in the Acts. There are some striking resemblances between
the words used by both writers. The numbers differ; but
St Luke gives the numbers of the sicarii, Josephus the
num1)ers of the entire multitude led astray.
The third cr.so is the one which has attracted most
attention. In the'speech which Gamaliel delivers, in Acts
V. 35-39, it is s-.dd, " Some time before this, Theudas rose
up, saying that he was some one, to whom a number of
about four hundred men atLiched themselves, who was cut
off, and all who followed him were broken up and came to
nought. After him rose up Judas the Galilean, in the days
of the registration, and he took away people after him.;
and he also perished, and aU that followed him were scat-
tered." On turning to Josephus we fijid that both Theudas
and Judas the Galilean are mentioned. The circumstances
related of both aro the same as in the Acts, but the
dates are different. According to Josephus, Theudas
gave himself out as a prophet, in the reign of Claudius,
more than ten years after the speech of Gamaliel had been
delivered, while Judas appeared at the period of the
registration, and therefore a considerable time before
• Theudas. To explain this difficulty, some have supposed
that there may have been another Theudas not men-
tioned by Josephus, or that Josephus is wrong in his
chronology. Others suppose that St Luke made a mis-
take in regard to Theudas, and is right in regard to
Judas. Keim maintains that" St Luke has made the mis-
take, and suggests that possibly it may be based upon the
passage of Josephus; and Holtzmann has gone more
minutely into this argument. Holtzmann draws attention
to the nature of the sections of Josephus which contain the
references to Theudas and Judas {Ant. xs. 5, 1, 2). He
says that nearly all the principal statements made in these
short sections emerge somewhere in the Acts : the census
of Quirinus, the great famine, Alexander as a member of a
noble Jewish family, and Ananias as high priest. More-
over, St Luke has preserved the order of Joseph.us in men-
tioning Theudas and Judas; but Josephus says " the sons
of Judas," whereas St Luke says "Judas." "Is it not
likely," Holtzmann argues, " that St Luke had before his
mind this passage of Josephus, but forgot that it v.-as the
sons of Judas that were after Theudas, and not the father?"
He adds also, that in the short passage in the Acts there
are five peculiar expressions, identical or nearly identical
with the cxjjressions used by Josephus, and comes to th«
conclusion that St Luke knew the works of Josepnus. He
finds further traces of this knowledge in the circumstance
that, in Acts xiiL 20-21, St Luke agrees in his statements
with Josephus where both differ from the Old Testament.
He also adduces certain Greek words which he supposes
St Luke derived from his reading of Josephus. Max
Krenkel, in making an addition to this argument, tries to
show, from a comparison of passages, that St Luke had
Joscphus before his mind in the narrative of the childhood
of Christ; and ho supposes that the expedient attributed
to the apostle Paul, -of setting the Pharisees against the
Sadducees (Acts xxiiL 6), is based upon a similar narrative
given in Josephus (Sell. Jud. iL 21, 3, and Vita, 26 ff.).
The importance of this investigation is great; for if Holtz-
mann and Krenkel were to prove their point, a likelihood
would bo established that the Acta of the Apostles, or at
least a portion of it, was written after 93 A.D., the year
in which the Antiquities of Josephus was published, accord-
ing to a passage occurring in the work itself. Meanwhile,
the fact that important portions of the narrative must have
been written by an eye-witness of the events recorded,
combined with the unity of style and purpose in the book,
are cogent arguments on the other side.
The speeches in the Acts deserve special notice. The
question occurs here, Did St Luke follow the plan adopted
by all historians of his age, or is he a singular exception?
The historians of his age claimed the liberty of working
up, in their own language, the speeches recorded by them.
They did not dream of verbal accuracy ; even when they
had the exact words of the speakers before them, they
preferred to mould the thoughts of the speakers into their
o\m methods of presentation. Besides this, historians do
not hesitate to give to the characters of their historj' speeches
which they never uttered. The method of direct speech is
useful in producing a vivid idea of what was supposed to
pass through the mind of the speaker, and therefore is
used continually to make the narrative lively. Now it is
generally believed that St Luke has followed the practice
of his contemporaries. There are some of his speeches
that are esddently the summaries of thoughts that passed
through the minds of individuals or of multitudes. Others
unquestionably claim to be reports of speeches really
delivered. But all these speeches have, to a large extent,
the same style as that of the narrative. They have passed
to a large extent through the writer's mind, and are given
in his words. They are, moreover, all of them the merest
abstracts. The speech of St Paul at Athens, 'as given by
St Luke, would not occupy more than a minute and a half
in deliver)-. The longest speech in the Acts, that of the
martyr Stephen, would not take more than ten miJtutes to
deliver. It is not likely that either speech lasted so short
a time. But this circumstance, while destroj-igg tLcir
verbal accuracy, does not destroy their authenticity; and
it must stiike all that, in most of the speeches, there is a
singular appropriateness, there is an exact fitting-in of
the thoughts to the character, and there are occasionally
allusions of an obscure nature, which point very clearly to
their authenticity. The one strong objection urged against
this inference, is that the speeches of St Peter and St
Paul show no doctrinal differences, such as are said to
appear in the Epistles; but the argument has no fojrce,
unless it be proved that St Paul's doctrine of justification
is different from the creed of St Peter or St James.
Not the least important of the questions which influence
critics in determining the authorship of the Acts is that of
miracles Most of those who think that miracles are im-
possible, come to the conclusion that the narratives con-
taining them are legendary, and accordingly they maintain
that the first portion of the^Acts, relating to the early
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
iZl
churct in Jerasalem and to St Peter, is in tlie mglicst
degree untrustworthy. The writer, it is maintained, had
no personal knowledge of those early days, and received
the stories after they had gone through a long process of
transmutation. They appeal, for instance, to the account
of the Pentecost, where the miracle of ■speaking with tongues
is described. They say that it is plain, on a comparison of
the Epistle to the Corinthians with the Acts, that St Paul
meant one thing by the gift of tongues, and the writer of
the Acts another. And the inference is at hand that, if
the writer had known St Paul, he would have known what
the gift of tongues was; and the possibility of such a
mistake, it is said, implies a considerable distance from the
time of the apostles and the primitive church. They
point also to the curious parallelism between the miracles
of St Peter and those of St Paul St Peter begins his
series of miracles by healing a lame man (iii. 2); so does St
Paul (xiv. 8). St Peter exorcises evil spirits (v. 16; viii. 7);
so does St Paul (xix. 15; xvi. 18). If St Peter deals with
■the magician Simon, St Paul encounters Elymas. If St
Pet«r punishes with death (v. Iff.), St Paul punishes with
blindness (xiii. CfT.). If St Peter works miracles by his
shadow (v. 15), not less powerful are the aprons and nap-
Idns of St Paul (xix.. 12). And, finally, if St Peter can
raise Tabitlia from the dead (ix. 36), St Paul is ec^ually
successful in the case of Eutychus (xx. 9). It is easy to
see, also, that since there is no contemporary history with
■which to compare the statements in the Acts, and since
many of the statements are of a summary nature, and very
few dates are given, a critic who believes the narratives
legendary will have no difficulty in finding many elements
in the narratives confirmatory of his belief. But to those
who believe in miracles the rest of the narrative seems
plain and unvarnished. The parallelism between the
miracles of St Peter and St Paul is accounted for by the
fact that they acted in similar circumstances, and that
actual events were at hand on which to base the paral-
lelism. At the same time, some who believe in the possi-
bility of miracles think that the Acts presents peculiar
dilliculties in this matter. They say that the healing by
means of shadows and aprons is of a magical nature; that
the death of Ananias and Sapphira, and vhe other destruc-
tive miracles, are out of harmony w-ith the rest of the
miracles of the New Testament; and that the earthquakes
that release St Peter and St Paul seem purposeless. The
difficulties on this head, thoujjh real, are not however of
great importance, nor do they tell very seriously against
the received opinion that St Luke is the author of the work.
We have thus given a general summary of the questions
which come up in investigating the authorship of the Acts,
and of the arguments used in settling this point. The
conclusions based upon this evidence are very different.
Some join the traditional opinion of the church to the
modern idea of inspiration, and maintain that St Luke
was the author of the work, that every discrepancy is
merely apparent, and that every speech contains the real
and genuine words of the speaker. Others maintain that
St Luke is the writer, and that the book is justly placed
in the canon; that the narrative is, on the whole, thoroughly
trustworthy, and that neither its canonicity nor credibility
is affected by the existence of real discrepancies in the
narrative. Others hold that St Luke is the author, but
that we have got in the book an ordinary narrative, with
Jiortions credible and portions incredible; that for the
early portions of the work he had to trust mainly to his
memory, duUed by distance from the scene of action and
by lapse of time, and that he has given what he know
with the uncritical indilTerence to minute accuracy in time,
circumstance, and word, which characterises all his con-
temporaries. Others maintain that St Luke is the author,
but that, being a crcdiuous and unscientific Christian, le
recorded indeed in honesty all that he knew, but that ho
was deluded in his belief of miracles, and is often inacr\i-
rate in his statement of facts. Others think that St Ltiko
was not the author of the work. He may have been the
original author of the diary of the Apostlo Paul's travels
in which the "we" occurs; but the author of the Acts
did ngt write the diary, but inserted it into his narraUve
after altering it for a special purpose, and the narrative
was written long after St Paul and St Luke were dead.
Others think that in the Acts we have the work of Timothy
or of Sdas, or of some one else. A considerable nmubcr
imagine that St Luke had difi'erent written documents
before him while composing, and a very few think that tuo
work is the work of more than one writer. Lut as we
have intimated, tlio weight of testimony is in favour of St
Luke's authorship.
Purpose. — AVe have seen that the Acts of the Apostles
is the work of one author possessed of no inconsiderable
skill This author evidently omits many things tliat he
knew; he gives a short account of others of which he
could have supplied accurate details, and, as in tie case of
St Paul, he has brought forward one side of the character
prominently, and thrown the other into the shade. What
motive could have led him to act thus ! AVliat object had
he in inserting what ie has inserted, and omitting what ho
has omitted 1 Most of the aViswers given to these questions
have no important bearing on the question of the author-
ship of the Acts. Cut the case is different vdth the answer
of the Tubingen school. The Tubingen school maintains
that St Paul taught that the law was of uo avail to Jew
and Gentile, and that, therefore, the observance of it was
unpecessaiy ; that St Peter and the other apostles taught
that the observance of the law was necessary, and that
they separated from St Paul on this point ; and that the
early Christians were divided into two great classes — those
who held with St Paul, or the Gentile Christians, and
those who held with St Peter, or the Jewish Christians.
They further maintain that there prevailed a violent con-
troversy between these two parties in the church, until 'a
fusion took place towards the middle of the second half of
the second century, and the Catholic Church arose. At what
stage of this controversy was the Acts written 1 is the ques-
tion they put. St Peter, we have seen, is represented in
the Acts as opening the church to the Gentiles. St Peter
and the rest of the apostles at Jerusalem admit the
Gentiles on certain gentle conditions of refraining from
things offered to idols, from animals suffocated, from blood,
and from fornication. What could be the object of ^snch
statements but to convince the Jewish Christians that
they were wrong in pertinaciously adhering to their entii'e
exclusion of the Gentiles, or insisting on their observance
of the entire law 1 But St Paul is represented as observ-
ing the law, as sent forth by St Peter and the other
apostles, as going continually to the Jews first, and as
appearing in the temple and ccming up with collections
for the Jerusalem church. Was not this .also intended to
reconcile the Jewish Christians to St Paul! Then the
great doctrines of St Paul all but vanish — free grace, justi-
fication by faith alone, redemption through the blood of
Christ, — all thatischaracteristicof St Paul disappears, except
his universalism, and that is modified by the decree of the
apostles, the circumcision of Timothy, and St Paul's observ-
ance of the law. The object of all this, they affirm, must be
to reconcile the Jewish jiarty by concessions. But there is
said to be also another object, of minor importance judeed,
but still quite evident and falling in with the other.
Throughout the Acts St Paul is often accused of turning
the world upside down and causing disturbances. The
Jewish Christians may Lave thought that St Paul was to
128
A C T — A C T
blame in this matter, and tliat St Paul's opinions were
peculiarly calculated to stir up persecution against the
Cliristians. The stories in the Acts were devised to con-
vince them that they were mistaken in this supposition.
On every occasion in which St I'aid is accused before
magistrates, and especially Roman magistrates, he is ac-
quitted. Gallio, the town-clerk of Ephesus, Lysias, Felix,
and Fcstus, all declare that St Paul has done nothing con-
trary to the law. And while the Romans thus free him
from all blame, it is the Jews who are always accusing him.
We have here reproduced the argument of Zeller, who
has given the most thorough exposition of an opinion held
also by Baur, Schwegler, and others. The argument fads
to have effect if the assumption that Rt Paul and St Peter
differed radically is rejected. It also suffers from the cir-
cumstance, that there is no historical authentication of the
church bein^ in such a state in the first half of the second
century, that this attempt at reconcUiation could take
place within it. Moreover, the writing of a fictitious
production seems an extraordinary means for any one to
employ in order to effect reconciliation, especially if, as
Zeller imagines, the church in Rome was specially con-
templated. The church in Rome and the other Christian
churches had St Paul's Epistles to the Romans, Corinthians,
and Galatians before them. They could bo in no doubt as
to what were his sentiments. They must also have had
some history of his career ; artd no object coiUd be effected
by attempting to palm upon them a decree of apostles
which never e.\isted, or a hisloiy of St Peter and St Paid
contradicted by what they knew of both.
Overbeck, finding this solution of Zeller unsatisfactory,
thinks that the object of the Acts is to help the GentUe-
rhristian Church of the first half of the second century, now
I ' removed from Paulinism and strongly influenced by
J uilaism, to form a clear idea of its own past, especially of
its own origiu and of its founder St Paul. It is thus, he
maintains, an historical novel, somewhat like the Clemen-
tines, devised to realise the state of the church at an earlier
period.
It would be tedious to enumerate all the other objects
which have been set forth as the special aim of the Acts.
Some think that it was a work written for the private use of
Theophilus, and aimed, therefore, at giving huu the special
information which he required. Others think that it is
intended to describe the spread of the gospel from
Jerusalem to Rome. Others believe that the writer wished
to defend the character of the Apostle Paul Some of the
more recent members of the Tiibingen school think that
it was intended to distort the charccter of St Paul, and
that the image of him given in the Acts is an intermediate
stage between the real Paul and the caricature supposed
by them to be made of him under the name of Simon in
tlio Clementines.
Date. — There are no sure data for determining the date.
Appeal used to bo made to Acts viiL 2C, " Unto the way
which goeth down from Jerusalem to Gaza, which is
desert." But most probably it is the way which is here
said to be desert or lonely. But even if the word " desert "
or " lonely " be applied to Gaza, we get nothing out of it.
Accordingly, in the absence of data very various dates
have been assigned. Some think that it was written at
the time mentioned in the last chapter of Acts, when St
Paul had been two years in Rome. Some thin I.- that it
must have been written after the fall of Jerusalem, as they
believe that the gospel was written after that event,
lren:eu3 thought that it was written after the death of St
Peter and St Paul (H. iiL 1). Others think that St Luke
must have written it at a late period of his life, about the
year 80 a.d. The Tubingen school thiidc that it was writ-
ten..some time in the second century, most of them agree-
ing on the second or third decade of that centurj', about
125 A.D. They argue that a late date is proved by the
nature of the purpose which occasioned the work, by the
representation which it gives of the relation of the Christiana
to the Roman state, and by the traces of Gnosticism (xx.
29), and of a hierarchical constitution of the church
(i. 17, 20; viiL U, ff. ; xv. 28; xx. 17, 28) to be found
in the Acts,
, Plaee. — There is no satisfactory evidence by which to
settle the place of composition. Later fathers of the
church and the subscriptions of late MSS, mention Achaia,
Attica, Alexandria, Macedonia, and Rome. And these
places have all had their supporters in modem times.
Some have also tried to show that it was written in Asia
Jlinor, probably at Ephesus. The most likely supposition
is that it was written at Rome ; Zeller has argued with
great plausibility for this conclusion.
There is a large literature on the subject of this article,
but the most important treatises are those of Schwanbeck,
Schneckenburger, Lekebusch, Zeller, Trip, KJostermaun,
and CErteL Zeller's work deserves special praise for ita
thoroughness. Various other writers have discussed the sub-
ject in works dealing \vith this among others; as Baur in his
Paulus; Schwegler in his NachaposlolUches Zeilalter ; Ewald
in Ids History of Israel ; Renan in his Apostles; Hausrath
in his New Testament Ilisloiy; and, in a more conservative
manner, Neander, Baumgarten, Lechler, Thiersch, and
Lange. Of commentaries, the best on the Tiibingen side
is that of De Wette, remodelled by Overbeck, and that of
the more conservative Meyer is especially good. In English
we have an able treatment of the subject in Dr Davidson's
Introduction to tite Study of the New Testament; we have com-
mentaries by Biscoe, Humphry, Hackett, Cook, Words-
worth, Alford, and.Gloag; and dissertations by Paley,
Lirks, Lewin, Conybeare, and Howson,
There are various other treatises claiming to be Acts
of Apostles. One or two of these must have existed at an
early date, though, no doubt, they have since received
large interpolations. But most of them belong to a late
period, and all of them are acknowledged to be apocryphal
They are edited by Tischendorf in his Acta Apostolorum
Apocrypha (Lipsia;, 1851), and have been translated, ■with
an introduction giving information as to their origin and
dates, by Mr Walker, in voL xvi. of tjie Anle-Nicent
Lib-rary. (j, r. )
ACTA COXSISTORII, the edicts of the consistory or
council of state of the Roman emperors. These edicts were
generally expressed in such terms as these: "The august
emperors, Di^letian and Maximian, in council declare, That
the children of decurions shall not be exposed to wild beasts
in the amphitheatre." — The senate and soldiers often swore,
either through flattery or on compulsion, upon the edicts
of the emperor. The name of a senator was erased by
Nero out of the register, because he refused to swear upon
the edicts of Augustus.
ACTA DIURXA, called &\so Acta Populi, Acta PuUica,
and simply Acta or Diuma, was a sort of Roman gizettc,
containing an authorised narrative of the transactions worthy
of notice which happened at Rome — as assemblies, edicts
of the magistrates, triiils, executions, buildings, births,
marriages, deaths, accidents, prodigies, ic. Petronius has
given us an imitation specimen of the Acta Diuma, one or
two extracts from which may be made to show their style
and contents. The book-keeper of Trimalchio pretends to
read from the Ada Vrhis: — " On the 30th of July, on the
Cuman farm, belonging to Trimalchio, were bom 30 boys
and 40 girls ; there were brought into the bam from
the threshing-floor 125,000 bushels of wheat; 500 oxen
were broken in, — On the same day the slave Mithridates
was crucified for having slandered the tutelar deity of onr
A C T — A C T
129
fi'ioiul Gaius. — On the same day 100,000 sesterces, that
could not be invested, were put into the money-box. — On
the sanio day a tire broke out in the gardens of Pompey,
which arose in the steward's house," ifcc. The Acta drflered
from the Annals (which were discontinued ia B.C. 133) in
this respect, among others, that only the greater and more
important matters were given in the latter, while in the
former things of less note also v,-ere recorded. The origin of
the Acta is attributed to Julius Caesar, who first ordered the
keeping and publishing of the acts of the people by public
officers. Some trace them back as far as Servius Tullius,
who it was believed ordered that the next of kin, on occa-
sion of a birth, should register the event in the temple of
Venus, and on occasion of a death, should register it in
the temple of Libitina. The Acta were drawn up from day
to day, and exposed in a public place to be read or copied
by all who chose to do so. After remaining there for a
reasonable time they were taken down and preserved with
other public documents.
ACTA SENATUS, among the Romans, were minutes
of the discussions and decisions of the senate. These were
also called Commentarii Senattis, and, by a Greek name,
vjTo/inj/iaTa. Before the consulship of Julius Caesar,
minutes of the proceedings of the senate were written and
occasionally published, but unofficially. Cjesar first
ordered the minutes to be recorded and published autho-
ritatively. The keeping of them was continued by
Augustus, but the publication was forbidden. Some pro-
minent senator was usually chosan to draw up these Acta.
ACTION, in Fabulous History, son of Aristaeus and
Autonoe, a famous hunter. He was torn to pieces by his
own dogs. Various accounts are given of this occurrence;
but the best known story is that told by Ovid, who re-
presents him as accidentally seeing Diana as she was
bathing, when she changed him into a stag, and he was
pursued and killed by his dogs.
ACTIAN GAMES, in Roman Antiquity, solemn games
instituted by Augustus, in memory of his victory over
Antony at Actium. See Actium.
ACTINIA, a genus of ccelenterate animals, of which the
sea-anemone is the type. See Actinozoa.
ACTINISM (from dxn's, a ray), that property of the
solar rays whereby they produce chemical effects, as in
photography. The actinic force is greatest in the blue and
violet rays of the spectrum.
ACTINOMETER (measurer of solar rays), a thermo-
meter with a large bulb, filled with a dark-blue fluid, and
enclosed in a box, the sides of which are blackened, arid
the whole covered with a thick plate of glass. It was the
invention of the late Sir John Herschel, and .was first
described in the Edinhurnh Journal of Science for 1825.
It is used for measuring the heating power of the sun's
rays, the amount of which is ascertained by exposing the
bulb for equal intervals of time in sunshine and shade
alternately.
ACTINOZOA, a group of animals, of which the most
familiar examples are the sea-anemones and " coral insects"
of the older ^vriter8. The term was first employed by
de BlainvUle, to denote a division of the Animal Kingdom
having somewhat different limits from that to which its
application is restricted in the present article : in which it
is applied to one of the two great divisions of the C(ELEN-
TERATA, the other being the Ilydrozoa.
The Actinozoa agree ^vith the Hydrozoa in the primitive
and fundamental constitution of the body of two membranes,
an ectoderm and an endoderm, — between which a middle
layer or mesoderm may subsequently arise. — in the absence
of a completely differentiated alimentary canal, and in
possessing thread cells, or nematocysts; but they present a
Bomewhat greater complexity of structure.
1—6
This is manifest, in the first place, m their visceral tuba,
or " stomach," as it is often called, which i» continued from
the margins of the mouth, for a certain distance, into the
interior cavity of the body, but which is always open at its
fundus into that cavity. And, secondly, in the position of
the reproductive elements, which, in the Bydrozna, are
always developed in parts of the body wall which are in
immediate relation with the e-xternal surface, and generally
form outward projections; while, in the yldi'aozoa, they are
as constantly situated in the Literal walls of the chambers
into which the body cavity is divided. In consequence of
this arrangement, the ova, or sexually generated erabrj-os,
of the Actinozoa are detached into the interior of the body,
and usually escape from it by the oral aperture; while those
of the Uydrozoa are at once set free on the exterior surface
of that part of the body in which they are formed.
The Actinozoa comprise two groups, which are very
dif5'erent in general appearance and habit, though really
similar in fundamental structure. These are —
1. The Coralligena or sea-anemones, coral animals, and
sea-pens; and 2. The Clenoiphora.
(1.) The Coralligena. — A common sea-anemone presents
a subcylindrical body, ' terminated at each end by a disk.
The one of these discoidal ends serves to attach, the
ordinarily sedentary animal ; the other exhibits in the
centre a mouth, which is usually elongated in one direction,
and, at each end, presents folds extending down into the
gastric cavity. This circumstance greatly diminishes the
otherwise generally radial symmetry of the disk, and of the
series of flexible conicfJ tentacles which start from it;
and, taken together with some other circumstances, raises
a doubt whether even these animals are not rather bilater-
ally, than radially, symmetrical Each tentacle ia hoUow,
and its base communicates with one of the chambers
into which the cavity of the body is divided, by thin
membranous lamellae, the so-called mesenteries, which
radiate from the oral di.sk and the lateral walls of the
body to the parietes of the visceral tube. The inferior
edges of the mesenteries are free, and arcuated in such
a manner as to leave a central common chamber, into
the circumference of which all the intermesenteric spaces
open, while above, it communicates v/ith the visceral
tube. The tentacles may be perforated at their extremi-
ties, and, in some cases, the body wall itself exhibits aper-
tures leading into the intermesenteric spaces. The free edges
of the mesenteries present thickenings, like the hem of a
piece of linen, each of which is much longer than the distance
between the gastric and the parietal attachment of the
mesentery, and hence is much folded on itself. It is lull
of thread cells. The mesoderm, or middle layer of th i
body, which lies between the ectoderm and the endoderm,
consists of a fibrdlated connective tissue, containing fusi-
form or stellate nucleated cells, and po.ssesses longitudinal and
circular muscular fibres. The.^c are prolonged into the mesen-
teries, and attain a great development in the disk of attach-
ment, which serves as a sort of foot like that of a limpet.
The question whether the Coralligena possess a nervous
system and organs of sense, hardly admits of a definite
answer at present. It is only in the Aclinidco that the
existence of such organs has been asserted ; and the nervous
circlet of Actinia, described by Spix, has been seen by no
later investigator, and may be safely assumed to bo non-
existent. But Professor P. M. Duncan, F.R.S., in a paper
" On the Nervous Sysjtem of Actinia," recently communi-
cated to the Royal Society, has aflirmcd the existence of a
nervous apparatus, consisting of fusiform ganglionic cells,
united by nerve fibres, which resemble the sympathctio
nerve fibiils of the Verlclraia, and for'in a plexus, which
appears to extend throughout the pcd.-il disk, and very
probably into other parts of the body. In soino of
I. — I-
130
ACTINOZOA
llio Adinidce (e.y,, Actinia mfsemhryanthemum), brigbtlj
coloured bead-liko bodies arc situated on tho oral diik out-
side the tentacles. Tho structure of these " ehromato-
])lioro3," or " boursos calicinalos," has been carotully investi-
gated by Schneider and Kottckem, and by Professor
Duncan, They are diverticula of the body ■nail, tho sur-
face of •which is composed of close-sot "bacilli," beneath
which lies a layer of strongly-refracting spherules, followed
by onother layer of no less strongly refracting cones. Sub-
jacent to theso Professor Duncan finds ganglicra cells and
nerve plesusos. It would Bcom, therefore, that these bodies
are rudimentary eyes.
At tho breeding scasoa tho ova or Bpennatozoa are
evolved in tho thickness of tho raesontc-ries, and are dis-
charged into tho intennosouteric spaces, the ova undergo-
ing their development within the body of the parent. Tho
yolk, usually, if not always, enclosed in a vitelline membrane,
undergoes complete division, and tho outer wall of tho
ciliated blastodermic mass which results becomes invagi-
natcd, tho embryo being thereby converted into a double
wailed sac — the external aperture of which is the future
mouth, while the contained cavity represents the bodycavity.
In this stage the larval Actinia represents the Gaetrula con-
dition of sponges and Ilgdrozoa. Tho edges of the oral
aperture grow inwards, giving rise tp a circular fold, which
is the rudiment of tho visceral tube. This is at first con-
nected with thuJiody wall by only two mesenteries, wliich are
seated at opposite ends of one of tho transverse diameters of
the body. As the mesenteries increase in number, the ten-
tacles grow out as diverticula of the intermesenteric spaces.
In all the Coralligsna, the development of which has
been observed, the embryo is converted into a simple
actinozoon in a similar manner; but from tliis point they
diverge in two directions. In one great group, the mesen-
teries, and the tentacles which arise from tho intermesen-
teric chambers, increase in number to sis; and then, in the
great majority of cases, the iiitermcsenteric spaces undergo
subdivision by the development of new mesenteries, accord-
ing to curious and somewhat cpmplicat'ed numerical laws,
nntU their number is increased to some multiple of five
or six. In these Hexacoralla (as they have been termed
by Haeckel) the tentacles also usually remain rounded and
conicaL In the other group, the Octocoralla, the mesen-
teries and the tentacles increase to eight, but do not sur-
pass that number; and the tentacles become flattened and
seprated at the edges, or take on a more or less pennatifid
character.
There are no Octocoralla which retain the simple indivi-
duality of the young actinozoon throughout Ufe ; but all in-
creas") by gemmation, and give rise to compound organisms,
■which may be arborescent, and fixed by the root end of the
(/ommon, stem, as in the Alcyonidce and Gorgonidce-; or may
possess a central stem which is not fixed, and gives ofi'
lateral branches which undergo comparatively little sub-
division, as in the Pennatulidce.
Tho body cavities of the zoSids of these compound
Octocoralla are in free commimication ■with a set of canals
which ramify through the ccencsarc, or common fabric of
the stem and branches by which they are borne, and which
play the part of a vascular system.
Except in the case of Tubipora, the zooids and the super-
ficial coiuosarc give rise to no continuous skeleton ; but the
deep or inner substance of the coenosarc may be converted
into a splid rod-like or branching stem.
In the Hexacoralla, on the other hanrd, one large
group, that of the Actinidce, consists entirely of simple
organisms,— jorganisms that is, in which the primitive
actinozoon attains its adult condition without budding or
fissioa; or if it bud or divide, the products of the operation
•ej)arate from one another. No true skeleton is formed-
all are to some extent locomotive, and some (J/inyos) float
freely by the I.eli of thjir contractile pedal region. The
most remarkable form of this group is the genus Cereanthut,
which has two circlets, each composed of numerous tentacles,
one immediately around the oral aperture, the other at
tho margin of tho disL Tho foot is elongated, subconical,
and generally presents a pore at its apex. Of the diametral
folds of the oral aperture, one pair is much longer than the
other, and is produced as far as the pedal poro. The larva
18 curiously Cko a voung hydrozoon with free tentacles,
and at first possesses four mesenteries, ■nheoce it may be
doubted whether CereatUkut docs not rather belong to the
Octocoralla.
Tho ZoanlhidoB differ from tho Actinidm in little more
than thoir multiplication by buds, ■which remain adherent,
either by a common connecting mass or coenosarc or by
stolons; and in tho possession of a rudimentary, Bpicuki
skeleton. .
On tho other hand, the proper stone-corals (aa contra-
distinguished from tho red coral) are essentially ActinicB,
which become converted into compound organisms by
gemmation or fission, and develope a continuous skeleton.
Tho skelfetal parts' of the Aclinozoa, to which reference
has been made, consist^ either of a substance of a homy
character; or of an organic basis impregnated with earthy
salts (chiefly of lime and magnesia), but which can be
isolated by the action of dUuto acids; or finally, of cal-
careous salts in an almost crystalline state, forming rods
or corpuscles, which, when treated with acids, leave only
an inapprecL'ible and structureless film of organic matter.
The hard parts of all the Aporosa, Perforata, and Tabu-
lata of Milne Edwards are in the last-mentioned condition;
while, in the Octocoralla (except Tubipora) the Antipalhida,
and Zoantkidd, the skeleton is either homy, or consists, at
any rate, to begin with, of definitely formed spicula, wliich
contain an organic basis, and frequently present a laminated
structure. In the organ coral (Tubipora), however, the
skeleton has the character of that of the ordinary stono-
corals, except that it is perforated by numerous minute
canals.
The skeleton appears, in all cases, to be deposited within
the mesoderm, and in the intercellular substance of that
layer of the body. Even the definitely shaped spicula of
the Octocoralla are not the result of the metamoi^osis
of cells. In the simple aporose .corals the calcification
of the base and side'walls of the body gives rise to
the cup or theca; from this the calcification radiates in-
wards, in correspondence with the mesenteries, and gives
rise to as many vertical septa, the spaces between which
are termed IccuH; while, in the centre, either by union of
tho septa or independently, a pillar, the columella, grows
up. From the sides of adjacent septa scattered processes
of calcified substance, or synapticulce, may grow out
toward one another, as in the Funffidw; or the Loterrup-
tion of the cavities of the loculi may be more complete by
the formation of shelves stretching from septum to
septum, but lying at difi'erent heights in adjacent locuh.
These are interseptal disrepiments. Finally, in the Tabutata,
horizontal plates, which stretch completely across the cavity
of the theca, are formed one above the other and constitute
tabular diiaepimentt.
In the Aporosa the theca and eepta are almost invariably
imperforate ; but in the Perforata they present apertures,
and in some madrepores the whole skeleton is reduced
to a mere network of dense calcareous substance. When
the Hexacoralla multiply by gemmation or fission, and
thus give rise to compound massive or dborescent aggre-
gations, each newly-formed coral polvpe developes a skeleton
* See Eiflliker's /conu Bulotcgiar, 186S.
ACTINOZOA
131
of it3 own, which ia either confluent with that of the
others, or ia united with them by calcification of the con-
necting substance of the common body. Thia intermediate
skeletal layer is then termed ccenenchyma.
The Octocoralla (excepting Tubipm-a) give rise to no tkecce
and their dependencies, the skeleton of each polype, 'and
of the superficial portion of the polyparium, being always
composed of loose and independent spicula. But in many,
aa the Gorgonidoe, Pennatulidw (and in the AntipathidcB
among the Uexacordlla), the central part of the common
stem of the compound organism becomes hardened, either
by conversion into a mere horny axis (which may be more
or less impregnated with calcareous salts) without spicula;
or the cornification may be accompanied by a massive
development of spicula, either continuously or at intervals ;
or the mam feature of the skeleton may, from the first, be
the development of spicula, which become soldered together
by a subcrystaUine intermediate deposit, as in the fed
coral of commerce {Corallium rubrum).
Tt has seemed advisable to say thus much concerning the
nard parts of the Aciiiiozoa in this place, but the details
of the structure and development of the skeleton of the
Coralligena will be discussed under CoEixs and Cokai.
Reefs.
The Tabula^a, or MiUepores, and the Ritgom, an extinct
and almost exclusively Palaeozoic group of stone-coral form-
ing animals, are usually referred to the Coralligena. Judg-
ing by the figures given by Agassiz^ of living MiUepores, the
polypes which cover its surface are undoubtedly mnch more
similar to coryinform Hydrozoa than they are to any
Actincioon. But it is to be observed, firstly, that we have
no sufficient knowledge of the intimate structure- of the
polypes thus figured; and, secondly, that the figures show
not the least indication of the external reproductive organs
which are so conspicuous in the Hydrozoa, and which
surely must have been present in some one or other of the
MiUepores examined, were they really Hydrozoa. As re-
gards the Rugooa, the presence of septa is a strong
argument against their belonging to any group but the
Actinozoa, though it is not to be forgotten that a tendency
to the development of septiform prominence is visible in
the walls of the gastric passages of certain calcareous
sponges.
Phenomena analogous to the "alternation of generations,'*
which is 80 common -among the Hydrozoa, are. unknown
among the great majority of the Actinozoa. But Semper-
has resently described a process of sexual multiplication
in two species of Fungiae, which he ranks under this head.
The Fungice bud out from a branched stem, and then
become detached and free, as is the habit of the genus;
To make the parallel with the production of a Medusa
from a Soyphistojyia complete, however, the stem should bo
nourished by an asexual polype of a different character from
the fornw of Fungice which are produced bj gemmation.
And this does not appear to be the case.
Dimorphism has been observed by KoUiker to occur
extensively among the Pennatulidce. Each polypary pre-
sents at least two different sets of zoiiids, some being
fully developed, and provided with sexual organs, while
the others have neither tentacles nor generative organs, and
exhibit' some other peculiarities.' These abortive zoiiids
are either scattered . irregularly among the others {e.g.,
Sarcophyton, Verelilluni), or may occupy a definite position
'e.^. , Virgularia).
(2.) The Ctenophora. — These are all freely swimming,
' CoTiiribtitlons to the Natural History of the United States. Vol.
iii. Pl.ito XV.
' Ueber Oentrntions-XVechsel hei SteinkoratUn. teipiig, 1872.
• Abhandlunfjen der SeT^henbergischen .Vutitr/orschfnJen Oaelt-
tr.\<t/tj bd. viL vUi. .-
actively locomotive, marine animals, which do not multiply
by gemmation, nor form compound organisms such es
the poiyparies of the Coralligena. Like the latter they
are composed of a cellular ectoderm and endoderm, between
which a mesoderm, containing stellate connective tissue
corpuscles and muscular fibres, is interposed. But, in most
parts of the organism, th^ mesoderm acquires a great thick-
ness and a gelatinous consistency; so that the body of one
of these ■ animals differs in this respect from that of an
Actinia in the same way as the body of a Cyancea differs
from that of <i Hydra. The bilateral symmetry, which
is obscure in most of the Coralligena, becomes obWous in
the Stenophora, in which the parts are disposed symmetri-
cally on each side of a vertical plane passing through
the longitudinal axis of the body. The oral aperture
is situated at one end of this axis (or its oral pole), while
at the opposite extremity (or aboral pole) there is very
generally situated a sac containing solid mineral oarticles —
the lithocyst.
The oral a[,-..are leads mto a visceral tube, which
undoubtedly performs the functions of a stomach. Never-
theless, as in the Coralligena, it is open at its ''aboral end,
and its cavity is thus placed in direct communication with
a chamber, whence canals are given off which penetrate the
gelatinous mesoderm. Of these canals, one continues the
direction of the axis of the body, and usually ends by two
apertures at the aboral pole._ The others take a direction
in a plane more or less at right angles with the axis; and
after branching out, terminate in longitudinal canals,
which lie beneath the series of locomotive paddles, or
come into relation with the tentacles when such organ*
are develo'ped. In addition to these, two canals frequently
extend along the sides of the stomach towards the oral pole.
The paddle-like locomotive plates are disposed in eight longi-
tudinal series (ctenophores) on the outer surface of the body.
They are thick at the base'; thin and, as it were, frayed out
into separate filaments, at their free edges*; and each plate
is set transversely to the long axis of the series of which it
forms^ part. The ovaria and testes are developed in the
side wafis of the longitudinal canals. It is clear, therefore,
that these canals answer to the intermesenteric spaces of
an Actinia; that the common cavity into which they and
the stomach open answers to the common cavity of the
body of the Actinia; that the apertures at the aboral pole
answer to the terminal aperture of Cereanthus; and that
the wide interspaces between the longit,udinal canals repre-
sent the mesoderm of the Actinian mesenteries immensely
thickened.
In their development the Ctenophora resemble the
Coralligena in all essential respects, though they differ
from them in some details. Thus th» process of yelk
division goes on at a different rate in the two moieties of
the egg, so that the vitellus becomes divided into one set
of small and another set of large cellsf whereof the latter
become overlaid by the former, and giwe rise to a targe-
celled hypoblast, enclosed v.^ithin a small-celled cpiblast.
But "in the manner in which the body cavity is formed, and
the. visceral tube (which becomes the stomach) is developed,
the Ctenophora resemble the Aetinice. The paddies make
their appearance at four points of the circumference df the
body, in the form of elevations besot with short cUia; but
each of these divides into two. and thus the eight defini-
tive series are constituted.
There is a general agreement among anatomists respect-
ing the structure of the Ctenojj/cora thus far; but the
question whether they possess a nervous system and sensory
organs or not, is, as in_ the case of the Coralligena, one
upon which there exists great diversity of opinion. Grant
originally described a nervous ganglionated ring, whence
longitudinal cords proceed in CyJippe (.Ptcurobraehia);
132
A C Ta-A C T
but his observation has not oeen verified by subsequent
investigations. According to Milne Edwards, followed by-
others (among whom I must include myself), the nervous
system consists of a ganglion, situated at the aboral pole
of the body, whence nerves radiate, the most conspicuous
of which are eight cords which na down the correspond-
ing series of paddles; and a sensory organ, having the
characters of an otolithic sac, is seated upon the ganglion.
Agassiz and KoUiker, on the other hand, have denied that
the appearances described (though they really exist) are
justly interpreted. And again, though the body, described
OS an otolithic sac, undoubtedly exists in the position indi-
cated in all, or most, of the Ctenophora, the question has
been raised whether it is an auditory or a visual organ.
These problems have been recently reinvestigated
with great care, and. by the aid of the refined methods
of modern histology, by Dr Kimer,' who describes a ner-
vous system, consisting of extremely delicate varicose ulti-
mate nerve fibrils, which traverse the mesoderm in all
directions, and are connected here and there with gan-
glionic cdrpuscles. These nerves are only discernible with
high magnifying powers, as they are fur tlio most part
isolated, and are collected into bundles only beneath the
longitudinal canals. The mass which lies beneath the
lithocyst is composed of cells, but these have none of the
special characters of nerve cells. Eimer states that he has
traced the filaments, which he considers to be nerves, into
direct continuity with mu.scular fibres; and, around the
mouth, into subepidermal bodies, which he regards as
rudimentary forms of tactile corpuscles. The lithocj-st is
recognised as an auditory organ, and, in addition, eye-spots
are described.
With a fundamental similarity of organisation, the form
of the body varies extraordinarily in the Ctenophora. One
uf the genera which is commonest on our coasts — Cydippe
(Pleeobrachia) — is spheroidal ; others (5froc) are more ovate ;
others are provided with large lobular processes (Evcharis),
while an extreme modification, in which the body is
ribbon shaped, is seen in Cesium.
The Ctenophora nro divisible into two very unoqual groups;'
I, Eurystorfiata, in wluch the large oral aperture occupies the trun-
catcil extremity of the oval body.
1. BcToid<e.
II. Stc7ioM(ymata, in which the oral aperture and the gastric sac are
Bmall relatively to the size of lUe body.
2. Saccatce.
3. Lobatce.
4. Toeniata.
1. JBcroldic.
The body ia ovate, truncated at the oral pole, the aboral being
more or less acuminate and mobile. The digestive cavity occupies
a large portiou of the body. The oral margin is simple in Beroe and
Idi/ia; but in Jlangia. the intfirradial spaces are notched, and in each
a short process projects. The radial canals are connected by a
circumoral can.al. No tentacles are present. The ctenophores of
Pandora do not extend over more than half the body, as in the
embryos of Ctjdippe The development of the BcroUitx is unac-
comjianied by metamorphosis.
2. Saccatce.
The circumoral canal is absent. The oral aperture is laterally
compressed, its long axis being at right angles to the plane of the
tentacles, which are present in all the genera, and which are either
fiimide {Cydippe)^ or furnished with lamellar and filamentous
appendages {Hormiphora). The ctenophores are equal in length, or
the lateral ones are fuUv develo{>cd, while the intermediate are shorter.
3. Lobatoe.
The oral and aboral pole, or the oral only, bear lobate appendages.
BolirA has a pair of oral lappets, into which the radial canals are pro-
longed. The ctenophores corresponding to these lobes are the longest,
while the middle ones are much shorter, and are prolonged on to an
auricle or finger-like lobe. The tentacles are represented by a tuft
of short proccf.<es on either side of the mouth- The young BoUiui
ha3 the form of Cydippe, end like it bears a pair of long-fringed
* Zooloiriiche SUidien aiif Capri. 1873.
•^Haeckel, " Generette Morphologie" ii. Ixi. '
tentacles. The aboral region, beaiing tVe lateral ctenophorep, grovi
more rapidly than the oral, so as ultimately to project in tvo
principal lobes, by which tie similar outgrowth of the raediaa
aboral regions with ita ctenophores is airested, the auricles being the
dwarfed representatives of these regions. These auricles in BucJiarit
are longer, so that the ctenophores are all of equal length. The
tentacles of this genus are placed at the oral pole ; the oral lobes are
equivalent to the median ctenophores of Cydippe. Earhamphcea
has the oral lobes email, the body elongated, terminated by two
conical projections, on which the median ctenophoi-es are prolonged.
4. Tamiuice.
The body of Cesium is laterally compressed and elongated in a
direction which corresponds to one of the transverse diameters ol
Cydippe, the ribbon-like band thus formed being sometimes three
or even four feet long. The tentacles are near the oral pole ; the
canals are ten in number; the medio-lateral canals terminate in
trunks which follow the oral margin of the ribbon, and thus
correspond to the circolar canal of Bcrol.
Many Actinozoa {Pennatnlidoe, Ctenophora) are phos-
phorescent; but the conditions which determine the evolu-
tion of light have not been determined.
All Actinozoa are marine animals, and the distribution
of many of the families (Actinidce, Turhinolidoe, Pennatn-
lidoe, lierdidoe) is extremely wide, and bears no ascertain-
able relation to climate. (t. h. h.)
ACTION, in Law, is the process by which redress u
sought in a court of justice for the ■^•iolation of a legal
right The word is used by jurists in three different senses.
Sometimes it is spoken of as a right — the right, namely,
of instituting the legal process; sometimes, and more pro-
perly, it means th" legal process itself ; and sometimes the
particular form which it assumes. The most universally
recognised division of actions is the division established
by the Roman lawyers into actions in rem and in personam.
An action in rem asserts a right to a particular thing aa
against all the world ; an action in personam asserts a right
oiily as against a particular person. For the sake of con-
venience, the law relating to actions ought to form a
separate section by itself in a properly constructed code.
In Roman law the action passed through three historical
stages —
In the first period, which was brought to an end by the Lex ^EliUia,
about 573 A.u.c, the system of legis aetiones prevailed. These
were five in number, — the actio sacramenti, per judicis postuta-
tioncm, per eondietionem, per maniis ■injcciionem, per pignoris cap-
tioMcm. The first was the primitive and characteristic action of the
Homan law, and the others were little more than modes of applying
it to cases not contemplated in the original foim, or of carrying the
result of it into execution when the action had been decided.
Action, in English Laio, means the form of civil pro-
cess hitherto observed in the Courts of Common Law. The
procedure in the Court of Chancery is totally distinct, but
some account of the former may be desirable in order to
explain the new form of action introduced for all the civil
courts by the Judicature Act of 1873: —
Actions at law .ire divided by Blackstone into three classes,
according to the relief which they are respectively intended to
obtain. Real actions are those "whereby the plaintiff claims title
to have any lands or .tenements, rents, commons, or other licredita-
ments." in7>fr507m^ actions the claim is "fordebtorpersonaldutv,
or dam.ages in lieu thereof," or for "satisfaction in damages for
some injury done to person or property." Mixed actions were sup-
posed to partike of the nature of both of ♦hese ; that is to say, there
was a demand both for real property and for personal damages, as in
the case of an action for waste. The distinction has long ceased to be
of ony value. Blackstone speaks of real actions as being in his time
pretty generally laid aside, and successive enactments have oblite-
rated the distinctions altogether. The statute 3 A 4 Will, IV. c. 27,
abolished all the real and mixed actions, except three real actions,
and ejectment, which was a mixed action. The Common Law Piv-
cedure Act of 1860 has assimilated the procedure in the former to
an ordinarj* action, and the Common Law Procedure Act of 1852
now regulates the proceedings in ejectment In these and other
respects the three Common Law Procedure Acts of 1852, 1854, and
1860, very greatly simplified the proceedings in an action at law.
Tlie first of these rendered it unnecessary any longer to select a
farm of action in prosecuting a claim, and alwlithcd many of the
tecluiicalities which had accompanied the older forma. The divi^
A C T — A D A
133
jion9 now obwrvpd jiay be rcgardf*a lis indi'^ating, not so much
forrui of action in the old sense, as the character ot the injury sus-
tained and the relief sought
Action (under the Supreme Court of Judlcafuro Act,
1813). By this Act, which eatablislies one supremo cunrt
in place of the Superior Courts of Common Law and tne
High Court of Chancery, action b the name given to
the proceeding in the High Court of Justice, which takes
the place of the old actions at common law, suits insti-
tuted by bill or information in tlie Court of Chancery,
causes in rem in the Court of Admiralty, or by citation in
the Court of Probate. For these various modes of obtain-
ing redress the Act substitute's one uniform proceeding,
which retains most of the essential features of the common
law action. The form of action established by the Act is in
soir.e measure a compromise between the old action at law
and Chancery suit. It may be described as putting an end
to the unintelligible and even misleading formula of the
one and reducing the proliiity and redundance of the
other. (e. e.)
ACTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory in the
north of Acarnania, at the mouth of the Sinus Ambracius,
opposite the town of Nicopolis, built by Augustus on the
north side of the strait. Eastwards from the promontory
the strait widens out and forms a safe harbour. On the
promontory was an ancient temple of Apollo (who is hence
called by Virgil Actins), which was enlarged by Augustus.
Actium became famous on account of Augustus's victory
over Antony and Cleopatra (e.c. 31), and for the quin-
quennial games he instituted there, called Actia or /,w</t
Adiaci. Actiaca ^ra was a computation of time from the
battle Of Actium. There was on the promontory a small
town, or rather village, also called Actium.
ACTON, a large village in Middlesex, about eight miles
west of St Paul's. It was once much frequented because
of its saline springs, but these have long lost their repute,
.ncton being near the metropolis and easily accessible by
the Great Western Railway, and the price of building land
being low, numerous villas have been erected in the neigh-
bourhood. The population of the pansh increased from
3151 in "1861 to 8306 in 1871.
ACTON, SiK John Fk.^ncis Edwaed, son of Edward
Acton, who practised as a physician at Besan^on, was bora
there in 1736, and succeeded to the title and estates in 1791,
on the death of his cousin in the third degree. Sir Richard
Acton. He served in the navy of France, and afterwards
in that of Tuscany, and commanded a frigate in the joint
expedition of Spain and Tuscany against Algiers in 1774.
His gallantry in rescuing three or four thousand Spanish
soldiers from slavery led to his advancement. Entering
th« Neapolitan service, he gained the favour of Queen Mary
Caroline, became commander-in-chief of the land and sea
forces, then minister of finance, and ultimately prime
minister. His policy was devised in concert with the
Knglish ambassador Hamilton, and, of course, was hostile
to France and to the French party in Italy. He has been
held responsible for the arbitrary and despotic measures
which, in 1798-99, filled the prisons of Naples with poli-
tical prisoners, and even brought some of them to the
scaffold. In 1803 Acton .was fc^ a short time deprived of
the reins of government at the (ijmand of France, but ho
was speedily restored to his former position, which ho held
till, in Feb. 1806, on the entry of the French into Naples,
he had to flee with the royal family into Sicily. Ho died
at Palermo on the 12th Aug. 1811, leaving by his wife
(eldest daughter of his brother, General Joseph Edward
Acton, whom he had married by papal dispensation) three
children, of whom the second, Charles Januarius Edward,
was made Cardinal Santa Maria della Pace in 1812. It
may bo well to state that Sir John has very frequently
been confounded -n-ith Ins above-mentioned brother, born
in 1737, who was also employed in the Neapolitan service.
ACTUARY, in ancient Rome, was tlie name given to the
clerks who recorded the Acta Puhlica of the Senate, and also
to the officers who kept the military accounts and enforced
the due fulfilment of contracts for military supplies. In its
English usage the word has undergone a gradual limitation
of meaning. At first it seems to have denoted any clcik
or registrar; then more particularly the- secretary and
adviser of any joint-stock company, but esjiecially of an
insurance company ; and it b now applied .■specifically to
one who makes those calculations as to the probabilities of
human life, on which the practice of life assurance and the
valuation of reversionary interests, deferred annuities, ic,
are based. The first mention of the word in law is in the
Friendly Societies Act of 1 8 1 9, where it is used in the vague
sense, " acttiaries, or persons skilled in calculation." The
word has been used with precision since the establishment
of the " Institute of Actuaries of Grent Britain and Ire-
land" in 1813. The "Faculty of Actuaries in Scotland"
was formed at Edinburgh in 1856, and incorporated by
royal charter in 1868. The registrar in the Lower House
of Convocation is also called the actuary.
ACUNA, Christoval d', a Spanish Jesuit, born at
Burgos in 1597. He was admitted into the society in 1612,
and, after some years spent in study, was sent as a mis-
sionary to Chili and Peru, where he became rector of the
College of Cuenfa. In 1639 he was appointed by the
Jesuits to accompany Pedio Te.^eir."* in his second explora-
tion of the Amazon, in order to take scientific observations,
and draw up a report that might be sent to Spain. Tho
jouiney lasted for ten months; and, on their arrival at
Peru, no ship being ready to convey the explorer to Spain,
Acuna employed himself in the preparation of a narrativo
of his journey. This was published at Madrid in 1641,
under the title 2fuevo Descuhrimicnto del Gran I'io de las
Amazonas, dc. The King of Spain received Acuna coldly,
and, it is said, even tried to suppress his book, fearing
that the Portuguese, who had revolted from Spain, would
avail themselves of the information which it contained.
A translation into French was published by Gomberville in
1682; and a translation from the French into English
appeared in 1698. After occupying the positions of procu-
rator of the Jesuits at Rome, and catificador (censor) of the
Inquisition at Madrid, Acuna returned to South America,
wherb he died, probably soon after the year 1675.
ACUPRESSURE, in Surgery {acu3, a needle, preniOy I
press), a method of restraining hajmorrhage, introduced in
1869 by the late Sir J. Y. Simpson. The closure of the
vessel near the bleeding point is attained by the direct
pressure of a metallic needle, either alone or as.sisted by a
loop of wire. The advantages claimed by the originator of
this method over thfold silk ligature were, that the needles
can be removed within forty-eight hours after introduction,
allowing the wound to heal rapidly ; and that, being metallic
and non-porous, they do not cause irritation and suppura-
tion like the silk ligature. The catgut ligature, which is
rapidly absorbed, is gradually superseding both the silk
ligature and the acupressure needle. A voiume entitled
Acupressure, by Sir J. Y. Simpson, was i)ub!ishcd in 1864.
ACUPUNCTURE, the name of a surgical operation
among the Chinese and Japanese, which is jjerformed by
prickinc the part affected with a silver needle. They
employ this operation in headaches, lethargies, con\-ulsion3,
colics, etc.; and it has more lately been introduced into
British practice for tho cure of some forms of neuralgia.
ADAFUDIA, a large town of Western Africa, in the
country of the Felattahs, in 13" 6' N. lat.,' 1° 3' E. long.,
about 400 miles S.E. of Tirabuctoo. It is surrounded by
a mud wall, Tho neighbouring country is rich ami
134
A D A — A D A
lertila The trade in native merchandise la said to be
as groat as that of Abomey, the capital of Dahomey ; and
there 13 also a considerable traOic in slaves. Population,
about 24,000.
AD AX, a region in Eastern Africa, with a coast lino
extending, between 11° 30' and 16° 40' N. lat., from the
Gulf of Tajurrah to the ncighboiirhood of Maasowah. For
about .300 miles it borders on the lied Sea, the coast of
which is composed of coral rock. It stretches iidand to
the mountain terraces, to the west of whii-.h lie tlio Abys-
sinian table-lands of Shoa and Tigr<S, with a bre;»dth near
Massowah of only a few miles, but widening towards the
south to 200 or 300 miles. The northern portion of this
region, known as the AJar country, is traversed by two
'routes to Abyssinia — the one from Zulla near JIassowah,
and the other from Amphilla Bay. The former of these
was selected for the British Abyssinian expedition of 1 8G8,
Annesley Bay being the place of debarkation and base of
operations. There is a third route to Abyssinia through
Adal, that from Tajurrah to Ankobar, the capital of Sboa,
said to bo preferred for trading purposes, as being less
steep than the others. The river Hawash flows tliroiigh
the southern district of Adal in a N.E. direction, but is
lost in Lakes Abbebad and Aussa. Near this river is
Aussa, the chief town of the country. Volcanic rocks
occur in various parts of this district; and two mountains,
4000 feet high, are mentioned, which have sent down
streams of lava on all sides to the distance of 30 miles.
The country contains two great salt plains or basins, — that
of Asali in its northern portion, and Aussa in the south.
The remarkable salt lake of Bahr Assal, near Tajurrah, is
670 feet below the level of the sea. The country
as a whole is barren and uncultivated. A little barley
is reared on the higher terraces, and some districts
afforjl pasturage for domestic animals, large quantities of
butter being annually sent to Massowah. In some parts
of Adal the elephant is not uncommon. The salt of AsaU
and Aussa is a valuable article of commerce. There is no
fixed government, the country being inhabited by various
independent tribes, all speaking the Afar language and
professing the Mahometan reUgion, and most of them of
nomadic habits.
ADALBERT, Saint, one of the founders of Christianity
in Germany, known as the Apostle of the Prussians, was
bom of a noble family in Slavouia, about 955 ; was educated
at the monastery of Magdeburg; and, in 983, was chosen
Bishop of Prague. The restraints which he tried to impose
on the newly-converted Bohemians by prohibiting poly-
gamy, clerical inconlinency, and similar sins, raised against
him so strong a feeling of hatred, th.at he was forced, in
988, to retire to Rome, where he resided at the monasteries
of Monte Basino and St Alexis. In^993 he returned to
his flock, in obedience to the command of the Pope. Find-
ing little amendment, however, in their course of living, he
30on afterwards went again to Rome, and obtained perniis-
aion from the Pope to devote himself to missionary labours,
which he carried on chiefly in North Germany and Poland.
While preaching in Pomerania (997), he was tlu"ust through
the heart by a lieathen priest.
ADALBERT, Archbishop of Bremen and Hamburg,
born of the noble Sa.-con family of the Counts of Wettin,
was one of the most remarkable ecclesiastics of the 11th
century. Through the friendship of the emperor Henry
ILL he was elevated in 1043, when only about thirty
years old, to the see of Bremen and Hamburg, which
included the whole of Scandinavia, and he accompanied
thfe monarch in his journey to Rome (1046). Here it is
said that he was oS'ered and that he refused the papal
throne. The refusal certainly cannot hare arisen from
lack of ambition for on his return in 1050. with a com-
mission 08 legate to the northern courts from Pope Loo
IX., he immediately sot about carrying out the emperor'«
wishes by establisliing himself in an indei»ndeut patri-
archate of tho north. For this purpose he sought by every
moans to augment his already great influence, he adorned
his two cathedrals, and enlarged and fortified the town of
Bremen bo that it might rival Rome. There was much xn
his favour, and ho might even have succeeded in entirely
separating tho church of the north from tho see of Rome,
had it not been for the death of Heniy 111., and the oppo-
sition of Cardinal Hildobrand. Henry IV. being a minor
at the time of his father's death, Adalbert was associated
with Archbi.ihop Hauno of Cologne as guardian and regent;
and during tho absence of tho ktter on a mitsion to Rome,
ho sought, by granting evoi-y indulgence, to gain the
favour of the young jjnnce, and so, to bo able to exercL^x;
an absolute power in the state (10C2-C5). The ArchbLshops
of Jlayenco and Cologne secured his banishment from
court after the government h.id beon assumed by Ueuiy in
person (10G6); and about tho same time his diocese was
invaded by the "natural enemies' of Bremen, the Saxon
nobles. In 10C9, however, he was recalled, and reinstated
in his former poisition. He died at Goslar in 1072, having
done much during his last years to inflame tho Saxons'hatred
of Henry, which resulted soon afterwards in their revolt.
ADAM, B-K, on appellative noun, meaning the first man.
In Genesis ii. 7, 20, hi. 8, 20, iv. 1, ic, it assumes the nature
of a proper name, and has the article, the man, the only
one of hia kind ; yet it is appellative, correctly speaking.
In Genesis i. 20, 27, v. 2, it is simply appellative, being
applied to both progenitors of the human race ; not to
the first man alone as in the second, third, and fourth
chapters. The etymology of the word is uncertain, but
it is probably connected with a root signifying red, so that
tho idea is one red or rudJt/.
Tho early part of Genesis contains two accounts of
man's cVeation. These narratives need not be examined
at present farther than man's origin is concerned. In
Genesis i. 2G, 27, wo read, " And God said, Let us make
man in our image, after our likeness ; and let them have
dominion over the fish of tho sea, and over tho fowl of
the air, and over the cattle, and over aU the earth, and
over every creeping thing that crecpcth upon tho earth.
So God created man in hia owre image ; in the image of
Ood created he him ; male and female created ho them."
At tho end of the sixth day of creation man appears, the
noblest of earth's inhahitants. In Genesis ii 7, 8, we also
read, " And tho Lord formed man 0/ the dust of the
ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ;
and man became a bving soul. And the LoBD Ood
planted a garden eastward in Eden : and there he put the
man he had formed." The woman's creation is thus
narrated in subsequent verses of the same chapter — 20, 21,
22, 23, "And Adam g-uve names to all cattle, and to the
fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field : but for
Adam there was not found an help meet for him. And
the Lord Ood caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam,
and he slept : and ho took one of hia ribs, and closed up
the flesh instead thereof. And the rib, which the Lobu
God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought
her unto tho man. And Adam said. This is nov? bono of
my bones, and flesh of my flesh : she shall bo called
Woman, because she was taken out of man." Between
these accounts some discrepancy exists. The first reure-
sents the man and woman to have been created together,
after the various creatures which the earth sustains on ita
surface ; the second makes Adam to have been created
first, then the various animals, with the woman last of all.
The creation of animals separates the origin of the matt
and the woman. The first narrator states that man wa^
A D A Si
135
made ia tho image and form of God, without explaining
his meaning more particularly. Hence interpreters differ
in attempting to define it. The language need not be
restricted either to man's spirit or to lys bod}/, but may
refer to his united whole, including spiritual qualities and
bodily form. The ancient Hebrew did not think of God
without a certain form, but transferred the human one to
him, divesting it <5f grossness, and giving it an ethereal
luminousness of surpassing glory. The image of God,
therefore, in which Adam is said to have been created,
includes the whole man, with special reference to the
spiritual nature within him. We cannot tell whether the
wTitcr thought of immortality as involved in the God-
likeness. He may have done so. But the second account
teaches that man was only mortal at first, because he is
sent. out. of Paradise lest he should become immortal by
eating of the tree of Ufe.
The narrative in the first chapter is arranged according
to a dehnite plan. Six days are aUottedto the creation of
the heavens and earth, with all theit furniture animate
and inanimate. After due preparation had been made
by the formation of light, atmosphere, and land separated
from water, life is called into existence, first vegetable,
then animal, terminating in man the lord of this lower
world'. The narrative in chapters ii.-iv. does not present
such orderly progress. In it man is the central figure,
to whom aU is' subordinated. He is created first. For
him plants and trees are made to spring up. He is placed
in a delightful garden. The Lord God perceiving his
solitary condition creates the beasts of the field and the
fowls of the air ; but when brought to the protoplast,
they were insufficient to supply his mental void, so that
woman was made, in whom he found a suitable partner.
A number of questions connected \vith the first pair, not
necessarily entering into the writer's main purpose in
describing man's origin, but complementary and new,
are, the means by which the ground yielded vegetable pro-
ductions, the materials from which the man and the woman
were formed, the cause of their intimate union, the place
of their abode, the simplicity of their condition, and the
way in which animals first received their names. By these
traits [^reparation is made for the history of what befell
the protoplasts in their primitive abode.
According to the second narrative, Jehovah planted a
garden in Eden, eastward, and put the first man tlrere.
A spring or stream rising in 'Eden, and flowing through
the garden, supplied it with water. In issuing from the
garden it divided itself into four rivers, each ha-ving its
own course. The writer gives their names, and the
countries washed by three of them. This garden, usually
termed Paradise after the Septuagint and Vulgate, has
been eagerly sought for ; but it has baffled curiosity.
Though two of the rivers, the Euphrates and Tioris, are
well known, the other two, Pison and Gihon, can only be
identified with difficulty. They seem to be rivers of
Northern India. The Tigris and Euphrates took their
rise in the high land of Northern Armenia ; the Pison, i.e.,
Indus, rises in the Himalayas ; and the Gihon, i.e., Oxus,
Is connected with Ethiopia or Gush. The writer appears
to have considered them all as having their source in the
northern liighlands of Asia, and flowing south, and there-
fore ho placed Eden somewhere in the north of Asia.
The names of two rivers belonging to a foreign tradition,
and little known to the Hebrews because intercourse with
India was then remote, were associated with those of two
known ones incorporated in the national tradition If the
interpreter had to do with pure history, it might not be
amiss to sca/ch for Eden in some dt^inite locality; but, as
the case stands, the examination would probably bo fr\utlcss.
The garden has two remarkable productions — the tree
of Life, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil The
former derives its name from the virtue of its fruit to
impart perpetual life or immortality. The fruit of the
latter communicates the knowledge of good and evil. It
awakens moral consciousness. The one had to do with
physical, the other with spiritual Ufe. Such were the
miraculous powers of the two trees in the uiidst of the
garden.
The third chapter gives an account of the first pair falling
away from the state in which they were created. What
that state was may be clearly gathered from the words. It
was one of innocent simplicity. The protoplasts had a child-
like unconsciousness of evil ; no knowledge of right and
^vrong, virtue and vice. They were in the happy condition
of infancy. Their moral existence had not begun. Perfec-
tion, uprightness, righteousness, could not be predicated
of them. But the world presents vice and its concomitant
misery in strong colours. Misery and evil abound. The
eyes of an Oriental especially nuist have' ,beCn vividly
struck with the phenomena of toilsome w ork, the pains of
child-bearing, the slavery of woman, and the inevitable
necessity of death. The Hebrews, accordingly, meditated
on the cause. The writer seeks to connect with ihe problem
incidental phenomena, as the love of man and wife, the
form of the serpent diff'erent from that of other animals,
the mutual hatred of man and serpents, <tc. It is an old
question, the introduction of evil into the world. As all
the posterity of the first pair participate in sin and sufTcr-
ing, the cause must be looked for in connection with
these. Yet it must not proceed from themselves. God
had made them innocent and happy. The origin of evil
must come from without. A serpent becomes the inc-tru-
ment of their temptation. That cunning and mischievous
animal seduces tliem. The writer thought of nothing but
the creature itself. Those who suppose that the -devil
employed the serpent as his instrument, or that the devil
alone is spoken of, are confronted by the fact that the idea
of Satan was of later introduction among the Hebrews
than the age of the writer. The curse pronounced on the
tempter sufficiently shows that none but the agent expressly
named was thought of.
Are these narratives of the creation, primal abode, and
fall of man, literal history 1 So some have always believed,
with Augustine and the Reformers. The difficulties in
the way of this interpretation are great. As it cannot
be carried out consistenth', its advocates resort to various
expedients. They forsake the literal for the figurative
wherever necessity demands. Thus they put a figurative
construction on the language of the curse, because they
allege that a literal one would be frigid, utterly unworthy
of the solemn occasion, highly inconsistent with the
dignity .of the speaker and the condition of 'the parties
addressed. Sometimes they even incline to regard the
narrative as a sort of poem, or give it a poetical char.acter.
The atmosphere in which the accounts move is difTerent
from the literal one. Instead of assuming that God
created the world and all it contains in a moment of
time, and in harmonious arrangement, the ' first writer
attributes creation to six successive days, represents the
Almighty as addressing the newly-formed existences, look-
ing upon them with satisfaction, pronouncing thera good,
and resting on the seventh day. He naturally chose
the six days of the Hebrew week, with which he was
familiar, for successive gradations of tho creative power.
In the second account we find a speaking serpent, God
walking in a human way in the cool of the day through
the garden, his jeaIon.sy of -the .ispiring Adam who had
attained a higher knowledge, his cursing tho serpent, and
cherubim with a flaming sword. To explain all this aa
literal history, were to attribute other perfections to tUq
l:',6
ADAM
Daity than infinite power, spirituality, and wisdom. Hence
the Church of England, according to Horslcy, does not
demand the literal understanding of the document con-
tained iu the second and third chapters, as a point of
faith.
Are the narratives allegorical 1 So Philo" interprets
them, followed by the Greek fathers of Alexandria,
Clement and Origeu,^ as well aa by Ambrose. In modern
times Coleridge read the whole as an allegory.' So did
Donaldson in hi-s Jashar. There is no indication, how-
over, that allegories were intended. Had this been the
case, the truihs meant to be conveyed would have been easily
discovered. The embarrasamont and capriciousness of the
allegorical interpreters prove that they have followed a
wrong method. The outward form is set aside, and ac
idea discovered beneath it with which the envelope has
no necessary connection. Both should be retained ; the
shell suggesting the kernel, and the kernel showing itself
to be the necessary evolution of central ideas.
According to another interpretation, more commonly ac-
cepted among scholars at the present day, both accounts are
supposed to be, like the early records of other nations, tradi-
tional and mythical. This docs not imply that they are fables
or fictions; far from it. It is true that the oldest traditions
of peoples are mainly subjective, the result of the national
mind ; but they are nevertheless real. Variabie, developed
in different forma, influenced by the characteristics of the
people and by their intercourse with others, they are all that
constitutes the earliest liistory of nations, the shapings of
oral tradition before written records appeared. A mythologi-
cal age stands at the head of all national histories ; and that
of the Hebrews seems to be no exception. The two narra-
tives present i)hilosophical mythi in a historical form. They
represent the best ideas of the Hebrews at a certain stage
of their history iu explanation of the creation of man, his
primeval abode and state, and the cause of his degeneracy.
The first account is plain and simple. It assigns a high
dignity to man, and traces all human beings to a single
pair, in harmony with the best evidence of modern
science that points to unity of origin, rather than to dif-
ferent centres of creation. There is a natUi'alncss in the
narrative that cannot.be mistaken, while the writer adheres
to generalities. (Sec Oablor's Einleihaig to Eichhom't
Urgeachichte, vol. i. p. 11, &c. ; and Gesenius's article
^' Adam," in Ersch unci Gr liber's Entykhpccdie, vol. i.)
On ths other hand, the narrator in the second, third_, and
fourth chapters manifests a more reflective spirit, seeking to
explain causes, and to trace connections. Supp!)dng particu-
lars wanting in the older narrative, and correcting others, he
enters into details, and though more anthropomorphic, has
a finer perception of circumstances associated with the
protopl.ists. Tholuck himself admits his narrative to be a
mythus. It is usual to designate the first writer the
Elohist ; the second, the .Jehovist ; because the one com-
monly uses Eldhim as the name of God ; the other
Jehovah, or Jehovah Elohim in the second and third
chapters.
The Adam in tne second and tnira chapters, according to
this view, is the progenitor and representative of humanity,
who brought miseiy into the world by self-will. He is ideal
man, becoming historical in every individual who, as
soon as his moral nature is awakened, feels the power and
the possibility of rising higher through reason and per-
ception. Adam's procedure repeats itself in each indivi- .
dual, vho has his paradise, eats of the tree of knowledge,
and feels within him the roots of apostasy from God. On
* J)s mundi Opi/icw,''p. 37, vol. i. ed. Mangej.
' Phiiocalia, cap. 1, and contra Cek.
' Aids to lUfiution, p. 241, note (Barlington edition of 1840).
the other band, his restoration and happiness are euppoeed
to be iu his own power. His salvation is practicable through
the victory of reason over instinct, of faith over sense.*
The traditions of ancient nations present analogies to the
creation of man given in the first chapter of Genesis. The
Etrurian comes nearest to the Hebrew. There creation
takes place in six periods of a thousand years each, and
men appear in the last, after the earth, sun, moon, and stars,
\nth all living things on the surface of the globe, had been
brought into existence by God.' The Persian mythology,
in like manner, makes Ormuzd, the god of light, create by
his word Honcver the visible world in six periods of a
thousand years each, and man is formed last. The name of
the first man is Kaiomorts." The Chaldee myth, given by
Berosus, presents little resemblance to the Hebrew narra-
tive. Bel, the highest god, divided the darkness, and cut
the woman, who ruled over the monstrous creatures found at
first in t/ieall, into two halves,out of which heaven and earth
were formed. After that he cut off' his own head. The blood
trickling down was taken by other gods and mixed with
earth, from which men were formed, who are therefore wise,
and paftakera of the divine intelligence.'' The Phenician
myth is still more unlike the Hebrew account.* But Ovid's
teaching is that man was made in the image of the gods,
and was intended to be ruler of the earth.' The Egyptian
theology has no point of contact with the Hebrew.''' The
Indian accounts are very numerous, but often discrepant.
Their likeness to the Hebrew narrative is remote; for the
play of imagination appears in them to excess and absur-
dity. Among those myths in which the formation of men
is described without allusion to any primordial distinction
of castes, we may quote two. Prajapati, i.e., the universe
wliich was eoul and only one, formed enimab from his
breaths, a man from his scuL The soul is the first of the
breaths. Since he formed a man from his soul, therefore
they say, " man is the first of the animals, and the strongest."
The soul is all the breaths ; for all the breaths depend upon
the soul. Since he formed man from his soul, therefore
they say, " man is all the animals;" for all these are man's."
Manu's account of the creation is that men of the four
castes proceeded separately from difi"erent parts of Brahma's
body prior to the division of that body into two parts. The
doctrine of emanation appe;ii^ in the Indian cosmogonies, as
also that of absorption. Thus Brahma is reabsorbed into
the supreme spirit, according to Manu.'- According to the
liamiaiis in India, God having made the world and the
creatures belonging to it, created man, who came forth from
the earth at the divine voice, his head appearing first, then
his whole body, into whom life was conveyed. God gave
him for companion a woman, and the two lived together aa
man and wife, feeding on the fruits of the grouud. They
had four sons of diiferent temperaments, for whom God
made four women, and the four quarters of the earth were
peopled by their progeny."
The paradisiacal state of the first pair, and their loss of
it as described in the second and third chapters of Genesis,
have their parallels in the myths of ancient nations. Ac-
cording to the Persian traditions, Meschia and Meschiane,
the progenitors of mankind, were created for happiness in
* See Tach's Kom}n€nUir ueber die Genesis, p. 50.
' Suidns, s. V. Tuf/niK, vol. ii. pp. 1248-9, ed. Bemhardy.
' Klmk<T,i. 19, 20; iii. 59, ic.
^ Eusebiua's Chron. Bipartitum, voL i. p. 24, ed. Aacber,
^ See SanchoniathOf trauslated by Cory, in the Fhenix, p. 185, ftc,
ed. New York.
* Metamorphos. L 76, &c. ; Opera ed. Burmann, torn, ii p. 20.
" Roeth's Ocxhichle der Philos. L p. 131, kc.
" Muir's Sayiskril Tells, vol. i. p. 24, 2d ed.
" Ibid. p. 53, *c.
" See Lord's Display o/ tin Foreign Sects »n Uu East India, cnap-
tei i. p. 1, &c
ADAM
137
this worlJ and Ihe next, on condition that they were good,
and did not worship Dews. At first they acted according to
their original nature, acknowledging that all beings were
derived from Ormuzd. But they were seduced by an evil
spirit, and clothed themselves in black for thirty days.
After that tliey went out to hunt, and found a white goat,
of whose milk they drank. In this they sinned against
their body, and were punished. The evil spirit or Dew
presented himself to them again, giving them fruits to eat,
by which they forfeited a hundred enjoj-nients. At first
they covered themselves with the skins of dogs, and ate
the flesh of these animals. They hunted and made them-
selves clothing of the skins of deer.'
Abriman is represented as a poisonous serpent, and
springs in this form from heaven to earth.^ Dews often
take the same fonn.'
The tree Horn among them is similar to the ^"ee of life.
It imparts immortality, and is called the king of trees.*
The holy mountain or paradise of Persian tradition is
AlbordJ, the abode of Ormuzd and the good spirits, which
S'^nds forth great rivers.^ This means the Hindu Koosh
mountains where was Airjana veeJJo, the first seat of the
Aryan race. Here we have mention of a district Uedcn;
and Zoroaster is said to have been born in Ilcdeiiesch, but
elsewhere in Airjana veedjofi
According to the religion of Lama or tne CalmucKs, men
lived in the first age of the world 80,000 years. They
were holy and happy. But their happiness came to an end.
A plant, sweet as honey, sprang out of the earth, of which a
greedy man tasted, and made others acquainted with it. A
sense of shame was awakened, and therefore they began to
make themselves coverings of the leaves of trees. Their
age and siz'j decreased. Virtue fled, and aU manner of vice
prevailed." The paradisiacal state of Thibetan mythology
is one of perfection and spirituality. But the desire to eat
of a sweet herb, schima, put an end to that condition.
Shame spraug up within the fallen; the need of clothing
was fuit. They were driven to agriculture by necessity.
Virtue fled, murder, adultery, and all other vices suc-
ceeded.^
Among the Indians, the holy mountain oi tlie north, the
seat of the gods, and the source of the great rivers, was
.!/<;)•»(.' The tree Parijata, brought from heaven to earth
by Krishna, with its heavenl}' flower and fruit, scares away
hunger, thirst, disease, old age, kc}"
The Greek myths are remotely parallel. Hesiod describes
the •primitive state as one free from toil, sickness, and all
l.'iuds of eWl. Jlortals were contented with easily obtained,
though poor, sustenance. But cunning Prometheus de-
ceived Zeus, and stole fire from heaven. The latter, by
.ay of punishment, sent a beautiful woman, Pandora, whom
Kpimetheus accepted as a gift. Having with her a vessel
into wh'ch all sorts of misery had been put, she opened it
out of curiosity, and evils flew forth in abundance, filling
the earth. Hope alone remained at the bottom."
The story is supplemented and modified in the Theognny.
There Prometheus is twice punished, and woman becomes
the source of man's evils, merely as the original mother of
the race. There is also a reconciliation between Zeus and
Prometheus. '-
In jEschylus mankind are presented in the ignorance of
* Klenker's Zc^id-Av^Ua^ part iii. pp. 84, 85.
» Thid. iii. 62. » Hid. ii. 192.
< Jhid. iii. p. 105.
» lUd. iii. 70, 91. • ma. li. 277, 209; iii. 118.
^ Staudlin in Archiv. fikr Kirchengeschichie, i. 3, p. 14.
^ See Staudlin's Arckiv. i. 3, p. 15.
• Von Bohlen's Das alu IndUn, i. 12; ii. 210.
" Wilson's Vishnu Parana, pp. 586, 613; and Longloii's translation
of tho Ilarivansa, tome ii. p. 3.
" Opera el Diet, 40-105. " lUd. 606-616.
infancy till Prometheus implanted iii tlicm the power of
intellect, and the capability of knowledge. The fire from
heaven is not the cause of the evils that broke in upon
them ; rather is it the teacher of every art, and the opener
up of infinite resources; but Prometheus himself must
endure fearful punishment for his self-will, in papng too
much regard to mortals. Still there is an intimation of
future reconciliation between the opposing powers, Zeus
and Prometheus.
The points of similarity between the Old Testament and
this Greek representative of man's fall are tolerably plain.
In both there is an original state marked by freedom from
soJTow, by complete earthly enjojTnent and undisturbed
peace with God. Both attach the origin of evil to the act
of a free being putting himself in opposition to God —
evil being the punishment of that act, arising by means of
a woman. As the Old Testament narrative implies that
the step taken by man was not a mere degeneracy, so
jEscliylus's description admits that it was for humanity
the beginning of a richer and higher life, since man's
proper destiny could not be worked out in a condition of
cliildlike incapacity. Pandora reminds us of Eve ; Epi-
metheus of Adam. Prometheus and the serpent both wish
to make men like God in knowledge and happiness.'^ The
tragic poet seems to regard Prometheus as the archetype of
man, so that his fate is theirs. Like every strong-willed
mortal, Prometheus flounders on the rock of presumption.
He persists in acting contrary to the commands of Deity,
and endures torture till he submits to a higher will, accept-
ing the sj-mbols of repentance and restraint within certain
limits. Thus like Adam, he is the rc;.Tesentative of
humanity.
The fundamental difl'erence between tne Hebrew and
Greek narratives is, that the distinction between God and
the world, spirit and nature, maintained with all sharpness
in the one, is not carried out in the other. On the con-
trary, the Greek myth mixes the two spheres, so that the
world appears as the original, independent element, of
which spirit and deity are mere products. In the Hebrew
narrative the spiritual features arc presented clearly aud
simply; in the Greek they are indistinct, because transferred
to the sensuous world and covered with a luxuriant growth
of outer nature."
OWd paints the golden age in the manner of Hesicd, but
with more details. It was pervaded by innocent simplicity,
and the successive ages became still worse, till moral corrup-
tion reached such a height in the last or iron age that
Jupiter sent a flood to destroy all mankind.'^
Plato in Ilia St/ntposivm^'^ explains the sexual and ama-
tory' inclination of the man and the woman by the fact
that there were at first androgynous beings, whom Zeus
separated into men and women. The two scxcg were
originally united.
In Coirodi's Beitrciye (xviii. ]i. 14), the Indian J^zoiir
Vedam is quoted, in which the lirst iHoii is called Adiino,
from whose body came Brahma, A'ishiiu, and Schiva. Tin's
statement is repeated by Knobel and others. But the
Ezour Vcdam (a cornipt pronunciation of Yajur Veda) is a
spurious Veda from the pen of i?onie Jesuit missionary.'^
Though it mentions Adimo (which sinijily means t/iejirsi)
in vol. i. p. 195, itc, and vol. ii. 20.5, genuine Indian
mythology recognises no such name of the first man.
The second narrative, in some of its ideas, seems dc-
*3 See Buttmatin's Mi/tftologus, B-ind i. p. 43, &c.
" See G. Baur in the Sludim iiiirf Krilikci for 1848, p. S20, el seq.
^^ ifetatncrjfhos. i. 89, &c. J vol. ii. p. 14, kc, ed. Burnann.
" Cap. XV. cd. Stallbaum, 1827.
" Tho E:our VeJtm was printfd at P.iris in 1778. See Mr Ellis, in
the Asiatick Researches, vol. xiv. p. 2, &c., and Dr Muir in tLs
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xiiii. part 2, t^
255, ic.
138
A D A — A D A
rived from Eastern Asia. Several features disclose this;
euch as tlio covering of fig leaves, the B[)ringing of four
rivers from a common source, and the names of two of
them which point to India. The tree of life and the
seducing spirit have their place in the Persian and Tndian
religions. But its essence is adapted to the Hebrew
theology, and contains genuine Hebrew traits ; though it
stands tolerably isolated ill the circle of id^as which the
Old Testament presents. Not till the Book T)f Wisdom
do we find express reference to it (chap. iL 23, 24),
though the tree of life is spoken of in the Proverbs. Yet
there is diversity amid similarity. As elaborated by the
Hebrew mind, the narrative is a profound theory, with noble
features worthy of the subject. Its verisimilitude is
apparent. It shows a thoughtful contem))lation of human
nature, a fine sense of its capacities and weakness, of its
aspirations and needs. Its lines are drawn with great dis-
cernment. The problem need expect no better solution in
this life ; for its depths cannot bo fathomed by the sound-
ing-line of a finite understanding. Hero is the one philo-
sophy of the subject that has taken the deepest hold of the
human mind, engrafting itself on the religious systems of
very diilKrent races, and enlisting the sympathies of the
most civilised nations. Originating in the East, it has been
transferred to the West, where it lives in pristine vigour.
It is the essence of the best ideas and traditions of
Eastern Asia, improved and enlarged by the Hebrew mind
at a certain period. The more the narrative is examined,
the more clearly will it appear the result of enlightened
reason. It embodies national traditions of Hebrew reflec-
tiveness. Free from the pantheism and dualism inherent
'.n the mythologies of other peoples, the monotheism wliich
distinguished the Hebrews as the depositaries of a divine
truth pervades it. The tradition has two sides. It repre-
sents the transition of man to freedom and humanity, as
Schiller describes it ; his elevation by the awakening
exercise of reason ; his advance from nature's cradling-
season to a consciousness of the divine within him ; but it
represents at the same time the inclination to follow his
own will, to asjiire to the forbidden contrary to his better
conviction, to push reason beyond the limits within which
alone it can bo legitimately used ; in short, to break away
from the will of God in self-sufiicient independence. While
the fact was one of the most fortunate in man's history, it
was also -one of th? saddest. When moral good was made
possible, moral evil was introduced. A knowledge of the
one brings that of the other.*
After Adam fell, God drove him from paradise, whose
gates were guarded by«eherubim to prevent access to the
tree of life. The protoplasts had first three sons — Cain,
Abel, Seth ; then other sons and daughters. Adam died
at the age of 930. According to the Elohist, the later
race of men descended from Seth, the first born (Genesis v.) ;
according to the Jehovist from Cain, who was the first bom
(Genesis iv.) A Jewish tradition represents him as buried
in Hebron with the patriarchs; a Christian one makes
Golgotha his resting-place.
A number of absurd fables, the fancies of Jewish writers,
have gathered round the simple narratives of the Old
Testament, and are incorporated in the Talmud. In these
*Adam is said to have been made as a man-woman out of
dust collected from every part of the earth; his head
reached to heaven, and the sjilendour of hb face surpassed
the sun. The very angels feared him, and all creatures
hastened to pay him devotion. The Lord, in order to
display his power before the angels, caused a clsep to faU
upon him, took away something from all his members, and
^ S«e Schelling's Ma-jisUrdissertation in toL i of bis Sdmmtliche
Wcrke, p. 3, &.a.
when ho awoke commanded the paits that had been to
moved to bi dispersed over the globe, that the whole earth
might bo inhabited by his seed. Thus Adam lost his size,
but not his completeness. His first wife was Lilith,
mother of the demons. But she flew away through thi
air; and then the Lord created Eve from his rib, brought
her to Adam in the most beautiful dress, and angels descend-
ing from heaven played on heavenly instruments; bun,mooii,
and stars dancing. Ho blessed the pair, and gave them a
feast upon a table of precious stone. Angels prepared the
most costly viands. But Adam's glory was envied by the
angels ; and the seraph Sammael succeeded in seducing
him. The pair were driven out of paradise into the place
of darkness, and wandered through the earth.-
According to the Koran, God created man of dried cla)
like an earthen vessel, animating the figure, and enduing
it with an intelligent souL When he had placed hiu)
in paradise, he formed Eve out of his left side. All
the angels worshipped the new man except Eblis, who
refused and became an unbeliever. Satan c;.used them to
forfeit paradise, and turned them out of- their state oi
happiness. On Adam's repentance, God pitied him, and
had him taught the divine commandments by the arch-
angel Gabriel ; whereupon he was conducted to Arafat, s
mountain near Mecca, and found Eve after a leparation of
200 years. He was buried on Mount Abukais, near ilecca.^
Many other fables of the later Jews respecting Adam are
collected by Eisenmenger, and those of the Mahometans
by Herbelot
In the emanation systems of the Christian Gnostics and
Manichaeans, as well as in the gnosis of the Mandieans,
Adam is represented as one of the first and holiest aeons.
Both catholic and heretical literature indulged in fictions
respecting Adam, A Life of Adam was translated from the
Ethiopic into German by Dillmann, in Ewald's Jahrbuch,
V. llie Testament of Adam, current in Syriac and Arabic,
was published by Kenan in the Journal Asialiipie, s6rie v.
torn. 2. Both these seem to he, derived from the Spelunca
Tkesaurorum, which exists in MS. in the Syriac tongue.
The Sethitcs, a Gnostic sect, had Apocali/pses of Adam;
other Gnostics had a Gospel of Eve. A Book of the Repent-
ance of Adam and A Book concerning the Dauglitert of
Adam, are condemned in the decree of Gelasius. George
Syncellus cites a Greek Life of Adam ; and a fragment
from I'/ie Greek Book of Adam, in a Florentine MS., is
given in the Literaturblatt des Orients for 1850. Thus
the Adam-literature is copious.* The Book of Adam, pub-
lished by Norberg in 1816, is improperly so termed. It
is a Mandjeau or Sabian work, Sidra Babba, which is now
better known, since Petermann's critical edition of 1867,
and Noldeke's researches into the language. (s. D.)
ADAM OF Bremen, ecclesiastical historian, was born in
Upper Saxony, and in 10G7, probably on the invitation of
Archbishop Adalbert, came to Bremen, where he was
appointed canon and magister tcholarum. He died in
1076. His Gesta Ilammaburgensis Bcclesice Pontificum,
containing a history of the diocese of Hamburg and
Bremen from 788 till the death of Adalbert in 1072, is of
great importance as the chief source of infomation in
regard to -the state of the northern kingdoms during the
period of which it treats. It is supposed to have been com-
piled partly from written documents and partly from the
oral communications of the Danish king, Svend Estritlison.
Its statements are generallj' trustworthy, though the chrono-
logy is sometimes ' confused, and the geographical inf orma-
• Eisentnenger's Enidektts Judenihum, Amsterdam, 1700, 4to.
• B'Herbelot's liibliolhc(pu Orientate, i. v. "Adam," p. 53, fcc,
ed. 1697, Paris.
• S«e ] liUmaan in Herzog's Eneykloptedit, xiL p. 319.
A D A — A D A
139
tion often erroneous. The style is clear arifl interesting/
though somewhat prolix. It was first publi.shuJ from MSS.
at Copenhagen in 1579. The best edition is that of
Lappenberg in Pertz's Mamtmenta Germanice. A supple-
ment to the Gesta, a geographical work of considerable
value, entitled De Situ DaniiB et Meliquarnm qicce trans
Daniam sunt Regionum Natura, was published at Stock-
holm in 1C15, and at Leyden in 1629.
ADAM, Alexander, Rector of the High School, Edin-
burgh, was born on the 24th of June 1741, near Forres, in
Morayshire. From his earliest years he showed uncommon
diligence and perseverence in classical studies, notwith-
standing many difficulties and privations. In '1757 he
went to Edinburgh, where he studied at the University
with such success that in eighteen months he was appointed
head-master of Watson's Hospital, being at the time only
nineteen. He was confirmed in the office of Rector of the
High School on the Sth of June 17G8, on the retirement of
ilr Matheson, whose substitute he had been for some time
before. From this period he devoted himself entirely to
the duties of his office, and to the preparation of the
numerous works he published in classical literature. His
popularity and success as a teacher are strikingly illustrated
in the facts that his class increased more than fourfold dur-
ing his incumbency, and that an unusually large proportion
of his pupils attained to eminence, among them being Sir
Walter Scott, Lord Brougham, and Jeffrey. He succeeded
in introducing the study of Greek into the curriculum of
the school, notwithstanding the opposition of the University
headed by Principal Robertson. In 1780 the University
of Edinburgh conferred upon Mr Adam the honorary degree
uf Doctor of Laws. He died on the 18th December 1809,
after an illness of five days, during which he occasionally
imagined himself still at work, his last words being, —
"But it grows dark; you may go." Dr Adam's first pub-
lication was his Principles of Latin and English Grammar
(1772). This was followed by his Roman Antiquities (1791),
his Summary of Geography and History (1794), and his
Latin, Dictionary {] 805). The MS. of a projected larger
Latin dictionary, which he did not live to complete, Ues in
the library of the High School.
ADAM, Melchior, German divine and biographer, was
horn at Grottkaw in Silesia after 1550, and educated in
the college of Brieg, where he became a Protestant. He
was enabled to pursue his studies there by the liberality of
i person of quality, who had left several exhibitions for
young students. In 1598 he went to Heidelberg, where,
'iftcr holding various scholastic appointments, he became
•-•onrector of .the g)-mnasium. In 1615 he published the
!irst volume of his Vilce Germanorum Pldlosophorum, kc.
This volume waSj followed by three others; that which
treated of divines was printed in 1619; his lives of lawyers
and of physicians were published in 1620. All the learned
men whose history is contained in these four volumes lived
in the 16th or beginning of the Nth century, and are
either Germans or Flemings; but he published in 1018 the
lives of twenty divines of other countries in a separate
volume, entitled Decades duo; continentes Vitas Tlieologormn
Ktfcrorum Principum. All his divines are Protestants.
His industry as a biographer is commended by Bayle, who
icknowledges his obligations to Adam's labours. Lutherans
.ind Catholics accuse him of unfairness, but the charge is
at least exaggerated. He died in 1622.
ADAM, Robert, architect, the second son of William
Adam of Maryburgh, in Fife, was born in 1728. He
studied at the University of Edinburgh, and probably
■received his first instruction in arclutecture from his father,
who, whether a prolessiona! -architect or not, gave proofs of
his skill and taste in the (lesigns of Hopetoun House and
-the Edinburgh Rojal Infirmary. Ir. 1704 young Adam
visited the Continent, and spent three years ig, Italy for
the purpose of examining the ruins of Roman architecture.
The magnificence of the public batis erected at Rome in
the time of Diocletian having impre3se"3 him with the idea
that there had been a marked revival of architectural art
during that emperor's reign, he resolved to visit the ruins
of the private palace Diocletian had erected at Spalatro in
Dalmatia. In company with Clerisseau, a French architect,
he sailed from Venice in July 1754, and in a few weeks,
with the help of two experienced draughtsmen, had com-
pleted plans and views of the fragments, from which he
was afterwards able to execute a design of the entire build-
ing. The results were published in the Ruins of the Palace
of Diocletian, &c. (1764). After his return to England he
rose to the highest eminence in his profession, and was
appointed architect to the king in 1762. Six years later
he entered Parliament as representative of the county tf
Kinross, but he stUl continued to devote himself to the
duties of his profession, resigning only his court appoint-
ment. In 1773-78 he and his brother James, also an
architect of considerable note, published from time to time
large folio engravings with letterpress description of their
designs, the most important being, — Lord Mansfield's
house at Caen wood; Luton House, Bedfordshire; the
Register House, Edinburgh, &c. Among tljeir later works
may be mentioned the buildings erected in London by the
two brothers, and hence called the Adelphi (d&e\<f>oi), which
proved an unsuccessful speculation ; Portland Place, London ;
and the Infirmary of Glasgow. The leading characteristics
of all these designs are lightness and elegance; and, though
grave faults may be found with his style, it cannot be denied
that English architecture, especially that of the streets of
London, owes very much to Robert Adam. He continued
actively engaged in his profession until his death in 1792.
James, his brother and associate in labour, died in 1794.
ADAM, Right Hon. William, nephew of the preced-
ing, eldest son of John Adam, Esq. of Blair-Adam, Kin-
ross-shire, was born on the 2d August 1751, studied at
the Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, and passed at
the Scotch bar in 1773. Soon after he removed to England,
where he entered Parliament in 1774, and in 1782 was
called to the Common-law bar. He withdrew from ParUa-
ment in 1795, entered it again in 1806 as representative
of the united counties of Clackmannan and Kinross, and
continued a member, though with some interruptions, till
1811. A popular though not an eloquent speaker, Mr
Adam soon took a prominent place in the House, making
himself of importance by his sound judgment and firm
general adherence to the Whig party. A duel in 1779
between him and Mr Fox, in which the latter was slightly
wounded, did not interrupt their close and steady friend-
ship. They both belonged to the small but noble band
that opposed the encroachments of the Government on the
Constitution during the period of the French Revolution.
One of Mr Adam's most valuable parliamentary efforts was
the agitation which he successfully raised, in March 1794,
against the severe punishment awarded in the Scotch
criminal court to certain persons who had been convicted
of sedition. At the English bar he was as successful as
any one can be who does not devote himself entirely to the
profession. Though kmwn to be much engaged in Parlia-
ment, and with the management of the pecuniary affairs of
the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York, he obtained a
very considerable practice. He was successively Attorney
and Solicitor General to the Prince of Wales, one of the
managers of the impeachment of Warren Hastings, and
one of the counsel who defended the first Lord ilelville
when impeached (as Mr Dundas). During his party'a
brief tenure of ofllce in 180G he was Chancellor of t'nc
Duchy of Cornwall, and was afterwards a privy coui'.cilior
140
A- D A — A D A
and lord-lieutenant of Kinross-sliire. In 1814 he became
s baron ^i Exchequer in Scotland, and in the following
3rear was appointed chief commissioner of the newly-
established Jury-Court for the trial of civil causes, over
which he presided with much ability and acceptance till
1830, when it ceased to exist aa a separate court, and
became merged in the permanent supremo tribunal
Though little versed in the technicalities of law, ho was in
all practical matters an able manager; ho was a slirewd
observer of all that passed around him, and a most agree-
able companion. Ho died at Edinburgh on the 17th
February 1839.
ADA.MS BRIDGE, or Ramiii Bridge, a chain of sand-
banks, extending from the island of Manaar, near the N.W.
coast of Ceylon to the island of Rameserara, off the Indian
coast, and lying between the Gulf of Manaar on the S.AY.
and Palk Strait on the N.E. It is more than 30 miles
long, and offers a serious impediment to navigation. Some
of the sandbanks are dry; and no part of the shoal has a
greater depth than 3 or 4 feet at high water, except three
tortuous and intricate channels, a few feet deep, which in
calm weather permit the passage of boats and small vessels.
ADAM'S PEAK, a lofty mountain in Ceylon, about 45
miles E. from Colombo, in N. lat. 6' 55', E. long. 80° 30'.
It rises steeply to a height of 7240 feet, and commands a
magniCcent prospect. Its conical summit terminates in an
oblong platform, 74 feet by 2i, on which there is a hollow,
resembling the form of a human foot, 5 feet 4 inches by 2
feet 0 inches; and this has been consecrated as the foot-
print of Buddha. The margin of this suppo.sed footprint
is ornamented with gems, and a wooden canopy protects it
from the weather. It \s, held in high veneration by the
Cingalese, and numerous pilgrims ascend to the sacred
spot, where a priest resides to receive their offerings, and
bless them on their departure. By the Mahometans the
impression is regarded as that of the foot of Adam, who
here, according to their tradition, fulfilled a penance of one
thousand years, while the Hindoos claim it as that of their
god Siva.
ADAJIAWA, a country of Central Africa, lies between
V and 11° N. lat., and 11° and 16° E. long., about mid-
way on the map between the Bight of Biafra and Lake
Chad. Its boundaries cannot be strictly defined; but it
stretches from S.W. to N.E. a distance of 200 miles, with
a width of from 70 to 80 miles. Tliis region is watered
by the Benuwe and the Faro. The former, which ulti-
mately unites v.-ith the Niger, flows through Adamawa,
first in a northerly, then in a westerly direction; and is
joined by the Faro, which rihes in the south, 22 miles from
YoUa, the capital of the country. Near their confluence
the Benuwe is SOO yards wide, with a depth of about II
feet; the Faro has a breadth of 600 yards, but is generally
very ehaUow. Both rivers are subject to extraordinary
floods, beginning in the end of September, and lasiing forty
days,' during which the swamps of the adjacent country are
covered for a great distance on both sides, and the Benuwe
rises at least 30 feet. The most fertile parts of the country
z.re she plains near the Benuwe, about SOO feet above the
level of the sea. Further from that river the land rises to
an elevation of 1500 feet, and is diversified by numerous
hills and groups of mountains. Mount Alantika, about 25
miles S.S.E of Yolla, is the loftiest mountain in Adamawa,
and rises from the plain, an isolated mass, to the height of
9000 feet The country, which is exceedingly rich, and is
covered with luxuriant herbage, has many villages, and a
considerable population. The grain known as Holcus
soryhum or durra, ground-nuts, yams, and cotton are the
principal products; and the palm and banana abound.
Hephants are -very numerous, and ivory is largely ex-
ported, lu the eastern part of the country the rhino-
ceroa is met with, and the rivers swarm with crocodile*,
and with a curious mammal called the ayv, bearing some
resemblance to the seal. Yolla, the capital of Adamawa,
is situated, in N. lat. 9° 28', E long. 12° 13', in the fertile
plain between the Ben.uwe and the Faro. The houses are
built of clay, and surrounded by court-yards, in which
grain is grown ; so that the town, though containing only
about 1 2,000 inhabitants, is spread over a large extent of
ground, and is 3 miles long from east to west. Turkcdi
(a dark-coloured cotton cloth), beads, salt, and calico are
the principal articles exposed in the markets. Here and
throughout Adamawa cotton is generally used as a medium
of barter. A very largo proportion of the population are
slaves, many private individuals holding as many as 1000,
while the governor is said to receive annually about oOOO in
tribute. The government of Adamawa is in the hands of a
Mahometan ruler, who owns a nominal allegiance to the
Sultan of Sokoto, but is in reality an independent sove-
reign. Formerly the country was called Fumbina, and
was possessed by various African tribes, until it was over-
fun by the Fulbe, a Mahometan people. It has not been
entirely subjected by them, but they have detached settle-
ments at various places; and numerous governors, as well
of the Fulbe as of outlying pagan tribes, are in subjection
to the ruler of Yolla. 'See Earth's Travels in Central
Africa, vol. ii.)
ADAMITES, or adamians, a sect of heretics that
flourished in North Africa in the 2d and 3d centuries.
Basing itself probably on a union of certain gnostic and
ascetic doctrines, this sect pretended that its membei-s were
reestablished in Adam's state of original innocency. They
accordingly rejected the form of marriage, which, they
said, would never have existed but for sin, and lived in
absolute lawlessness, holding that, whatever they did, their
actions could be neither good nor bad. During the Middle
Ages the doctrines of this obscure sect, which did not at
first exist long, were revived in Europe by the Brethren
and Sisters of the Free Spirit, who in the 14th century
were better known throughout Germany as Beghards. This
name was originally borne by a religious party that was
formed in the Netlierland.s a century earlier. The two
sects came into contact on the Rhine frontier, associated
with each other, gradually approximated in doctrine, and
were at last identified by the application to both of the one
name; though a distinct sect of Beghards, free from the
excesses of the brethren, continued to exist in the Nether-
lands. Pieard is simply another form which Beyltard
assumed in the harsh pronunciation of the Bohemians, and
the common method of accounting for it by supposing a
leader Pieard has no sufficient warrant. The principal
seat of the Picards in Bohemia was a small island in the
river Luschnitz, where they lived in a state of nature, and
had ivives in common. In 1421 they were almost exter-
minated by Ziska, the leader of the Hussites, who com>
mitted many of them to the flames. In 1849 it appeared
that the sect existed in a district of Austria, though small
in number, and not ostentatious of its peculiar practices.
(Riidinger de Eccl. Frat. in Bo! enu, 4c.; Bossuct's Varia-
tions of Protestant Churches.)
ADAMNAN or Adomnan, Saint, Dom in Ireland about
the year 624, was elected Abbot of lona in 679, on the
death of Failbhe. While on a mission to the court of King
Aldfrid of Northumberland (700-1), he was led to adopt
the Roman rule in regard to the time for the observance of
Easter; and on his return to lona he tried to enforce thr
change upon the monks, but without success. It is said
that the disappointment catised his death, which occurred
in 703 or 704. Adamnan wrote a Life of St Columba,
which, though abounding in fabulous matter, is of great
interest and value. The best edition is that of Reeve*
ADA —A D A
141
published by the Irish Ai'chaeological and Celtic Society in
1857. Adamnan's other well-known worls, De Situ Terrce
Sanctce, was based, according to Bede, on information
received from Arculf, a French bishop, who, on his return
from the Holy Land, was wrecked on the west coast of
Britain, and was entertained for a time at lona. This was
first published by Gretser at Ingolstadt in 1619. [Kalen-
dars of the Scottish Saints, by Bishop Forbes, 1872.)
ADAMS, John, a distinguished statesman of the United
States of North America. He was born on the 1 9th or (new
style) 30th of October 1735, in that part of the township of
Braintree, in Massachusetts, which on a subsequent division
was called Quincy. His parents were of that class, then
abounding in Now England, who united the profession of
agriculture with that of some one of the mechauic arts. His
ancestor Henry had emigrated from Devonshire in the year
1632, and had established himself at Braintree with six
sons, all of whom married : from one descended the subject
of this memoir, and from another that Samuel Adams who,
with John Hancock, was by name proscribed by an Act of
the British ParUament, for the conspicuous part he acted in
the early stages of the opposition to the measures of the
mother country. When about fifteen years of age, his
father proposed to his son John either to foUow the family
pursuits, and to receive in due time, as his portion, a part
of the estate which they had cultivated, or to have the ex-
pense of a learned education bestowed upon him, with which,
instead of any fortune, he was to make his way in future
life. The son chose the latter alternative ; and having
received some preparatory instruction, was admitted a
student at Harvard College in the year 1751. After
graduating in 1755, he removed to the town of Worcester,
where, according to the economical practice ef tiat day in
New E,ngland, he became a tutor in a grammar school, and
at the same time was initiated into the practice of the law
in the office of Mr Putnam, then an attorney and a colonel
of militia, and subsequently a general of some celebrity in
the revolutionary war. A letter he wrote at the early age
of nineteen, shows a degree of foresight which^ like many
other predictions, may have led to its own accomplishment.
It is dated 12th October 1754, and says — "Soon after the
Reformation, a few people came over to this New World for
conscience' sake. Perhaps this apparently trivial incident
may transfer the great seat of empire to America. It looks
likely to me; for if we can remove the turbulent Gallic
(the French in Canada), our people, according to the
exactest computation, wUl in another century become more
numerous than England itself Should this be the case,
since we have, I may .say, all the naval stores of the nation
in our hands, it will be easy to obtain the mastery of the
seas, and then the united force of all Europe will not be
able to subdue us. The only way to keep us from setting
up for ourselves is to disunite us."
He was admitted to practice in the year 1758, and
gradually rose to the degree of eminence which a local court
can confer; and obtained distinction by some essays on the
subject of the canon and feudal law, which were directed
to point to the rising difference which commenced between
the mother country and the colonies, soon after the peace
of 1763 had delivered the latter from all disquietude re-
specting the establishments of France in the adjoining pro-
vince of Canada. His character rose, both as a lawyer and
a patriot, so as to induce Governor Barnard, who wished
to gain him over to the royal party, to offer him the office
of advocate-general in the Admiralty Court, which was
deemed a sure step to the highest honours of the bench.
Two years after, ho was chosen one or the representatives
pf his native town to the congroaa of the province. His
first prominent interference m political afi'airs was at a
meeting at Braintree in J 765, to oppose the Stamp Act.
The resolutions he proposed were not only carried unani-
mously, but were afterwards adopted verbatim by moro
than forty other towns. In 1768 he found it necessary
to remove to Boston, owing to the increase of his le^al
practice.
His professional integrity was soon after exnioited in the
defence of Captain Preston and some soldiers, who wera
tried before a Boston jury on a charge of murder, April
1770. In this case Adams was counsel for the defence;
and being considered by the people, then in an inflamed
state against the troops, as a determined friend of liberty,
his eloquence obtained a verdict of acquittal without lessen-
ing his popularity.
Wien it was determined, in 177-t, to assemble a general
congress from the several colonies, Mr Adams was one of
those solicited for the purpose by the people of Massa-
chusetts. Before departing for Philadelphia to join the
congress, he parted with the friend of his youth, his fellow-
student and associate at the bar, Jonathan Sewall, who had
attained the rank of attorney-general, and was necessarily
opposed to his political views. SewaU made a powerful
effort to change his determination, and to deter him from
going to the congress. He urged, that Britain was deter-
mined on her system, and was irresistible, and would be
destructive to him and all those who should persevere in
opposition to her designs. To this Adams replied : " I
know that Great Britain has determined on her system,
and that very fact determines me on mine. You know I
have been constant and uniform 'in opposition to her mea-
sures; the die is now cast; I have passed the Rubicon; to
swim or sink, live or die, surWve or perish with my country,
is my unalterable determination." The conversation was
then terminated by Adams sapng to his friend, " I see we
must part; and ■nith a bleeding heart, I say, I fear for ever.
But you may depend upon it, this adieu is the sharpest thorn
on which 1 ever set my foot."
When the continental congress was assembled Mr Adams
became one of its most active and energetic leaders He
was a member of that committee which framed the Declara-
tion of Independence, and one of the most powerful advo-
cates for its adoption by the general body; and by his elo-
quence obtained the unanimous suffrages of that assembly.
Though he was appointed chief -justice in 1776, he declined
the office, in order to dedicate his talents to the general
purpose of the defence of the country.
In 1777 he, ■H-ith three other members, was appointed a
commissioner to France. He remained in Paris about a
year and a half, when, in consequence of disagreements
among themselves, in which Adams was not implicated, all
but Franklin were recalled. In the end of 1779 he was
charged with two commissions, — one as a plenipotentiary to
treat for peace, the other empowering him to form a commer-
cial treaty with Great Britain. When he arrived in Paris,
the French Government viewed with jealousy the purpose of
the second commission; and Count de Vergennes advised
him to keep it secret, with a view to prevail on the congress
to revoke it. Mr Adams refused to communicate to the
count his instructions on that subject; and an altercation
arose, from a claim made by France for a discrimination in
favour of French holdera of American paper money in the
liquidation of it. The count complained to Congress, trans-
mitted copies of Mr Adams's letters, and instructed the
French minister at Philadelphia to demand Tiis recall The
demand was rejected, but afterwards four others were joined
with him in the commission. Whilst these negotiations
were in progress he went to Ilolhuid, and there, in oppo-
sition to the influence and talents of the British mini-ster.
Sir Joseph Yorke, succeeded both in negotiating a loan, and
in procuring the assistance of that countiy in the defence
against Great Britain. He formed a commercial treaty with
142
A D A — A D A
that republic, and jained in the ephemeral association called
" the armed neutrality."
In 1785 Mr ^dams was appointed ambassador to the
court of his former sovereign, where his conduct was oiicli
OS to secure the approbation of his own country, and the
respect of that to which he was commissioned. Whilst in
London, he published his work entitled Defence of t)ie
American Constitution, in which ho combated ably the
opinions of Turgot, Mably, and Price, in favour of a single
legislative assembly; and thus perhaps contributed to the
division of power and the chocks on its exercise, which
became established in the United States. At the close of
1787 he returned, after ten years devoted to the public
service, to America. He received' the thanks of Congress,
and was elected soon after, under the presidency of Wash-
ington, to the ofEce of Vice-President. In 1790 Mr Adams
gave to the public his Discourses on Davila, in which he
exposed the revolutionary doctrines propagated by France
and her emissaries in other countries. On the retirement
of Washington, the choice of President fell on Mr Adams,
who entered on that office in May 1797. At that time the
Government was entangled by the insolent pretensions of the
French demagogues, and by their partisans in many of the
states. Great differences of opinion arose between the
individuals at the head of affairs: one party, with Mr
Hamilton at their head, was disposed to resist the preten-
sions of France by open hostilities ; whilst Mr Adams was
disinclined to war, so long as there was a possibility of
avoiding it with ht^nour. Owing to this di^sion of his
own friends," rather than to a want of public confidence, at
the conclusion of the four years for which the President is
chosen, Mr Adams was not re-elected. Perhaps this was
in some measure owing to the preponderance of the slave
states, in which Mr Jefferson, his rival, .and a proprietor of
slaves, had a fellow-feeling among the chief of the people.
He retired with dignity, at 65 years of age, to his native
place, formed no political factions against those in power,
but pubEcly expressed his approbation of the measures
which were pursued by him who had been his rival, who
had become his successor in power, but had never ceased
to be his firmly-attached friend.
The last pubUc occasion on which Mr Adams appeared,
was as a member of the convention for the revision of the
constitution of Massachusetts, in which some slight altera-
tions were requisite, in consequence of the province of
Maine being separated irom it.
He seems to have enjoyed his mental faculties to the
close of his protracted life; and even on the lasu day of it,
two hours only before its final close, on the 4th July 1826,
the fiftieth anniversary of the Act of Independence, he
dictated to a friend, as a sentiment to be given at the
public dinner of the day, " Independence for ever." By a
very singular coincidence Jefferson, his rival and friend,
died a few hours earUer on the same day.
Mr Adams was considered a sound scholar, well versed
in the ancient languages, and in many branches of general
literature. His style in writing was forcible and perspicu-
ous, and, in the latter years of his life, remarkably elegant.
In person he was of middUng stature; his manners spoke
the courtesy of the old school ; and his address, at least when
he was in England, was dignified and manly.
ADAMS, John Quincy, eldest son of the preceding,
was bom at Braintree on the 1 1 th July 1767. The greater
part of his education was received in Europe, which he
visited in company with his father in 1778, and again in
1780, when he attended for a time the university of Ley-
den. 'When only fifteen years old he went, as secretary,
with .Francis Dana on his unsuccessful mission to St
Petersburg. Eetumiug home after an interval spent in
Holland, London, and Paris, he graduated at Harvard in
1788; and, after spending three years in a lawyer's office,
was admitted to the bar in 1791. Three successive series
of letters, on political subjects, contributed to a Boston
newspaper, attracted much attention, and Washington
appointed him ambassador to the Hague in 1794. An
appointment to a similar post in Portugal, made just before
the expiry of Washington's presidency, was set aside by
his father, who sent him instead to Prussia, giving him the
promotion by the express advice of Washington. During
his residence as ambassador at Berlin, he succeeded in nego-
tiating a commercial treaty with Prussia. On Jefferson
becoming President (1801), Adams was recalled, and
resumed the practice of law in Boston. In 1802 Suffolk
county returned him a member of the Massachusetts
Senate, and in the following year he was elected to Con-
gress. Indebted for his position to the Federal party,
Adams supported their views for four years, but separated
from them by voting for Jefferson's proposed embargo.
This course involved him in much controversy, and cost
him his seat in the Senate. During his retirement he
added to the emplojTnent arising from his profession the
duties of the professorship of rhetoric and belles lettres
at Harvard University, which he held for three years
(1806-9). His lectures — the first ever read in an American
university — were published in 1810, and were much thought
of at the time, though now almost forgotten. In the
winter following the resignation of his professorship, he
visited Washington; and, in an interview with Jefferson,
brought a charge against some of the Federal leaders of a
design to dissolve the union, and form a separate confederal
tion for the north. The charge was afterwards repeated
in the newspapers ; and; though resting on slender grounds,
greatly affected the confidence of the other states in the
New England representatives. In 1809 Madison, having
obtained after some delay the concurrence of the Senate,
entrusted Adams with the embassy to St Petersburg, — an
appointment which the latter accepted against the wishes
of his father, and continued to hold, though offered a seat
on the 'judicial bench of New England some time after
his arrival in Russia. When wai' broke out between
England and the United States, Adams induced the
Czar to make an offer of interi'ention, which, however,
the English Government declined to accept. Independent
negotiations were thereupon carried on for six months at
Ghent (Ihe representatives of. America being Adams,
Russell, and Clay), and resulted in the treaty of peace
which was signed 24th December 1814. After serving for
two years (1815-17) as minister in London, he again
entered the arena of home poUtics as secretary of state
under Monroe. In this office he distinguished himself
specially by his arrangement of the treaty with Spain, which
defined the boundaries of the ceded territories of Florida
and Louisiana. An elaborate report on weights and mea-
sures gained for him also a name for scientific acquirements.
In 1825 the election of a President fell, according to the
constitution of the States, to the House of Representatives,
since no one of the candidates had secured an absolute"
majority of the electors chosen by the States, and Ad.ims,
who had stood second to Jackson in the electoral vote, was
chosen in preference to Jackson, Clay, and Crawford. The
administration of Adams was marked by the imposition of
a high tariff on foreign goods, with the view of promoting
internal industry, and by the unsuccessful attempt to pur-
chase Cuba from Spain. Notwithstanding the efforts of
Clay, and the special claim he himself made on the voters
of Virginia on account of his discovery of the so-called
New England "plot" twenty years before, Adams failed
to secure his re-election in lti29. Dc:eated by Jacksnn.
who had 178 votes to his 83, he retired o Quincj', where
I his father's fortune, increased by his own efforts, afforded
A D A — A D A
143
him an ample competency. Two years later he was re-
turned to Congress by the district in which he lived, ana
which he continued to represent until his death. Having
been chosen merely on account of his determined resistance
to secret societies, his position was independent of party
politics, and correspondingly strong. He stood for the
office of governor, and then for that of senator, of Massa-
chusetts, but was on both occasions defeated by Davis. As
chairman of the committee on manufactures, he strove to
devise a middle policy in regard to tariffs, but his greatest
eifort at this perioa — perhaps the greatest service of his
whole political life-^was in connection with the abolition
of slavery. In every form which the question took, he
was the bold and determined advocate of abolition, gradually
gathering an influential party around him, and so preparing
for the triumphs, most of which have been won since his
death. He himself vntnessed, in 1845, the abolition of
the " gag-rale," restricting the right of petition to Congress
on the subject of slavery, which he har' persistently opposed
during the nine years it was in force. He died of paralysis
on 23d Febraary 1848, having been seized two days pre-
viously while attending the debates of Congress. Adams
wrote a number of works, which are now of little import-
ance. The style is fluent, but has none of the vigour and
elegance of his father's. During his whole lifetime he
kept a very voluminous journal, some portions of which
have been published.
ADAMS, RiCHAKD, M.A., divine. 'Two contemporaries
of the same name are frequently confounded with each other.
The more -eminent was son of the Rev. Richard Adams,
rector of Worrall, in Cheshire. The family records seven
clergymen of the Church of England in succession. The
present worthy was born at AVorrall, but the loss of the
registers leaves the date uncertain. It is usually, but erro-
neously, stated, that he studied at Cambridge University.
He was admitted a student of Brazenose College, O-vford,
March 24, 1G46, and became a fellow, having proceeded
through the usual degrees. It was at Brazenose he formed
his life-long friendship with John Howe, who had a pro-
found veneration for Adams. In 1655 he was appointed
to the rectory of St Mildred's, Bread Street, London — John
Milton being a parishioner. From this he was ejected by
tlio Act of Uniformity of 1662. Thereupon he continued
his ministry as opportunity offered, and at length was
settled as pastor of a congregation in Southwark. This
Richard Adams is a typical e.xample of the consistent and
meek labourers of the early and struggling period of Non-
conformity. His holy and beautiful life inspired Howe's
noblest eloquence iu his funeral sermon. He died in a
ripe old age, on 7th Feb. 1098. His principal Uterary
work is his contribution of annotations on Philippians and
Colossians to Pool's celebrated Annotations. Along with
Veal he edited the works of Charnock. (a. b. g.)
ADAMS, Samuel, American statesman, born at Boston,
Sept. 27, 1722, was second cousin to John Adams. He
studied at Harvard, but, owing to his father's misfortunes
in business in connection with a banking speculation, — the
" manufactory scheme," — he had to leave before complet-
ing his course, and to relinquish his intention of becoming
a Congregational clergyman. He received his degree,
however, and it is worthy of note, as showing the tendency
of his political opinions, that his thesis was a defence of
the affirmative reply to the question, " Whether it bo law-
ful to resist the supreme magistrate, if the commonwealth
cannot othenvise be preserved 1" The failure of the bank-
ing scheme above referred to, in consequence of the limita-
tions imposed by English law, made Adams still more
iecided in his assertion of the rights of American citizens,
ind in his opposition to Parliament. He gave up his
business, in which he had little success, and became tax-
collector for the city of Boston, .whence he was called by
his political opponents, " Samuel the publican." In all the
proceedings which issued at last iu the declaration of
independence Adams was a conspicuous actor. He took
part in the numerous town meetings, drafted the protest
which was sent up by Boston againet'the taxation scheme
of Grenville (May 1764); and, being chosen next year a
member of the general court of Massachusetts, soon became
one of the leaders in debate. Upon his entry into the
House he was appointed clerk, and had thus much influ-
ence in arranging the order of business and in dramng up
papers. Attempts were more than once made by the
English governor to win him over by the offer of a place,
but Adams proved inflexible. His uncompromising resist-
ance to the British Government continued; he was a
prominent member of the continental Congress at Phila-
(ielphia, and was one of those who signed the Declaration
of Independence in 1776. He was a member of the con-
vention which settled the constitution of Massachusetts,
and became president of its Senate. From 1789 to 1794
he was lieutenant-governor of the State, and governor
from 1794 to 1797, retiring in the latter year partly on
account of age, but partly also because the Federalists were
then in the ascendant, and he himself was inclined to the
Jefferson or Republican party. He died on the 3d Oct.
180.3. In an oration on American independence, delivered
in Philadelphia, 1st Aug. 1776, Adams characterises the
English as " a nation of shopkeepers." The oration was
translated into French, and pubUshed at Paris ; and it is
therefore not unUkely that Napoleon's use of this phrase
was not original.
ADAMS, Thomas — "the prose Shalcspeare of Puritan
theologians," as Sou they named him — has left as few personal
memorials behind him as the poet himself. The only facts
regarding the commonplaces of his biography are furnished
by epistles-dedicatory and epistles to the reader, and title-
pages. From these we learn that he was, in 1 6 1 2, " a
preacher of the gospel at WdUngton," in Bedfordshire,
where he is found on to 1614, and whence issued his
Heaven and Earth Reconciled, Tlie Devil's Hanqvet, and
other works; that in 1614-15 he was at Wingra%'e, in
BuckinghaTOshire, probably as vicar, and whence a number
of his works went forth in quick succession; that in 1618
he held the preachership at St Gregory's, under St Paul's
Cathedral, and was "observant chaplain" to Sir Henrie
Montague, the Lord Chief-Justice of England ; that during
these years his epistles show him to have been on the
most friendly terms with some of the foremost men in
state and church ; and that he must have died before the
Restoration of 1660. His " occasionally" printed sermons,
in small quartos, when collected in 1630, placed him beyond
all comparison in the van of the preachers of England.
Jeremy Taylor does not surpass him in brilliance of fancies,
nor Thomas FuUer in wit. His num-.v^os works display
great learning, classical and patristic, and are unique in
their abundance of stories, anecdotes, aphorisms, and puns.
He was a Puritan in the church, in distinction from the
Nonconformist Puritans, and is evangelically, not dry-
doctrinaUy, Calvinistic in his theology. His works have
been recently collected by Drs Joseph Angus and Thomas
Smith (3 vols. 8vo, 1862).- (a. b. o.)
ADAMSON, Patrick, a Scottish prelate, Archbishop of
St Andrews, was born in the year l54.'), in the town of
Perth, where he received the rudiments of his education.
Ho afterwards studied philosophy, and took his degree of
master of arts at the University of St Andrews. Iu 1564
he set out for Paris as tutor to the eldest son of Sir Wil-
liam MacgiU. In the montB of June of the same year,
Mary Queen of Scots being delivered of a son, afterwards
James VI. of Scotl.md and L of England, Mr Adomftm
1*4
A D A — A D A
wrote a Latin poem, in which he gave the prince the title
of king of France and P^iigland. This {)roof of Ids loyalty
inTolved him in diflBculties. The French court was offended,
and ordered him to be arrested; and he was confined for six
tnonths. He was released only through the intcrcosaion of
Queen Mary and some of the principal nobility, who inte-
rested themselves in his behalf. Aa soon as he recoTered
his liberty, he retired with Ids pupil to Bourgpa. Ho was in
this city during the massacre at Paris; and the same perse-
cuting spirit prevailing among the Catholics at Bourges as
at the metropolis, ho lived concealed for seven months in a
public-house, the aged master of which, in reward for his
charity to heretics, was thrown from the roof, and had his
brains dashed out. Whilst Mr Adamson lay thus in hia
sepulchre, aa he called it, he wrote Ids Latin poetical version
of the book of Job, and his tragedy of Herod in the same
language. In the year 1573 he returned to Scothind, and,
having entered into holy orders, became minister of Paisley.
In the year 1575 he was appointed one of the commis-
sioners, by the General Assembly, to settle the jurisdiction
and policy of the church; ana the following year he Was
named, with Mr David Lindsay, to report their proceedings
to the Earl of Morton, then regent About this time the
earl appointed him one of hLs chaplains ; and, on the death
of Archbishop Douglas, promoted him to the archiepiscopal
see of St Andrews. This gave rise to a protracted con-
flict with the Presbyterian party in the Assembly. Soon
after his promotion, he published a catechism in Latin verse,
dedicated to the king, a work highly approved even by his
enemies, who nevertheless still continued to persecute him
with great violence. In 1578 he submitted himself to the
General Assembly, which procured him peace but for a very
little time; for, the year following, fresh accusations were
brought against him. A Provincial Synod was held at St
Andfews in April 1580; the archbishop was here accused
and excommunicated. He a[)pealed to the king and the
states, but this availed him little. At the next General
Assembly, a paper being produced containing the arch-
bishop's .submission, he was absolved from the excommuni-
cation. In 1588 fresh accusations were brought against
him. The year following he published the Lamentations
of the prophet Jeremiah in Latin verse, which he dedicated
to the king, complaining of his hard usage. Towards the
end of the same year he published a translation of the
Apocalypse in Latin verse, and a copy of Latin verses.
The king was unmoved by his application, and granted the
revenue of his see to the Duke of Lennox, so that the
prelate and his family were literally reduced to the want of
bread. During the remaining part of his unfortunate life
he was supported by charitable contributions, and died in
1592. He had previously made a written recantation of
his alleged errors in regard to Episcopacy, though the
genuineness of this is doubted by Spottiswoode. (See
Cunningham's Church History of Scotland, voL L) The
character of tlus prelate has been variously represented,
according to the sentiments of religion and poUtics which
prevailed. But there is little doubt . that he encouraged
and supported, under the authority of the king, oppressive
and injurious measures. The panegyric of the editor, of
his works, Mr Wilson, is extravagant and absurd. He
says that " he was a miracle of nature, and rather seemed
to be the immediate production of God Almighty than
bom of a woman."
ADANA, a city of Asia Minor, the capital of the pro-
vince of the same name, on the right bank of the Sihun,
about 30 miles from the sea, in N. lat. 37° 1', R long.
35° 18'. It is built on the site of the ancient Antiochia
ad Sarum. Its position, commanding the passage of the
mountains to the north of Syria, rendered it important as
fi tiilitary station in the contest between the Egyptians and
the Turks in 1832. After the defeat of the Turkish ajiny
at Konieh, it was taken possession of by Ibrahim Pacha,
and continued to be held by the. Egyptians till the treaty
of July 1840 restored it to the Porte. In the streets of
the town there arc numerous beautiful fountains, supplied
with water from the river, which is here spanned by a
stately bridge of fifteen arches, said to have been erected
by Justinian. In winter the climate is mild and healthy,
but in summer the heat is so great that the principal
inhabitants betake themselves to various cool retreats ia
the neighbouring mountains. The adjoining plain of
Adana is rich and fertile. Tlie chi^f productions of the
province are cotton, com, sesame, and wool, which are
largely exported. The population of the town is 20,000.
ADANSON, Michel, a celebrated French naturalist,
descended from a Scottish family which had at the Revolu-
tion attached itself to the fortunes of the house of Stuart,
was bom the 7th of April 1727, at Aix, in Provence, where
his father was in the serv-ice of M. de Vintimille, arch-
bishop of that province. On the translation of this prelate
to the archbishopric of Paris, about the year 1730, the
elder Adanson repaired thither with his five children, who
were all provided for by their father's patron. A small
canonry fell to the lot of Michel, the revenue of which
defrayed the expenses of his education at the college of
Plessis. While there he was distinguished for great quick-
ness of apprehension, strength of memory, and mental
ardour; but his genius took no particular bent, until he
received a microscope from the celebrated Tuberville Need-
ham, who was struck with admiration of the talents and
acquirements he displayed at a public examination. From
that time to the last hour of his life he persevered with a
zeal almost unexampled' in the observation and study of
nature. On leaving college, his youthful ardour was well
employed in the cabinets of Reaumur and Bernard de
Jussieu, as well as in the Jardin des Plantes. Such was
his zeal, that he repeated the instructions of the professors
to his less apt fellow-students; and before completing his
nineteenth year he had actually described (for his own
improvement) 4000 species of the three kingdoms of
nature. In this way he soon exhausted the rich stores of
accumulated knowledge iu Europe; and having obtained a
small appointment in the colony of Senegal, he resigned
his canonry, and embarked on the 20th of December 1748
for Ai'rica. Sencj^il, from the unhealthiness of its climate,
was a terra incognita to naturalists; and this determined
his choice of that country as a field for exploration. His
ardour remained unabated during the five years of his
residence in Africa. He collected and described, in greater
or less detail, an immense number of animals and plants;
collected specimens of every object of commerce ; delineated
maps of the country; made systematic meteorological and
astronomical observations; and prepared grammars and
dictionaries of the languages spoken on the baidcs of the
Senegal On his return to Paris in February 1754 he
found himself without resources, but fortunately secured
the patronage of M. de Bombarde, who encouraged him in
the pubhcation of the scientific results of his travels. In
Ilia Histoire NatureUe du Senegal (Paris, 1757) he made
use of a small portion of the materials at his disposal ; and
the work has a special interest from the essay on Shells,
printed at the end of it, where Adanson proposed his
universal method, a system of classification distinct from
those of Buffon and Linnseua. He founded his classifica-
tion of all organised beings on the consideration of each
individual organ. Aa each organ gave birth to new rela-
tions, so he established a corrcsp6nding number of arbitrary
arrangements. Those beings possessing the greatest num-
ber of similar organs were referred to one great division,
and the relationship was considered more remote in pro
A D A — A D D
145
portion to the dissimilarity of organs. The cMef defect of
tliis method consists in presupposing a knowledge of species
and tlieir organisation altogether beyond the existing stage
of knowledge. It gives, however, distinct ideas of the
degree of affinity subsisting between organised beings,
independent of all physiological science. Until the appear-
ance of this work, the Testacea had scarcely been made the
subject of serious study. Adanson's methodical distribu-
tion, founded on not less than twenty of the partial classi-
fications already alluded to, is decidedly superior to that of
any of his predecessors. For the first time there was pre-
sented in this department of natural history, a classification
of the animals themselves, and not merely of the shells
which contain them. Like every first attempt, however, it
had its imperfections, which arose chiefly from ignorance of
the anatomical structure of the animals. It was owing to
this that he omitted, in his arrangement of the Mollusca, all
molluscous animals without shells. He abandoned his
original plan of publishing his Senegal observations in eight
volumes, and applied himself entirely to his Families des
J'lantes, which he published in 1763. Here he developed
the principle of arrangement above tnentioned, which, in
its adherence to natural botanical relations, was based on
the system of Tournefort, and had been anticipated to
some extent nearly a century before by Ray. The success
of this work was hindered by its innovations in the use of
-terms, which were ridiculed by the defenders of the popular
sexual system of Linnaeus; but it did much to open the
way for the'establishment, by means principally of Jussieu'a
Genera Plantarum (1789), of the natural method of the
classification of plants. In 1774 Adanson submitted to the
consideration of the Academy of Sciences an immense work,
containing what may be caUed the universal application of
his universal method ; for it extended to all known beings
and substances. This work consisted of 27 large volumes
of manuscript, employed in displaying the general relations
of all these matters, and their distribution; 150 volumes
more, occupied with the alphabetical arrangement of 40,000
species; a vocabulary, containing 200,000 words, with
their explanations; and a number of detached memoirs,
40,000 figures, and 30,000 specimens of the three king-
doms of nature. The committee to which the inspection
of this enormous mass was intrusted strongly recommended
Adanson to sepa rate and publish all that was peculiarly his
own, leaving out what was merely compilation. He obsti-
nately rejected this advice; and the huge work, at which
he continued to labour, wa.« never published. He hfid been
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1759, and he
latterly subsisted on a small pension it had conferred on him.
Of this he was deprived on the dissolution of the Academy
by the Constituent Assembly, and was consequently reduced
to such a depth of poverty as to be unable to appear before
the French Institute when it invited him to take his place
among its members. Government afterwards conferred
upon him a pension sufficient to relieve the simple wanta
of the great naturalist. He died, after months of severe
suffering, on the 3d of August 1806, requesting, as the only
decoration of his grave, a garland of flowers gathered from
the 58 families he had differentiated — "a touching though
transitory image," says Cuvier, " of the more durable
monument which he has erected to liimself in his works."
His zoal for science, his unwearied iudustrj', and his talents
as a philosophical observer, are conspicuous in all his writ-
ings. The serenity of his temper, and the unaffected good-
ness of his heart, endeared him to the few who knew him
intimately. On his return from Africa in 1754, he l.iid
before the French Indian Company a scheme for the settle-
ment of a colony in Senegal, where articles of African
produce might be cultivated by free negroes. His proposi-
:tioDs were "oheeded by hia countrymen, and by a mis-
directed patriotism he refused to present them to the
Abolitionists of England. A similar feeling led him to
refuse to settle in Austria, Russia, or Spain, on the invita-
tion of the sovereigns of those countries. His most im-
portant works are his Natural History of Senegal and his
Families of Plants. He contributed a number of papers \o
the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, on the Ship-worm,
the Baobab tree (the largest tree known, to which, in hon-
our of Adanson, Li n p<eu3 gave the TiAme Adansonia digitata),
the origin of the varieties of cultivated plants, gum-producing
trees, and the Oscillatoria Adansonia, an animal regarded
by him as a spontaneously moving plant. Besides these
essays, he contributed several valuable articles in natural
history to the earlier part of the Supplement to the first
Encydopedie ; and he is also the reputed author of an essay
on the Electricity of the Tourmaline (Paris, 1757), which
bears the name of the Duke of Noya Caraffa.
ADAPTATION, ki Biology, is the process by which an
organism or species of organisms becomes modified to suit
the conditions of its life. Every change in a li^■ing organ-
ism involves ad,aptation; for in all cases life consists in a
continuous adjustment of internal to external relations.
The term is usually restricted, however, to imply such
modifications as arise during the life of an individual, when
an external change directly generates some change of func-
tion and structure. Thus, since the adjustments of organ-
isms arise partly in direct response to causes acting on the
individual, and partly in . response to causes acting not
directly on the individual but on the species as a whole,
adaptation is to be regarded as the complement of natural
selection. ^Thile natural selection acts primarily on the
species, adaptation acts only indirectly, through the in-
heritance of modifications directly generated in the indi-
vidual All adaptation is limited, since an organ can only
vary to a certain limited extent from its congenital struc-
ture. Adaptations are sometimes distinf,uished as indirect
(for instance, by Haeckel, Oenerelle Morphologic, vol ii),
which are directly generated in an organism, but only
becouo apparent in its offspring. These form an im-
portant class, and seem to suggest that the phenomena
of adaptation, thoroughly understood, would go far to
explain all the difficult cases of so-called spontaneous
variation.
ADDA, the ancient Addua, a river of Northern Italy,
formed by the union of several small streams, near the town
of Bormio, in the Bhastian Alps, flows westward through
the ValteUina into the Lake of Como, near its' northern
extremity. Issuing from the Lecco arm of the lake, it
crosses the plain of Lombardy, and finally, after a course
of about 150 miles, joina the Po, 8 miles above Cremona.
The Adda was formerly the boundary between the terri-
tories of Venice and Milan ; and on its banks several im-
portant battles have been fought, notably that of Lodi,
where Napoleon defeated the Austrian^ ^ 1790.
ADDER, the common viper ( Vipera communis). The
death adder [Acanthopis tortor) of Australia, and the pufl
adder (Clotho arietans) of South Africa, are both highly
poisonous.
ADDINGTON, He.vrv, ViscotrNT Sidmouth, prime
minister of England, eldest son of Dr Anthony Addiugton,
was born at Reading on the 30th May 1757. He was
educated at Winchester and at Brazenose College, Oxford.
In 1784 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but
being elected about the same time member of Parliament
for Devizes, ho did not enter on legal practice. He was
already on terms of intimacy with the younger Pitt, hia
father having been Lord Chatham's medical adviser (a
circumstance that secured for young Addington the nick-
name in ParUament of "the Doctor"); and he attached
hiuiself, as was natural, to the party of the great commoner.
L — 19
146
A D I> — A D D
His fidelity to Pitt received a speedy and ample acknow-
ledgment when he was elected, in May 1789, speaker of
the Houso, in succession to Grenville. For a period of
twelve years he discharged the duties of the chair to the
general satiijfaction of aU parties, if with no very marked
ability. In 1801, when Pitt resigned on the question of
Catholic emaacipation, Addington succeeded hiih in the
offices of prime minister and chancellor of the exchequer.
He was head of the party that had come to be known as
" the king's friends," and took office, it is said, on the
urgent personal solicitation of his majesty. The most
memorable event of his brief administration was the nego-
tiation of the peace of Amiens, which was concluded on
terms that were considered very favourable. It proved,
however, but a short-lived truce, the ambition of the First
Consul necessitating a renewal of hostilities in May 1803.
From this period Pitt assumed a critical attitude towards
the ministrj', and at length he joined Fox and the opposi-
tion in demanding more vigorous ipeasures for the defence
of the country. The result was that Addington was com-
pelled to resign, and Pitt was restored to power in May
1801. Addington abstained from all factious opposition,
and indeed gave a general support to the Government.
In January 1805 he joined the cabinet as president of the
council, accepting at the same time the dignity of a peer-
age, which he had previously declined. He resigned office,
however, in JuJy of the same year, in consequence of the
share he took in the prosecution of Lord Melville having
estranged him from Pitt. After the death of the latter in
1806, he became lord privy seal, and subsequently lord
president in the cabinet of Fox and Grenville, but resigned
office in 1807. He became a third time lord president
under Mr Perceval in 1812, and in June of the same year
received the seals of the Home Office under the adminis-
tration of Lord Liverpool He held this position for ten
eventful years, during which he received his full share of
the hostile criticism to which homo secretaries are pecu-
Harly exposed. His administration had the merit of being
vigorous, fearless, and consistent; but it frequently occa-
sioned great irritation, and all but provoked rebellion.
The policy of repression which he pursued in regard to the
reform meeting at Manchester in 1819, was not justifiable
even according to the limited ideas of liberty prevalent at
that time. Lord Sidmouth resigned office in 1822, retain-
ing his seat in the cabinet, however, untU 1824. He died
on the 15th Feb. 1844, at the advanced age of 87. {Life
and Correspondence of Lord Sidmouth, by Dean Pellew,
3 vols. 8vo, 1847; Life of William Pitt by Lord Stan-
hops, 4 vols. p. 8vo, 1867.)
ADDISON, Joseph, was the eldest son of Lancelot
Addison, Dean of Lichfield, and was born at his father's
rectory of Milston in Wiltshire, on the 1st day of May
1672. After having passed through several schools, the
last nf which was the Charter-house, he went to Oxford
when he was about fifteen years old. He was first entered
of Queen's CoDege, but after two years was elected a scholar
of Magdalen College, having, it is said, been recommended
by his skill in Latin versification. He took his master's
degree in 1693, and held a feUowship from 1699 till 1711.
The eleven years extending from 1693, or his twenty-first
year, to 1704, when he was in his thirty-second, may be
set down as the first stage of his life as a man of letters.
During this period, embracing no profession, and not as yet
entangled in official business, he was a student, an observer,
and an author; and though the literary works which he
then produced are not those on which his permanent cele-
brity rests, they gained for him in his own day a high
reputation. He had at first intended to become a clergy-
man ; but his talents having attracted the attention of
leading statesmen belonging to the TrVTiig l>arty, he was
i>[)eedily diverted from his earlier views by the countenance^
which these men bestowed ou him. Uia first patron (to
whom he seems to have been introduced by Congreve) was
Charlts Montague, afterwards Earl of Halifax, who was
himself a dabbler in hterature, and a protector of literiry
men; and he became known afterwards to the accomplished
and excellent Somers. While both of them were quite able
to estimate justly his literary merits, they had regard mainly
to the services which they believed him capable of render
ing to the jiation or the party; and accordingly they
encouraged him to regulate his pursuits with a view to
public and official employment. For a considerable time,
however, he was left to his own resources^ which cannot
have been otherwise than scanty.
His first literary efforts were poetical In 1C93 a short
poem of his, addressed to Dr}'den, was inserted in the third
volutne of that veteran writer's Miscellanies. The next
volume of this collection contained his translation, in toler-
able heroic couplets, of " all Virgil's Fourth Georgia, except
the story of Aristaeus." Two and a half books of Ovid
were afterwards attempted; and to his years of early man-
hood belonged also his prose Essay on Virgil's Georgics, a
performance which hardly descried, either for its style or
for its critical excellence, the compliment paid it by Drydcn,
in prefixing it to his own translation of the poem. The most
ambitious of those poetical assay-pieces is the Account of
the Greatest English Poets, dated April 1694, and addressed
affectionately to Sacheverell, the poet's fellow-collegian, who
afterwards became so notorious in the party-quarrels of the
time. This piece, spirited both in language and in versi-
fication, is chiefly noriceable as showing that ignorance of
old English poetry which was then universal Addison
next, in 1695, published one of those compositions, celebrat-
ing contcmporarj' events, and lauding contemporary great
men, on which, during the half-century that succeeded the
Revolution, there was wasted so much of good writing and
of fair poetical ability. His piece, not very meritorious even
in its own class, was addressed " To the King," and com-
memorates the campaign which was distinguished by Wil-
liam's taking of Namur. Much better than the poem itself
are the introductory verses to Somers, then lord keeper.
This production, perhaps intended as a remembrancer to
the writer's patrons, did not at once produce any obvious
effect : and we are left in considerable uncertainty as to the
manner in which about this time Addison contrived (o
support himself. He corresponded with Tonson the book-
seller about projected works, one of these being a Trans-
lation of Herodotus. It was probably at some later time
that he purposed compiling a Dictionary of the English
Language. In 1699 a considerable collection of his Latin
verses was published at Oxford, in the Musoe Anglicance.
These appear to have interested some foreign scholars ;
and several of them show curious sjTnptoms of his charac-
teristic humour.
In the same year, his patrons, either having still no ofiice
to spare for him, or desiring^ him to gain peculiarly high
qualifications for diplomatic or other important business,
provided for him temporarily by a grant, which, though
bestowed on a mSn of great merit and promise, Would not
pass unquestioned in the present century. He obtained,
on the recommendation of Lord Somers, a pension of £300
a year, designed (as Addison himself afterwards said in a
memorial addressed to the crown) to enable him " to travel,
and qualify himself to serve His Majesty." In the summer
of 1699 he crossed into France, where, chiefly for the pur-
pose of learning the language, he remained till the end of
1700; and after this he spent a year in Italy. In Switz-
erland, on his way home, he" was stopped by receiving
notice that he was to be appointed envoy to Prince Eugene,
then .engaged in the war in Italy. But his Whig friends.
ADDISON
U7
were already tottering in their pkces; and, in March 1702,
tlie death of King William at once drove them from power
and put an end to the pension. Indeed Addison asserted
th;it he never received but one year's payment of it, and
that all the other expenses of his travels were defrayed by
himself. He was able, however, to visit a great part of
Germany, and did not reach Holland till the spring of
1703. His prospects were now sufficiently gloomy: he
entered into treaty, oftener than once, for an' engagement
as a travelling tutor; and the correspondence in one of
these negotiations has been preserved. Tonson had recom-
mended him as the best person to attend in this character
the son of the Duke of Somerset, commonly called " The
Proud." The duke, a profuse man in matters of pomp,
was economical in questions of education. He wished
Addison to name the salary he expected; this being
declined, he announced, ivith great dignity, that he would
give a hundred guineas a year; Addison accepted the
munificent offer, saying, however, that he could not find
his account in it otherwise than by relj-ing on his Grace's
future patronage; and his Grace immediately intimated
that he would look .out for some one else. Towards the
end of 1703 Addison returned to England.
Works which he composed during his residence on the
Continent were the earliest that showed him to have attained
maturity of skill and genius. There is good reason for be-
lieving that his tragedy of Calo, whatever changes it may
afterwards have suffered, was in great part written while he
lived in France, that is, when he was about twenty-eight
years of age. In the winter of 1701, amidst the stoppages
and discomforts of a journey across the Mount Cenis, he
composed, wholly or partly, his Letter fruni Italy, which is
by far the best of his poems, if it is not rather the only one
among them that at aU justifies his claim to the poetical
character. It contains some fine touches of description,
and is animated by a noble tone of classical enthusiasm.
While in Germany he wrote his Dialogues mi Medals, which,
however, were not published tiU after his death. These
have much liveliness of style, and something of the gay
humour which the author was afterwards to exhibit more
strongly; but they show little either of antiquarian learning
or of critical ingenuity. In tracing out parallels between
passages of the Roman poets and figures or scenes which
appear in ancient sculptures, Addison opened the easy course
of inquiry which was afterwards prosecuted by Spence; and
this, with the apparatus of spirited metrical translations from
the classics, gave the work a likeness to his account of his
travels. This account, entitled Remarks on Several Parts
of Italy, &c., he sent home for publication before his own
return. It wants altogether the interest of personal narra-
tive : the author hardly ever appears. The task in which
he chiefly busies himself is that of exhibiting the illustra-
tions which the writings of the Latin poets, and the anti-
quities and scenery of Italy, mutually give and receive.
Many of the landscapes are sketched with great liveliness,
and there are notj a few strokes- of arch humour. The
statistical, information is very meagre; nor are there many
observations on society; and politics are no further
meddled with than to show the modersfte liberality of the
writer's, own opinions.
With the year 1704 begins a second era in Addison's life,
which extends to the summer of 1710, when his ago was
thirty -eight. This was the first term of his official career;
and, though very barren of literary performance, it not only
raised him from indigence, but settled defiiiitively his pofsi-
tion as a public man. His correspondence shows' that, while
on the Continent, he had been admitted to confidential inti-
macy by diplomatists and men of rank; immediately on his
return he was enrolled in tiie Kitcat Club, and brought thus
and otherwise into communication with the gentry of the
I Whig party. Although all accounts agree m repreasuting
I him as a shy man, he was at least saved from all risk ofi
making himself disagreeable in society, by his unassuming
manners, his extreme caution, and that sedulous desire to
oblige, which his satirist Pope exaggerated into a positive
fault. His knowledge and ability were esteemed so highly,
as to confirm the expectations formerly entertained of hjs
usefulness in public business; and the Uterarj- fame he had
already acquired soon furnished an occasion for recommend-
ing him to public employment. Though the Whigs were
out of office, the administration which succeeded them was,
in all its earher changes, of a complexion so mixed and un-
certain, that the influence of their leaders was not entirely
lost. Not long after Marlborough's great victory at Blen-
heim, it is said that Godolphin, the lord treasurer, expressed
to Lord Halifax a desire to have the gi-eat diike's fame
extended by a poetical tribute. Halifax seized the oppor-
tunity of recommending AddLson as the fittest man for the
duty; stipulating, we are told, that the seivice should not
be unrewarded, and doubtless satisfying the minister that
his protegi possessed other qualifications for office besides
dexterity in framing heroic verse. The Campaign, the
poem thus written to order, was received with extraordinary
applause ; and it is probably as good as any that ever was
prompted by no more worthy inspiration. It has, indeed,
neither the fiery spirit which Dryden tlirew into occasional
pieces of the sort, nor the exquisite polish that would have
been given by Pope, if he had stooped to make such use«
of his genius; but many of the details are pleasing; and in
the famous passage of the Angel, as well as in several others,
there is even sometliing of force and imagination.
The consideration covenanted for by the poet's friends
was faithfully paid. A vacancy occurred by the death of
another celebrated man, John Locke; and in November
1704, Addison was appointed one of the five' commissioners
of appeal in Excise. The duties of th^i place must have been
as Ught for him as they had been for his predecessor ; for he
continued to hold' it with all the appointments he subse-
quently received from the same ministry. But there is no
reason for believing that he was more careless than other
public servants in his time ; and the charge of incompetency
as a man of business, which has been brought so positively
against him, cannot possibly be true as to this first period
of his official career. Indeed, the specific allegations refer
exclusively to the last years of his hjfe; and, if he had not
really shown practical ability in the period now in question,
it is not easy to see how he, a man destitute alike of wealth,
of social or fashionable liveliiless, and 'of family interest,
cotdd have been promoted, for several years, from office to
office, as he was, tdl the fall of the administration to which
he was attached. In 1706 he became one of the under-
secretaries of state, serving first under Hedges, who belonged
to the Tory section of the Government, and .ift^rwards under
Lord Sunderland, Marlborough's son-in-law, and a zealous
follower of Addison's early patron, Somers. The work of
tliis office, however, like that of the commissionership, must
often have admitted of performance by deputy. For in
1707, the Whigs having become stronger, Lord' HaUfax
was sent on a mission to the Elector of Hanover; and,'
besides taking 'Vanbrugh the dramatist with him as king-
at>arms, he selected Addison as his aecretarj'. In 1708 he
entered Parliament, sitting at first for Lostwithiel, but
afterwards for Malmesbury, which, being six tmies elected,
he represented from 1710 till his death. Here unquestion-
ably he did fail. What part he maj' have taken in the
details of business- we aro not infjjrmed; but he -n-as always
a silent member, unless it be true that he onc^ attempted
to speak and sat down in confusion. In 1700 Lord
Wharton, the father of the notorious duke, ha\-ing been
named lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Addison becam*- hk
t48
ADDISON
lecrotary, receiving also an appointment as keeper of records,
rhis event happened only about a year and a half before
the dUmissal of the ministry ; and the Irish secratary would
seem to have transacted the buBine83 of his office chiefly in
London. But there are letters showing him to have made
himself acceptable to some of the best and moct distin-
guished persons in Dublin ; and he escaped without having
any quarrel with Swift, his acquaintance with whom had
begun some time before. In the literary history of
Addison Aose seven years of official service are almost a
blank, till we approach their close. He defended the
Government in an anonymous pamphlet on The Present
State of the War; he united compliments to the all-powerful
Marlborough with inditi'erent attempts at IjTical jioetry in
his opera of Rotamond; and, besides furnishing a prologue
to Steele's comedy of The Tender Ilusband, he perhaps
gave some assistance in the composition of the play. Irish
administration, however, allowed it would seem more
leisure than might have been expected. During the last
few months of bis tenure of office Addison contributed
largely to the Taller. But his entrance on this new field
does nearly coincide with the beginning of a new section in
his history.
Even the coalition-ministry of Qodolphin was too Wiig-
gish for the taste of Queen Anne; and the Tories, the
favourites of the court, gained, both in parliamentary power
and in popularity out of doors, by a combination of lucky
accidents, dexterous management, and divisions and double-
dealing among their adversaries. The real failure of the
prosecution of Addison's old friend Sacheverell, completed
the ruin of the Whigs; and in Augiist 1710 an entire
revolution in the ministry had been completed. The Tory
administration which succeeded kept its place tdl the
queen's death in 1714, and Addison was thus left to devote
four of the best years of his life, from his thirty-ninth year
to his forty-third, to occupations less lucrative than those in
which his time had recently been frittered away, but much
more conducive to the extension of his own fame, and to
the benefit of English Uteratura Although our information
aa to his pecuniary affairs is very scanty, we are entitled to
believe that he was now independent of literary labour. He
speaks, in an extant paper, of having had (but lost) property
in the West Indies; and he is understood to have inherited
several thousand pounds from a younger brother, who was
governor of Madras. In 1711 he purchased, for £10,000,
the estate of Bilton, near Rugby, — the place which after-
wards became the residence of Mr Apperley, better known
by his assumed name of " Nimrod."
During those four years he produced a few poUrical
writings. Soon after th'e fall of the ministry, he con-
tributed five numbers to the Whig Examiner, a paper set
np in opposition to the Tory periodical of the sai^e name,
which was then conducted by the poet Prior, and after-
wards became the vehicle of Swift's most vehement invec-
tives against the party he had once belonged to. These are
certainly the most ill-natured of Addison's wiitings, but
they are neither lively nor vigorous. There is more spirit
in his allegorical pamphlet, the Trial and Convictian of
Count Tariff.
Bat from the autumn of 1710 till the end of 1714 his
principal employment was the composition of his celebrated
Periodical Essays. The honour of inventing the plan of
such compositions, as well as that of first carrying the idea
into execution, belongs to Richard Steele, who had been a
school-fellow of Addison at the Charter-house, continued to
be on intimate terms with him afterwards, and attache*!
himself with his characteristic ardour to the same political
party. When, in April 1709, Steele published the first
number of the TatUr, Addison was in Dublin, and knew
nothing of the design. He is said to have detected his
friend's authorship only by recognising, in one of the early
papers, a critical remark which he remembered having him-
Behf communicated to Steele. He began to furnish essaj-a
in a few weeks, assisted occasionally while he held office,
and afterwards wrote oftener than Steele himself. Ho thtts
contributed in all, if his literary executor selected his con-
tributions correctly, more than CO of the 271 essays which
the work contains. The Tatler exhibited, in more ways
than one, symptoms of being an experiment. The pro-
jector, imitating the news-sheets in form, thought it prudent
to give, in each number, news in addition to the essay; and
there was a want, both of unity and of correct finishing, in
tho putting together of the literary materials. Addison'.;
contributions, in particular, are in many places as lively :„
anything ho ever wrote; and his style, in its more familiar
moods at least, had been fully formed before he retumcj
from the Continent. But, as compared with his later pieces,
these are only what the painter's loose studies and sketches
are to tho landscapes which he aftenvards constructs out cf
them. In his invention of incidents and characters, ono
thought after another is hastily used and hastily dismissed,
as if ho were putting his own powers to the test, or trying
the effect of various kinds of objects on his readers ; hie most
ambitious flights, in the shape of allegories and tho like, are
etifi' and inanimate; and his favourite field of literary criti
ciam is touched so slightly, as to show that he still wanted
confidence in the taste and knowledge of the public.
The Tatler was dropped at the beginning of 1711, but
only to be followed by tho Spectator, which was begun on
the 1 st day of March, and appeared every week-day till tho
6th day of December 1712. It had then completed the
555 numbers usually collected in its first seven volumoa.
Addison, now in London and unemployed, co-operated with
Steele constantly from the very opening of the series; and
the two, contributing almost equally, seem together to have
written not very much less than five hundred of the paperj.
Emboldened by the success of their former adventure, they
devoted their whole space to the essays. They relied, with
a confidence which tho extraordinary popularity of the work
fully justified, on their power of exciting the interest of a
wide audience by pictures and reflections drawn from a
field which embraced tho whole compass of ordinary life
and ordinary knowledge, no kind of practical themes being
positively excluded except snch as were political, and all
Kterary topics being held admissible, for which .it seemed
possible to command attention from persons of average
taste and information. A seeming unity was given to the
undertakijig, and curiosity and interest awakened on behalf
of the conductors, by the happy invention of the Spectator's
Club, in which Steele is believed to have drawn all the
characters. The figure of Sir Roger de Coverloy, however,
the best even in tho opening grftop, is the only one that
was afterwards elaborately depicted; and Addison was tho
author of all the papers m which his oddities and amia-
bilities are so admirably delineated. To him, also, tho
Spectator owed a very large share of its highest excellences.
His were many, and these the most natural and elegant, ii
not the most original, of its humorous sketches of hocirj
character and social eccentricities, its good-humoured satire .
on ridiculous features in manners, and on corrupt symptr.rr/:
in public taste; these topics, however, making up a deixi:'.-
ment in which Steele was fairly on a level with his mora
famous coadjutor. But Steele had neither learning, n-::
taste, nor critical acuteness sufficient to qualify him ior
enriching the series with such literary disquisitionB as the ^o
which Addison insinuated so often into the lighter matter
of his essays, and of which he gave an elaborate specimen
in hij celebrated and agreeable criticism on Paradise Loit.
StiU further beyond the powers of Steele were those specu-
lations on the theory of literature and of the processes of
ADDISON
149
thought analogous to it, wMch, in the essays " On the Plea-
flures of the Imagination," Addison prosecuted, not, indeed,
with much of philosophical depth, but with a sagacity and
comprehensiveness which we shall undervalue much unless
we remember how little of philosophy was to be found in
any critical views previously propounded in England. To
Addison, further, belong those essays which (most fre-
quently introduced in regular alternation in the papers of
Saturday) rise into the region of moral and religious medi-
tation, and tread the elevated ground with a step so grace-
ful as to allure the reader irresistibly to follow ; sometimes,
as in the " Walk through Westminster Abbey," erJivening
solemn thought by gentle sportiveness ; sometimes flowing
on with an uninterrupted sedateness of didactic eloquence;
and sometimes shrouding sacred truths in the veil of in-
genious allegory, as in the majestic " Vision of Mirza."
While, in a word, the Spectator, if Addbon had not taken
part m it, would probably have been as lively and humorous
as it was, and not less popular in its own day, it would have
wanted some of its strongest claims on the respect of pos-
terity, by being at once lower in its moral tone, far lesS
abundant in Uterary knowledge, and much less vigorous
and expanded in thinki ig. In point of style, again, the
two friends resemble each other so closely as to be hardly
distinguishable, when both are dealing with familiar objects,
and writing in a key not rising above that of conversation.
But in the higher tones of thought and composition, Addi-
son showed a mastery of language raising him very de-
cisively, not above Steele only, but above all his contem-
poraries. Indeed, it may safely be said, that no one, in
any age of our Hteratiire, has united, so strikingly as he did,
the colloquial grace and ease which mark the style of an
accomplished gentleinan, with the power of soaring into a
strain of expression nobly and eloquently dignified.
On the cessation of the Spectator, Steele set on foot the
Guardian, which, started in March 1713, came to an end
in October, with its 175th number. To this series Addison
gave 53 papers, being a very frequent writer during the
latter half of its progress. None of his -essays here aim
so high as the best of those in the Spectator; but he often
exhibits both his cheerful and Well-balanced humour, and
his earnest desire to inculcate sound principles of literary
judgDient. In the last six months of the year 1714, the
Spectator received its eighth and last volume; for which
Steele appears not to have written at all, and Addison to
h^ve<;ontributed 24 of the 80 papers. Most of these form,
in the unbroken seriousness both of their topics and of
their manner, a contrast to the majority of his essays in
the earlier volumes; but several of them, both in this vein
and in one less lofty, are among the best known, if not the
finest, of all his essays. Such are the " Mountain of
Miseries; " the antediluvian novel of " Shallum and Hilpa;"
the " Reflections by Moonlight on the Divine Perfections."
In April 1713 Addison brought on the stage, very reluc-
tantly, as we are assured, and can easily believe, his tragedy
of C'aio. Its success was dazzling; but this issue was
mainly owing to the concern which the politicians took in
the exhibition. The Whigs hailed it as a brilliant mani-
festo in favour of constitutional freedom. The Tories
echoed the applause, to show themselves enemies of despots
ism, and professed to find in Julius Ca;sar a parallel to the
formidable Marlborough. Even with such extrinsic aid",
and the advantage derived from the established fame of the
author, Cato could never have been esteemed a good
dramatic work, unless in an ago in which dramatic power
and insight were almost extinct. It is poor even in its
poetical elements, and is redeemed only by the finely
solemn tone of its moral reflections, and the singular refine-
ment and equable smoothness of its diction.
The literary career of Addiaon might almost be held as i
closed soon after the death of Queen Anne, which occurred
in August 1714, when he had lately completed his 42d
year. His own life extended only five years longer; and
this closing portion of it offers little that ia pleasing or
instructive. We see him attaining the summit of his
ambition, only to totter for a little and sink into an early
grave. We are reminded of his more vigorous days by
nothing but a few happy inventions interspersed in political
pamphlets, and the gay fancy of a trilling poem on Kneller's
portrait of George L
The lord justices who, previously chosen secretly by the
Elector of Hanover, assumed the government on the Queen's
demise, were, as a matter of coiirse, the leading Whigs.
They appointed Addison to act as their ■ secretary. He
next held, for a very short time, his former oflSce under
the Irish lord-lieutenant; and, early in 1715, he was
made one of the lords of trade. In the course of the
same year occurred the first of the only two quarrels with
friends, into which the prudent, good-tempered, and modest
Addison is said to have .ever been betrayed. His adversary
on this occasion was Pope, who, only three years before,
had received, with an appearance of humble thankfulness,
Addison's friendly remarks on his Essay on Criticism; but
who, though stiU very young, was already very famous,
and beginning to show incessantly his Uterary jealousies,
and his personal and party hatreds. Several little mis-
understandings had paved the way for a breach, when, at
the sanae time with the first volume of Pope's Iliad, there
appeared a translation of the first book of the poem, bear-
ing the name of Thomas TickeU. TickeU, in his preface,
disclaimed all rivalry with Pope, and declared that he wished
only to bespeak favourable attention for his contemplated
version of the Odyssey. But the simultaneous publication
was awkward; and Tickell, though not so good a versifier
as Pope, was a dangerous rival, as being a good Greek
scholar. Further, he was Addison's under-secretary and
confidential friend; and Addison, cautious though he was,
doea appear to have said (quite truly) that TickeU's trans-
lation was more faithful than the other. Pope's anger
could not be restrained. He wrote those famous Knes in
which he describes Addison under the name of Atticus;
and, as if to make reconciliation impossible, he not only
circulated these among his friends, but sent a copy to
Addison himself. Afterwards, he went so far as to profess
a belief that the rival translation was really Addison's own.
It is pleasant to observe that, after the insult had been
perpetrated, Addison was at the pains, in his Freeholder,
to express hearty approbation of the Iliad of Pope; who,
on the contrary, after Addison's death, deliberately printed
the striking but malignant lines in the Epistle to Dr
Arbuthnot. In 1715 there was acted, with Lttle success,
the comedy of The Drummer, or the Haunted House, Vrhich,
though it appeared under the name of Steele, was certainly
not his, and was probably written in whole or chiefly by
Addison. It contributes very little to his fame. From
September 1715 to June 171G, he defended the Hano-
verian succession, and the proceedings of the Government
in regard to the rebellion, in a paper called the Frcelmlder,
which he wrote entirely himself, dropping it with the fifty-
fifth number. It is much better tempered, not less spirited,
and much more able in thinking, than his Examiner. The
finical man of taste does indeed show himself to be some-
times weary of discussing constitutional questions; but he
aims many enlivening thrusts at weak points of social life
and manners; and the character of the Fo.x hunting Squire,
who is introduced as the representative of the Jacobites, is
drawn with so much humour and force that wo regret not
being allowed to see more of him.
')i August 1716, when he had completed his 44th year,
Addison married the Countess-Dowager of Warwick, a
150
A D E — A D E
■widow of fifteen yenra' standing. She eecms to have lor-
feited her joiuture by the marriage, and to luivo brought
her huaband nothing but the occupancy cf Holland UouLe
at Kensington. We know hardly anything positively in
regard to the affair, or as to the origin or duration of his
acquaintance with the lady or her fumily. But the current
assertion that the courtship was a long one is very probably
erroneous. There are bettor grounds for boUoving the
assertion, transmitted from Addison's ovra time, that the
marriage was unhappy. The countess is said to have been
proud as well as violent, and to have supposed that, in con-
tracting the alliance, she conferred honour instead of receiv-
ing it. To the uneasiness caused by domestic discomfort,
the most friendly critics of Addison's character have attri-
buted those habits of intemperance, which are said to have
grown on him in his later years to such an extent as to have
broken his health and accelerated his death. His bio-
grapher, Miss Aikin, who disbelieves hia alleged want of
matrimonial quiet, has called in question, with much in-
genuity, the whole story of his sottishness; and it must at
any rate be allowed that all the assertions which tend to fix
such charges on him in the earlier parts of his life, rest on
no evidence that is worthy of credit, and are in themselves
higlily improbable. Sobriety was not the virtue of the
day; and the constant frequenting of coftee-houses, which
figures so often in the Spectator and elsewhere, and which
■was really practised among literary men as well as others,
cannot have had good effects. Addison, however, really
appears to have had no genuine relish for this mode of life;
and there are curious notices, especially in Steele's corre-
spondence, of his having lodgings out of town, to which he
retired for study and composition. But, whatever the cause
may have been, his health was shattered before he took that
•which was the last, and certainly the most unwise step, in
his ascent to political power.
For a considerable- time dissen-sions had existed in the
ministry; and these came to a crisis in April 1717, when
those who had been the real chiefs passed into the ranks of
the opposition. Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole
anticipated dismissal by resignation. There was now
fo.-med, under the leadership of Greneral Stanhope and Lord
Sunderland, an administration which, as resting on court-
iutluence, ■(vas nicknamed the " German ministry." Sun-
derland, Addison's former superior, became one of the two
principal secretaries of state; and Addison himself was
appointed as -the other. His elevation to suth a post had
been contemplated on the accession of George I., and pre-
sented, we are told, by his o^wn refusal; and it is asserted,
on the authority of Pope, that his acceptance now was
owing only to the influence of his wife. Even if there b
no ground, as there probably is not, for the allegation of
Addison's inefficiency in the details of business, his unfit-
ness for such an office in such circumstances was undeni-
able and glaring. It was impossible that a Government,
whose secretary of state could not open his lips in debate,
Bhculd long face an opposition headed by Robert Walpole.
The decay of Addison's health, too, was going on rapidly,
being, we may readily conjecture, precipitated by anxiety,
if no worse causes were at work. HI health was the reason
assigned for retirement, in the letter of resignation which
he laid before the king in March 1718, eleven months
after his appointment. He received a pensioa of j£lDO0
a year.
Not long afterwards the divisions in the Whig party
alienated him from his oldest friend. The Peerage BUh
introduced in February 1719, was attacked, on behalf of
t'je opposition, in a weekly paper, which was called the
Plebeian, and written by Steele. Addison answered it
temperately enough in the Old Whvj ; provocation from
*he Plebeian, bio'ught forth angry retort from the Whig;
St'.ele charged Addison with being so old a Whig as to
have forgotten his principles; and Addison sneered at Grub
Street, and called his friend "Little Dicky."' How Addi-
son felt after tliis painful quarrel we are not told directly;
but the Old Whig was excluded from that posthumous
collection of hia works for which his eiccutor Tickcll had
received from him authority and directions. In that collec-
tion was inserted a treatise on the evidences of the faith,
entitled Of the Christian Religion. Its theological value is
very small, but it is pleasant to regard it as the last effort
of one who, amidst all weaknesses, waa^ man of real good-
ness as well OS of eminent genius.
The disease under which Addison laboured appears to
have been asthma. It became more ■violent after lus retire-
ment from office, and was now accompanied by dropsy.
His deathbed was placid and resigned, and comforted by
those religious hopes ■which he had so often suggested to
others, and the value of which he is said, in an anecdote
of doubtful authority, to have now inculcated in a parting
interview with his stepson. He died at Holland House on
the 17th day of June 1719, six weeks after having com-
pleted his 47th year. His body, after lying in state, was
interred in the Poets' Comer of Westminster Abbey.
The Biographia Briianni^a gives an elaborate memoir
of him ; particulars are well collected in the article under
his name in the Biographical Dictionary of tlie Society for
the Diffusion, of XJsefvl Knowledge ; and a good many new
materials, especially letters, will be found in The Life oj
Joteph Addison, by Lucy Aikin, 1843. (w. B.)
An edition of Addison's works, in four volumes quarto, was pub-
lished by Baskerville at Birmingham in 1761. Dibdin characterise*
this as a "glorious performance. ' A complete edition in six volumes,
with notes, by KichArd Hurd, .appetrea in 1811. An American
edition (New York, 1854), in six volumes, with notes, by G. W.
Greene, contains several pieces collected for the first time. An edi-
tion of the Sscclaior, with valuable notes by Heaiy Uorley, apjeared
in 1871
AD EL or Somauu, an extensive tract of country, stretch-
ing eastward from the neighbourhood of Tajurrah to Capo
Guardafui, between 43° and 51° E. long., ■with a breadth
not accurately ascertained. Zeila and Berbera are the
chief port' on the coast, and have some trade ■with the
opposite shores of Arabia, exporting spices, ivory, gold
dust, cattle, and horses, and receiving Indian commodities
in exchange. The country, which is marshy and unhealthy,
is inhabited by the Somauli, who are governed by an Iman,
and are Mahometans.
ADELAAIl, CoRT Sivaktsen, sumamed the Eagle, a
famous naval commander, was bom at Brevig in Nonray
in 1622. At the age of fifteen he became a cadet in the
Dutch fleet under Van Tromp, and after a few years
entered the service of the Venetian Republic, which was
engaged at the time in a war with Turkey. In 1645 he
had risen to the rank of captain; and after sharing in
various ■victories as commander of a squadron, he achieved
his most brilliant success at the Dardanelles, on the 13th
May 1654, when, ■with his own vessel alone, ho broke
through a line of 37 Turkish ships, sank 15 of them, and
burned others, causing a loss to the enemy of 5000 men.
The foDo^wing day he entered Tenedos, and compelled the
complete surrender of the Turks. On returning to Venice
he was croivned ■with honours, and became admirsj-lieu-
tenniit in 16G0. Numerous tempting offers were made to
Uini In- other naval powers, and in 1661 he left Venice to
reuirii to the Netherlands. Next year he ■was induced, by
the offer of a title aiid an enormous salary, to accept the
command of the Danish fleet from Fiederick nX Under
Christian V. he took the command of the combined Danish
fleets against Swtiden, but died suddenly (5th November
^ On this point, however, see Macaulay's Essay on TAe Li/e orA
Wriitngi of Addixm.
A D E — A D E
151
1675) at Copenhageu, before the expedition set out. WTien
in the Venetian service, Adelaar was known by the name
of C'urzio Suifrido Adelborst.
ADELAIDE, the capital of the British colony of Soath
Australia, and of the county of the same name, situated gn
the Torrens, seven miles from Port'Adelaide, with which it
is connected by railway. The river, which is spanned at
this point by several bridges, divides the city into two parts
— North Adelaide, the smaller of the two, but containing
the chief private houses, occupying a gentle slope on the
right bank; and South Adelaide, the commercial centre of
. the town, lying on a very level plain on the left. The
streets of Adelaide are broad, and regidarly laid out.
Among its public buildings are the Government offices and
the governor's houso, the post oiEce, the jail, five banks,
the railway station, and a theatre. It is the. seat of a
Proicstant Episcopal and also of a Eoman Catholic bishop,
and contains places of worship belonging to these bodies,
as well as to the Prfesbyterians, the Methodists, the Uni-
tarians, the Baptists, and other denominations. Adelaide
possesses a botanical garden, and is surrounded by esten-
sive public grounds, known as the " Park Lands," contain-
ing over lt)00 acres. It is lighted with gas, and is sup-
plied with water from a reservoir some miles up the Torren.s.
The corporation consists of a mayor and eight councillors,
two from each of the four wards ; and there are also two
auditors, a town clerk, and other officials. The chief
manufactures are woollen, starch, soap, beer, flour, leather,
earthenware, and iron goods. There is a good retail trade in
European produce; and in the vicinity are iron and copper
mines. Adelaide was founded in 183C, and incorporated
in 18'12. It received its name in honour of Queen Adelaide.
Population, 27,208. Lat. 34° 5.5' S., long. 138° 38' E.
Port AuEL.iiDE is situated in a low marshy position, on
a small inlet of the Gulf of St Vincent. Its harbour is
safe and commodious; but a bar at the mouth, whers the
depth of water varies with the tide from 8 to 16 feet, pre-
vents large vessels from entering. It is a free port, and has
good wharfs and warehouse accommodation. In 1867,
364 vessels of 110,654 tons arrived at, and 376 of 125,559
•tons departed from. Port Adelaide. The chief imports
-were drapery, iron goods and machinery, beer, wine, spirits,
and paper; and the exports, grain, copper and lead ores,
wool, taUow, and other native products. Population, 24S2.
ADELSBEPiG, a market town of Austria, in the pro-
-vince of Carniola, 26 miles SW. of Laibach, and about the
aame distance E. of Trieste. About a mUe from the town
ii the entrance to the famous stalactite cavern of Adelsberg,
the largest and most magnificent in Europe. The cavern
is divided into four grottoes, with two lateral ramifications
•which reach to the distance of about a mile and a half
iiom the entrance. The river Poik enters the cavern 60
ftet below its mouth, and is heard murmuring in its
recesses. In the Kaiser-Ferdinand grotto, the third of the
•chain, a great ball is annually held on Whitmonday, when
the chamberls brilliantly illuminated. The Franz-Joseph-
Elisabeth grotto, the largest of the four, and the farthest
irom the entrance, is 665 feet in length, 640 feet in breadth,
i>-nd more than 100 feet high. Besides the impo.sing pro-
portions of its chambers, the cavern Ls remarkable for the
■variegated beauty of its stalactite formations, some resem-
iling transparent draperj', others waterfalls, troe.s, animals,
or human beings, the more grotesque being called by
various fanciful appellations. These subterranean wonders
were known in the Middle Ages, but the cavern remained
undiscovered in modern times until 1816, and it is only in
atiU more recent times that its vast extent has been fuUv
.ascertained and explored.
ADELUNG, I'r.iTjimcB ton, a distinguished philo-
logist, ncpliew of John Christoph AdeluD", was bom at
Stettin on the 25th February 1768. After studying philo-
sophy and jurisprudence at Leipsic he accompanied a
family to Italy, where he remained for several years. At
Ficme he obtained access to the Vatican library, a privilege
which he utilised by collating and editing some valuable
old German MSS. that had been taken from Heidelberg.
On his return he became private secretary to Count Pahlen,
whom he accompanied from Riga to St Petersburg. . In
1803 he became instructor to the younger brothers of the
Czar, the arch-dukes Nicliolas and Michael, and gave such
satisfaction to the empress-mother that she entrusted him
with the care of her private library. In 1824 he became
dii-ector of the Oriental Institute in connection with the
foreign office, and, in the year following president of the
Academy of Sciences. He died on the 30th January 1843.
Adelung's chief literary works were — a Biography of Baron
Herherslein (St Petersburg, 1817), a Biography of Barijn
de Meyerberg (1827), a treatise on the Eelations between ihi
Sansi^rit and the Russian Languages (1815), and an Essay
on Sanscrit Literature (1330), a second edition of which
appeared in 1837, under the title Bibliotlieca Sanscrila.
ADELUKG, JoH.iNN Chkistoph, a voiy eminent Ger-
man grammarian, philologist, and general scholar, was bom
at Spantekow, in Pomerania, on the 8th August 1732, and
educated at the public schools of Anclam and Cljster-
bergen, and the university of Halle. In the year 1759 he
was appointed professor at the gymnasium of Erfm't, but
relinquished this situation two years after, and went to
reside in a private cajjacity at Leipsic, where he continued
to devote himself for a long period to the cultivation of
letters, and particularly to those extensive and laborious
philological researches which proved so useful to the
language and literature of his native country. In 1787 he
received the appointment of principal librarian to the
elector of Saxony at Dresden, with the honorary title of
Aulio Counsellor. Here he continued to reside during the
remainder of his life, discharging with diligence and in-
tegrity the duties of his situation, and prosecuting hii
laborious studies to the last with indefatigable industry
and unabated zeal. Possessing 'a naturaUy robust consti-
tution, he was able to devote, it has been said, fourteen
hours daily to literary toil, down even to the period of hia
death. He died at Dresden on the 10th of September
1806. The life of a mere scholar is generally destitute of
interest ; and that of Adelung, which was spent entirely
in literary seclusion, presents no variety of incident to the
pen of the biographer. Of his private character and
habits few memorials have been preseri'ed, but in these
few he is represented as the man of an amiable disposition.
He was a lover of good cheer, and spared neither pains
nor expense in procuring a variety of foreign wines, of
which his cellar, which he facetiously denominated his
Bibliotheca Sclcctissima,is said to have contained no less than
forty different kinds. His manners were easy and affable,
and the habitual cheerfulness of his disposition rendered
his society most acceptable to a numerous circle of friends.
The writings of Adelung are v«ry voluminous, and there
is not one of them, perhaps, which does not exhibit some
proofs of the genius, industrj-, and erudition of the author.
. But although his pen was usefully employed upon a
variety of subjects in different departments of literature
and science, it is to his philological labours that he ia
principally indebted for his great reputation ; and no man
ever devoted himself with more zeal and assiduity, or with
greater success, to the improvement of his native language.
In a country subdivided into so many distinct sovereign
states, possessing no common political centre, and no
national institution whose authority could command de-
ference in matters of taste, — in a country whose indigenous
literatm-8 was but of recent "rowth, and where the dialect
152
A L E — A D E
of the people was held in contempt at the several courta,
it waa no easy task for a single writer to undertake to fix
the standard ef a language which had branched out into a
variety of idioms, depending in a great measure upon prin-
ciples altogether arbitrary. Adelung effected as much in
this respect as could well be accomplished by the persever-
ing labours of an individual. By means of his excellent
grammars, dictionary, and various works on German style,
ho contributed greatly towards rectifying the orthography,
refining the idiom, and fixing the standard of his native
tongue.i Of all the different dialects he gave a decided
preference to that of the niargraviate of Misnia, in Upper
Saxony, and positively rejected everything that waa con-
trary to the phraseology in use among the best society of
that province, and in the writings of those authors whom
it had produced. In adopting this narrow principle he is
generally thought to have been too fastidious. The dialect
of Misnia was undoubtedly the richest, as it waa the
earliest cultivated of any in Germany; but Adelung pro-
bably went too far in restraining the language within the
limits of this single idiom, to the exclusion of others from
which it might have,, and really has, acquired additional
richness, flexibility, and force. His German dictionary has
been generally regarded as superior to the English one of
Johnson, and certainly far surpasses it in etymology. In-
deed, the patient spirit of investigauon which Adelung pos-
sessed in so remarkable a degree, together with his intimate
knowledge of the ancient history and progressive revolutions
of the different dialects on which the modem German is
based, peculiarly qualified him for the duties of a lexico-
graphar. No man before Jacob Grimm did so much for the
language of Germany. Shortly before his death he issued
the very learned work, at which he had been labouring
quittly for years, entitled Miihridates; or, a General History
of Languages, with the Lord's Prayer, as a specimen, in
nearly Jive hundred languages and dialects. The hint of
this work appears to have been taken from a publication,
with a similar title, published by the celebrated Conrad
Gesner in 1555 ; but the plan of Adelung is much more
extensive. Unfortunately he did not live to finish what
he had undertaken. The first volume, which contains the
Asiatic languages, was published immediately after his
death ; the other three were issued under the superin-
tendence of Professor Vat«r (1809-17). Of the very
numerous work.? by Adelung, in addition to translations,
the foUowiiig arc of greatest importance : —
Oixhichie dcr Str/itinieiten '.le'scJicn Ddnemarlc und den Benogm
ton Molilein-GdUorp. Frankf., Leipsic, 1762, 4to. — Pragmatische
StaalsgeackichU Evroptns von dem Ablehcn Kavicr Karls dcs 6*^ an.
Vols. i-ix. Gotha, 1762-9, 4:o. — ATiTuralogiscfu Selustigungen.
Vols. i-Ti, Copenhagen and Leipsic, 1767-71, 8vo. — Glossarium
Manuale ad Scriptores media: ct injimtx Latinitatia, ex magnis Olos-
sariis Caroli du Presne Domini Ducangs ct Carpcniarii, in com-
pendium redactum. Tonii vi. Halle, 1772-84. — Vcrsuch eincs
volUtandigcn grammailsch-kritisdun Wirterb-uchs der Each Ttut-
sehen Mundart. 1774-86, 5 vols. 4to. — Ucber die Ckschichts dcr
Teutschen Sprache, aber Teutsche ifundarten ujtd Ttutache Sprach-
lehre. Leipsic, 1781, 8to. — Ueber den Ursprung der Spraehe und
den Bau der Wbrter. Ibid. 1781, 8yo. — Teutsche Spracklehre, sum
Ocbrauch der Schulcn in den K&nigl. Preuss. Landcn. Berlin, 1781.
— Zekrgebaudc der TattscJien S]?rache. — Versuch cijicr Geschichte
der CuUur dcs Mcmx/Michen OexUechls. 1782, 8vo. — Beytriige zur
BUrgerlichen Geschichte, zur Oeschichte d:r CuUur, sur Naiur-
geschichte, Katurhhre, und dem Fcldbaue. Leipsic, 1783, 8yo. —
Fortsetsung und Brganzungcn su (Christ. GoUl. Jochers allgemeinem
Gelehrten Lexico. Leipsic, 1784, 2 vols. 4to. — deber den Teutschen
Syl. Berlin, 1785, S vols. 8vo. — VbllstdTuiige Anuxisung zur
Teutschen Orthographie. Leipsic, 1786, 2 vols, — Auszug aus dem
Qmmmatisch-kriiischen Worterbuch der Hohen Teutschen Mundart.
Leipdc, 1793, 1 vol. ; 1795, 2 vols. Svo.—Mithridates. oder Allge-
meine Spracher'-unde. 3 vols. Berlin, 1806-1812.
' The perio. in which High German as a written language ap-
proached nearest perfection is, acconling to him, the short interral
between 1740 and 1760.
ADEN, a town and seaport of Temen in Arabia, belong-
ing to Britain, situated on a peninsula of the same name,
100 miles east of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. The penin-
sula of Aden consists chiefly of a mass of barren and deso-
late volcanic rocks, extending five miles from east to west,
and three from its northern shore to Ras Sanaihih or Cape
Aden, its most southerly point; it is connected with the
mainland by a neck of flat sandy ground oiily a few feet
high; and its greatest elevation is Jebel Shamshan, 1776
feet above the level of the sea. The town is built on the
eastern coast, in whrit is probably the crater of an extinct
volcano, and is surrounded by precipitous rocka that form
an admirable natural defence. There are two harbours, an
outer, facing the town, protected by the island of Sirah,
but now partially choked with mud; and an inner, called
Aden Back-bay, or, by the Arabs, Bander Tnwayyi, on the
western side of the peninsula, which, at all periods of the
year, admits vessels drawing less than 20 feet On the whole,
Aden is a healthy place, although it suffers considerably from
the want of good water, and the heat is often very intense.
From its admirable commercial and military position,
Aden early became the chief entrepot of the trade between
Europe and Asia. It was known to the Bomans as Arabia
Felix and Aitance, and was captured by them, probably in
the year 24 ao. At the commencement of the 16th century
it fell into the hands of the Portnguese, who, however, were
expelled by the Turks in 1538. In the following century
the Turks themselves relinquished their conquests in Yemen,
and the Sultan of Senna established a supremacy over A den,
which was maintained until the year 1730, when the Sheik
of Lahej, throwing off hi£ allegiance, founded a line of
independent sultans. In 1837 a ship under British colours
waa wrecked near Aden, and the crew and passengers
grievously maltreated by the Arabs. An explanation of
the outrage being demanded by the Bombay Government,
the Sultan undertook to make compensation for the plunder
of the vessel, and also agreed to sell his town and por*. to
the English. Captain Haines of the Indian navy was sent
to complete these arrangements, but the Sultan's son, who
now exercised the powers of govenunent, refused to fulfil
ihe promises that his iather had mada A combined
naval and military force was thereupon despatched, and
the place was captured on the 16th January 1839. It
became an ottlj ing portion of tha Presidency of Bombay.
The withdrawal of the trade between Europe and the
East, caused by ihe discovery cf the passage round the
Cape of Good Hope, and the misgovemment of the native
rulers, had gradually reduced Aden to a state of compara-
tive insignificance ; but about the time of its capture by the
British, the Red Sea route to India was re-opened, and
commerce soon began to flow in ita former channel Aden
was made a free port, and was chosen as one of the coaling
stations of thePeninsukr and Oriental Steamship Company j
and at present its most valuable import is coal for the use
of the steamers. It has, however, a considerable trade in
the products of Arabia — coffee, gum, feathers, dyes, pearls,
and ivory; and in return receives silk and cotton goods,
grain, and provisions. In 1871-72 the value of its im-
ports was £1,404,169; and of its exports, X885,919. In
the same year 535 steamers (643,982 tons), 94 sailing
vessels (90,516 tons), and 898 native craft visited the port
The town has been fortified and garrisoned by the British ;
and its magnificent water-tanks, which had been permitted
to fall into ruins, have been partially restored. It contains
nearly 30,000 inhabitants, as compared with lesa than
1000 in 1839. Lat 12° 46' N. ; long. 45° lO" E.
ADERNO, a city of Sicily, in the province of Catani^
near the foot of Mount Etna, 17 miles N.W. of Catania.
It is built on the site of the ancient Adranum, portions of
tlie massiTe walls of which are still visible, and numerous
A D E — A D I
153
Roman sepulctres nave been found in the vicinity. The
modem city has a clean appearance, but the situation is
unhealthy. It is remarkable for the number of its con-
vents and nunneries; and has several churches, the chief of
which is supported by beautiful pillars of polished lava.
On the river Simeto, near the town, there is a series of
beautiful cascades. Population, 12,999.
ADERSBACH ROCKS, a remarkable group of isolated
columnar rocks in a valley of the Riesengebirge, on the
frontier of Bohemia and Prussian Silesia, 9 miles W.N.W. of
Braunau. The mountain, for several miles, appears divided
into detached masses by perpendicular gaps, varying in
depth from 600 to 1200 feet. These masses are from a
few feet to several hundred yards in diameter. The part
called the labyrinth consists of smaller masses of columnar
form, oonfusedly piled on one another, and rising to heights
of from 100 to 200 feet. From their fantastic shapes the
rocks have received various fanciful appellations. Some
geologists have su;)posed that their remarkable structure is
the result of subterranean commotion; but the generally-
received opinion is, that the whole area had once been a
tabular mass of sandstone of unequal hardness, and that
the soft parts, which formed perpendicular seams, have
been worn away by water and atmospheric changes, leaving
the harder portions in their natural position. The recesses
of this wUd region frequently aflVded a place of refuge to
the distressed inhabitants of the district during the Thirty
Years' War.
ADHESION, a term used to denote the physical force
in virtue of which one body or substance remains attached
to the surface of another with which it has been brought
into contact. It is to be distinguished from cohesion,
which is the mutual attraction that the particles of the same
body exert on each other; and it differs from chemical
attraction or affinity, since the properties of the substances
it affects remain unchanged after' it takes place. It is a
force that the molecules of the adhering bodies exert on
each other, and must not be confounded with a contact
which is due to mere mechanical pressure, such as that
which a piece of caoutchouc tubing exerts by its elasticity
on a body that distends it. A very familiar instance, of
adhesion occurs in the wetting of solid bodies. It often,
indeed generally, happens that, when a soUd and a liquid
touch each other, a film of the latter adheres to the
former, and neither falls nor can be shaken off. This
arises from the adhesion of the liquid to the soUd being a
stronger force than the cohesion of the particles of the
liquid. It is also stronger than the force of gravitation ;
and the liquid can only be removed by being forcibly
rubbed off, or by the process of evaporation. The force of
adhesion may be determined by poising a plate of metal
on a balance, and afterwards ascertaining what additional
force will be required to detach it from the surface of a
b'quid. But this can only be done in the few cases in
which the liquid does not wet the solid (otherwise the
measurement v/ould be that of the cohesive force of the
liquid), and does not act on it chemically. The phenomena
of Capillaky Attraction (q.v.) depend on adhesion.
*^metimes, when a solid and a liquid are brought into
tontact, the adhesive force overcomes the cohesion of the
particles Of the solid, so that it loses its solid form, and is
dissolved or held in solution. Solid bodies, too, as well as
liquids, adhere to solids. Smooth surfaces (of lead, for
instance, or of dissimilar metals) will adhere; and if two
plates of polished glass be laid together, it will scarcely be
possible to separate them without breaking them. If the
Bolids are pressed together, the adhesive force is generally
greater; but it has been shown to be dependent to a very
slight extent only on the pressure of the atmosphere. To
a looser kind of adhesion, whereby one body is prevented
from moving smoothly on the surface of another, we give
the name of friction. The force of this increases with
pressure, which may be the effect of gravitation or the
result of mechanical appliances. If it be desired that
solids should adhere permanently, this is commonly effected
by the intervention of other substances — the cements,
mortars, and solders — in a liquid or viscid state, ■which,
when they "set" or become solid, adhere closely to the
bodies united by means of them. The principle of the
processes of plating, gilding, &c., is similar to this. The
adhesive force of cements, <fec., is sometimes very great.. The
common experiment of splitting a thin sheet of paper into
two is an illustration of it. The paper is pasted carefully
between two pieces of cloth, which are pulled asunder
after the paste has dried. The adhesion of the paste to
the paper and to the cloth is so strong that the paper is
thus separated into two sheets, which can easUy be de-
tached from the cloth by wetting it. Again, air and other
gases adhere to solids. A dry needle, plaeed carefully on
the surface of still water, will float, resting on a cushion
of air; and when thermometers are filled with mercury,
the liquid has to be boiled in them to expel the air that
adheres to the glass.
ADIAPHORISTS (aSia</)opo5, indifcrent), a name ap-
pUed to Melancthon and his supporters in a controversy
which arose out of the so-called Leipsic Interim (1548^,
and raged until 1555. In 1547 Charles V. had drawn up
the Augsburg Interim, with a view to provide for the tem-
porary government of the Charch untd a general council
could be callei This gi.V6 great dissatisfaction both to
the more advanced and to the more moderate reformers;
and the object of Melancthon's Leipsic Interim was to
reconcUe ail parties, it possible, by declaring that cei"taiu
rites and observances of the Roman Cathohc Church and
the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic bishops being
adiaphora (things indifferent), might be lawfully recognised.
On the other hand, the Cathohcs were required to accept
the Protestant formula of the doctrine of justification,
leaving out the words sola fide, which, it was said, might
belong to the adiaphora. In the controversy that fol-
lowed, Melancthon's chief opponent was his former col-
league, Matth. Flacius, on whose removal from Wittenburg
to Magdeburg the latter place became the head-quarters of
the extreme Lutherans.
ADIGE (German, Etsch), the ancicut Athesis, a large
river of Italy, formed by several rivulets which rise in the
Rhsetian Alps, and unite near Glarus. After flowing
eastward to the neighbourhood of Botzen, it receives the
Eisach, and becomes navigable. It then turns to the
south, and leaving the Tyrol, enters Lombardy 13 miles S.
of Roveredo. After traversing Northern Italy in a course
first southerly, but then easterly, it falls into the Adriatic
at Porto-Fossone, a few miles N. of the Po. The most
considerable towns on its banks are Trent and Roveredo
in the Tyrol, and Verona and Legnago ia Italy. It is
navigable from the heart of the Tyrol to the sea, and has in
Lombardy a breadth of 200 yards and a depth of from 10
to 16 feet, but the strength of the current renders its navi-
gation very difficult, and lessens its value as a means of
transit between Germany and Northern Italy. The Adige
has a course of about 220 miles.
ADIPOCERE (from adeps, fat, and cera, wax), a sub-
stance into which animal matter is sometimes converted,
deriving its name from the resemblance it bears to.both fat
and wax. When the Cemetery of .the Innocents at Paris
was removed in 1786-87, great masses of this substance
were found where the coffins containing the dead bodies
had been placed very closely together. At the bottom of
the coffin, in these cases, there appeared, loosely enveloped
in linen, a shapeless mass, of a dingv white colour,
L — :o
154
A D T -A D M
Battened as thougii it had undergone great pressure. The
whole body had boon convcrtad into thia fatty matter,
except the bonca, which remained, but were extremely
britt'e. Fourcroy, who had observed the substance
bafore, and had given it the name of adipocore, read a
paper on the subject before the Academy of Sciences in
1789. Chemically, adipocero is found to consist principally
3f margarate of ammonia. A similar substance, found in
peat, is known as bog-bv.tter.
ADIPOSE (adepa, fat), a term in Anatomy, Blgnlfying
fatty; as adipose tissue, adipose cell, (to.
ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, a group of mountains
in the N. of the state of New York, North America, IjTug
^ between Lakes Ohamplain and Ontario. They rise from
an extensive plateau about 2000 feet above the level of the
sea, and are chiefly of granite formation. Mount Marcy,
the highest summit, b:is an altitdde of 5337 feet, and
others of the group are from -1000 to 5000 feet high. The t.vo
principal streams which take their rise in this region— the
Hudson flo^ving south, and the Richelieu flowing northwards
from Lake Champlain — afi'oid abundant means of convey-
ing from the mountains the valuable timber, chiefly pine,
with which they are covered. Extensive deposits of mag-
netic iron ore, of great value, have been discovered; and a
village, called Adirondack, has recently sprung up, where
smelting is extensively prosecuted. Emerson, in his poem
Adirondack^, has familiarised the literary world with the
scenery of these mountains.
ADIT (from adire, to go to), a passage or door. Hie
doors of porticoes in ancient theatres were called adits. In
mines the came is given to a gallery or passage, nearly hori-
zontal, by which water is carried o£F. Ores also are sometimes
removed by the adit Some works of tiis kind are of
great magnitude. The great Cornish adit at Gvrennap,
near Falmouth, extends, with its branches, to from 30 to
40 miles in length, and drains a tract of 5500 acres.
ADJUDICATION, in ScottM Law, the name of that
action by which a creditor attaches the heritable, i.e., the
real, estate of his debtor, or his debtor's heir, in order to
appropriate it to himself either in payment or security of
his debt. The term is also applied to a proceeding of the
same nature by which the holder of an heritable right,
labouring under any defect in point of form, gets that
defect supplied by decree of a court.
Adjudication in Bankruptcy, in Etiglish Law. is equi-
valent to -the Scotch award of sequestration.
ADJUSTMENT, in Commerce, the settlement of a loss
incurred at sea on insured goods. If the policy be what is
called an open one, and tbe loss of the 'goods be total, tlje
insurer must pay for them at the value of prime cost,
which includes not only the invoice price of the goods, but
all duties paid, the premium of insurance, and all expenses
incurred on them when put on board. If the policy be a
valued one, and a total loss be incurred, then they are
settled for at the valuation fixed at the time of the ins\ir-
ance, unless the insurers can prove that the insured had
not a real interest in the goods, or that they were over-
valued. In case of a partial loss, the value of the goods
must be proved. (See Arnould On Marine Insurance.)
ADJUTAGE, a short tube or nozzle, inserted in an
orifice, by means of which liquids flow from a vessel more
freely.
ADJUTANT, a military officer whose duty it is to assist
the comma?nding officer of a regiment or battalion. Every
battalion of infantry, regiment of cavalry, and brigade of
artillery,' has an adjutant, who keeps the regimental books,
records, end correspondence; acts as the commanding
officer's representative in matters of regimental detail ;
superintends the drill of recruits; keeps the roster (i.e.,
register of order of service) for all duties; details the guards,
piqu'^to, detachments, &c., -that are furnished by the regt-
ment; and is responsible for the receipt of the daily divi-
sional or brigade order from the superior staff-officer, and
the preparation and issue of regimental orders. The Jcf/a-
tant-Ocneral is the stafi'-cfficer specially charged wi.h all
matters relating to the disciijline and drill of the army.
AD.rUT^VNT, the Ciconia Areata, or Leptopliloi Argala,
a species of stork found in tropical India. It is of great
size, sometimes siy or oven seven feet m height, the body and
legs bearing nearly the same proportion as in the commoa
stork. The bill is long and large; while the head, neck,
and pouch are bare, or covered only with a few scattered
hairs. At the back
of its neck there is
a second pouch-like
appendage, which
the bird inflates
during flight. The
general colour of the
body is an ashen
gray above and white
below. The adjutant
is extremely vora-
cious, and, feeding
on offal, reptiles, and
other vermin, acta
the part of a scaven-
ger. It is often to
be seen in camps
and parade-grounds ;
hence its name. A
similar bird, which,
however, has been
differentiated as
Ciconia Marabou, occurs in different parts of Africa —
Marabou being the native Senegal name. The brilliant
white marabou feathers of commerce are the imder feathers
of the tail and wings of both specie* but those of the C.
Argala are the most valuable.
ADJYGIIRH, a town and fort of India, in the presi-
dency of Bengal, 130 miles S.W. of Allahabad. The fort
is situated on a very steep hill, more than 800 feet above
the town; and contains the ruins of temples adorned with,
elaborately-carved sculptures. It was captured by the
British in 1809. The town is a neatly -built place, but
subject to malaria. Population, 5000.
ADMHSTLSTRATOR, in Un^lish Law, he to whom the
ordinary or judge of the ecclesiastical court, now the Court
of Probate, acting in the queen's name, commits the
administration of the goods of a person deceased, in default-
of an executor. The origin of administrators is derived,
from the civil law. Their establishment in England is
owing to a statute made in the Slst year of Edward m.
Till then no office of this kind was known besides that of
executor; in default of whom, the ordinary had the dis-
posal of goods of persons intestate, &c.
Admintstratoe, in Scottish Law, a person legally em-
powered to act for another whom the law presumes incap-
able of acting for himself, as a father for a pupil child.
ADMIRAL, a great officer or magistfate, who has the
government of a navy and the hearing of all maritime
causes.
There can be little doubt of the Asiatic origin of the
name given to this officer, which does not appear t9 have
been known in the languages of Europe before the time
of the Holy Wars. Amir, in Arabic, is a chief or com-
mander of forces ; it is the same word as the ameer of the
peninsula of India (as ameer al omrah, the chief of lords
or princes), and the emir of the Turks or Saracens, who
had and still have their emir or ameer'l dureea, commandex.
i^ D M I E A L
155
of the sea, amir'l asl-er dureea, commander of tne naval
armament. The incorporation of the article with the noun
appears, we believe, for the first time in the Annals of
Eutychius, patriarch of AJexandria, in the 10th century,
who calls the Caliph Omar Amirol munumim, i.e., Im-
peralor fideUum. Spelman says, "In regno Saracenorum
quatuor praetores statuit, qui qdmiralli vocabantur." The
d is evidently superfluous, and is omitted by the French,
who say Amiral. The Spanish write Almirante; ■ the
Portuguese the same. Milton would seem to have been
aware of the origin of the word when he speaks of " the
mast of some great animiral." It is obvious, then, that
the supposed derivations of aX/ivpo9 from the Greek, aumer
from the French, and aen mereal from the Saxon, are
fanciful and unauthorised etjnnologies.
Anciently there were three or four admirals appointed
for the English seas, all of them holding the office durante
heneplacito, and each of them having particular limits
under his charge and government, as admiral of the fleet
of ships from the mouth of the Thames, northward, south-
ward, or westward. Besides these, there were admirals
of the Cinque Ports. We sometimes find that one person
had been admiral of all the fleets — Sir John de Beau-
champ, 34 Edw. III., being the first who held the post;
but the title of Admiralis Anglioe does not occur tOl the
reign of Henry IV., when the king's half-brother. Sir
Thomas Beaufort (created Earl of Dorset 5th July 1411),
a natural son of John of Gaunt, was made admiral of the
fleet for life, and admiral of England, Ireland, and Aqui-
taine for life. It may be observed that there was- a title
above that of admiral of England, which was locum tenens
regis super 'mare, the king's Ueuteuant-general of the sea.
This title is first mentioned in the reign of Richard II.
Before the use of the word admiral was known, the title of
custos maris was made use of.
Of the rank of admiral there are three degrees — admiral,
vice-admiral, rear-admiral. Each of these degrees formerly
comprised three grades, distinguished by red, white, and
blue flags — the red being the highest degree in each rank
of admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral.
It may be remarked that for nearly a century there was
no admiral of the red squadron. According to a vulgar
error, that flag had been taken from us by the Dutch in one
of those arduous struggles for naval superiority which that
nation was once able to maintain against the naval power of
England. But the fact is, the red flag was laid aside on
the union of the two crowns of England and Scotland, when
the union flag was adopted in its place, and waa usually
hoisted by the admiral commanding in chief. The red flag
was revived on the occasion of the promotion of naval officers
in November 1805, in consequence of the memorable vic-
tory off Trafalgar. The three degrees of red, white, and
blue flag-oSicers were abolished by order in council on 5th
August 1864, and the white ensign was thenceforward
adopted as the sole flag for the ships of the royal navy
proper. Captains are now promoted to be rear-admirals,
rear-admirals to be vice-admirals, and vice-admirals to be
admirals simplicite} the numbers of each rank being
regulated by orders in council passed on and subsequently
to 22d February 1870. (See I^Savy.) For biographical
information, see Campbell's Lives of the British Adjnirals,
8 vols. 8vo, 1817; O'Byrne's Naval Biographical Dic-
tionary, 8vo, 1849.
Admiral ok the Fleet is a mere honorary distinction,
which gives no command, but merely an increase of half-pay,
his being £3, 7s. a-day, and that of an admiral £.1, 2s. The
title has been sometimes conferred on the senior admiral
on the list of naval officers, and was a short time held by
the Duke of Clarence, after^vards William IV. In 1851
were appointed, for the first time, two admirals of the fleet,
Sir Thomas Byam Martin, Q.C.B., and Sir George Cock-
bum, G.C.B., the last having been appointed for his long
and highly-distinguished services. The number of admirals
of the fleet now (1874) authorised to be borne is three. If
the admiral of the fleet should happen to serve afloat, he is
authorised to carry the union flag at the main-top-gaUant-
mast head, which was the case when the Duke of Clarence
escorted, Louis XVIIL across the Channel to take posses-
sion of the throne of France.
The comparative rank of flag-officers and officers in the
army has been settled as follows by his Majesty's order in
council, ia the reign of George IV : —
The admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet has the
rank of a field-marshal in the army ; admirals with flags at
the main take rank with generals of horse and foot ; vice-
admirals with lieutenant-generals; rear-admirals with major-
generals; commodores of the first and second class with
broad pendants vrith brigadier-generals.
On the active list of admirals there were in 1873 three
admirals of the fleet, thirteen admirals, fifteen vice-admirals,
and twenty-five rear-admirals.
In addition to these, there were on the reserved list forty
admirals and thirty -four vice-admirals; on the retired list
forty-three admirals, fifty-five vice-admirals, and sixty-two
rear-admirals. As to the numbers to be borne permanently
on these Hsts, and the regulations according to which
admirals are retired and reserved,, under Mr Childera' retire-
ment scheme, see Navy.
An-wTRAT, (the Lord Hroir) op Englaitd, an ancient
officer of high rank in the state, who not only is vested
with the government of the navy, but who, long before any
regular navy existed in England, presided over a sovereign
court, with authority to hear and determine all causes
relating to the sea, and to take cognizance of aU offences
committed thereon.
The period about which this officer first makes his appearance In
the govermnents of European nations corroborates the supposition
of the office having been adopted in imitation of the Meditenanean
powers at the return of the Christian heroes from the Holy Wars.
According to Morori, Florent de Varenne, in the year 1270, was the
first admiral known in France ; but by the most approved writers
of that nation the title was unknown till, in 1284, Enguerand de
Coussy was constituted admiral. The first admiral by name that
we know of in England was W. de Leyhouine, who was appointed
to that office by Edward I. in the year 12S6, under the title of
Admiral dc la rticr du Soy d' Aiu;leicrre. Mariana, in his Bistary
of Spain, says that Don Sancho, having resolved to make war on
the barbarians (Jloors), prepared a great fleet ; and as the Gencese
were at that time very powerful by sea, and experienced and dex-
terous sailors, he sent to Genoa to invite, with great offers, Benito
Zacharias into his service ; that he accepted those offers, and brought
with him twelve ships; that the king named him his admiral
(almiraTiie), and conferred on him the office for a limited time.
This happened in the year 1234. Several Portuguese autliors ob-
serve that their office of almiratUc waa derived from the Genoese,
who had it from the Sicilians, and these from the Saracens ; and it
appears from Souza's Eistoria Qiiualomca da Caza Meal, that in
1322 Jlicer Manuel Picagow was invited from Genoa into Portugal,
and appointed to flie office of almiraiUc, with a salary of 3000 pounds
(/icras) a year, and certain lands, &c., on condition that he should
furnish on his part twenty men of Genoa, all experienced in sei
affairs, and qualified to be alcaidis (captains) and arraiscs (masters)
of ships : all of which teniis, almirante, alcaidi, and arrais, are
obviously of Arabic derivation.
Edward I., who began his reign in 1272, went to tlie Holy Land,
and visited Sicily on his return. He must therefore have had an
opportunity of informing himself conceruing the inilitaiy and naval
science of the vajious countries bordering on the Jlediterranean — an
opportimity which so able and warlike a prince would not neglect,
but whether the title and office of .admiral existed in England before
his time, as some are inclined to think, or whether W. de l.ey-
bourne was first created to that office in 12S(i, as before mentioned,
we believe there is no authentic record to enable us to decide. Sup-
posing him, however, to be the first, Edward may citlicr liave
adopted the office and title from the Genoese, or tho Sicilians, or
the Spaniards, cr the French ; or even had it directly from tha
Saracens, against whom he had fought, and with whom he had
afterwards much amicable intercourse. It would seam, however.
156
ADMIRAL
tlat the ofBco vraa ic Hclwerd 8 time to somo extent honorary ; for
♦imt mona-ch, in 1S07, ordera the lord niAvor of Loiidon, at hia
peril and without delay, to provide a good snip, well eiiuipped, to
carry hia pavilions ana tents ; and ip the same year another order
ia addressed to the Vicrcxnrxs Kantiije to pnvide for immediate
passage across the seas lot et tale* ponUa eC clau^, as the constable
of Dover Cottle should demand, without one woid being mentioned
of the admiral. (Ryjner, \ol. iii. p. 82.) It ia to be observed, how-
ever, that at this time the royal deets '»ete made up of royal and
private ships, and that the admiral would not be chi.rgcd with thii
traniiport oi' such things aa chose u:en*'ioned onlesa the fleet was
intended to co-operate with the land forces.
From tl^e 34Lh EdTPjd 11. we have a regalar and uniatcrruptct'
succession of admirals. In that year Ed\/ard Charl-jo W£3 a])pciTt»*d
admira* of the north, from the mouth of the river Thames no.-th-
ward, and Oervase AUurd admiral of ihe west, Dom the mouth of
the Th^mca wcstwar-l ; and these two admirals of the north and the
west were ccntLjued down to the 34th Edward 111., whe'i Sir John
de Bcauchamp, lord warden of the Cin.|ue Forts, constable of the
Tower of London and of the Castle of Dover, wua cun.ftituled Ili'jh
Admiral of Knglmid. ITine yea-a afterrsards ihe offiea ttlj ar^u.iu
divided into north and west, and so continuei unal ths 10th Pici-ard
II., when Richard, son of Alain, EarL of Arundel, was appointed
Admiral of England, Two years after this it was ^rain divided as
before ; and it the 15th year of the samo reign, Edward, Earl of
Rutland and Cork, aftenvards Duke of Albema'-le, was constituted
Eigh Admiral of the North nnrf ff^cut ; and after him the Marquis
of Dorset- and Earl of Soircrset, son of John of Gaunt, Duke of
Lancaster. Percy, Earl of "Winchester, next succeeded to tne same
title, which once more was dropped in the 2<^ of Henry IV., and
divided as before. Sir Thomas lieaiiibrt was twice appointed by
He6ry IV. pdmiral of England ; and on thi accession of Henry V.
he was reappointed by letters patent dated 3d Jime 1413. In the
14th Henry VI., John Holland, Duke of Exeter, was created
admiral of England, L-eland, and Aquitaine for life ; and in the
third year of" Edward-VI., John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, was
constituted high admiral of England, Ireland, "Wales, Calais,
Boulogne, the marches of the same, Normandy, Gascony, and
Aquitaine, also captainreneral of clie navy and seas of the kini^,
&c. In the 27th Emaljeth, Charles, Lord Howard, had all the
aforesa'd titles, with the addition of captaiu general of the navy
and seas of the said kingdoms.
On the 20th November 1632 the office of high admiral
■Was for the first time put in commission, all the grc.it
officers of state being th6 coinmissionera. During the
Commonwealth a committee of Parliament managed the
affairs of the Admiralty. At the Restoration, in 1600, the
Duke of York vras constituted Lord High Admiral of Eng-
land. The commission was revoked in 1673, and King
Charles II. held the Admiralty in liis own hands, and managed
it by the great officers of his privy council till 1G84, when
the Duke of York was re-instated. Charles took this occa-
sion of reserving for his own use all the droits and per-
quisites claimed by the lord high admiral
Annexed is a list of lord high admirals and first
lords of the Admiralty from the time of Charles the
Second to the year 1874 : —
FIRST LOKDS O? THii ADJITEALTY FKOM 1660.
Data of Appointment
James Duke of York,* June 6,1600.
£ing Charles the Second, . • . . . June 14, 1673.
Prince Rupert, . . ... July 9, 1673.
Sir Henry Capell, Kt, . . ^ . . May 14, 1679.
Daniel Finch. Esq Feb. 14, IBSO.
Daniel Lord Finch, Jan. 20, loSl.
Daniel Earl of Nottingham, . .... April 17,1684.
James Duke of York (and as James ll.),t . . May 17, 1634
Arthur Herbert, Ksq., . ... March 8,1689.
Tl.omes Earl of Pembroke ann Montgomery,
Chailes Lord Comwallis, .
Anthony Viscount Falkland,
Edward Russell, Esq
Edward^Earl of Orford June
John Earl of Bridgewater May
May
"Thomas Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery,
George Prince of Denmark,*
'Thoma.s Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery,:
Edward Earl of Orford, ....
Sir John Leake, Kt, ....
Thbftla-s Earl of Strafford
Edward Earl of Orford Oct
James Earl of Berkeley, March 19,
Ijord Viscotmt Torrington, ... . Aug. 2,
Jan. £0, 16110.
March 10, 1692.
April Ifi, 1093.
2, 1694.
5, 1697.
31, 1699.
4, 1701.
20, 1702.
29, 1708.
8, 1709.
4, 1710.
30, 1712.
14, 1714.
1717.
1727.
April
ilay
Nov.
Nov.
Oct
Sept
Sir Ch&rlsa Waccr, Et, ,
Dahiel Eax! of Winchelsea and Nottingham,
John Duke of Bedford,'
John Earl of Sandwich, . . . .
George Lord Anson. ... > . .
Richard Earl Temple,
Ean<c! Earl of Winchelaea ami Nottiagham,
George Lord Anson, . ....
George Dank Earl of Halifax
George Grenville, Esq.
Jo".m Earl of Sandwich,
John Earl of Egmont,
Sir ClLirleb Blunders, K.B
Sir Edward Hawke, K. B ,
John Earl of Sandwich,, .....
Hon. Augui'tt.s Keppel, .....
Augustus Viecoiirt Keppel,
Rionard Viscount ricwe,
Augustus Viscjuiic Keppel, . . .
Ricnard \ iscount Howe
.'ghn E*rl of Chathf m, .....
Gtorge John E.iri Spencer, . . .
J-jhn Earl of Bt Vincent, K.B.
Henry Lord Viscount Melvilie, . , . .
Charles Lord Bartram, . ...
Charles Grey, Esq.
Thomas Grenville, Esq
lierry Lord Mulgrave, .....
Right Hon. Chailes Yorkc,
Right Hon. P.ot)eri. Viscount Melville,
H. R. H. "\\'iUiam Henry Ouke of Clarence,^
Right Hon. Robert Viscount Itlelville, X.T.,
Righ'-. Hon. Sir James R. G. Graham, B'lrt ,
Right Hon. Geo.-ge Parou AackLind, .
Thomas Philip Earl de Grey
Right Hon. Gecrge Baron Auckland,' .
Gilbert Earl of M^nto, G.C.B., .
Thomas V^rl of Haddington,
flight Hon. Edward Earl of Ellenborough,
Right .Hon. OcoT-ge Eail of Auckland (died 1st
January 1349), . . . .
r«ght Eon. Sir Francis T. Baling, Bart., .
-■M|,'emon Percy Duke of Northumberland, K.G.,
Right Hon. Sir James R. G. Graham, Bart ,
Right Hon. Sir Charles "Wood, Bart.,
Right Hon. Sir Jolm Pakington, Bart,
Eawaid A. St Maur Duke of Somc^et, K.O.,
Rig'r.t Hon. Sir J. S. Pakington, Bart, G.C.B.,
Right Hon. Henry Thomas Lowrj Corry, . .
Right Hon. Hugh Culling Eardley Chiliers,
Right Hon. George Joachim Gcschen,
Dtt« of ApFoL:tmeiit
Juni 21, 1733.
March 13, 1741.
Dec 27, 1744.
le, 1748.
22, 175L
17. 1756.
6, 1757.
2, 1757.
17, 1762.
18. 1762.
April 20. 1763.
Sept. 13, 1763.
16, 1768.
11, 1768.
12, 1771.
1, 1782.
18, 1782.
30, 1783.
ApiU 10, 1783.
31, 1783.
16, 1788.
19, 1794.
19, 1801.
16, 1804.
2, 1805.
10, 1006.
29, 1808.
6, 1807.
24, 1809.
March 25, 1812.
May 2, 1S27.
19, 1S2S.
25, 1830.
11, 1834.
28, 1C34.
25, 1836.
19, 1835.
8, 1841.
13, 1846.
Feo.
June
Nov.
April
July
June
Oct.
Sept
Dec.
Jan.
April
July
Dec.
July
Dec.
Feb.
May
May
Feb.
Sept.
Ajiril
Nov.
Sei)t
Nov.
June
Dec.
April
Sept
Sept
Jan.
July 24,
Jan. 1 8,
Feb. 28,
Jan. 6,
March 8,
March 9,
June 28,
July 13,
Morch 8,
Dec. 18,
March 13,
1846.
1849.
1852.
1853.
1856.
18E8.
1859.
1868.
1867.
1868.
1871.
* Lor^ High Admiral of England.
+ Lord High .\dmiral and Lord GeoeraL
X Lord High Adloirals ot Great Britain,
Princo George of Denmark, when lord high admiral,
having surrendered, by a formal instrument, all the righta,
profits, perquisites, and advantages whatsoever, appertaining
to the office, for the benefit and use of the public, with the
exception of the sum cf X2500 a-year to ba disposed of in
such manner and lor such particidar uses as her Majesty,
under her sign manual, should direct ; and the salary of the
lord high admiral, which had hitherto been no more than
300 marks, was now fixed, by warrant under privy eeal. at
X7000 a-year. This sum, by Ist George 11, was divided
equally among seven commi.?sioners, an arrangement which
continued from that time, except that the pay of th3 com-
missioner who stood first in the patent was made up from
other funds to .£3000 a-ycar, and in the year 1806 was
further increased to £5000 a-ycar. Since the surrender
above mentioned, aU the droits of aumirally, as they are
called, with aU tlie fees, emoluments, and perquisites what-
soever, have been taken from the admiral and applied to
public purposes.
These droits and perquisites are by no means inconsider-
abl& As enumerated in the patent, they consist of flotsam,
jetsam, ligan, treasure, deodands, derelicts, found within the
admiral's jui"i3diction; all goods picked up at sea; all fines,
forfeitures, ransoms, recognisances, and pecuniary punish-
ments ; all sturgeons, whales, porpoises, dolphins, and
ADMIRAL
157
grampuses and all sucn large fishes; all ships and goods of
the enemy coming into any creek, road, or port, by stress of
weather, mistake, or ignorance of the war ; all ships Kized at -
sea, salvage, &c., together with his shares of prizes; which
shares were afterwards called tenths, in imitation probably of
the French, who gave their admiral, for supporting the dignity
of his office, son droit de dixieme. All prizes are now wholly
given up by the crown to the captors, and such share of the
droits as from circumstances may be thought proper The
lord high admiral also claimed and enjoyed as his due the
cast ships; and the subordinate officers of the navy, as
their perquisites, all other decayed and unserviceable stores.
Though by Act of 2 William and Mary, stat. 2, c. 2
(extended by the 1 Geo. IV. c. 90, and 7 and 8 Geo.
IV. c. 65), the lords commissioners of the admiralty
are vested with all and singular authorities, jurisdictions,
and powers which have been and are vested, settled, and
placed in the lord high admiral of England for the time
being, to all intents and purposes as if the said commis-
sioners were lord high admiral of England, yet there is
this remarkable difference in the two patents by which
they are constituted, that the patent of the lord high
admiral mentions very little of the military part of hjs
office, but chiefly details his judicial duties as a magistrate;
whilst, on the contrary, the patent to the lords commis-
sioners of the admiralty is very particular in directing thern
to govern the affairs of the navy, and is almost wholly
silent as to their judicial powers.
These powers, as set forth in the patent to the Earl of
Pembroke in 1 701, are, the power to act by deputy ; to take
cognisance of all causes, civil and maritime, within his juris-
diction ; to arrest goods and persons ; to preserve public
streams, ports, rivers, fresh waters, and creeks whatsoever
within his jurisdiction, as well for the preservation of the
ships as of the fishes; to reform too strait nets and
unlawful engines, z d punish offenders; to arrest ships,
mariners, pilots, masters, gunners, bombardiers, and any
other persons whatsoever able and fit for the service of the
ships, as often as occasion shall require, and wheresoever
they shall be met with ; to appoint vice-admirals, judges,
and other officers, durante beneplacito ; to remove, suspend,
or expel them, and put others in their places, as he shall
see occasion ; to take cognisance of civil and maritime laws,
and of death, murder, and mayhem.
It war by no means necessary that the lord high admiral
should be a professional man. Henry VIII. made his
natural son, the Duke of Richmond, lord high admiral of
England when he was but six years old. \\Ticn the high
admiral, however, went to sea in person, he had usually a
commission under the great seal appointing him admiral
and captain-general of the fleet, sometimes with powers to
confer knighthood, and generally to punish with life and
limb. Such a commission was granted by Henry VIII. to
Sir Edward Howard, who executed indenture with the
king to furnish 3000 men, 18 captains, 1750 soldiers, 1232
mariner- and gunners; his own pay to be lOs. and that of
a captain Is. 6d. a-day. The rest had 5s. per mensem as
wages, and 5s. for victuals each man together with certain
dead shares.
It appears, from Mr Pepys' Naval Collections, that the
lord high admiral did anciently wear, on solemn occasions,
a gold whistle, set with precious stones hanging at the end
of a gold chain.
The salary of the first lord commissioner is £4500 a-year,
and of each of the naval lords £1500; in addition to the
half -pay of their rank. The civil lord gets £1000. and the
parhamentary secretary £2000 a-ycar.
The opening paragraph of the Black Book of the Admiralty
has the following noteworthy instruction as regards the depu-
ties and officers to bo chosen by the lord high admiral : —
" When one is made admirall, hec must first ordaine and sutsti-
tute for his licut«ntmts, deputies, ard other officers under him,
some of the most loyaU, wise, and discreete persons in the maritime
law and auncient customes of the seas which hee can any where
find, to the end that by the helpe of God and their good and just
government, the office may be executed to the honour and good of
the reaJme."
Had this precept been always acted on, there would
probably have been less occasion than has presented itself
for the many reorganisations which the administration of
the lord high admiral's administrative office has under-
gone. As it has been, the necessity for periodical changes
has been urgent and unavoidable. From the time of
which Macaulay wrote, that the king (James II.) was the
only honest man in his dockyards, down to the present
date, the need has been incimibent on successive first
lords and high admirals to lay the axe to the root of a
tree which, in some shape or other, has not ceased to bring
forth evil fruit. The soil favoured corruption, and no
efficient means were employed to prevent its growth. A
root and branch reformation was urgently needed, though
it was not applied except in particular instances. TiU the
great French war of 17D3-1815 led to the formation of
a navy board of commissioners to superintend the work
and management of the dockyards; of a victualling board,
to see to the provisioning of the fleet; and of sick and
hurt commissioners, to look after the sick and wounded
■ — the administrative departments of the navy were left
to nominees of the lord high admiral or first lord', the
said nominees deriving " no smaU advantage " from
the arrangement. Under the departmental boards things
certainly improved from what they were in the time
of Charles II.; but they fell far short of what was
desirable, and, by the vagueness of Aeir administra-
tive principle, opened a door for irresponsible wrong-
doing, which in the end made them exceedingly bad
instruments of government. These boards continued till
1832, when Sir James Graham, then first lord of the
admiralty, introduced sweeping changes. He abolished
the several intangible boards which administered under
the shelter of the board of admiralty, and appointed in
their stead five principal officers of the nary, who were
afterwards included in the admiralty patent. The.se officers
were — a surveyor or architect and constructor of the navy;
a storekeeper-general, charged with oversight and purchase
of the material for dockyards and ships; an accountant-
general, charged with the duty of seeing that aD wages
and cash paid were duly brought to account; a comp-
troller of victualling and transport services, charged with
the maintenance of the victualling establishments of the
na\'y, and of sufficient supplies of provisions and clothing
for the fleet, and with the oversight of the transport
arrangements for men and stores; and a physician of the
nxvy, afterwards called medical director-general, charged
with the oversight of all hospitals and of all sanitary
arrangements of the navj-. Each of these officers adminis-
tered the department entrusted to him in every particular,
not only in respect of stock, but of replenishment and
account of stock. A lord of the admiralty was told off
to supervi.se the permanent head and to represent lus
'department at the board. These alterations were in many
respects very beneficial Altered circumstances required
some modification of the original scheme of duties; and
the addition of three principal officers — the director of
works, the director of transports (who, after the Crimean
war, relieved the comptroller of \'ictualling of his trans-
port duties), and the registrar of contracts. In 18C0 the
oflice of surveyor of the na\'y was < abolished, and that
of controller of the navy, with larger jxiwers over' dock-
yard man.agement, was re\-ived. In 18C9, Mr Childers,
tsat lord of the admiialty, made changes which. tended
158
A D M — A D M
to subordinate the members of the board of admiralty
more effectuaUy to the first lord, cocatituting him in
effect minister of marine; and to render departmental
officers at once more individually responsible and more
intimate with the controlling members of the board. He
increased the power and functions of the controller of the
navy, giving him a seat at the board, and charging him
with the stock-keeping attributes of the storekeeper-gene-
ral, whose purchasing functions were transferred to a new
officer — the superintendtmt of contracts, the head of the
contract and purchase depaKment, and his accounting
functions to the accountant-general The office of etorc-
keeper-goneral was abolished. The office of eompfroUer
of victualling was also aboliBhed — the storakeeping func-
tions being tian-sforrod to a new officer, the superin-
tendent of victualling^tho purchasing function to the
head of the porchese department, the accounts to the
accountant-generaL The other officers remained; but in
the case of each this modification of bnsinoss ensued, viz.,
that all stores whatever required by any of them were
to bo obtained through the agency of one supply or
purchase department; that all accounts whatever were to
be rendered to the accountant-generaL The departmental
officers of the admiralty at the present time (1874) are —
th? controller of the navy, without .a seat at the board
(who has on his staff a chief naval architect, a chief
engineer, a surveyor of dockyards, a superintendent of
naval stores, and a director of ordnance) — ^tha director-
general of the medical department, the director of
works, -the director of transports, the hydrographer,
the superintendent of contracts, the superintendent of
victualling. The department of the two permanent secre-
taries of the admiralty (one a naval officer, the other a
civilian) undertakes the conduct of sJl business relating
to the personnel of the navy and the ordering of the fleets.
To control the departmental officers, and to advise the
responsible first lord, there are the following members of
the board of admiralty, viz., the parliamentary or finan-
cial secretary, wjio has oversight of all business relating
to finance, estimates, expenditure, and accounts, and who
is the alter ego of the first lord in Parliament; the first
naval lord, who, assisted by two other naval " lords,"
takes oversight of the personnel and of all executive func-
tions of the fleet; and a civilian lord, who assists the
financial secretary, and has particular oversight also of
naval civil establishments and of the works department.
A list of secretaries of the admiralty from 1 684 to the
present time is given below : —
FIEST SECRETARIES TO TEE AT>wtrattv
Samuel Pepys, Esq., . . ,
Fhineaa Bowles, Esq
James Sotheme, Esq., , . .
Josiah Barchett, Esq., . . .
Thomas Corbet, Esq
John Cleveland, Esq., . , .
Philip ^ievens, Esq. (then one )
of the Board) j
Evan Nepean, Esq., ....
"William Maraden, Esq.,
Hon. W. W. Pole, ....
John Wilson Croker, Esq.,
Captain the Hon. Georce Elliott,
Right Hon. George R. Dawson,
Charles Wood, iSq., M.P., .
R- More O'Farrall, Esq., . .
John Parker, E-sq., M.P., . .
Hon. .Sidney HeA>ert, .
Kight Hon. H. T. L. Corry, M.P.,
Henry O. Ward, Esq., M.P., .
John Parker, Esq., M.P., . .
Angustus Stafford, Esq., , .
Bernal Oabome, Esq., M.P
Bight Hon. H. T. h. Cony, M.P,
rrom
To
May
1684
Feb.
1689.
March
1689
Dec.
1689.
Dec
25, 1689
Sept
24,
1694.
Sept.
25, 1694
Oct
10,
1741.
Oct.
10, 1741
Jane
18, 1763
March
3,
1795.
March
3, 1795
Jan.
21,
1804.
Jan.
21, 1804
June
24,
1807.
June
24, 1807
Oct
8,
1809.
Oct.
9, 1809
Not.
29,
1830.
Nov.
29, 1830
Dec
24,
1834.
Dec.
24, 1834
Apri
27,
1835.
April
27, 1835
Oet
4,
1839.
Oct
4, 1839
June
9,
1841.
June
9,^1841
Sept
10,
1841.
Sept
10, 1841
Feb.
1845.
Pel
1845
Jul}
13,
1846.
July
13, 1846
May
1,
1849.
May
21, 1849
March
3,
1852.
March
3, 1S52
Jan.
6.
1853.
Jan.
6, 1853
Marci
8,
1858.
March
», 1853
June
30,
1859.
IVom Tb
B^jAdmimlLordC.O.Pagct,|j^^ ">■ "=<> •*P'^ 29.1866,
Hon. Thomas'o. Baring, M. P., April SO, 1868 July 15, 1866.
Loid HenryO. Lennoi, M.P., July 1«, 18C« Dec. 17,1868.
W. E. Baxter, Esq., JL P., , Deo. 18,1868 Karch 1«, 1871.
Geo. J. Shaw Lefovre, Esq., ILP., March 17, 1871
As regards the navies of foreign countries, their govern-
ment ie in the hands of ministers or departments variously
constituted. The Russian Admiralty is a highly-organised
bureau, divided into departments after the English manner,
and under the supreme control of a high admiral, usually
a Grand Duke of the Imperial House. The German
Admiralty was, till 1872, a branch of the War Office,
though governed by a vice-admiral under a naval prince
of the reigning family. In 1872 it was severed from the
War Office, though remaining an appanage thereof, and a
general of the army was placed at its head. The Frendi
minist^^r of marine, assisted by a permanent staff, controls
the nai-y of Franco on a highly centralised system of
administration; but the departments are well organised,
and work welL The Italian fleet is governed on principles
Analogous to the French, but with a large admixture of
the English representative element. - The American navy
is governed by a secretary of the navy, a cabinet minister,
to whom the departmental heads ere responsible, and
under whose ordere they work. (f. w. e.)
ADMIRALTY, High Couet op. This is a court of law,
in which the authority of the lord high admiral is exercised
in 'his judicial capacity. Very little has been left on record
of the ancient prerogative of the admirals of England. For
some time after the first institution of the office they
judged all matters relating to merchants and mariners,
which happened on the main sea, in a summary way,
according to the laws of Oleron (so called because pro-
mulgated by Richard L at that place). These laws, which
were little more than a transcript of the Rhodian laws,
became the universally-received customs of the western
part of the world. " All the seafaring nations," says Sir
Leoline Jenkins, " soon after their promulgation, received
and entertained these laws from the English, by way of
deference to the sovereignty of our kings in the British ocean,
and to the judgment of our countrymen in sea affairs."
In the patents granted to the early admirals between the latter
yflara of the reign of Henry III. and the close of that of Edward
111., no mention is made of marine perquisites or of civil power, nor
does it appear that the admirals enjoyed either ; but aft«r the death
of the latter, new and extraordinary powers were granted to them,
and it would appear that they usurped others. The preamble to the
13 Richard 11. stat 1, c. 6, sets forth that "a great and common
clamour and complaint hath been oftentimes made before this
time, and yet is, for that the admirals and their deputies hold
their sessions within divers places of this realm, as well within
the franchise as without, accroaching to them greater authority
than belongeth to their office, in prejudice of our lord the king
and the common law of the realm, and in diminishing of divers
franchises, and in destruction and impoverishing of the common
people ; " and the statute therefore directs that the admirals and
their deputies shall not meddle from henceforth of any thing
done within the r«alm, but only of a thing done upon the sea.
Two years afterwards (15 Rich. II. c 8), in consequence, as
stated in _the preamble of the statute, "of the great and grievous
complaint of all the commons," it was ordained that the admiral's
coiU"t should have no cognisance of any contracts, pleas, or quarrels,
or of any thing done or arising within the bodies of counties,
whether by land or by water, nor of wreck of 'the sea ; but that the
admiral should have cognisance of the death of a man. and of
mayhem done in great ships being and hovering in the main stream
of great rivers, yet only beneath the bridges of the same rivers nigh
to the sea. Ho may also arrest ships in the great flotee for the great
voyages of the king and of the realm, saving always to the king all
manner of forfeitures and profits thereof coming, and have jurisdic-
tion over the said flotcs, but during the said voyages only. But if
the admiral or his lieutenant exceed that jurisdictiDn, then, by 2
Henry IV. c 11, the statute and the common law may be holden
against them ; and if a man pursues wrongfully in the admiralty
court, his adversary may recover doable damages at common law.
ADMIRALTY
159
jmd the puisnact, if attainted, K>ian incur (he penalty of £10 to the
Ving
Ttie place which, according, to Spelman, is absolutely subject to
the jxirisdiction of the admiral is the sea ; wiiich, however, compre-
hends public rivers, fresh waters, creeks, and all places whatsoever,
within the ebbing and flowing of the sea, at the highest water, the
shores or banks adjoining, from all the first bridges to the seaward ;
and in these, he observes, the admiralty hath full jurisdiction ia all
causes, criminal and civil, except treasons and the right of wreck.
Xiord Coke observes (5 Rep. 107), that between the high-water moxk
and the low-water mark the admiral hath jurisdiction super a^uam,
ad plcnitudinevi maris, and as long as it flows, though the land be
infra corpus comiUUus at^the reflow, so as of one place there is
divisum imperium interchangeably.
But though the statute restraiueth the lord high admiral that he
shall not hold plea of a thing rising in the body of a county, he is
not restrained from making execution upon the land, but ia em-
powered to take either body or goods upon the land ; otherwise his
iiirisdiction would often prove a dead letter. He also can and does
lold his court in the body of a county. So, likewise, the civil
power may apprehend and try persons who may have been guilty of
offences cognisable at conimon law, though committed in the fleet,
in any port or harbour of Great Britain, or at sea, provided such
persons- have not already been tried for such oS'ences either by
court-martial or in the admiralty court ; and in all ports, harbours,
creeks, &c., lying in any county, the high admiral and the sherifi",
or coroner, as the case may be, have concurrent jurisdiction.
By the 6 and 7 ^YLlL IV. c. 53 the admiralty jurisdiction
is extended to Prince of Wales' Island, Singapore, and Malacca ;
and under the 3 and 4 Tict. c. 65, the court has juiisdiction in
the following cases : ^
Whenever a vessel is arrested by process issuing from the said
court, or the proceeds of any vessel are brought into the registry, to
take cognisance of all claims in respect of any mortgage of such vessel.
To decide all questions as to the title to, or ownership of, such
Tessel, or the proceeds thereof remaining in the registiy, arising in
any cause of possession, salvage, damage, wages, or bottomry, insti-
tuted in the said court.
To decide all claims and demands whatsoever in the nature of
salvage, or in the nature of towage, or for necessaries supplied to
any foreign vessel, and enforce the payment of the same, whether
such vessel may have been in the body of the county or upon the
high seas at the time when the service was rendered, or damage
received,- or necessaries furnished, in respect of which claim is made.
Tq decide all matters and questions concerning booty of war on
shore, or the distribution thereof, which it Bh.all please her Majesty,
by the advice of the privy council, to refer to the judgment of
the said court, who shall proceed therein as in cases of prize of
war.
And under § 40 of the 9 and 10 Tict. c. 99, to decide on all
-claims and demands whatsoever in the nature of salvage for services
performed, whether on sea or land.
The high court of Admiralty has jurisdiction upon the
high seas all over the world. It has an instance jurisdic-
tion Tvhich is civU, and a prize jurisdiction in time of war.
The latter jurisdiction does not extend to the admiralty
courts of Ireland or Scotland, which never had prize com-
missions sent to them. It is of the highest importance in
war time, when questions of seizure or detention of neutral
ships arise, to, have but one court of which to inqiiire
concerning all causes, so as to expedite the action of the
Foreign Office in dealing with representations from neutral
powers. The causes which arise in time of peace are causes
of collisions, of seamen's wages, bottomry, wearing unlawful
colours, salvage, and causes of possession, where one part
owner or minor claims to have security from those other
'ONvners who are going to send the ship on a foreign voyage
that the ship shall return again. Causes under the Slave
Act treaties are also cognisable here. The e'S'idence is all
•documentary. In 1803 there were 1125 prize cases before
the court; in 1804, 1144; in 1806, 2286; in 1807, 2789;
and 80 on, above 1000 causes each year, dovm to the year
1811.'''
The criminal jurisdiction, which formerly comprehended
all crimes whatever committed at sea, from larceny to
homicide, which were triable at common law at the assizes
if committed on shore, was much modified upon the report
of the select committee on the high court of admiralty in
1833. Such offences are now triable at common law on
surrender to the jurisdiction; but the judge of the admi-
ralty court may stiU sit with other commissioners 6t oyer
and terminer. He has no longer any independent criminal
jurisdiction.
The instance jurisdiction is permanent; the pnze juris-
diction is by virtue of a special commission, pro re natd.
Its issue ia one of the first; acts done on the outbreak of
war. Appeals formerly lay from the civil decisions to the
high court of delegates or speciaDy-appointed commis-
sioners; from the prize decisions to the prize commissioners.
By the Acts 2 and 3 Wdi IV. c. 92, and 3 and i Will. TV.
c. 41, aU appeals from admiralty court decisions of any
kind lie to the sovereign, who is authorised to refer them
to the judicial committee of the privy council
The lord high admiral . was assisted in his judicial
functions by the folio -ning principal officers: — 1. The vice-
admiral; 2. The judge; 3. The registrar; -4. The advocate-
general; 5. The counsel and judge-advocate; 6. The soli-
citor; 7. The procurator; 8. 'The marshal, — which officers
are continued.
1. T!ie Vice-Admiral. This officer is the admiral's deputy
or lieutenant mentioned in the statutes of 13th and loth
Richard II., and was the person, most probably, who pre-
sided in the court. At present the office of vice-admii'al of
Englarid is a perfect sinecure, generally conferred on some
naval officer of high rank and distinguished character in the
service. The salary of £434, Is. 9d. per annum, attached
to it in addition to half-pay, was abolished by order in
council, 22d February 1870. The salarj' and office of
rear-admiral of England were abolished by the same order
in council f The salary was £342, 9s. per annum. Each
county of England has its vice-admiral, which is little
more than an honorary distinction, though the . patent
gives to the holder aU the powers vested in the admiral
himself. * Similar powers were also gi'anted to the judges
of the admiralty cotmty courts; but this was found so
inconvenient and prejudicial to those who had suits to
commence or defend before them, that the Duke of York,
when lord high admiral, in 1603 caused instructions to
be drawn up in order to assign to each his prt^vince,
whereby the whole judicial power remained with the judge,
and the upholding of the rights of the admiral, and levy-
ing and receiving the perquisites, <tc., appertained to the
vice-admiral.
Each of the four provinces of Ireland has its vice-admiraL
There is one vice-admiral for all Scotland, and one for the
Shetland and Orkney Islands. The governor of most of
our colonies had a commission of vice-admiral granted to
him by the lord high admiral or lords commissioners of
the admiralty, and generally a commission from the king
under the great seal, grounded on the 11 and 12 William
III. c. 7, and further confirmed by 46 Geo. m. c. 54,
by which he was authorised to try all treasons, piracies,
felonies, robberies, murders, conspiracies, and other offences,
of what nature or kind soever, committed on the seas, where
the parties were taken into custody in places remote from
England. The court consisted of seven persons at the least,
of whom the governor, the lieutenant-governor, the vice-
admiral, the flag-officer, or commander-in-chief of the squa-
dron, the members of the council, the chief-justi'ce, judge
of__the vice-admiralty court, captains ^of men-of-war, and
secretary of the colony, were specially named in the com-
mission; but any three of these, with four others selected
from known merchants,- factors, or planters, captains, lieu-
tenants, or .warrant officers' of men-of-war, or captains,
masters, or mates of merchant 'ships, constituted a legal
court of piracy. By the 12 and 13 Vict c 96, all per-
sons charged in any colony with offences committed on
the sea may be.dealt with in the same manner as if ithe
offences had been committed on waters within tho local
-juriadictiou of the courts of the colony.
160
ADMIRALTY
The vice-admiralty courts in the colonies ace of two de-
scriptions. The one has power to inquire into the causes
of detention of enemies or neutral veasols, to try and con-
demn the same for the benefit of the captors, as well as to
take cognisance of all matters relating to the office of the
lord high admiral The other has only power to inutitute
inquiries into misdemeanours committed in merchant ves-
sels, and to determine petty suits, ic, and to guard the
privileges of the admiraL The former are usually known
by the name of pri:e courts, the latter by that of i/utanee
courts. Appeals from vice-admiralty courts abroad lay
formerly to the high court of udmL-aJty in England, and
from that, if need were, to the high court of delegates, or
in prize cases to the prize conmiissionera. By an Act of
her present Majesty, all such appeals lie direct to the
sovereign, who refers them to the judicial committee of the
privy council
The following are the colonies and foreign possessions in
which vice-admiraity courts are now (1874) established.
Others are constituted as occasion may require, in case of
war: —
Aden. {Slave trade juris-
diction only.)
Autigua, MoQtaorrat, and
Barbuda.
Australia, SoutK
Australia, West.
Bahamas.
Barbadocs.
Bermud:;.
Bombay .
British Columbia.
British Guiana.
Calsutta.
Canada.
Capo of Good Hope.
. (Ceylon.
Bomioica.
Falkland Islanda
Gambia.
Gibraltar.
Gold Coast.
Grenada.
Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Houduras.
Hong Kong.
Jamaica.
Labuan.
Lagos.
Malta.
Mauritius.
Montserrat.
Natal
Kevia.
New Bninswick.
Newfoundland.
New South Wales.
New Zealand.
Prince Kdward's island.
Quebec.
Queensland.
St Christopher.
St Helena.
St Lucia.
St Vincent.
Sierra Leone.
The Straits Settlements.
{Prince of Wales' Island,
Singapore, and Malacca.)
Tasmania.
Tobago.
Tortola and Virgin Islands.
Trinidad.
Vancouver's Island.
Victoria,
Zanzibar. {Limited slavs
trade jurisdiction only.)
Madras.
By the provisions of the Vice-admiralty Courts Act of 1863, The
governor of a colony is ex officio vice-admiral, and the chief-justice
tx officio judge of the vico-admiralty court.
In none of the patents to the lord high admiral, vice-
admiral, or judge, is any mention made of prize jurisdiction.
Lord Mansfield had occasion to search into the records of
the court ox admiralty in Doctors' Commona, to ascertain
on what foundation this jurisdiction was exercised by the
judge of the admiralty ; but he could not discover any
prize-act books farther back than 16-13; no sentences far-
ther back than 1648. The registrar could go no farther
back than 1690. " The prior records," says his lordship,
" are in confusion, illegible, and without index." The
prize jurisdiction may therefore be considered as of jnodem
authority, and distinct altogether from the ancient powers
given to the admiraL To constitute the authority for trying
prize causes, a commission under the great seal issues to
the lord high admiral at the commencement of every war,
to will and require the court of admiralty, and the lieu-
tenant and judge of the said court, his surrogate or surro-
gates, to proceed upon ail manner of captures, seizures, and
reprisals, of all ships and goods that are or shall be taken ;
and to hear and determine according to the course of the
admiralty, or the law of nations; and a warrant issues to
the judge of the admiralty accordingly.
lie admiralty court being in tJbis respect a court in
which foreigners of all nations may become suitors, an
appeal may be had from its decisions to a committee of
the lords of the privy council, who hear and determine
according to the established laws of nations.
At the breaking out of a war, the lord high admiral also
receives a special commission from the crown, under the
great seal, to empower hi"! to grant letters of marque and
reprisals against the enemy, he having no such power by
bin patent These letters are either general or Special:
general, whMi granted to private men to fit put ships at
their own charge to annoy the enemy; special, when in the
case of any of our merchants being robbed of their estates
or property by foreigners, the king grants them letters of
reprisal again«t that nation, though we may be in aimty
with it Before the latter can bo sued for, the complainant
must have gone through the prosecution of his suit in the
courts of the state whose subjects have wronged him; where,
if jiistice be denied, or vexatiously delayed, he must first
make proof of his loses and charges in the admiralty court
here; whereupon, if the Crown is satisfied he has pursued
all lawful means to obtain redress, and his own interceding
should produce no better effect, special letters of reprifial
are granted ; not, however, as must be evident, until a very
strong case has been mode out This custom, which we
may now consider as obsolete, seems to be a remnant of the
law of ancient Greece, called androlepsia, by which, if a
man was slain, the friends and relations of the deceased
might seize on any three citizens of the pUce where the
murderer took refuge, and make them slaves, unless he
was delivered up. Both Oliver Cromwell and King Charles
U. granted letters of reprisal In 1638 the Due d'Epemon
seized on the ship " Amity" of London, for the service of
the French king against the Spaniards, promising full satis-
faction ; but none being made, the owners obtained letters of
reprisal from the Protector, and afterwards, in 1665, from
Charles IL In 1666 Captain Butler Barnes had letters of
reprisal against the Danes. The Dutch having burnt six
English merchant vessels in the Elbe, within the territories
of Hamburg, which city, instead of giving any aaaistauca
or protection, hindered the English from defending them-
selves, letters of reprisal were granted to the sufferer?
against that city. Lastly, one Justiniani, a noble Genoese,
being indebted in a large sum to Joseph Como, a iqerchant
in London, which he had several years solicited for with-
out obtaining satisfaetion. Captain Scott, commander of
hia Majesty's ship the " Dragon," stationed at that time in
the Mediterranean, received orders to make reprisals upon
the ships of that republic; upon whiot the debt was paid.
2. The Judge. — The patents to the judge of the admiralty
and vice-admiralty courts run pretty nearly in the same
manner as those of the lord high admiral, and point out the
several matters of which he can take cognisance. The Par-
liament of 16.40 established the office of judge of the admi-
ralty court in three persons, with a salary of j£500 a-year
to each. At the Restoration there were two judges of the
high court of admiralty, which sometimes proved incon-
venient; for when they differed in opiinon, no judgment
could be had. These judgas, before the Revolution, held
their appointment only during pleasure. At that period,
and> under the provisions of the BiU of Rights, Sir Charles
Hedges was constituted jud(;e under the great seal of
England, quamdiu se bene pesscrit, with a salary of X400 a-
year, and an additional X-100 out of the proceeds of prizes
and perquisites of the admiralty; but in the year 1725 the
latter sum was diminished frqm the ordinary estimate by the
House of Commons. The salary of Sir James Marriott,
from 1778 to 1782, during the American war, was i800
a year, and X3700, added for fees. From 1794 to 1798,
the salary was £1 780, and £2500 for fees. During the six-
teen years that Si); W.'Uiam Scott (Lord StoweU\ ^ra^ 'ud^ei.
ADMIRALTY
161
from 1798 to 18U, the salary was £2500, ajid the fees
averaged £2300 a-year. Under the 3 and 4 Vict. c. 66,
§ 1, the salary is fixed at £4000 per annum. AJl fees of
whatever kind, formerly payable to the judge, are now
paid to the consolidated fund.
The court of admiralty is at present (1873), and' pend-
ing the erection of the new law coiu'ts, held in Westminster.
la the time of Henry IV. it was held in Southwark, either
at a quay on the south side of the Thames, or in the ere-
while church of St Margaret-on-Hill, most likely the former.
Stow, in his Survey ■(a.d. 1598), says — "A part of this
parish church of St Margaret is now a court, wherein the
assizes and sessions be kept; and the court of admiralty is
also there kept." Pepys also, in his Diary (17th March
1663), describes the court- as sitting there. But it is pro-
bable that the sittings in St lilargaret's Church were com-
menced shortly before Stow's time; for in tlie Rolls of Par-
liament, 11 Hen. IV. No. 61, the Commons complain that
people are summoned by the officers of the admiral a
fjoundres d, le Key de William, Ho)-toii, Suthwerhe. Further,
it would appear from an appeal made to the king, Henry
TV., that the rule then was for the admiral's court to be
held upon some wharf or quay within the flux and reflux
of the tide. In the reign of Henry VIII., Horton's Quay,
near London Bridge, is mentioned in the records of the
high court of admiralty (3d Nov. 1541) as its usual place
of sitting.
The judges of the vice-admiralty Courts in certain of the
colonies, limited by 41 George III. c. 96, are allowed a
salary not exceeding to each the sum of £2000 a-year, to
be paid out of the consolidated fund of Great Britain; to-
gether with profits and emoluments not exceeding to each
the further sum of £2000 pgr annum, out of the fees to be
taken by the said judges, of wliich a table is directed to be
hung up in some conspicuous place in the court ; and no
judge is to take any fee beyond those specified, dij'ectly or
indirectly, on pain of forfeiture of his office, and being pro-
ceeded against for extortion; and on his retirement from
office after six years' service, or from some permanent infir-
mity, the Crown may, "by authority of the Act above men-
tioned, grant unto such judge an annuity for the term of his
life not exceeding £1000 per annum. This liberal provi-
sion puts the judges of the colonial courts of vice-admiralty
above aU suspicion of their decisions being influenced by
unworthy motives — a suspicion they were not entirely free
from when their emoluments depended mainly on their feea
During the war of 1793-1815 a session of oyer and ter-
miner to try admiralty causes was held at the Old Bailey,
now the central criminal court, twice a-year. The commis-
sion for this purpose was of the same nature with those which
are granted to the judges when they go on circuit ; that is to
say, to determine and punish all crimes, ofl'ences, and mis-
demeanours, and abuses; the end of both being the same,
their limits different; the one relating to things done upon
the land, the other to things done upon the water. The
lords commissioners of the admiralty, all the members of the
pri\7' council, the chancellor and all the judges, the lords
of the treasury, the secretary of the admiralty, the treasurer
and commissioners of the navy, some of the aldermen of
London, and several doctors of the civil law, were the mem-
bers of this commission ; any four of whom made a court.
The proceedings of the court, now prob.ably obsolete,
were continued de die. in diem, or, as the Btvle of the court
was, from tide to tide.
3. The Registrar of the Admiralty formerly held his
place by patent from the Crown. The patent was i.ssucd
under the great seal of the court of admiralty, and the
appointment was afterwards confinncd by patent under the
great seal of the United Kingdom. The appointment was
for life, and was often granted in re'v ersion. The registrar
1—7
had no salary, the amount of his emoloments depending
on the captures, droits, &c., condemned by the court
which during the war of 1793-1815 were so enormous that
in 1810 an Act was passed for regulating the offices oi
registrars of admiralty and prize courts, by which it is
enacted " that no office of registrar of the high court of
admiralty, or of the high court of appeals for prizes, or high
court of delegates in Great Britain, shall, after the expirar
tion of the interest now vested in possessioii or reversion
therein, be granted for a longer term than during pleasvire,
nor be executed by deputyj that an account bo kept in the
said offices respectively of all the fees, dues, perquisites,
emoluments, and profits received by and on account of the
said registrai-s, out of which all the expenses of their oflices
are to be paid; that one-third of the surplus shall belong
to the registrar and to his assistant (if an assistant should
be necessary), and the remaining two-thirds to the consoli-
dated fund of Great Britain, to be paid quarterly into the
exchequer; the account of such surplus to be presented to
the co"urt at least fourteen days before each quarter-day,
and verified on oath." Under the 3 and 4 Vict. c. 66,
§ 2, a yearly salary of £1400 is substituted for " all fees,
dues, perquisites, emoluments, and profits," and which may
be increased in time of war to £2000. The duties of the
registrar are — 1. To keep a public registry, to give attend-
ance therein, and to preserve in a regular manner the
registers, acts, records, and documents belonging to the
office; 2. To attend aU sittings of the court of admiralty,
and to attend the judge at chambers; 3. To draw and
sign all warrants, monitions, commissions, &c., issuing from
the court; to attend other courts with minutes, ifcc, of the
admiralty court when required; 4. To have the custodv of
all moneys paid into court or paid out of court.
4. Tlie Advocate-General. — This oflScer is appointed by
warrant of the lords commissioners of the admiralty. His.
duties are — to appear for the lord high admiral in his court
of admiralty, court of delegates, and other courts; to move
and debate in all causes wherein the rights of the admiral
are concerned; for which ho had anciently a salary of 20
marks (£13, 6s. 8d.) a-year. In May 1803, Dr WiUiani
Battine, who was appointed in 1791, had an addition of
£200 to his salary, "for his extraordinary trouble and
attendance during the present hostilities." His salary was
continued to him and his successor, Dr Ai-nold, till 1816;
since that time the allowance has been reduced to its
original amount of £13, 6s. 8d. Formerly the admiral's
advocate was always retained as leading counsel, but after
the droits were transferred to the crown, he was gradually
supplanted by the king's advocate, who was generally
retained in all cases, the admiralty advocate acting only as
junior counsel; and while the former during the war
made sometimes • from £15,000 to £20,000 a-year, the
latter rarely received from his professional duties more
than from £1500 to £2000 a-year.
5. The Counsel and Judge-Advocate for the affairs of the
Admiralty and Navy is the law officer who is chiefly con-
sulted on matters connected with the military duties of the
lord high admiral. He advises also on all legal qucstiona
His salary is £100 a-year, besides his fees, which in time
of war may be reckoned to amount to from £1200 to
£1800 a-year. Till the present reign the offices of counsel
of the admiralty and judge advocate of the fleet were sepa-
rate and distinct, the latter being a sinecure appointment,
with a salary of £182, 10s. attached to it. The salary is
now abolished. The duties are very light, the veritable'
work of the office being discharged by deputy judgec-
advocate appointed on each occasion of a court-martial,
and by resident law agents at Portsmouth and Plymouth,
who receive salaries in lieu of all fees and charges.
6. The Solicitor to the Admiralty is also an officer ap-
162
A D M — A D (>
poiptcJ d'lring ploasuro by the lords of tlje admiralty.
He ia the general legal adviaer, in the firat instance, of the
lords commissioners; and since 1869 there have been
added, to his other functions those of registrar of public
securities and custodian of all public securities and bonds
belonging to the admiralty. Ilia salary is XIOOO a-year
in lieu of all foes, bills, and disbursements, with an allow-
ance of £1300 a-ycar for assistanco of clerks. His office
is provided for him.
7. The Procurator. — The admiralty's proctor stands pre-
cisely in the same situation to the queen's proctor that his
advocate does to that of the queen, though there is not quite
80 great a difference in thi;ir emoluments. They act as the
attorneys or solicitors in all cans s concerning the queen's
and the lord high admiral's affairs in the high court of
admiralty and other courts. All prize causes are conducted
by the queen's proctor. It is Bupijosed that in some years
of war, in the caply part of the century, the oroctor did
not receive less than £20,000 a-year.
I 8. Tlie Marshal. — This officer receives his appointment
from the lord high admiral or lords commissioners of the
admiralty. His appointment is under the seal of the high
court of admiralty during pleasure, and is confirmed by
letters patent from the Crown. His duties are to arrest
ships and persons; to execute all processes or orders issuing
from the court; to attend, in person or by deputy, the judge
with the silver oar (the ancient emblem of maritime jurisdic-
tion); and fonnerly also to attend executions. It is also
the duty of the marshal or his deputy to arrest, under
warrant from the admiralty, any officer not beneath the
rank of post captain who may be ordered for trial by court-
martial; and to see to the delivery of sentenced prisoners
to their place of punishment. His emoluments fonnerly de-
jjonded on the number of prizes brought into port for con-
demnation, and the number of ships embargoed, and might
probably be reckoned in time of war, commnnibus annis,
from £1500 to £2000 a-year, out of which he had to pay
about £400 a-year to a deputy. He had no salary. The
office can, however, bo no longer performed by deputy,
except in case of illness, § 9 of the 3 and 4 Vict. c. 66.
The marshal is now paid by a salary of £500, in addition
to his travelling expenses.
(See Orders in Couticil since February 1870; Camp-
bell's Lives of the British Admirals; O'Byrne's Naval
Biographical Dictionary; Rymer'a Fcedera; Pepys' Naval
Collections, and Pepys' Diary; The Black Book of the
Admiralty (republished by the Master of the Rolls);
Stephen's Commentaries on tlie Laws of England; Stew's
Survey of London; Rolls of Parliament ; Report of Com-
mittee appointed by the Treasury in 1836 to inquire into
the fees and emoluments of public offices; Sir Harris
Nicolas's History of British Navy). (f. w. r.)
ADltlRALTY, Ireland. — For all executive functions
Ireland is subject to the jurisdiction and orders of the lord
high admiral, or lords commissioners for executing the
oltse, of Great Britain. For judicial purposes, however,
an admiralty court sits in the Four Courts, Dublin, having
& judge, a registrar, a marshal, and other officers. In peace
time and war time alike it exercises only an instance juris-
diction. No prize commission has ever issued to it.
Admiralty, Scotland. At the Union, while the
■national functions of the lord high admiral were merged
in the English office, there remained a separate court of
admiralty, with subsidiaiy local courts, having civil and
criminal jurisdictions in maritime questions. The separate
courts were abolished in 1831, and their powers merged in
the courts of session and justiciary, and the local courts.
ADMIRALTY CHARTS. These useful aids to naviga-
tion are constructed in the hydrographic department of the
British Admiralty, by specially-appointed surveyors and
draughtsmen, and they oro issued to the public byortk-rof
the lords commisaioners of the admiralty. They aredivided
into various sections aa follows : — 1. English and Irifih
Channels and coasts of the United Kingdom; 2. Norih
Sea and adjacent coasts ; 3. Baltic Sea; 4. North and w&<l
coasts of France, Spain, and Portugal; 5. Mediterranean,
Bkck Sea, and Sea of Azov ; 6. Atlantic Ocean and Islands ;
7. Arctic Sea and north and east coasts of America ; 8.
West Indies, Gulf of Mexico, <tc. ; 9. South America,
east coast; 10. West coasts of South and North Ame-
rica; 11. Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, Red Sea, <tc.;
12. East Indies, Arabian coast, itc. ; 13. Indian Archi-
pelago, China Sea, Japan, <tc ; 14. Australia, New Zealand,
(ta ; 15. Pacific Ocean islands. They are about 3000 in
number, of various sizes and scales, and the prices vary
from 6d. to 10s. Accompanying the charts there are
books of sailing directions, tables, and lists of lights.
Similar charts as those of the British Admiralty are issued
by the United States Coast Survey, as well as by the
Russian and French governments. The superintendc-nt
of the United States Coa.st Survey issues an annual report,
showing the progress of the survey, and containine much
valuable information.
ADMIRALTY ISLAND, an island belonging to the
United States, about 90 miles long from N. to S., and 25
miles broad, lying between King George IIL Archipelago
and the mainland, in 58° N. lat., 134° W. long. . Its
coasts, which are generally steep and rocky, are indented
with several accessible and commodious bays. The island
has abundance of good water, and is covered with uines,
which grow there to a very large size.
ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about forty
islands lying to the N.E. of New Guinea, between 2° and
3° S. Lit., and 146° 18' and 147° 46' E. long. The largest
is about 50 miles in length ; the others are very small, and
all rise but little above the sea-leveL Their exuberant
vegetation, and in particular the groves of cocoa-nut trees,
give them a very beautiful appearance. The islands were
discovered by the Dutch in 1616, but have seldom been
visited, access being difficult on account of the surrounding
reefs. The natives are tall, and of a tawny colour.
ADOLPIIUS, John, historian and barrister, was bom
in London on the 7th August 1768. He was educated
under the care of a grand-uncle, and after making a voyage
to the West Indies was enrolled as an attorney about tin
year 1790. Called to the bar in 1807, he devoted him-
self to practice in criminal causes, and in a few years
attained a leading position among Old Bailey counsel His
masterly defence of Thistlewood and the Cato Street con-
spirators, for which he had been retained only a few hours
before th3 trial, did much to extend his reputation. He
was very skilful in the management of his cases, but his
hastiness of temper frequently led to unseemly altercations
with other counsel He held a good position in society,
and was on terms of intimacy with the leading Uterary
men of the day. The History of England from the Acces-
sion of George III. to 1783, which he published in 1802,
was favourably noticed in the Edinburgh Review for its
impartiality and accuracy. A new and enlarged edition
of this work, in eight volumes, was in preparation, but
only seven volumes were completed when the author died,
16th July 1845. His other literary works were — Bio-
graphical Memoirs of the French Revolution (1799); The
British Cabinet (1799); History of France from 1790 to
1802 (1803); Memoirs-of John Bannister.
ADOLPIIUS, John Leycester, son of the above, also
a distinguished barrister (died 1862), was the first to
pierce the maslj of the author of Waverley, in a series ol
critical letters addressed to Richard Heber, which he pub-
lished in 1821.
A D 0 — A D O
163
ADONIS, according to some authors, the son of Theias,
king of Assyria, and his daughter Smyrna [MyiTha], was
the favourite of Venus. He was fond of hunting; and
Venus often warned him not to attack the larger wild
beasts ; but neglecting the advice, he was killed by a
wild boar he had rashly wounded. Venus was incon-
solable, and turned him into a flower of a blood colour,
supposed by some to be an anemone. Adonis had to
spend half the year in the lower regions, but during the
other half he was permitted to revisit the upper world,
and pass the time with Venus. No grief was ever more
celebrated than that of Venus for Adonis, most nations
round the Mediterranean having perpetuated the memory
of it by anniversary ceremonies. " The tale of Adonis
(Keightley's Mythology) is evidently an eastern mytL
His own name and those of his parents refer to that part
of the world. He appears to be the same with the
Thammuz mentioned by the prophet Ezekiel (viii. 14), and
to be a Phcenician personification of the sun, who during
part of the year is absent, or, as the legend expresses it,
with the goddess of the under world; during the remainder
with Astarte, the regent of heaven.' Among the Egyptians,
Adonis is supposed to have been adored under the name
of Osiris, the husband of Isis ; but he was sometimes called
by the name of Ammuz or Thammuz, the concealed, to
denote probably his death or buriaL It has been thought
it is he the Hebrews call the dead (Ps. cvi 28, and
Lev. xix. 28), because his worshippers wept for him, and
represented him as one dead ; and at other times they
call him the image of jealousy (Ezek. viii. 3, 5), becouse he
was an object of jealousy to other gods. The Syrians,
Phoenicians, and Cyprians worshipped Adonis; and Calmet
was of opinion that this worship may be identified with
that of the Moabitish Eaal-peor. Modern critics plausibly
connect the divine honours paid to Adonis with the
mysterious rites of phallic worship, which, in some shape
or other, prevailed so extensively in the ancient world.
ADONIS, in Aiicieiit Geography, a smaU river rising
in Mount Lebiuon, and falling into the sea at Byblus.
When in flood its waters exhibit a deep red tinge ; hence
the legend that connects it with the wound of Adonia.
** While smooth Adonis from his native rock,
Ean purple to the sea, suppos'd with blood
Of Thammuz yearly wounded." — Milton.
ADONIS, a genus of ranunculaceous plants, known
commonly by the names _oi Pheasant's Eye and Flo»
Adonis. There are ten or twelve species given by authors,
but they may be probably reduced to three or four. There
are two indigenous species, Adonia autumnalis and Adonis
aestivalis. They are commonly cultivated. An eariy flower-
ing species, Adon,is vernalis, is well worthy of cultivation.
ADOPTIAN CONTEOVERSY, a controversy rekting
to the sonship of Christ, raised in Spain by Elipandus,
archbishop of Toledo, and Fehx, bishop df Urgel, towards
the close of the 8th century. By a modification of the
doctrine of Nestorius they maintained that Christ was
reaUy the Son of God in his divine nature alone, and that
in his human nature he was only the Son of God by adop-
tion. It was hoped that this view would prove more
acceptable to ti;e Mahometans than the orthodox doc-
trme, and Elipandus especially was very diligent -in pro-
pagating it. Felix was instrumental in introducing it into
th.vt part of Spain which belonged to the Franks, and
Churlemagne thought it necessary to assemble a s^mod at
Ra'i.sbon (792), before which the bishop was summoned to
explain and justify the new doctrine. Instead of this he
renounced it, and confirmed his renunciation by a solemn
oath to Pope Adrian, to whom the synod sent him. The
recantation was probably insincere, for on returning to his
diocese he tau;;ht adoutianism 'as before. Another .synod
was held at Frankfort in 794, by is^ucli the new doctrine
was again formally condemned, though neither Felix nor
any of his followers appeared. A friendly letter from
Alcuin, and a controversial .pamphlet, to w'^ich Felix re-
plied, were followed by the sending of several commissions
of clergy to Spain to endeavour to put down the heresy.
Archbishop Leidrad of Lyons being on one of these com-
missions, persuaded Felix to appear before a synod at
Aix-la-Chapelle in 799. There, after six days' disputing
with Alcuin, he again recanted his heresy. The rest of his
life was spent under the supervision of the archbishop at
Lyons, where he died in 816. Elipandus, secure in his see
at Toledo, never swerved from the adoptian views, which,
however, were almost universally abandoned after the two
leaders died. The controversy was revived by solitary advo-
cates of the heretical opinions more than once during the
Middle Ages, and the questions on which it turns have, in
one form or another, been the subject of frequent discussion.
ADOPTION, the act by which the relations of paternity
and filiation are recognised as legally existing between
persons not so related by nature. Cases of adoption were
very frequent among the Greeks and Remans, and the
custom was accordingly very strictly regulated in their laws.
In Athens the power of adoption was allowed to all citizens
who were of sound mind, and who possessed no male off-
spring of their own, and it could be exercised either during
lifetime or by testament. The person adopted, who re-
quired to be himself a citizen, was enrolled in the family
and demus of the adoptive father, whose name, however, he
did not necessarily assume. In the interest of the next of
kin, whose rights were affected by a case of adoption, it
was provided tiat the registration should be attended with
certain formalities, and that it should take place at a fixed
time — the festival of the Thargelia. The rights and duties
of adopted children were almost identical with those of
natural offspring, and could not be renounced except in the
case of one who had begotten children to take his place in
the family of his adoptive father. Adopted into another
family, children ceased to have any claim of kindred or
inheritance through their natural father, though any rights
they might have through their mother were not similarly
affected. Among the Romans the existence of the patria
potcstus gave a peculiar significance to the custom of adop-
tion. The motive to the act was not so generally child-
lessness, or the gratification of affection, as the desire to
acquire those civil and agnate rights which were founded
on the patria potestas. It was necessary, however, that the
adopter should have no children of his own, and that he
should be of such an age as to preclude reasonable expec-
tation of any being bom to him. Another limitation as to
age was imposed by the maxim adoptio imitatur naturam,
which required the adoptive father to 'be at least feighteen
years older than the adopted c'lildren. According to the
same maxim eunuchs were not permitted to adopt, as being
impotent to beget children for themselves. Adoption was
of two kinds according to the state of the person adopted,
who might be either still under the patria potestas {alieni
jurii), or his own master [sui juris). In the former case
the act was one of adoption pi'oper, in the latter case it was
styled adrogation, though the term adoption was also used
in a general sense to describe both species. In adoption
proper the natural father publicly sold liis child to tho
adoptive father, and tKe sale being thrice repeated, tho
maxim of tho Twelve Tables took effect, Si pater Jilivm ter
venunduit, filius a patre liber esto. Tlje process was rati-
fied and completed by a fictitious action of recovery brought
by the adoptive father against the natural parent, which the
latter did not defend, and which was therefore known as the
cessio in jure. Adrogation could be accomplished origin-
ally only by the authority of tJie people assembled in the
164
A D 0 — A 1) R
Camitia, but from the time of Diocletka it was effected by
an imperial rescript. Females could not bo adr«gated,
and, as they did not possess the palria potettcu, they could
not exercise the right of adoption in either kind. The
whole Roman law on the subject of adoption will bo found
in Justinian's iTUtUutes, lib. L tit 11. In Hindoo law,
as in nearly every ancient system, wills are almost . un-
known, anil adoi)tions take their place. The strict law
of adoption in India has been relaxed to the extent
that a Hindoo widow may adopt when her deceased
husband has not done so. Adoption is not recognised
in the laws of England and Scotland, though there
are legal means by which one may be enabled to assume
the .'name arid arms and to inherit the property of a
stranger. In Franco and Germany, which may bo said
to have embodied the Horaan law in their jurispru-
dence, adoption is regulated according to the principles
of Justinian, though with several more or less important
modifications, rendered necessary by the usages of these
countries respectively. The part played by the legal
fiction of adoption in the constitution of primitive society
and the civilisation of the race b so important, that Sir
Henry S. Maine, in his valuable work on Ancient Law,
expresses the opinion that, had it never existed, the primi-
tive groups of mankind could not have coalesced except on
terms of absolute superiority on the one side, and absolute
subjection on the other. With the institution of adoption,
however, one people might/eiy« tte/; as descended from the
same stock as the people to whose sacra gentilicia it was ad-
mitted ; and amicable relations were thus established between
stocks which, but for this expeiUent, must have submitted
to the arbitrament of the sword with all its consequences.
Adoption, as a Biblical term, occurs only in the New
Testament. In Old Testament history the practice was
unknown, though eases approximating to it have been
pointed out. In the New Testament vloOtiria occurs in
several passages, on which is founded one of the leading,
doctrines of theology.
ADORATION(frora os, oris, the mouth, or from oro, to
pray), an act of homage or worship which, among the
Romans, was performed by raising the hand to the mouth,
kissing it, and then waving it m the direction of the
adored object. The devotee had his head covered, and
after the act turned himself round from left to right.
Sometimes he kissed the feet or knees of tbe images of the
gods themselves, and Saturn and Hercules were adored
with the head bare. By a natural transition the homage
that was at first paid to divine beings alone came to be
paid to men in token of extraordinary respect. Those
who approached the Greek and Roman emperors adored by
bowing or kneeling, laying hold of tho imperial robe, and
presently withdravring the hand and pressing it to the lips.
In eastern countries adoration was performed in an attitude
still more lowly. The Persian method, introduced by
Cyrus, was to bend the knee and fall on the face at the
prince's feet, striking the earth with the forehead, and
kissing the ground. Homage in thia form was refused by
Conon to Artaxerxes, and by CaUisthenes to Alexander the
Great. In England the ceremony of kissing the king's or
queen's hand, and some other acta which are performed
kneeling, may be described as forms of adoration. Adora-
tion is applied in the court of Rome to the ceremony of
kissing the Pope's foot, a custom which is said to have
been introduced by the popes after the example of the
Emperor Diocletian. In the Romish Church a distinction
is made between Latria, a worship duo to God alone, and
D cilia or Hyperdulia, the adoration paid to the Virgin,
saints, martyrs, ct-ucifixes, the host, <lc.
ADOUR, the ancient Aturu-s, a river of France which
rises near Barege, in the department of Upper Pyrenees,
and, flowing first northwards, then with a circuit to the
west, pa.sses through the departments of Gers and Lundes,
and falls into the Bay of JJiscay 3 miles below Bayonne.
Its length is about 1 80 miles, and it ia navigable for about
70 miles, as far as St S^ver. Baguires-dc-Bigorre, Tarbes,
aad Dax are the other important towns on its banks.
ADOWA, tho capital of Tigrt5, in Abyssinia, is situated
in 14- 12' N. lat., 39° 3' E. bng., on the left bank of
the River Hasam, 145 miles N.K of Gondar. 'It is built
on the eastern declivity of a hill overlooking a small plain,
and has regular streets, ornamented with trees and gardens.
The town derives its chief importance from its situation on
the route between Massowah and Gondar, which has causod
it to become the great enlrep6t of traffic between the ex-
tensive table-land of Tigr6 and tho coast. Gold and ivory
are included .in its transit trade, and hardware is manu-
factured, as well as the coarse cotton cloth which circulates
in Abyssinia as tho medium of exchange in place of money.
Population about GOOO.
ADRA, tho ancient Abdera, a seaport of Spain on tha
Mediterranean, in the province of Almeria, CO miles S.E.
of Grenada, Lead is extensively wrought in tho neigh-
bourhood, and exported to Marseilles. The other exports
include wheat and sugar. Population, 7400.
ADRA.STUS, in Legendary JlUtory, was the son of
Talaus, king of Argos, and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus,
king of Sicyon. Being driven from Aigos by Amphiaraus,
Adiastus repaired to Sicyon, where he became king on the
death* of Polybus. After a time he was reconciled to
Amphiaraus, to whom he gave his sister in marriage,
returned to Argos, and occupied the. throne. He acquired
great honour in the famous war against Thebes, which he
undertook for the restoration of his son-in-law Polynices,
who had been deprived of his rights by his brother Eteocles,
notwithstanding the agreement between them. Adrastus,
followed by Poljmices and Lydeus, hia two sons-in-law,
Amphiaraus, his brother-in-law, Capaneus, Hippomedon,
and ParthenopsBus, marched against the city of Thebea, and
on his way is said to have founded tho Nemean games.
This is the expedition of the Seven Worthies against Thebes
which the poets have made nearly as famous as the siege
of Troy. As Amphiaraus had foretold, they all lost their
Lives in this war except Adrastus, who was saved by the
speed of his horse Arion. Ten years after, at the insti-
gation of Adrastus, the war was renewed by the sons of
the chiefs that had fallen. Thia expedition was called
the War of t/ie Epigoni, and ended in the taking and
destruction of Thebes. None of the followers of Adrastus
perished in it except his son ./Egialeus. The death of
this son affected Ai-astus so much that he died of grief
at Megara, as he was leading back his victorious army.
ADRIA, a city of Italy, in the province of Rovigo,
between the rive^ Po and Adige. It is a place of great
antiquity, and was at an early period a seaport of such
importance and celebrity as to give name to the sea on
which it stood. Originally an Etruscan colony, it enjoyed
for a time remarkable prosperity; but under the Romans
it appears never to have been of much importance, and
after the fall of the Western Empire it rapidly declined.
The dykes which protected the surrounding country from
inundation were neglected, the canals became choked, and
the mud and other deposits brought down by the waters of
the Po and Adige caused a gradual extension of the land
into the Adriatic, so that Adria ceased to be a seaport, and
■is now 16 miles from the sea, on whose shores it formerly
stood. 3y the draining of the neighbouring lands, the
modern town has been much improved. It has some trade
in grain, cattle, fish, wine, and earthenware, is the seat of
a bishopric, and has a museum of Greek and Roman anti-
quities. A little to the south, extensive remnins of the
A D R- A D R
165
ancient city have been discovered deeply imbedded in the
accumulated soil The population of Adria ia 10,000.
ADRIA (6 'ABptas — Acts xxvii. 27) in St Paul's time
meant all that part of the Mediterraue/'.n between Crete
and Sicily. This faot is of importance, as it reUoves us
from the necessity of unding the island of MeUta, on which
Paul waa shipwrecked, in the present Adriatic Gulf.
ADRIAJ^, a town of the United States, capital of
Lenawee co., Michigan, situated on a branch of the Raisin
river, and on the Michigan Southern Railway, 73 miles
W.S.W. of Detroit. Adrian is the centre of trade for the
surrounding district, which is chiefly grain-producing. Its
extensive water-power is employed in mills of Various kinds.
It has several fine churches and other public buildings.
Population in 1870, 8438.
ADRIAJN, Pdbi.ius ^Elius, Roman emperor. See
Hadrian and Roman Histoky.
ADRIAJST (sometimes written Hadeian) was the name
of six popes : — '
Adkian I., son of Theodore, a Roman nobleman, occupied
the pontifical chair from 772 to 795. Soon after his
accession the territory that had been bestowed on the
popes by Pepin was invaded by Desiderius, king of the
Longobards, and Adrian found it necessary to invoke the
aid of Charlemagne, who entered Italy with a large army,
and repelled the enemy. The pope acknowledged the
obligation by confen'ing upon the emperor the title of
Patrician of Rome' and Charlemagne made a fresh grant of
the territories orginally bestowed by his father, with the
addition of Ancona and Benevento. The friendly relations
thus established between pope and emperor continued
unbroken, though a serious difference arose between them
on the question of the worship of images, to which Charle-
magne and the GaUican Church were strongly opposed,
while Adrian favoured the views of the Eastern Church,
and approved the decree of the Council of Niciea (787),
confirming the practice and excommunicating the icono-
clasts. It was in connection with this controversy that
Charlemagne wrote the so-called Libri Carolini, to which
Adrian replied by letter, anathematising all who refused
to worship the images of Christ, or the Virgin, or saints.
Notwithstanding this, a synod, held at Frankfort in 794,
anew condemned the practice, and the dispute remained
unsettled at Adrian's death. An epitaph written by
Charlemagne in verse, in v, hich he styles Adrian " father,"
proves that his friendship with the pontiff was not dis-
turbed by the controversy in which they were so long
engaged.
Adrian IL, bom at Rome, became pope in 867, at the
ago of seventy-six. He faithfully adhered to the ambi-
tious policy of his immediate predecessor, Nicholas I., and
used every means to extend his authority. His persistent
endeavours to induce Charles the Bald to resign the king-
dom of Lorr?,ine to the emperor were unsuccessful.
Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, who had crowned Charles,
denied the pope's right to interfere in the matter, and
maintained that the threatened excommunication of the
king's adherents would have no validity. Adrian was for
the time more successful in his contest with the patriarch
of Constantinople — the sentence of deposition he passed
upon Photius being confirmed by a council of the Eastern
Church held in 869-70. His arrogant measures were,
however, the immediate occasion of the schism between the
Greek and Latin churches. Adrian had himself been
married, but put. away hia wife on ascending the papal
throne, and a council called by him at Worms in 868
decreed the celibacy of the clergy. He died in 872.
Adrian III., bom at Rome, succeeded Martin XL in
884, and died in 885 on a journey to "Worms.
Adrian IV. whose naino was Nicholas Breakspeare,
was bom before 1100 a.d. atXangley, near St Albans, in
Hertfordshire, and is the only Englishman who has occupied
the papal chair. His request to be allowed to take the
habit of the nicmaitery of St Albans having been refused
by Abbot Richard, he proceeded to Paris, where he studied
with diligence, and soon attained great proficiency, espe-'
cially in theology. Being admitted, after a period of pro-
bation, a regular clerk in the monastery of St Rufus, ia
Provence, he distinguished himself so much by his learning
and strict observance of the monastic diaciphne that he was
chosen abbot when the oflice fell vacant. His merit became
known to Pope Eugenius III., who created him cardinal-
bishop of Alba in 1146, and sent him two years later as his
legate to Denmark and Norwa}'. On this mission he con-
verted many of the inhabitants to Christianity, and erected
Upsal into an archiepiseopal see. Soon after his return to
Rome, Anastasius, successor of Eugenius, died,'and Nicholas
was unanimously chosen pope, against his (jwn inclination,
in Nov. 1154. On hearing of the election, Henry 11. of
England sent the abbot of St Albans and three bishops to
Rome with his congratulations, which Adrian acknowledged
by granting considerable privileges to the monastery of St
Albans, including exemption from all episcopal juris-
diction except that of Rome. The bestowal by Adrian of
the sovereignty of Leland upon the English monarch waa
a practical assertion of the papal claim to dispose of king-
dom.3. The act, besides facihtating and hastening the
subjection of Ireland to England, was also the means of
inducing Henry to yield the long-contested point of lay
investiture to ecclesiastical offices. The beginning of
Adrian's pontificate was signalised by the energetic
attempts of the Roman people to recover their ancient
liberty under the consuls, but the pope took strong
measures to maintain his authority, compelling the magis-
trates to abdicate, laying the city under an interdict, and
.procuring the execution of Arnold of Brescia (1155). In
the same year he excommunicated William, king of Sicily,
who had ravaged the territories of the church, but the ban
was removed and the tiile of King of the Two Sieihes
conferred on William in the following year, on the promise
of a yearly tribute to the Holy See. With Adrian com-
menced the long and bitter conflict between the papal
power and the house of Hohenstaufen which ended in the
humiliation of the latter. Frederick Barbarossa having
entered Italy at the head of a large army for the purpose
of obtaining the crown of Gerinany from the hands of the
pope, Adrian met him at Sutri. The demand that he should
hold the "pope's stirrup as a mark of respect was at- first
refused by Frederick, whereupon the pope on his part ■with-
held from the emperor the oscuhim pads, and the cardinals
ran away 'm terror. After two days' negotiation, Frederick
was induced to yield the desired homage, on the representa-
tion that the same thing had been done by his predecessors.
His hoUness then conducted the emperor to Rome, where
the ceremony of coronation took place in the Church of St
Peter's. It was in these transactions that the quarrel
originated. A letter addressed by the pope to Frederick
and the German bishops in 1157 asserted, on the grouild
of the ceremonies that had taken pkce, that the emperor
held his dominions as a bencficium. The expression, being
interpreted as denoting feudal tenure, stirred up the fiercest
indignation of Frederick and the Geimans, and though
explanations were afterwards given with the view of show-
ing that the word had not been used in an offensive sense,
the breach could not be healed. Adrian was about to
pronounce the sentence of excommunication upon Frederick
when he died at Anagni on the Ist Sept. 1159.
Adrian V., a Genoese, whose name was Ottoboni FiescI,
occupied the papal throne for only five weeks in 1276.
When congratul»ted on his accession he replied in tha
166
A D R — A D U
well-known words, " I wiah yon had found me a healthy
cardinal rather than a dying popo."
Ai/BiA-v VI., bom of humble parentage at Utrecht in
1439, studied at the university of Louvain, of which he
became vice-chancellor. He was chosen by the Emperor
Maximilian to be tutor to hia grandson, the Archduke
Charles, through whoso interest as Charles V. he was after-
wards raised to the papal throne. In 1517 he received the
cardinal's hat from Leo X., and in 1519 ho was made
bishop of Tortosa. After the death of Ferdinand he was for
i time regent of Spain- lie was chosen pope Jan. 9, 1522;
but the election was very displeasing to the people of Rome,
as the new pope, in contrast with hia predecessor Leo, was
known to be very rigid in discipline and frugal in hia mode
of living. On his accession, contrary to the usual custom,
he did not change hia name, and ho showed his dislike to
ostentation in many other ways. In regard to the great
fact with which he had to deal — the Reformation — Adrian's
conduct showed that he did not fully estimate the gra\nty
of the crisis. Acknowledging the corruptions of the church,
he did his utmoi<t to reform ■ certain external abuses; but
when his proposed measures failed to win back Luther and
the other reformers, he immediately sought to suppress
their doctrines by force. He died on the 14th September
1523. So little did the people care to conceal their joy at
the event that they wrote on the door of his physician's
house the words " the saviour of his country."
ADRIAN, Cardinal, was born at Corneto, in Tuscany,
and studied at Rome. He was sent by Innocent VIII. as
nuncio to Britain, to endeavour to reconcile James III. of
Scotland and his subjects. That king having died, Adrian
remained in England, where Henry VII. presented him to
the bishopric of Hereford, and afterwards to that of Bath
and Wells; but he never resided in either of these dioceses.
On his return to Rome he became secretary to Pope
Alexander VI., who employed him in various missions, and
subsequently invested him with the purple. It was Adrian
in particular that Alexander is said to have meant to poison
in order that he might seize on his great wealth, when, as
is generally reported, he fell a victim to his own wicked-
ness. Not long after the elevation of Leo X. to the papal
chair he was implicated in the conspiracy of Cardinal
Petrucci against that pontiff. He confessed Ids guilt ; and
pardon being offered only on condition of his payment of
a fine of 25,000 ducats, he resolved to fly from Rome. It
is supposed that he was murdered by a domestic who
coveted his wealtL Adrian was one of the first who sought
to restore the Latin tongue from its mediaeval corruptions
to classi<!3l purity. He wrote De Vera Philosophia, a re-
ligious treatise, printed at Cologne in 1548; De Sermone
Latino, a learned work, published at Rome in 1515, and re
peatcdiy sincej a treatise, De Venatione; and*some Latin
verses.
ADRIANl, GiovANifi Battista, bom of a patrician
family of Florence about 1511, was secretary to the republic
of Florence, and for thirty years professor of rhetoric at
the university. He wrote a history of his own times, from
1536 to 1574, in Italian, which is generally, but according
to Brunei erroneously, considered a continuation of Guic-
ciardini. De Thou acknowledges himself greatly indebted
to this history, praising it especially for its accuracy. Adriani
composed funeral orations on the Emperor Charles V. and
other noble personages, and was the author of a long letter
on ancient painters and sculptors prefixed to the third
volume of Vasari. He died at Florence in 1579.
ADRIANOPLE (called by the Turks Edbeneh), a city
of European Turkey, in the province of Rumelia, 137
•nilea W.N.W. of Constantinople; 41° 41' N. lat., 26° 35'
E. long. It is pleasantly situated partly on a hill and
partly on the banks of the Tundja, near its confluence
with the XIaritza. Next to Constantinople, Adrianople u
the most important city of the empire. It is the seat of a
bishop of the Greek Church. The streets are narrow,
crooked, and filthy; its ancient citadel, and the walls which
formerly surrounded the town, are now in ruins. Of its
public buildings the most distinguished are the £ikt-Serai,
the ancient palate of the sultans, now in a state of decay;
the famous bazaar of Ali Pacha; and the mosque of the
Sultan Selim II., a magnificent specimen of Turkish archi-
tecture, which ranks among the finest Mahometan temples.
The city haa numerous baths, caravanseries, and bazaars;
and considerable manufactures of silk, leather, tapestry,
woollens, linen, and cotton, and an active general trade.
Besides fruits and agricultural produce, its exports mclude
raw silk, cotton, opium, rose-water, attar of roses, wax, and
the famous dye known as Turkey red. The surrounding
country is extremely fertile, and its wines are the best pro-
duced in Turkey. The city is supplied with fresh water
by means of a noble aqueduct carried by arches over an
extensive valley. There is also a fine stone bridge here
over the Tundja. During winter and spring the Maritzn
is navigable up to the town, but Enos, at the mouth of that
nver, is properly its seaport. Adrianople was called
Uskadama previous to the time of the Emperor Hadrian,
who improved and embellished the town, and changed its
name to Hadrianopolis. In 1360 it was taken by the
Turks, who, from 1366 till 1453, when they got possession
of Constantinople, made it the seat of their government.
In the campaign of 1829 Adrianople surrendered to the
Russians without making any resistance, but was restored
after the treaty of peace signed the same vear. Pooulation.
140,000.
ADRIATIC SEA, the Adnaticum Mare of the ancients,
is an ami of the Mediterranean which separates Italy from
Triest, Croatia, Dalmatia, and Albania. It extends from
40° to 45° 50' N. kt. in a N.W. direction. Its extreme
north-west portion forms the Gulf of Venice, and on the east
side are the gulfs of Triest, Fiume, Cattaro, and Drino. Iti
greatest length is 450 miles, its mean breadth 90 miles,
and its depth varies from 12 to 22 fathoms. The western
or Italian coasts are generally low and marshy; but the
eastern shores are steep and rocky, and the abounding
creeks and inlets, with the numerous islands, aflTord to
mariners many safe natural harbours. The ebbs and flows
of the tide in the Adriatic are inconsiderable, though more
observable than in the Mediterranean generally; and its
saltness is a little greater than that of the ocean. The
prevalence of sudden squalls from the N.E. and S.E. renders
its navigation hazardous, especially in winter. Except the
Po and Adige, no considerable rivers flow into the Adriatic
Its chief emporia of trade are Venice, Triest, and Ancona.
The port of Bruidisi, on the Italian coast, near the southem
extremity of the Adriatic, is rapidly rising in importance
as the point of arrival and departure of the Peninsular and
Oriental Company's steamers conveying the overland mails
between England and the East The name Adriatic is
derived from Adria, between the mouths of the Po and the
Adige, and not from Adria in Picenum. (See Highlands and
'islands of Oie Adriatic, by A. A. Paton, 2 vols. 8vo, 1849;
Shores of the Adriatic, by Viscountess Strangford, 1864.)
ADULE or Adulis, a town on the Red Sea. See Zull.v.
ADULLAM, in Scripture Geography, a city in the plain
country of the tribe of JudaL The cave Adullam, in
which David took refuge after escaping from Gath (1 Sam.
xxiL 1 ), was probably situated among the mjountains to
the east of Judah, near the Dead Sea. From its being
described as the resort of " every one that was in distress,"
or " in debt," or " discontented," it has often been humor-
ously alluded to, as by the Baron of Bradwardine in
Waverley, chap. 57.
J6^
ADULTERATION
A" DULTKKATION, the aci of debasing a pure or
T\_ genuine commodity for pecuniary profit, by adding ,
to it an inferior or spurious article, or by taking from it
one or more of its constituents. The term is derived from
the Latin aduUero, which in its various inflections signifies
to defile, to debase, to corrupt, to soiihisticate, to falsify, to
counterfeit, ic. The objects of adulteration are fourfold,
namely, to increase the bulk or wdght of the article, to
improve its appearance, to give it a false strength, or to
rob it of its most valuable constituents. All these adul-
terations are manifestly of a designedly fraudulent character,
and are therefore properly the subjects of judicial inquiry ;
but there may be accidental corruptions and adulterations
of a commodity, arising from natural or unavoidable causes,
as when darnel or ergot become mixed with grain in the
fields of the slovenly farmer, or when an article becomes
changed and deteriorated from spontaneous decay, or when
mineral matters and other impurities are accidentally derived
from the machinery or vessels in which the thing is prepared
or kept. The recognition of such impurities, and the tracing
of them to their source, is of prime importance in pursiung a
charge of adulteration. Few articles of commerce, however,
are exempt from fraudulent adulteration, and the practice
of it has grown with the competition of trade, and the
removal of those wholesome restrictions which in former
times were so energetically opposed to all kinds of dishonest
dealing ; for the guilds and companies of all large cities
had their corporate regulations for supervising and govern-
ing every description of trade and manufacture. The excise,
too, including the customs, had until recently control over
the quality of aU exciseable articles ; and although the
prime object of this was -to protect the revenue of the
country, yet it also served to prevent adulteration. In
addition to this there were in ancient times ordinances of
assize for regulating the price and quality of the common
necessaries of life. As far back as the reign of John (1203)
there was a proclamation throughout the kingdom for
enforcing the legal obligations of assize as regards bread ;
and in the following reign the statute (51 Hen. III. stat. G),
entitled the Pillory and Tumbrel, was framed for the
express purpose of protecting the public from the dishonest
dealings of bakers, vintners, brewers, butchers, and others.
This statute is deserving of notice as the first in which the
adulteration of human food is specially noticed and prohi-
bited ; and it seems to have been enforced with more or
less of rigour until the time of Anne, when it was repealed
(8 Anne, c. 19). According to Liber Albus, it was strictly
observed in the days of Edward I., for it states that " if
any default shall be found in the bread of a baker in the
city, the first time, let him be drawn upon a hurdle from
the Guildhall to his own house through the great street
where there be most people assembled, and through the
great streets which are most dirty, with the faulty loaf
lianging from his neck ; if a second time he shall be found
committing the same offence, let him be drawn from the
Guildhall through the great street of Checpe, in the manner
aforesaid, to the pilloiy, and let him be put ujion the
pillory, and remain there at least one hour in the day ; and
the third time that such default shall be found, he shall be
drawn, and the oven shall be pulled down, and the baker
made to forswear the trade in the city for ever." Vintners,
epicers, grocers, butchers, regrators, and others, were subject
to the like punishment for dishonesty in their commercial
dealings — it being thought that the pillory, by appealing
to the sense of shame, was far more deterrent of such
crimes than fine or imprisonment. But all this has given
way to the force of free trade, and now the practice of
adulteration has become an art, in which the knowledge of
science and the ingenuity of trade are freely exercised.
Fifty years ago it attracted the attention of one of the most
expert chemists of the day, Mr Accum, who, in his Treatise
on Adulterations of Food, and Culinary Poisons, declared it
to be an " art and mystery." Subsequently to that, in
1851 and the three following years, articles on the adultera-
tion of food appeared in the Lancet, and the eS'ect of
those articles was to call for a Parliamentary inquiry, which
resulted in the Adulteration of Food Act of 1860. That
Act of Parliament gave power to certain local authorities
in England, Scotland, and Ireland to appoint analysts,
having competent medical, chemical, and microscopical
knowledge. The penalty for selling an adulterated article,
kno\ving it to be so adulterated, was five pounds, and the
costs of the proceedings. But as the statute was permissive,
only a few analysts were appointed, and it soon became a
dead letter. Attempts were subsequently made to improve
the law, and to make it compulsory on local authorities to
appoint analysts. One of these was the Bill of 1869, and
another was that of 1871 — both of which were abandoned
by their promoters. In the year 1872, however, an Act was
passed, entitledAnAct to amend the Laws for the Prevention
of Adulteration of Food, Drink, and Drags. The main
features of this Act are the following : — Local authorities in
England, Scotland, and Ireland are bound to appoint analysta
with competent medical, chemical, and microscopical know-
ledge. They must also appoint oflicers or inspectors to
purchase articles of food, drink, and drugs within their
respective districts, and take them to the analyst for
examination. Other purchasers of such articles are per
mitted, under proper restrictions, to have suspected articles
analysed. On receiving a certificate from the analyst,
stating that any article is adulterated, the inspector must take
the necessary legal proceedings for the purpose of bringing
the offender to justice. The penalty on conviction of
mixing anything whatever with a drug, with the view of
adulterating it, or of mixing any injurious or poisonous
ingredient with any article of food or drink, is a sum not
exceeding fifty pounds, together with the costs ; and for the
second offence he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be
imprisoned for a period not exceeding si.x calendar months
with hard labour. The penalty for selling an adulterated
article with a guilty knowledge is a sum not exceeding
twenty pounds, together with the costs ; and for a second
offence, the justice may order the offender's name, place of
abode, and ofience to be published in a newspaper, or in any
manner he thinks fit, at the expense of the offender.
Although the meaning of the term adulteration is not strictly
defined in the Act, yet it is declared that the admixture of
anything whatever with an article of food, drink, or (J'^o'
for the purpose of fraudulently increasing its weight or
bulk, is an adulteration within the provisions of the Act.
The adulteration of intoxicating liquors is provided for by
the Licensing Act 1872 (35 and 36 Vict. c. 94) ; and
in this Act (here is a schedule of substances, called " Dele-
terious Ingredients," which are considered to be adultera^
tions : they are Cocculus indicus, chloride of sodium or
common salt, c6ppera3, opium, Indian hemp, strychnine,
tobacco, darnel -seed, extract of logwood, salts of zinc or
lead, alum, and any extract or conqiound of any of these.
The execution of this Act rests with the police authorities
and the luLind Picvenue. The penalties for adulteration
168
ADULTERATION
are very severe, leaving it to the magistrate fitncr to inflict
a heavy fine or to send the oflcnder to prison. In the year
18C9 an Act was passed to prevent tlie adulteration of seeds,
in fraud of Her Majesty's subjects, and to the great
detriment of agriculture (32 and 33 Vict. c. 112), wherein
it is declared that the killing of seed.s, the dying of theui,
and the selling of such killed or dyed seed.s, with intent to
defraud, is punishable with a penalty not- exceeding five
pounds for the first oifence, nor exceeding fifty pounds for
a second or subsequent ofl'ence, together wiili the publication
of the offender's name, place of abode, and offence in any
manner that the justice thinks fit
Adulteration in other countries is stnctly prohibitca
under penal obligations. The Prussian penal code provides
that any person selling adulterated or spoiled goods shall
be liable to a penalty up to fifty dollars, or imprisonment
for six weeks, with confiscation of goods ; and it is ngt
necessary to prove that the seller was aware of the adultera-
tion. In Holland, the Dutch law is very similar to the
code Napoleon, and inflicts a punishment of imprisonment
for from six days to two years, with a fine of from 16 to
COO francs. The adulteration of bread with copperas or
sulphate of zinc is dealt with by imprisonment of from two
to five years, and a fine of from 200 to 500 florins. In
Paris, malpractices coimcctcd with the adulteration of food
are investigated by the Conseil de ,Salubrit(5 and punished.
Much valuable information concerning the adulteration of
food, drink, and drugs in foreign countries has lately been
obtained from the various British legations and consulates
abroad, through a circular addressed to them from the
Foreign Office. These investigations were commenced by
the late Earl of Clarendon, and have been continued by
Earl Granville. The results have been published in the
Food Journal for 1870 and 1871 ; and they are epitomised
at page 193 of the journal of the last mentioned date.
Among the adulterations which are practised for tho
purpose of fraudulently increasing tho weight or bulk of an
article are the following : —
1. Adulterations of MM. — This is commonly effected by
the addition of water — technically tcrrricd Simpson ; and it
is know^^ by the appearance of the milk, the specific gravity
of it, the quantity of cream which rises, and the chemical
composition of the milk. Good milk has a rich appearance,
and a full plea.sant taste. Its specific gravity ranges from
1029 (water being 1000) to 1032— the average being 1030.
If, therefore, the density of milk is above 1030, other
conditions corresponding, the inference is that the sample
is unusually good. Between 1028 and 1030 it is moef
probably genuine.. At from 102G to 1028 it is of doubtful
quality, and below that, unless the amount of cream is
enormously large, the sample is not genuine. An instru-
ment, called a galactomeier, has been constructed to show tho
specific gravity of milk at a glance ; but it must always bo
remembered that while the addition of water tends to lower
the gravity of mUk, so also does the presence of much
cream, and therefore a sample of skimmed milk may show
a high gravity even when diluted with water. The per-
centage quantity of cream is ascertained by means of an
instrument called a lactometer. It is a glass tube about 1 0
or 11 inches long and half an inch in diameter, graduated
into 100 parts. Having shaken a sample of milk so as to
diffuse the cream throughout its bulk, it is poured into the
lactometer to the topmost division ; and after standing for
12 hours, to allow the cream to rise, tho proportion of it is
read off from the divisions on the tube. Good milk shows
a range of from 8 to 12 divisions. Conjoined with the
preceding test, this affords reliable indication of the quality
of the sample. After removing the cream, the gravity
should be again taken, and this should not be lower than
|1030. The chemical composition of milk varies to some
extent with the breed of the cow, its age, the diet upon
which it is fed, the time of calving, and the time of milking ;
for afternoon milk is generally richer than morning, and
tho last drawn than the first. But taking the results of a
large number of analyses by different chemists, it may be
s:ud that the average percentage composition of milk is as
follows: — Casein or cheese matter, 3C4 ; butter, 355;
milk, sugar or lactose, 4-70; saline matter, 081; and
water, 87-30. If, therefore, 1000 grains of milk bo treated
with a few drops of acetic acid, and then heated in a flask
to about 120° Fahr., tho casein of tho milk will curdle,
and enclose within it all tho butter. Wlicn it is quite cold,
it can easily be filtered, and when dry, tho curd and butter
should weigh from 75 to 85 grains; and the serum or whey
should have a density of about 1029. The addition of
mineral matter, as common salt or carbonate of Boda, to
milk is easily recognised by an examination of the ash or
saline con.stitutents. 1000 grains of good milk evaporated
to dryness will produce from 120 to 130 grains of solid
matter, of which about 8 grains are mineral ; and these are
left in the platinum capsule, when the solid matter ia
incinerated or burnt to an ash. Of this ash about half is
phosphate of lime, and 2 7 are alkaline chlorides, the rest
being phosphates of magnesia and iron, with a little
carbonate of soda. Any notatle increase, therefore, in the
proportion of ash, or any large diminution of it, will show
adulteration. Colouring matter, as annatto, itc, is known
by the peculiar tint of the milk; and starchy matters
boiled to an emulsion wdl give their characteristic reactions
with iodine, and will furnish a sediment which the micro-
scope will reveaL Fatty emnlBions, in imitation of milk,
were used during the siege of Paris, on the recommendation
of M. Dubrunfaut, who claims to have made a very perfect
substitute by emulsifying fatty matter with an artificial
whey or serum. This he did by dissolving from 40 to 50
grammes of saccharine matter (lactose, glucose, or cane
sugar), and from 20 to 30 grammes of albumen (dried white
of egg), and from 1 to 2 grammes of the crystals of carbonate
of soda, in half a litre of water, and then emulsifying with
from 50 to CO grammes of olive oil or other fatty substance.
This is best done at a temperature of from 120° to 140°
Fahr. ; and tho liquid so prepared has the appearance of
cream, and requires to be mixed with twice its volume of
water to acquire the consistence of milk. » Gelatine may
be used instead of albumen, the mixture bemg even more
nearly like rich cream than the former. M. Gaudin says
that any kind of fat may be used for this purpose, provided
it is purified with superheated steam ; and M. Fan states
that even horse grease may be so employed. M. Dumas,
however, is of opinion that none of these substitutes can
take the place of milk for any time as dietetical agents.
Milk from diseased "animals, especially those affected with
pleuropneumonia, and the foot-and-mouth disease, is very
-unwholesome, and ought not to be drunk. The diseased
product is recognised by tho presence of abnormal inflam-
matory globules of the nature of pus, and by a large amount
of epithelium cells. Preserved condensed milk is now so
commonly used for food, that its properties when good
should be known. 1 00 parts of the specimens at present in
the market consist of from 14 to 18 parts of casein, from
12 to 14 of butter, from 44 to .'52 of sugar, and from 2-4 to
27 of saline matter — making in all from 77 to 81 parts of
coUd matter — the rest, namely, from 23 to 19 parts, being
water. It appears, therefore, that the concentration of the
milk has been carried to about one-third of its original bulk,
and that sugar has then been added, so that when dilated
with twice its volume of water, it makes a sweet-tasting
milk of ordinary strength. Good cream should contain
rom 25 to 34 parts of butter, about 5 of casein, 2 of sugar,'
2 of saline matter, and from 62 to 56 parts of water.
ADULTERATION
169
2. Coffee has from very early times been tlie subject
of sophistication. As far back as 1725, the Act 2 Geo. I.
o. 30, , took cognizance of the practice, and rendered it
penal. In 1803 it was the object of very decisive
measures, for by 43 (Jeo. HI. c. 129, the officers of excise
were empowered to search for, and to seize any burnt,
scorched, or roasted peas, beans, or other grains or
vegetable substance prepared in imitation of coflee ; and
any person manufacturing or selling the same was liable to
a penalty of ilOO ; gradually, however, it was found that
use of torrefied vegetables in Ueu of coffee, was becoming
general in spite of these restrictions, and, therefore, in
1822, the Legislature (3 Geo. IV. c. 53) thought it
expedient to allow the manufacture and sale of scorched or
roasted corn, peas, beans, or turnips, by persons who were
aot dealers or sellers of coffee or cocoa, proyided the same
was sold under license in a whole or unground condition,
and in its proper name. The penalty for infraction of the
law was £100 in the case of a dealer in coffee or cocoa, and
X50 in that of a licensed dealer. At that time the use of
chicory was not generally known in England, although it
had long before been introduced into France as a substitute
for coffee ; and its use was encouraged by the first
Napoleon, who thought thus to strike a blow at English
commerce. It was also used in Belgium and the Nether-
lands, so that travellers who visited Paris, Brussels, or
Amsterdam, became acquainted with the substitute, and
gradually acquired a taste for it. About the year 1820
the first parcels of chicory were imported into this country,
and it would seem that the public demand for it gradually
increased; for in 1832 there was a minute of the Treasury
nullifying the Acts of George III. and George IV., by
allowing grocers and other dealers in coffee and cocoa to
sell chicory, provided they did not mix it with coffee. At
a later period even this restriction was withdrawn ; for by
the Treasury minute of 1840, dealers in coffee were per-
mitted to sell a mixture of chicory and coffee, provided a
duty of 6d. per lb. was paid on all the chicory imported for
home consumption. The use of it being thus legalised, it
rapidly came into favour, and English farmers found it
profitable to cultivate the root, and to send it into commerce
duty free. This roused the attention of the Government,
for the duties on chicory and coffee began seriously to fall
off. Even the quality of the coffee imported underwent a
change ; for instead of demanding the fine flavoured
varieties, orders were given for a coarse and strong descrip-
tion of plantation coffee, which would stand a good deal of
chicory, as the grocers phrased it. All this was brought to
the notice of the Lords of the Treasury, and in 1852 they
revoked the order of 1840. But so strong was the influence
of the trade upon Government, that in the following year
the offensive minute was withdrawn, and grocers were again
permitted to sell mixtures of coffee and chicory, provided
the packet was distinctly labelled " mixture of chicory and
coffee." The Treasury eren went so far in 1858 as to
direct the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, not to object
to licensed dealers in coffee keeping and selling mangel-
wxirzel or beet-root mixed with coffee, provided they
observed the same conditions as those laid down in the
Treasury minute of 1 85 3 as to chicory and coffee. Up to this
time the duty on chicory had been merely nominal ; but it
was gradually increased until, in 1863, it was equivalent to
that levied on coffee, and thus the revenue was protected,
while adulteration was encouraged. The extent to which
this was practised may be gathered from the Annual
Reports of Mr Phillips, the principal chemist of the Inland
Revenue Laboratory. During the years 1856 to 1862
inclusive, when the dealers in coffee and chicory were
visited by the officers of Excise, the average number of
aamDles of coffee annually examined was 3053, and of these
1—7*
90, or nearly 3 per cent, were adulterated — the range being
from 5-1 per cent, in 1856, to 1-8 per cent, in 1862; and
the quantity of chicory in the mixture averaged 24 per
cent. In 1860 it was 29 per cent. Now, in aU these cases
the coffee was sold as pure coffee, with no label upon the
package ; but when the mixtures of chicory and coffee were
asked for, 7 '3 per cent, were improperly labelled, and the
average proportions of chicory ranged from 3 9 '8 per cent,
in 1859, to 22'3 per cent, in 1862 — the average for the
seven years, before the duties were equalised, being 30-7
per cent. In some cases, however, it reached to nearly
90 per cent. — 40 to 50 per cent, being common propor-
tions; and to neutralise the peculiar sweetness, and the
earthy flavours which such quantities of chicory induced, it
was, and still is the practice, to add more or less of the
bitter material called " finings," which is a preparation of
burnt sugar or carameL Even chicory itself is now the
subject of adulteration with roasted corn, beans, lupin seedjs,
atoms, horse-chesnuts, peas, pulse (called " Hambro' pow-
der "), mustard husks, coffee husks (caUed " flights "), and
even spent coffee, besides various roots, as carrots, parsnips,
mangel-wurzel,, beet-root, dandelion, &c. It is even said
that spent tan and dried bidlocks' livers have been employed
for the purpose. The tests for these adulterations are the
appearances presented by the tissues of the various vegetables
when examined under the microscope, and by the fact
that infusion of chicory does not become discoloured when
it is treated with iodine, as it contains no starchy matters.
Ground coffee, also, is of such a greasy nature, from the
presence of volatile oil, that when it is thrown upon water,
it floats, and does not readily discolour the water; whereas,
all the adulterating agents quickly sink in water, and give
it a bro^vn porter-like appearance. It is not difficult indeed
to separate, in a rough way, the coffee from its adulterating
matters by merely stirring a given weight of the mixture
in a tumbler of cold water ; after a few minutes, the coffee
will be found upon the surface of the water, and the other
things at the bottom of it. Chemical analysis also readily
discovers the fraud. It might be thought that there was
safety in purchasing the coffee-berries entire, but a very
ingenious machine has been patented for the manufacture
of spurious berries out of common vegetable substances.
3. Tea. — Formerly, when the supply of tea to this
country was entirely under the control of the East. India
Company, the adulteration of it in China was rarely
practised, as every shipment of it was carefully examined
by experienced officers at Canton, who rejected all teas of
spurious or doubtful character. At that time, therefore, the
adulteration of tea was carried on after it was imported into
this country, and there were many legislative enactments
prohibiting the practice. By the Act 2 Geo. I. c 3,
every tea dealer was subject to a penalty of £100, if he
was convicted of counterfeiting, altering, fabricating, or
manufacturing tea, or mixing' it with other leaves. Later
stUl, the statutes of 4 Geo. 11. c. 14, and 17 Geo. HL
^c. 29, and 4 Geo. IV. c. 14, dealt more precisely with the
subject, and imposed other penalties. At that time the
adulterations of tea were effected in a wholesale manner ;
for according to Mr Phillips, of the Inland Revenue Office,
there were in London alone, in 1843, as many as eight
manufactories in which the exhausted leaves, obtained from
hotels, coffee-houses, and elsewhere, were redried, and faced
with rose-pink and blacklead, in .imitation of genuine tea.
More recently, however, the adulteration of tea has been
practised by the Chinese, who find no difficidty in disposing
of any kind of spurious tea to English merchants at Canton
and Shanghai, who ship it to this country, and lodge it in
the bonded warehouses with all the formalities of an
honourable transaction, knowing that the difficulties of
convicting them under the Adulteration of Food Acts and
L 22
170
ADULTERATION
Nuisances Eemoval Acta are almost insunnountablo ; for,
in the first place, the local sanitary authorities have no
means of obtaining direct information of the existence of
unsound or spurious tea, or other article of food or drink
in bonded warehouses ; and secondly, if such information
reaches them indirectly, they have no legal right of entry
for the -purpose of examining the tea and taking samples.
But supposing both of these difficulties have been sur-
mounted, and the tea has been found on analysis to bo
spurious, there yet remain the diflicultius of obtaining a
justice's order for its condemnation, an order from the
customs for its removal, and an order which will satisfy
the requirements of the wharfinger in whose custody it has
been placed. But besides these, there are the dilliculties
of proving the ownership of the article, and the guilty
knowledge of the broker who sells it. In illustration of
this, we may refer to th« proceedings of the sanitary
authorities of the city of London in their endeavour to
suppress the importation and sale of spurious tea. In the
month of March 1870, Dr Letheby, the food analyst for the
6ity, reported that a large quantity of spurious tea had
arnved in London from China, and was lodged in the
bonded warehouses of the city. It was described as " Fine
Moning Congou" from Shanghai ; and it consisted of the
redried leaves of exhausted tea, much of which had
become putrid before drying. It appears to have been
called in China " Ma-loo mixture" — Maloo being the name
of the street where it was prepared, and along the sides of
which heaps of this trash might often bo seen drying in the
sun, with dogs and pigs walking over it. Proceedings
were taken under the Nuisance Removal Amendment Act
(26 and 27 Vict. c. 117), for the purpose of obtaining
an order for the condemnation and destruction of the tea ;
but it was argued for the defence — Isl, That "tea" was not
named in the Act of Parliament ; 2d, That it was not
included under the term "vegetable;" 3(/, That it was
not "food;" and itlt, That being in a bonded warehouse,
it was not " exposed for sale." The case, however, was so
glaring that, after two days' hearing, an order was given by
the justice for its destruction ; but as a case was granted
for the opinion of the Court of Queen's Bench, the order
was suspended ; and as the application to the Court was
never made, the order is still in abeyance. In another
case, where many chests of spurious " scented orange
Pekoe sif tings" were in bond, the order for its condemnation
was refuted on the ground that there was not sufficient
evidence of the so-called tea being unwholesome, notwith-
standing that it was not above one-sixth its proper strength ;
that it had little or none of the active principles of tea ;
that it had an unpleasant odour and an acrid taste; that a
great portion of it was not tea at all, and that the rest of
it was composed of exhausted tea leaves, with just enough
good tea to give it a flavour. A like failure of justice
occurred in the city in 1SG6, when measures were taken by
the sanitary authorities to prevent the sale of about 350,000
lbs. of rotten and charred tea which had been saved from a
fire at Beol's wharf. The adulterations practised by the
Chinese are numerous ; exhausted tea is redried and glazed
in a very deceptive manner. Millions of pounds of leaves
of different plants, other than tea, are gathered and mixed
with it. Mineral matter too, 'in the form of china clay,
fine sand, and iron filings, are ingeniously incorporated with
the leaf before curling, so that as much as from 20 to 40
per cent of impurity is thus mixed with it The tests,
however, for these adulterations are very simple. In the
first place, there is the usual trade test of infusion : a
quantity of tea, amounting to the weight of a sixpence, is
put into a small covered cup, and infused with about four
ounces of boiling water for ten minutes. The infusion is
then poured off from the leaves, and is examined for colour,
taste, and odour — all of which are characteristic The
leaves, too, are examined for soundness, for colour, for size,
and for special botanical properties. Impurities Uke iron
filings, sand, or dii-t,- are easily seen among the leaves, or at
the bottom of the cup ; and when these are phiced upon a
coarse sieve and washed with water, the impurities "pafS
through, and may be collected for examination. The leaves,
too, betray by their coarseness and botanical characters,
the nature and quality of the tea ; for although the leaves
of genuine tea differ much in size and form, yet their
venation and general structure are very distinctive. Very
young leaves are narrow, convoluted, and downy; thoSb
next in size and ago have their edges delicately serrated,
and the venation is scarcely perceptible ; while those of
larger size have the venation well marked, there being a
series of loops along each side of the leaf extending from
the mid-rib to the edge : the serrations also are stronger
and deeper, beginning a short distance from the stem and
running up the side of the leaf to the apex. In additioa
to this, the microscopic characters of the surface of the leaf
are very characteristic. Further investigations of a chemical
nature are sometimes needed to determine the question of
adulteration ; and these dcjicnd on the well-known com-
position of good tea. In different cases, according to the
ago of the leaf and its mode of treatment, the proportions
of its chief constituents may vary ; but in a general way
it may be said that the average composition of tea is as
follows : — Moisture from 6 to 10 per cent ; astringent
matter (tannin), from 25 to 35 ; gum, from 6 to 7 ;
albuminous matters, from 2 to 3 ; thein, from 2 to 3 ;
mineral matters (ash), from 5 to 6 ; and ligneous or woody
tissue, from 60 to 60 per cent ' Green tea, which is
generally made out of young leaves, contains the largest
quantity of soluble matters; and these, when fully exhausted
from the leaves by successive boiling in water, amount to
from 25 to 35 per cent of the weight of tlie tea. In
ordinary cases,' when the tea is merely infused in boiling
water, it does not yield above 25 per cent of extractive.
Again, the ash of tea is very characteristic of its quality —
old and spurious leaves, as well as tea adulterated with
mineral matter, yielding more than 6 per cent of ash. The
chief constituents of the ash of good tea are potash and
phosphoric acid, with a little lime, silica, and oxide of iron
— there being but a trace of chlorine and sulphuric acid ;
whereas tie ash of old and exhausted leaves contains but
little potash and phosphoric acid, in proportion to the lime
and silica ; and in those cases where tea has been damaged
by sea water, the amount of chloride is considerable. Iron
filings in tea are easily discovered by means of a magnet,
there being in some cases as much as 20 or 30 per cent of
this impurity. Even when incorporated TN-ith the leaf
before rolling and glazing, the fraud is detected by the
attraction of the tea to the magnet
i. Cocoa in its natural state contains so much fatty
matter (amounting to rather more than half its weight),
that it has long been the practice to reduce it by means of
sugar or farinaceous substances. The first of these pre-
parations is caUed chocolate, and the latter is known by
such names as granulated, flake, rock, soluble cocoa, itc. In
some cases the mixture is adulterated n-ith mineral matters,
as oxide of iron, to give colour. These adulterations are
recognised by the appearance and taste of the preparation,
by its microscopic characters, by the colour and reaction
of its solution, and by the proportions of fat and mineral
matters in it
5. Bread. — Especial caro has been taken at all times to
protect the public from the dishonest dealing of bakers.
The assize of bread, for example, is a very ancient institu-
tion ; for it was the subject of a proclamation in 1 202, and
it was the chief matter referred to in the notable statute of
ADULTERATION
171
the Pillory and Tumbrel (51 Henry III. stat. 16) already
mentioned. In the city of London, according to " Liber
Albus" the assize of bread was an important institution.
It was always made immediately after the feast of St
Michael in each year, and very specific instructions were
given for the guidance of the four discreet men who were
to perform it ; for their decision regulated the business of
the baker in respect of the price and quality of bread, &c.,
for the current year; and woe to him if he disregarded it — •
thera being numerous instances in " Liber Albus" oi the
piUory and the thew in cases where bread had been found
adulterated or of short weight. In the time of Anne, the
assize of bread was still further regulated (8 Anne, c. 19),
and in the year 1815 it was abolished by the statute 55
Geo. III. c. 99. Especial provision, however, was made
to guard against the frauds of adulteration, for several Acts
of Parliament, especially 31 Geo. II. c. 29 and 1 and 2
Geo. IV. c. 50, prohibited the use of alum and other
spurious articles in bread under severe penalties. At the
present time, the chief adulterations of bread are with alum
or sulphate of copper for the purpose of giving solidity to
the gluten of damaged or inferior flour, or with chalk or
carbonate of soda to correct the acidity of such flour, or
\rith boiled rice or potatoes to enable the bread to carry
more water, and thus to produce a large number of loaves
per sack of flour. In practice 100 lbs. of flour will make
from 133 to 137 lbs. of bread, a good average being 136
lbs. ; so that a sack of flour of 280 lbs. should yield 95
four-pound loaves. But the art of the baker is exercised to
increase the number, and this is accomplished by harden-
ing the gluten in the way already mentioned, or by means
of a gummy mess of boiled rice, three or four pounds
of which, when boiled for two or three hours in as
many gallons of water, will make a sack of flour yield at
least 100 four-pound loaves. Such bread, however, is
always dropsical, and gets soft and sodden at the base on
standing, and quickly becomes mouldy. A good loaf
should have kindness of structure, being neither chafly,
nor flaky, nor crummy, nor sodden. It should also be
sweet and agreeable to the palate and the nose, being
neither sour nor mouldy. It should keep well, and be
easily restored to freshness by heating it in a closed vessel.
And a slice of it, subjected to a temperature of from 260°
to 280° Fahr. should hardly be discoloured, and should not
lose more than 37 or 38 per cent, of its weight. When
steeped in water, it should give a milky. sw^et solution,
and not a ropy acid liquid. The recognition of alum and
sulphate of copper in bread requires practice and skilful
manipulation, it being surrounded with difliculties. The
most easUy applied process is that described by Mr Horsley.
He makes a tincture of logwood, by digesting a quarter of an
ounce of the freshly cut chips in five ounces of methylated
spirit for eight hours, and filters. A teaspoonful of this
tincture is put with a like quantity of a saturated solution
of carbonate of ammonia into a wine-glassful of water ; and
the mixed solutions, which are of a pink colour, are then
poured into a white-ware plate or dish. A slice of the
iusptcted bread is allowed to soak in it for five minutes,
ifter which it is placed upon a clear plate to drain, and, if
alum be present, it %vill, in the cotirse of an hour or two,
acquire a blue coiour; if the tint be greenish, it is a sign
of sulphate of cojjper ; whereas pure bread gradually loses
its pink colour, but never becomes blue or green. The
ash of bread will also furnish evidences of the presence of
mineral impurities.
6. Flour and other Farinaceous Mailers. — The tests for
good flour are its sweetness and freedom from acidity and
musty flavour. A given weight of the flour, say 500
grains, mpdo ints a stiff dough with water, and then
carefully kueaded under a small sirtam of water, will yield
a tough elastic gluten, -which, when baked in an oven,
expands into a clean-looking ball of a rich brown colour,
that weighs, when perfectly dry, not less than 50 grains.
Bad flour makes a ropy-looking gluten, which is very
difiicult of manipulation, and is of a dirty brown colour
when baked. The ash of floiu: should not exceed 2 per
cent. Other farinaceous matters are recognised under the
microscope by the peculiar form, and size, and marking of
the individual granules. In this way, the adulterations of
oat-meal -with barley-meal, and of arrow-root with inferior
starches, may be easily detected.
7. Fatty Matters and Oils are the subjects of frequent
advdteration. Butter and lard, for example, are mixed
with inferior fats, and with water, salt, and farina. Most
of these impurities are seen when the sample of butter or
lard is melted in a glass, and allowed to stand in a warm
place for a few hours, when the pure fat will float as a
transparent oil, while the water, salt, farina, Ac, will subside
to the bottom of the glass. Fresh butter generally contains
a notable quantity of water, as fiom 12 to 13 per cent.,
and sometimes a little salt, and a trace of curd ; but these
should never exceed two per cent, in the aggregate. Foreign
fats are recognised' by the granular look of the butter, by
its gritty feel, by its taste, and by its odour when wanned.
Other tests for these impurities are the melting-point of tie
sample, and its solubility in a fixed quantity of ether at a
temperature of 65° Fahr. 20 grains of the sample, treated
with a fluid drachm of ether, in a closed test tube, will
look slightyflocculent,and be almost entirely dissolved in the
case of good butter ; but it will be mealy and liniment-Uke
with lard, granular with dripping, and almost BoUd with
mutton fat. The melting point of dilTerent fats is as
follows; — Horse grease, 140°, calf fat, 136°, mutton fat,
130°; beef fat, 99°; hog^s lard, 81°; and butter, 80°.
OUs are adulterated with inferior kinds, and the fraud is
detected by means of the specific gravity of the oil, and its
chemical reactions when tested upon a white plate with a
drop of concentrated sulphuric acid — the colour and its
time of development being the indications of the quality
of the oil The specific gravity of the animal oils are as
foDows : — Neat's-foot oil, 880 ; taUow oil, 900 ; dolphin oil,
918; cod-liver oil, 921 to 926: whale oil, 927; seal oil,
934; porpoise oil, 937. Among the vegetable oils the
following are the most important : — Rape or colza oil, 913
to 916; oUveoU, 918; filbert oil, 916; beech-nut, 922;
walnut, 923; cotton-seed, 923 to 928; poppy, 924; sweet
almond, 918 to 922; hazel-nut and hemp-seed, 926;
and linseed, 634 to 936.
8. Isinglass is often adulterated with gelatine, the fmud
being ingeniously contrived go as to retain to a large exent
the well-known characters of genuine isinglass ; but it n ay
be recognised in the following way; immersed in cold wal3r,
the shreds of genuine isinglass become white and opaqie
like cotton threads, and they swell equally in all directiois,
whereas those of gelatine become trauspaient and ribbon-
bke. Isinglass dissolves completely in boiling water, and
makes a slightly turbid solution, which has a faint fishy
smell, and b without action on litmus paper; whereas
gelatine loaves a quantity of insoluble matter, and the
solution smeUs of glue, and has an acid reaction. Strong
acetic acid swells up the shreds of isinglass, and renders
them soft and gelatinous ; but it hardens gelatine. And,
lastly, the ash of genuine isinglass is very small in quantity,
and has a reddish colour ; whereas that of gelatine is bulky
(weighing from 2 to 3 per cent.), and has a perfectly white
appearance from the presence of calcareous salts. Genuine
isinglass is produced from the swimming-bladder or sound
of the sturgeon, but gelatine is a sort of clarified glue
obtained from bones, clijipings of hides, lic. Boussingault
states that the Boujcwiller glue, which is prepared from the
172
ADULTERATION
bones of horsoa slaughtered at that establkhment, is tramt-
parent, and nearly colourless, and is on that account much
tioughi after by restaurateurs for making jellies. It euters
largely, too, into the composition of French gelatine.
9. Sugar. — During the last ten or twelve years the
manufacture of sugar from starch has been an important
branch of industry. The product is sent into commerce
■under the names of glucose, saccharum, and British sugar ;
and although it is chiefly used for brewing purposes, it is
also employed for adulterating brown sugar, and for making
confectionary, jams, marmalades, and fruit jellies. In the
year 18T0, as much as 25,737 cwt. of this sugar was
manufactured for home consumption, and since then the
quantity has been increa.sing. It is produced from rice or
other starch, by submitting it to the action of very dilute
sulphuric acid at a boiling temperature — the acid being
afterwards neutralised with lime, and the solution evapo-
rated to the setting jjoint. The crystals of grape sugar are
very small, and are entirely without that sparkling character
which distinguishes cane sugar. They are less soluble in
water, but more so in alcohol, than cane sugar, and they
have only about one-third the sweetening power. Boiled
with a solution of caustic potash, they quickly produce a
deep brown liquid, and they have the power of reducing
the hydrated oxide of copper, when heated therewith in an
alkaLme solution. These characters are distinctive of it,
and will serve to recognise it in the brown sugars of
commerce.
10. Mustard is generally so acrid and powerful in its
flavour that it is commonly diluted with flour, or other
farinaceous matter, turmeric being added to improve its
appearance. The mixture is recognised by means of the
microscope, when the granules of starch, and the colouring
matters of turmeric are easily seen. Genuine mustard does
not contain starch, and therefore does not become blue
when it is treated with a solution of iodine.
11. Spices, as pepper, cinnamon, curry powder, ginger,
cayenne, lie, are more or less the subjects of fraudulent
adulteration, which can readily bo detected by the micro-
scope, and by an examination of the mineral constituents.
Formerly, pepper was ground by the retail dealer, and then
there was no excuse for the presence of adulterating agents ;
but in 1856, the wholesale dealer undertook the business
of grinding, and from that time adulteration has been on
the increase. In some cases, the article does not contain
a trace of pepper, but is made up of gypsum, .mustard
husk, and a little starch. In the Kinih Report of tlie
Commissioners of Inland Revenue, there is a statement
by Mr Phillips, H^e chief chemist of the Excise, that he
found a sample of so-caUed pepper containing 25 per cent,
gypsimi, the rest being mustard husks and a little cereal
3tarch, without a trace of pepper. ■ Another sample con-
sisted of 16. per cent, gypsum, 44 mustard husks, a little
cereal starch, and the rest pepper. Four other samples,
closely resembling pepper, so as to deceive an inexperienced
eye, were found to contain about 22 per cent of gypsum,
with sand, starch, and mustard husk. Linseed meal and
powdered capsicums are likewise used for adulterating
pepper. The chief sophistications of ginger powder are
sago-meal, ground rice, and turmeric ; while the colouring
agents of curry powders and cayenne are ferruginous
earths, brick dust, and even vermilion and red-lead.
Spices, too, are sometimes exhausted of their active pro-
perties before they are ground and sold to the public
12. Beer, Ale, and Porter. — The assize of ale is con-
temporaneous with that of bread, being described as the
"Assises Panis et Cervesice," in old documents. In the
statute 51 Henry EEL c. 16 (1266), they are spoken of
as ancient and woU-known institutions, the object of them
being to regulsje tb« quality and price of these articles.
The officers appointed to determine the goodness cf ale
were called " ale connciB," or " ale tasters " (jjwstatoret
cervimce), and were elected annnaDy in the court-lect of
each manor, and in the city of London at the wardmote,
according to the advice and assept of the alderman and
other reputable men of the ward. Very specific instructions
are given in Liher Alhus of the business of the brewer, and
of.the penalties for any default thereof — it being ordained
that no ale should be sold without ha^dng been tasted and
approved by the ale conners of the district. Even now
these officers are elected in the city of London with the old
formalities, but the real duty of examining the quality of
ale, beer, and porter has for many years been in the hands
of the Excise. As far back as the time of Anne there was
a law prohibiting the use of Coccuiu» indiciu or any
unwholesome ingredient in the brewing of beer, under
severe penalties, the brewer being restricted to the use of
malt and hops alone; but graduaUy, as the taste for porter
came into fashion (since 1730), and during the French war,
when the price of malt was very high, certain colouring
matters prepared from burnt sugar were allowed to bo
used, and this at last became so necessary to the trade,
that it was legalised by the Act 51 Geo. HL c. 51.
Five years after, however, it was prohibited by the statute
56 Geo. lEL c. 58, which declared that after the 5th of
July 1817, no brewer, or dealer, or retailer of beer, shall
receive, or use, or have in his possession or custody, any
liquor, extract, or other material or preparation, for the
purirose of darkening the colour of worts or beer, other
than brown malt. He was also prohibited from using
molasses, honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, Cocculus indicus,
grains of paradise, guinea pepper, or opiimi, or any extract
or preparation of the same, or any substitute for malt or
hops, under a penalty of X200 ; and no chemist or vendor
of drugs was permitted to sell, send, or deliver any such
things to a brewer or retailer of beer under a penalty of
£500. Later still, in 1830, the Act for permitting the
general sale of beer and cider by retail in England (1
WUL IV. c. 64), declares that if any person so licensed
shall knowingly sell any beer, ale, or porter, made otherwise
than from malt and hops, or shall miV, or cause to be
admixed, any drugs or other pernicious ingredients with
any beer sold in his house or premises, or shall fraudulently
dilute or in any way adulterate any such beer, Ac. , shall for
the first offence forfeit and pay a sum of from £10 to £20,
and for the second ofi'ence shall be adjudged disqualified
from selling beer, ale, or porter for two years, or forfeit
a sum of from £20 to £50 ; and the same regulations
applied toxider and peny. The execution of these acts
rested with the Excise, and it would seem that three classes
of adulterations were practised, namely, 1st, Those which
gave fictitious strength to the beer, as Cocculus indicus,
tobacco, opium, itc. ; '2d, Those which improved the flavour
and body of the beer, as grains of paradise, capsicum pods,
ground ginger, coriander seeds, caraway seeds, sweet flag,
liquorice, molasses, and salt ; and, Zd, Those which gave
bitterness, as quassia, chiretta, horehound, gentian, <to. In
London the publicans were not in the habit of practising the
first kind of adulteration, but confined themselves to the
second and third In the coimtry, however, according to
Mr Phillips, it was quite otherwise, especially with brewers
who retailed their own beer ; for he found that they fre-
quently used tobacco and Cocculus indicus. He even
thinks that the cases of brutal and purposeless violence
which were so often recorded were referable to the madden-
ing influence of these ingredients. By the Act 24 and 25
Vict. c. 22 (1863), when the duty on hops was relieved,
these bitters and substitutes were 'permitted, and so also
was sugar, provided the full duty of 123. 8i per cwt. was
paid upon it. Later still, by the Licensing Act 1872 (35
ADULTERATION
173
and 36 Vict. o. 94), provision is made to protect the
public from the adulteration of beer ; for it prohibits the
possession, sale, or use of beer adulterated with Cocculus
mdicus, chloride of sodium (otherwise common salt), cop-
peras, opium, Indian hemp, strychnine, tobacco, darnel-
seed, extract of logwood, salts of 2dno or lead, alum, and
any extract or compound thereof, under a penalty of £20-
for the first offence, and £100 for the second offencSe,
together with disqualification of both the dealer and the
house for a certain period. The police and the ofiBcers of
Inland Revenue are empowered to search for and obtain
samples of such beer, and the analyst is a person appointed
by the Excise. The tests for the adulteration of beer, ale,
and porter, are not easily appUed except by a skiDed
chemist ; but it may be said that the chief qualities of
good beer are its density, sweetness, spirituosity, piquancy,
flavour, and frothiness. The density of ale and beer ranges
from 1008 to 1020 (water being 1000)— the average
being 1015 ; and in the case of porter it ranges from 1015 to
1020. The amount of alcohol in these beverages ranges
from 5 to 9 -per cent., the average being about 7. The
soUd extract is from 4 to 6 per cent, and the ash or mineral
matter is from 0'2 to 0'3 per cent, very little of which
should be common salt.
13. Malt. — The' Excise do not permit malt to be adul-
terated with ungerminated grain ; but it is very difiicult to
determine whether the presence of these grains is accidental
or otherwise, as in some wet seasons when barley is badly
stacked it will heat or become mouldy, and the grains will
lose their vitality. Even if the grain is dried artificially
at a temperature of from 140° to 150^ Fahr., the vitality of
the seed will be destroyed. In some seasons as much as from
34 to 70 per cent, of the grfi.ui will be kdled. Roasted
unmalted grain, instead of the malted, is prohibited by 19
and 20 Vict. c. 34, but there is no doubt that the
substitution is largely practised.
14. Wine and Spirits. — The denunciations in the Scripture
against the nse of mixed wine have ref erence,iD all probabili ty ,
to wines which were fortified or adalterated with stimulating
and intoxieating herbs. In this country measures were
taken at a very early period to prevent the sale of unsound
and unwholesome wine. The Vintners' Company,- for
example, which was incorporated in the reign of Edward
the Third, under the name of the " Wine Tonners" had
control over the price and purity of the article, there being
chosen every year "persons of the most sufficient, most
true, and most cunning of the craft (that hold no taverns),"
who were to see to the condition of aU wines sold by retail,
and who were to govern the taverners in all their proceedings.
Bad or adulterated wine was thrown into the .gutters, and
the possessors thereof were set in the pillory. It would
seem that the wine which was most adulterated was that
called Gascoign; for in the tenth year of the reign of Henry
the Sixth (1432), there was a petition to the king on the
subject, praying him to amend the same. Stowe, in fact,
says "that in the 6th of Henry VL, the Lombardes
currupting their sweete wines, when the knowledge thereof
came to John Ran well, maior of London, he, in divers
places of the citie, commanded the heades of the buts and
other vessels in the open streetcs to be broken, to the
nimiber of fifty, so that the liquor running forth passed
through the citio like a stream of raine water, in the sight
of aU the people, from whence there issued a most loathsome
savour." In modern times the art of adulterating wine
has been brought to great perfection ; for it consists not
merely in the blending of wines of different countries and
vintages, but in the use of materials which are entirely
foreign W) the grape. Port wine, for example, is manufactured
from Beni Carlos, Figueras, and red Capo, with a touch
of Mountain to soften the mixture and give it richness —
the body and flavour being produced by gum-dragon, and
the colour by " berry-dye," which is a preparation of German
bilberries. To this is added the washings of brandy casks
(*' brandy coiee") and a little salt of tartar to form a crust.
Sherry of the brown kind and of low priceis mingled with
Cape and cheap brandy, and is flavoured with " brandy-
cowe," sugar-candy, and bitter almonds. If the colour be
too high it is lowered by means of blood, and softness is
imparted to it by gum-benzoin. Pale sherries are produced
by means of plaster of Paris or gypsum, by a process called
" plastering," and the efi'ect of it is to remove the natural
acids (tartaric and maHc), as well as the colour of the wine.
In this way a pale, dry, bitter, and sub-acid wme is
produced, charged with the sulphates of lime and potasL
Large quantities of what are called clarets are manufactured
in this country from inferior French wine and rough cider,
the colour being imparted to it by tumsol or cochineaL
Madeira is produced from Vidonia with a Little Mountain
and Cape, to which are added' bitter almonds and sugar.
Even Vidonia and Cape are adulterated with cider and rum
■ — carbonate of soda being used to correct the aci(}ity.
Common Sicilian wine is transformed into Tokay, Malaga,
and Lachryma ChristL Champagne is produced from
rhubarb stalks, gooseberries, and sugar, the product being
largely consumed at balls, races, masquerades, and pubUc
dinners. Of late, too, since the investigations of Petiot,
Thenard, Gall, Hussman, and others, the manufacture of
wine from sugar and the refuse husk or mark of the grape
has been largely practised, insomuch that a great part of
the wine of France and Germany has ceased to be the juice
of the grape at aU. In point of fact, the processes of
blending, softening, fortifying, sweetening, plastering, (fee,
(fee, are carried on to such an extent that it is hardly
possible to obtain a sample of genuine wine, even at first
hand; and books are written on the subject, in which the
plainest directions are given for the fabri(a.tion of every
kind of wine, there being druggists called " brewers'
druggists," who supply the agents of adulteration. These
are as follow : — Elderberry, logwood, brazil-w(Xid, red
saunders-wood, cudbear, red beet-root, (fee, for colour ;
litharge, lime or carbonate of lime, carbonate of soda, and
carbonate of potash, to correct acidity ; catechu, logwood,
sloe-leaves, and oak-bark, for astringency; sulphate of lime,
g3rpsum, or Spanish earth, and alrmi for removing colour ;
cane sugar for giving sweetness and body ; glucose or starch
sugar for artificial wine ; alcohol for fortifying ; an'd ether,
especially acetic ether, for giving bouquet and flavour. The
tests for these agents are not readdy applied, except by the
profesaonal chemist ; but they are promptly recognised
by the stomach and the brain, for good wine, though it
may intoxicate, rarely leaves a disagreeable impression. In
a general way, it may be said that the specific gra'.'ity of
genuine wine ranges from 991 to 997; and the amount
of alcohol in it never exceeds 20 per cent, by volimie. The
soUd residue in it, when evaporated to perfect dryness,
amounts to from 1'33 to 2'15 per cent, in Rhine wines,
and in the light wines of France; to from 2'85 to 3'73 per
cent, in TeneriiTe and Cape ; to from 3'49 to 4-54 per cent
in sherry and Madeira; and to from 3-75 to 5 '24 in port.
Sweet wines, as Lactryma Christi, Muscat, Malaga, Tokay,
Bergerae, champagne, and the wines of the Palatinate,
contain a much larger percentage of solid matter in them.
The ash, or involatUo constituents of wine, should range
between 0 1 9 and 0-5 per cent It should be strongly
alkaline, and should consist of carbonate, sulphate, and
phosphate of potash, chloride of sodium, carbonate of lime,
and a little alumina. As a distinctive mark of genuine
\vine, the ash is of the greatest value. Again, pure wino
gives but slight precipitates with oxalate of ammonia, with
acid nitrate of silver, and acid nitrate of barj'ta. The
174
i\DULTERATION
cdouring matters of wiiic may bo separated and analysed
by the process of Mulder, which is too elaborate for
description in this place, and so also arc the testa for
recognising spurious colours, as the test of Vogel, Jacob,
and others (solutions of acetate of lead), that of Polouzo
and.Frenny (basic acetate of lead); of Ness von Esenbcck
(solutions of alum and of carbonate of potash) ; of Batilliat
(ammonia); of Filhol (ammonia and sulphideof ammonium);
and others. At present, the spectroscope has not furnished,
as was expected, any very reliable indications of the nature
of the colouring matters of wine. In fact, the whole subject
requires fuller investigation. The adulteration of spirits
consist-s mostly in the addition of water and io the use of
inferior s|)ii-it, recipes being given in the Publican's Ouide,
and other such books, for what is called making up spirits
for sale. The recognition of these frauds rests with the
Excise, under the Act Sf) and 3G Vict. c. Ol.
15. Tobacco and Snuff. — The adulteration of these
articles is prohibited and otherwise provided for by the
statutes 5 and 6 Vict. c. 93, and 25 and 2G Vict. c. 7,
and, 30 and 31 Vict, c 90, manufacturers of tobacco and
snuff being prohibited from nsing or ha\'ing in their
possession sugar, honey, molasses, treacle, leaves, herbs, or
plants, powdered wood, moss, weeds, sea-weeds, or any
ground or unground roasted grain, chicory, lime, sand,
unvbre, ochre, or other earths, nor anything capable of
being used to increase the weight of tobacco or snuff, under
a penalty of X200 — water alone being allowed in the
manufacture of tobacco ; and water, salt, and alkaline salts,
as well as lime in the manufacture of snuffs, under a
penalty of £300. But it appears from the reports of the
Commissioners of Inland Revenue, that the adulteration of
tobacco and snuff is still largely practised. Tobacco is
adulterated with molasses, sugar, aloes, liquorice, gum,
catechu, oil and lamp-black, alum, tannic acid and iron, log-
wood, and such leaves as rhubarb, chicory, cabbage, bur-
dock, colts-foot, and e.^icess of salt and water. In the year
1862 it was discovered that certain Irish manufacturers were
adulterating their Cavendish and roll-tobacco with liquorice,
in imitation of the sweetened Cavendish of North America,
and therefore in 1863 the practice was legalised in the case
of Cavendish and negro-head by the Manufactured Tobacco
Act, 186.3. Snuffs are adulterated with e-xcess of alkaline
salts, lime, sand, ferruginous earths, fustic, torreiied oat
meal, peat-moss, ground velonia cups, bichromate of potash,
and chromate of lead. Mr Phillips states, in the Fourth
RfpoH of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue^ that up
to 1856 the praotice of adulterating snuff was very prevalent,
p.irticularly in Ireland — 52 per cent, of the samples analysed
being found to be ilUcit ; in 1858 and subsequently,
however, the proportion has been much less. These
adulterations are recognised by drying the sample, and
noting the loss of weight, and by the amount and nature
of the ash left on incineration. Foreign leaves, ifec, are
discovered by the aid of the microscope.
16. Among the adulterations which are practised for the
purpose of improving the appearance of the article, and
giving it a false strength, are the following : — The addition
of ahim or mtphate of copper to bread ; the facing of black
tea with black lead, and of green with a mixture of indigo
or Prnssian blue with turmeric and china clay ; the treat-
ment of pickles and preserved fruits with a salt of copper,
which has the property of mordanting and brightening the
green colouring matter of vegetables. In some cases the
quantity of copper has been so large as to give a coppery
appearance to a steel knife or fork kept in the pickle ; but
at aU tmies the metal nfcy be discovered by the pink colour
of the a.'ih. and by its becoming blue when treated with a
Lttle strong ammonia. Ferruginous earths are added to
■sauces, anchovies, potted meats, and the preparations of
cocoa. This also is recognised by the amount and colotit
of the ash. Mineral pigments, as yellow and orange chromate
of lead, green arsenite of copper, iic, are frequently used
in colouring confectionery, and have produced serious
results to those who have eaten it. Lastly, with a view of
giving falsa strength to the article, sulphuYie acid has been
added to vinegar and lime-juice ; black jack or burnt rugar
to coffee and chicory ; catechu or terra japonica to exhausted
tea ; Cocculus indicua to beer and porter ; cayenne and
mustard husks to pepper, Sic.
17. Adulterations are also practised for the purpose
of debasing the article, as when the cream is taken from
milk by the process of skimming ; or when the active
principles of spices, <tc., have been removed by dietiUation.
18. Accidental adulterations may occur from the admix-
ture . of darnel or ergot with flour ; siliceous and earthy
matters with substances that are ground in a miU ; mould
or acari with flour, sugar, cheese, wC ; and copper, zinc,
or lead may bo accidentally derived from the vessels in
wliich any acid substance or liquid has been prepared or
kept. In this manner cider and wine have become tainted
vnik lead ; sour milk with zinc ; and jellies, jams, and
preserves with copper.
19. Adulteration of Cattle Foods. — In a recent trial,
where the question of adulteration was raised, a linseed-
cake maker stated in evidence that his ordinary oU-cake
consisted of 50 parts ground sesam6 cake, 20 parts of bran,
and 30 of linseed and linseed siftings. -To prevent the
detection of this fraud by an examination of the cake with
the naked eye, it is customary to powder the materials
very fine by means of a machine called a " Buffein machine,"
after which they are thorouglily mixed together and pressed
into a cake. It would seem, indeed, that pure linseed cake
is not saleable, except in a few localities, as in the neigh-
bourhood of Gainsborough, and in the agricultural centres
of Lincolnshire and Norfolk, where the genuine cake is
appreciated. Elsewhere the adulterated article commands
a ready sale, on account of its low price ; and thus
encouragement is given to the use of all sorts of adulterating
agents, as earth-nut, cotton, beech, and sesame bran, rice-
husks, oat-dust, and other such worthless matter. Very
recently this important subject has -been treated by Dr
Voelcker in a paper " On the Characters of Pure and Mixed
Linseed Cake's." which was published in the Journal of
the Royal Agricultural Society of England (vol ix. part
1). Some of the impurities of linseed cake may be due to
the accidental presence of the seeds of various weeds and
wild plants, which the careless farmer ha^ allowed to grow
upon his land. Most of these, however, are easily removed
by one or two siftings, as in the case with clean linseed ;
but the siftings are not thrown aw.iy ; they are used for
adulterating other samples of linseed — ^making the second,
third, and even fourth qualities of Riga and St Petersburg .
seed. Occasionally the siftings are sent out to sea in
barges to meet the vessels coming {torn the north with
linseed on board; there the mixture is made; and when
the vessels reach the port for which they are destined, the
cargo is sold for genuine linseed "as imported." But
besides these impurities, the linseed cake of commerce
contains a largo proportion of other cakes, as rape, earth-
nut, decorticated and undecorticateJ cotton seed, beech-nut,
hemp-seed, cocoa-nut, cocoa, palm-nut, palm-kernels, niger
seed, sesam^ or teal seed, poppy, castor oil, bassia, curcas,
indigo seed, olive, «fec, besides bran, acorns, careb-beans, and
the husks or shades of earth-nut, oats, barley, rice,and other
refuse. Some of these things are actually poisonous to
cattle, as in the case of castor-oil cake, curcas bean,
purging flax, wild mustard, wild radish, kc; others are of
doubtful quality, as com cockle, darnel, indigo seed,
earth-nut, kc \ and many are disagreeable to the taste, on
ADULTERATION
175
account of ranadity and odier properties, as cocoa-nut cake,
palm-nut cake, bassia cake, <tc. ; while many are so charged
with woody matters as to be indigestible and irritating iu
their action, as cotton, olive, palm-nut, husks of rice,
cocoa-nut fibre, saw-dust, &c. These impurities are some-
times easily recognised by the naked eye, or by a lens of
low power. At other tunes the colour of the cake is an
indication of its impurity. The taste of it also is frequently
characteristic ; for while linseed has a sweet mucilaginous
taste, rape seed is tnmipy, mustard acrid, dodder like garlic,
bassia bitter, &.c Then, again, the action of a little warm
water will develope th5 flavour of impurities — rape giving
oflf a strong odour of turnip, mustard its well-known acrid
flavour, wild radish and other impurities their characteristic
smells. When examined chemically it is found that
adulterated and dirty cakes show a deficiency of oil and
albuminous matter, and a large excess of woody fibre and
mineral substance. In good cake the moisture ranges from
10 to 14 per cent., the oil from 10 to 15, the albuminous
matter from 25 to 35, the mncUage, sugar, and digestible
fibre to from 20 to 30 per cent., the woody fibre to from 9
to 14, and the mineral matter or ash to from 6 to 8 per
cent. Cake that has been shipped too fresh is apt to heat
and become mouldy ; in which case it will lose its fine
aroma, and be of inferior quality: it may even be "injurious
to animals feeding on it.
20. The Adulteration of Seeds, in fraud of her Majesty^s
subjects, and to the great detriment of agriculture, has
been provided for by the Act 32 and 33 Vict, c 112,
■wherein it is prohibited to kUl, dye, or to sulphur seeds, or
any way to give them a false appearance, under a penalty
of £5 for the first offence, and £50 for the second.
But for all this extensive frauds are practised : turnip seed
is adulterated with rape, wild mustard or charlock, the
vitality of which has been destroyed by kiln-drying at a
high temperature ; old turnip seed (kiln-dried) is also used
for diluting fresh seed ; and it is notorious that such seed
can be obtained in commerce liy the ton. Again, clover
seed is often killed and dyed — one of the commonest
frauds being to dye trefoil, and to sell it for red clover ;
the pinkish' or yellowish-brown tint and metallic look being
given with a weak solution of logwood and alum, or with
a strong solution of fogwood alone, and then it is shaken
np with a little black lead. Another trick is to dye white
clover seed with a weak solution of indigo, and thus to
make it look like hybrid clover which has a bluish-green
colour. When trefoil and white clover seed have become
changed by age and have lost their yellowish colour, they
are dyed with infusion of turmeric, and then toned down
with the fumes of burning sulphur; in fact, these fumes
are used to brighten up all sorts of seeds that have become
brown by keeping, but they destroy the vitality of the seed.
21. Adulteration of Drugs. — This at all times has been
considered a serious offence. In the city of London, the
president and censors of the College of Physicians have
power to search for apothecaries' wares, drugs, and stuffs,
and on finding them defective, corrupted, and not meet nor
convenient to be ministered in any medicines for the health
of man's body, they are to destroy them, and are to correct
and punish the offenders by committing them to prison,
and amercing them in a penalty • not exceeding .£20.
These wholesome powers were granted to the ••liege by
the Acts U and 15 Hen. VUL c. 5, and 32 Hea YUL
0. 40, and 2 Mary, c 9 ; but although they are still
in force, and might be advantageously exorci-sed, yet
they have long since fallen into disuse ; and if it had
not been for the laudable efforts of the Pharmaceutical
Society of Great Britain, there would have been no
practical remedy for the adulteration of drugs. The
Society was founded in 1841, for the purpose of advancing
the status and education of those who were engaged in the
preparation and sale of medicines, and it was incorporated
by Royal Charter in 1843. A few years after, in 1852,
the qualifications of pharmaceutical chemists were regu-
lated by Act of Parliament (15 and 16 Vict. c. 56), and
in 1868 it was further provided, by the 31 and 32 Vict,
c. 121, that no person should be permitted to engage in
the sale or dispensing of medicines, or to use the title of
chemist and druggist, or dispensing chemist, or pharmaceutist,
without being duly qualified, and registered as a pharma-
ceutical chemist. The adulteration of medicine was also
prohibited by the incorporation of the Adulteration of Food
and Drink Act 1860 (23 and 24 Tict, c. 84), it being
declared that such adulteration should be deemed an ad-
mixture injurious to health. More recently, in 1872, the
Act 35 and 36 Vict. c. 74, renders it penal for any one
to adulterate a drug for sale, or to sell such drug. In the
first case the penalty is a sum not exceeding £50, to-
gether with the costs of the convicrion; and for a second
offence he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be im-
prisoned for a period not exceeding six calendar months,
with hard labour. In the second case, the seller of an
adulterated drug is subject to a penalty not exceeding'
£20, together with costs ; and for a second offence he-
shall have his name, place of abode, and offence pub-
lished in any manner that the justice thinks fit. The-
chief adulterations and debasing of drugs are tlie follow-
ing : — In the case of vegetable substances, as jalap, opium,
rhubarb, cinchona bark, ire, foreign substances are added
to make up for the loss of weight in drying and powdering,
there being in many cases a trade allowance of only four
per cent, for such loss, whereas in almost all cases it ex-
ceeds this. Roots, seeds, and barks, for example, lose from
6 to 9 per cent, scammony 7 per cent, aloes 9, sarsapariHa
10, sqmlls 12, and opium from 15 to 25 per cent At other
times foreign substances are added to assist the grinding,
or to improve the appearance of the article. Occasionally
the active principles are removed, or the mediciae has
become worthless from keeping or from faulty prepararion.
In the case of the alkaloids, inert substances, as sugar,
starch, gum, &c., are mixed with them to increase their
weight and bulk. Lastly, the activity of a vegetable drug
may greatly depend on its mode and place of culture.
With respect to mineral preparations, there is even a stiU
larger field for adulteration, insomuch that the purity of
the article is entirely regulated by the wholesale price of
it Again, directly after the Act of 1856 (18 and 19
Vict, c 38), which permitted the sale of methylated
spirit — that is, inferior spirit mixed with wood-naphtha,
duty free for manufacturing purposes — advantage was
taken of it by many chemists and dru^ists, and the
cheap spirit was used for making tinctures and other
medicinal preparations. This, however, came at last to be
so Beriotis and dangerous a practice, and was withal so
great a fraud on the revenue, that means were taken to
suppress it by the Act 29 and 30 Vict. c. 64, wherein
it is provided that such spirit shall not be used in any
medicinal preparation, except in the manufacture of chloro-
form, ether, and the vegetable alkaloids, or in the preparation
of other things whereby the spirit was afterwards entirely
dissipated. But Mr Phillips remarks, in the Ninth Seport
of the Commistionera of Inland Revenue, that a few
instances have been discovered of the sale of drinks under
the names of " Indianna brandee," " medicated whiskee,"
" pure Islay mountain," '* Indian tincture," kc, the exciting
principle of all of which was found to be hj-ponitrous ether
prepared from mnthylated spirit In tho case of a drink
called " Hollands whiskee," it was produced by distilling tha
methylated spirit with a little nitric acid, and then sweeten-
ing with treacle, and flavouring with rhubarb, chloroform^
17G
ADULTERATION
fopnugrocl:, &c., bo as to conceal its real character; and
notwithstanding its diBagreeable flavour, it got into public
favour in some districts, especially in Ireland, and Waa
largely sold as a cheap means of producing intoxication.
22. The Adulteration of Textile Fabrics. — Woollen goods
have for years past been largely adulterated with refuse
fibres called " shoddy" or " mingo." The practice was
denounced by Latimer in one of his sermons at Paul's
Cross, preached before king Edward in 1G35, wherein
ho spoke of it as the devil's artifice, saying that they were
wont to make beds of flock, but now they had turned it
into dust, which ho aptly called " Devil's dust," and that
the cloth worker did so incorporate it to the cloth that it was
wonderful to see. The practice is still in vogue, for there
is hardly a piece of cheap cloth without it. Shoddy as
originally used was merely the fluff or waste from the looms,
but now it consists of any kind of woollen rubbish, aa old
blankets, stockings, ifec, pulled to pieces in a machine called
the " DeviL" ^lingo is even a shorter description of fibre,
ind is made iu the same way from old rags. No less than
forty millions of pounds of these are made annually in
Yorkshire, at an estimated value of eight millions sterling,
and all of it is used for adulterating woollen clotL There
is even another kind of refuse called " extract," which is
employed for the same purpose. It consists of the wool
obtained from the rags of mixed goods ; that is, goods
which have a cotton or linen warp blended with wool. The
cotton is destroyed by chemical agency, chiefly by means
of dilute sulphuric acid, and the wool is left intact.
The cotton fabrics and gray goods of Lanca-shire and
Torkshire are largely adulterated with size and china clay,
the oty'ect being to give them increased weight and sub-
stance. Up to about twenty years ago the sizing of cotton
goods was efl"ectcd with a mixture of fermented flour,
paste, and tallow, by which means the tenacity of the warp
was increased and the friction of weaving was lessentji
To effect this about 20 per cent, of size was used ; but in
1851, when tallow became dear in consequence of the
Russian war, a substitute was found in china clay. Later
still in 1862,' when the cotton famine began to be felt, and
the long-fibred American cotton grew scarce, it was found
necessary to give tenacity to the twist made from shorter
fibre by using more size. In tliis manner as much as from
50 to 90 per cent, of size has got to be used, the greater
part of it being cliina clay, %vith a certain proportion of
hygroscopic matter, such as chloride of magnesium, to keep
the material damp and supple. The impurity is easily
detected by washing the cloth, and ascertaining the loss of
weight before and after the operation. Cheap calicoes are
also largely impregnated ^vith lime, which has been used
in the process of bleaching, and left in them. A cloud of
dust flies out of such fabrics when they are torn. Silk
also is made heavier and stouter by the incorporation of
dye stuffs used expressly for the purpose. This is generally
the case with dark-coloured silks, black and bro^vn, as
lighter shades wiU hardly admit of it ; as much indeed as
half the weight of the silk may be thus incorporated
with it.
23. Falsification of Coin and Precious Metals. — In Anglo-
Saxon times the debasing or counterfeiting of coin was
pvmished by the loss of the hand. In later times it has
been criminal in the highest degree. By the statute 24 and
'25 Vict c. 99, the counterfeiting of gold or silver coin is
felony, and in Scotland is a high crime and offence. Hardly
loss severe is the punishment for debasing, diminishing,
lightening, or impairing the value of the current coin of
the realm ; and very effectual means are taken to secure
their standard value when put into circulation. In the
first place, an officer is appointed by the Crown to super-
intend the coi.iiire. and to be answerable for its goodness.
(See Mint and Coikaoe.) In the second place, the coin
is tested, aa to its weight and fineness, by persons skilled
in the goldsmith's craft. (SeeAfiSAV.) But notwithstanding
this, the coins of the realm, as issued from the mint, have
often been debased to a considerable extent ; for, according
to Lord Liverpool, the total debasement of the silver money
of this country, from the time of the Conquest to the reign
of Elizabeth, was not less than GO per cent. It is notorieus
that in Spain, Austria, and Turkey the degradation of the
silver coin, even at the present time, is carried to a serious
extent By the Coinage Act 1870 (33 and 34 Vict c.
10) the composition and weight of all the coins of this
country are strictly provided for ; and in the case of gold
coin, the limits or "remedy" of fineness and weight are
exceedingly narrow. The composition of the coin is fixed
at eleven-twelfths fine gold, and one-twelfth alloy (copper);
80 that in 1000 parts of our gold coin there are 916CG parts
of fine gold. This is called its millesimal fineness, and
the allowance for error in composition is limited to 0"002
per 1000 parta The weight of the sovereign is fixed at
123'27447 grains, and the limit of error in weight is the
0-2 of a grain ; and in proportion with all other gold coins.
In the case of silver coins, the composition is thirty-seven
fortieths of fine silver, and throe-fortieths of alloy (copper)
— the millesimal fineness being therefore 925 parts of
silver; the remedy or allow&nce of finenc_;S is just twice
that of gold — namely, 0004 per 1000 parts. The weight
of the silver coin is at the rate of 87 27272 grains pei
shilling of value ; and the remedy or allowance of error if
confined to 0'3G3G3 of a grain per shilling. Lastly, the
bronze coinage of the country consists of 95 parts copper,
4 tin, and 1 zinc : the weight of a penny being 145 "83333
grains; and the allowance for error is 2"91GC6 grains per
penny. The specific gravity of the several descriptions of
coin is 17-53 for gold, 10'35 for silver, and 889 for
bronze. So accurate are the composition and weight of
the coins issued from the mint at the present time, that at
the last trial of the " Pyx" in July 1871, the jury reported
that every piece separately examined (representing many
millions sterling) was found to bo accurately coined in
regard to weight and fineness. In the case of the gold coin,
the fineness ranged from 9162 to 917 parta per 1000.
These, indeed, were the extremes of only 2-66 per cent of
the coins examined, the great bulk of them, namely 72-65
per cent having a fineness of from 916"5 to .9 16 7 per
1000. Now, when it is considered that the composition
of an alloy of gold and copper can be ascertained to the
one-ten thousandth part, and that the delicacy of a balance
is to the thousandth part of a grain, it must be evident
that the accuracy and perfection of coining in this country
are remarkably precise. As, however, the weight of gold
and silver coin must become less by continual wear, the
Acts 22 and 25 Vict c 99, and 33 and 34 Vict- c 10
provide for it It does not appear that the practice of
debasing coin is carried on to any great extent in this
country ; for in the second Annual Report of the Deputy-
Master of the Mint (1871), the chemist of the Mint (Mr W.
Chandler Roberts) says that only two sovereigns were
submitted to him, the weight of which had been fraudulently
reduced by means of a solvent, aided by electricity. In
former times, however, the process of " sweating " was
very frequently employed.
The adulteration of precious metals was prohibited and
provided for by the rules and regulations of the vrxious
guilds and corporations which took cognizance of the
goldsmiths' craft As early as the 26th of Henry IL
(1180) the Goldsmiths' Company of London -was founded,
and in 1327, when it was incorporated, it was invested
■with the privilege and power of inspecting, trying, and
regulating all gold and sOver wares throughout the king-
A D U — A D V
177
dom, and of pumsliiDg all offenders wlio were lound guilty
of working adulterated gold or silver. The chief offenders
appear to have been the cutlers, who were charged with
covering base metal ia such a manner that it could not
easily be detected. It was therefore pro\-ided that all
manner of vessels of gold and silver should be of " good
and true alloy ; " and power was given to the company to
" go from shop to shop to assay if the gold was good," and
finding that it was not of the right touch, it was to bo
seized and forfeited for the king. Subsequently, by the
statute of 2 Henry VL (1424), it was provided that none
should work gold unless it be as good as the alloy of the
" mystery," and that silver wares should be as good or better
than the king's coin. It was further provided, that when
the goods were finished they shoidd be brought to the Hall
to be assayed; and when found of the right touch it
should be stamped with the owner's and assayer's marks, as
weU as with the " Liberdshede crowned." These powers
have been confirmed in numerous Acts of Parliament, the
most important of which are the following: — 12 Geo. IL
c. 26 (1739), which provides that no goldsmith, silver
smith, or other trader shall work or make any vessel of
gold of less than 22-carat fineness (that is, 22 parts of
fine gold to 2 parts of alloy), nor any silver vessel or plite
of less than eleven ounces and two pennyweights of fine
silver, and 18 pennyweights of alloy, in a pound troy,
under a penalty of £10. But this does not extend to
jewelry, earrings, gold springs, lockets, &c. It also pro-
vides for the proper assaying and stamping of the same.
In 1784, the Act 24 Geo. III. c 53, made provision for
imposing a duty on the article assayed and stamped.
and from that time the king's or queen's head has ap-
peared as a mark. In 1798, the Act 38 Geo. ILL c. 69,
gave permission for a lower standard of gold, namely
18-carat gold (that is, 18 parts of fine gold to 6 of alloy);
and by the Act 7 and 8 Vict. c. 22 (1844), the penalty
for using false stamps, &c., was ameliorated. Lastly,
by the Act 17 and 18 Vict. c. 90, three still lower
standards of gold were permitted, namely 15-carat gold,
12-carat gold, and 9-carat gold, each of which was to
be designated by the number and the decimaL At pre-
sent, therefore, all gold and silver plate, as well as wedding
and mourning rings, must be assayed and stamped before
their sale ; and other articles may be assayed and stamped
in like manner at the option of the maker or dealer. "The
stamps or marks impressed on gold are the following,
namely, — 1 st, The initials of the maker's name ; 2d, The
duty mark (a king's or queen's head); 3d, The crown and
standard number, indicating the quality of the gold ; ith,
The assayer's stamp (a leopard's head for Goldsmiths' Hall);
and 5th, The letter denoting the year of assay. In the
case of sOver, the stamps are — Ist, The initial letters of the
maker; 2d, A lion; 3d, The assayer's stamp (in London, a
leopard's head); ith. The letter indicating the year of assay;
and 5th, The duty mark (a king's or queen's head). Silver
goods of higher value, that is, with a mixture of 11 ounces
and 10 pennyweights of fine silver, instead of 11 ounces
and 2 -penpyweights, is called new sterling, and is, as for-
merly, marked with a figure of Britannia, and a lion's head
erased. As in olden times, the Goldsmiths' Company have
still power to break, cut, or otherwise destroy all gold and
silver plate which is below the legal standardL (h. l.)
ADULTERY (from the Latin adtdterium) is the sexual
intercourse of a married person with another than the
offender's husband or wife. Among the Greeks, and in the
earlier period of Roman law, it was not adultery unless
a married woman was the offender. The foundation of the
later Roman law with regard to adultery was the lex Julia
de adulteriis coercendis passed by Augustus about B.C. 17.
(See Diff. 48, 5; PauU. Bee. Sent. iL 26; Brisson, Ad Leg.
Jul. de Adult.) In Britain it has been reckoned a spiritual
offence, that is, cognisable by the spiritual courts only.
The common law took no farther notice of it than to allow
the party aggrieved an action of damages. In England,
however, the action for " criminal conversation," as it was
called, is nominally aboKshed by 20 and 21 Vict. c. 85,
§ 59 ; but by the 33d section of the same Act, the husband
may claim damages from one who has committed adultery
with his wife in a petition for dissolution of the marriage,
or for judicial separation, or in a special petition for the
purpose in the Divorce Court. In Scotland damages may
be recovered against an adulterer in an ordinary action of
damages in the civil court, and the latter may be found
liable for the expenses of an action of divorce if joined with
the guilty spouse as a co-defender.
Adultery is, both in England and Scotland, a ground
of divorce. In England, a complete divorce or dissolution
of the marriage could, until the creation of the Court of
Probate and Divorce by 20 and 21 Vict. c. 85, be obtained
only by an Act of Pai'Uament. In Scotland a complete
divorce may be effected by proceedings in the Court of
Session, as succeeding to the old ecclesiastical jurisdiction
of the' commissioners. A person divorced for adultery is,
by the law of Scotland, prohibited from intermarrying with
the paramour. See Divorce.
ADVENT, the period of the approach of the nativity,
lasting, iu the Greek Church, from St Martin's D.iy (Nov.
11), and, in other churches, from the Sunday nearest to St
1—7*
Andrew's Day (Nov. 30) till Christmas. The observance
of it dates from the 4th century, and it has beei; recognised
since the 6th century as the commencement of the ecclesias-
tical year. With the view of directing the thoughts of
Christians to the coming of Christ as Saviour, and to his
second coming as Judge, special lessons are prescribed for
the four Sundays in Advent. At one time Advent was
observed almost as strictly as Lent, but the rule is now
relaxed, and in the Church of England fasting is confined
to the week in which Ember Day (13th Dec.) occurs.
The phrase second advent ia commonly used to denote our
Lord's "appearing the second time, without sin, unto sal-
vation," which is so often spoken of in the New Testament.
Various opinions have been held as to the time and manner
of this. event. In the apostolic churches it was commonly
regarded as imminent, though this was not the opinion of
the apostle Paul, as may be gathered from 2 Thess. ii. 3,
4. The discussion in later times has centred itself chiefly
round the question whether the second advent is pre-
millennial or post-millennial.
ADVERTISEMENT (from the French aveHissement, a
giving notice, or announcement) denotes in a general sense
any information publicly communicated through the press
or otherwise. It is the profit derived from advertisements
that supports the larger number of newspapers. While
some of these drag out a sickly existence, others derive a
large revenue from this source. The duty upon advertise-
ments (which existed in Britain^ previous to 1853) was
not unjustly branded as a tax upon knowledge. It was
certainly very unequal and oppressive, being the same upon
the sale of an estate worth XIOO.OOO as on a servant's notice
wanting a place, upon an advertisement of a sixpenny
* Tlicre is no duty on advcrtJBomontfl in tho United States, Germany,
or France. In France, however, there ia a duty of 10 per cent, on the
raw paper, and a further duty of 20 per cent, on all nawBpap«n
printed.
178
A D V — A D V
Ijamplilet and an expensive book. Previous to 1833 the
duty oa each advertisement was 3a. Cd. in Great Britain,
and 2s. 6d. in Ireland; in that year it was reduced to
la. 6d. in Great Britain, and Is. in Ireland. In 1832 (the
last year of the high duty) the total number of newspaper
advertisements in the U. K. waa 921,913: viz., 787,019 in
England, 108,914 in Scotland, and 125,380 in Ireland; the
amount of duty paid in that year beingX172,570. In 1811
th<! number of advertisements had increased to 1,778,957:
viz., 1,386,625 for England, 188,189 for Scotland, ^and
204,143 for Ireland; and the total duty paid amounted to
£128,318. In 1851 the amount of duty rose to £175,094,
10s. 84; being for England £142,305, 3s. 64; Scotland,
£19,940, lis.; Ireland, £12,788, ICs. 24 In compUance
with the all but unanimous voice of the public, this duty
was abolished in 1853; since which time the system of
advertising has increased to an unprecedented extent, in
consequence of the low rate at which short advertisemen.t3
nro now in3erte4 To advertise advantageously requires
both experience and judgment; without a knowledge of
♦lie character and circulation of the public journals, much
expenditure may bo wasted by advertising in papers that
have either a limited or inappropriate circulation. The sale
of some commodities (such as quack medicines) depends
almost wholly on advertising, of which it has been said
that if the vender has the courage to continue advertising
to the extent of £20,000, he will make his fortune by a
drug thoroughly worthless. Advertising often falls dispro-
portionately on books, as it is necessary that new'pubUca--
tions should be freely adverti3c4 On small low-priced
books the expense is particularly heavy, an advertisement
of a one shilling book costing as much as one polling at
twenty shillings. From this, and their generally ephe-
meral character, it may be said that ninety-nine out of a
hundred pamphlets are published at a loss.
Interesting information on the subject of advertisements
will be found in an article in the Edinburgh Review for
Ist Feb. 1843, " On the Advertising System," and in the
Quarterly Review for June 1855, "On the Rise and Pro-
gress of Advertisements, from the establishment of the
Newspaper Press of this Country till the Present Time."
In the latter article it is stated that the first advertisement
occurs in the Mercurius Politicus for Jan. 1652, the sub-
ject of the advertisement being a heroic poem of congratula-
tion on Cromwell's victories in Ireland. A writer in Azotes
and Queries for July 6, 1872, has fotmd two examples of
rvdvertisements previous to that date, which occur in the
Mercurius Elendicus of Oct. 1048. See also The News-
paper Press, by James Grant (2 vols., 1871), and the
article NewsPArERS.
ADVOCATE (from the Latin arfiracaiui), a lawyer author-
ised to plead the causes of litigants in courts of law. The
word is used technically in Scotland in a sense virtualiy
equivalent to the English term barrister; and a deriva-
tive from the same Latin source is so used in most of the
countries of Europe where the civil law is in force. The advo-
catus of the Romans meant, as the word implies, a person
whose assistance was caUed in or invoked. The word is
not often used among the earlier jurists, and appears not to
have had a strict meaning. It is not always associated
with legal proceedings, and might apparently be applied to
a supporter or coadjutor in the pursuit of any desired ob-
ject. When it came to be applied with a more specific
limitation to legal services, the position of the advocatus
was still uncertain. It was different from, and evidently
inferior to, that of the Juris-consultus, who gave his opinion
and advice in questions of law, and may be identified with
the consulting counsel of the present day. Nor is the
merely professional advocate to be confounded with the
more ilutinguishcd orator, or patranus, who came forward
in the guise of the disinterestc4 vindicator of justice. This
distinction, however, appears U-. have arisen in Liter times,
when the profession became mercenary. By the lex Cincia,
pa;;scd about two centuries before Christ, and subsequently
renewed, the acceptance of remuneration. for professional
assistance in lawsuits was prohibited. This law, like all
others of the kind, was evcded. The skilful debater waa
propitiated with a present ; and though he could not sue
for the value of his services, it was ruled that any honor-
arium so given could not be demanded back, even though
ho died before the anticipated service was performe4 The
traces of this evasion of a law may be found in the existing
practice of rewarding counsel by fees in anticipation of
services. In the Justinian collection we find that legal
provision had been made for the remuneration of advo-
cates. {Diff. lib. 50, tit. 12, § 10-13 ; Brissonius, De
Siy. Verb. ; Heineccius ad JPand. lib. iii. tit. 1.) The
advocatus fisci, or fiscal advocate, was an officer whose
function, like that of a solicitor of taxes at the present day,
was connected with the collection of the revenue. (See
generally on this subject Forsyth's llortensius, London,
1849.) The term advocate is of frequent use in the chron-
icles, capitularies, chartularies, and other records of eccle-
siastical matters, during the Middle Ages. (See Du Gauge,
s.v. Advocati Ecclesiarum, who afl'ords a profuse supply of
references to authorities.) The term was applied in the
primitive church to those who defended the Christians
against malignants or persecutors. As the church waxed
rich and powerful, its temporal supporters assumed a more
important position. The advocate, defender, or patron, was
of a temporal rank, corresponding to the power of the ec-
clesiastical body who sought his advocacy. Princes sought
the distinction from Rome ; and it was as a relic of th(
practice of propitiating temporal sovereigns by desiring theii
protection that Henry VIII. received his title of " Defender
of the Faith" The office of advocate to any of the great
religious houses, possessed of vast wealth, was one of dig-
nity and emolument, generally held by some feudal lord of
power and influence. This kind of protection, however, was
sometimes oppressive. In the authorities quoted by Du
Cange we find that, so early as the 12th centiuy, the advo-
cates were accused of rapine and extortion ; and by a capi-
tulary of the popedom of Innocent TIT, they are prohibited
from taking and usurping rewards and privileges beyond use
and wont. The office at length assumed a fixed character
in its powers and emoluments ; and it became the practice
for the founders of churches and other ecclesiastical endow-
ments to reserve the office of advocate to themselves and
their representatives. The term advocate was subsequently
superseded by the word patron ; but a relic of it still exists
in the term advowson, and the word advowee, which is the
form in which the Latin advocatus found its way into the
technicalities of English law. Until lately, advocate was
the proper designation of legal practitioners in the Pro-
bate and Admiralty courts, and still is the name given to
those who practise in what remains of ecclesiastical courta
In France, corporations or faculties of avocats were at-
tached to the parliaments and other tribunals. They formed,
before the revolution, a part of the extensive and powerful
body commonly called the nobility of the robe. It was not
necessary that the avocat should be bom noble, and his
professional rank was little respected by the hereditary
aristocracy ; but as a middle rank, possessed of great powers
and privileges, which it jealously guarded, the profession
acquired great influence. In the Encydopidie Methodigue,
the avocat is caUed " the tutelary genius of the repose of
families, the friend of man, Ids guide and protector." The
avocats, as a body, were reorganised under the empire by
a decree of 15lh December 1810. (See Camus, Lettres sur
la Profession d'Advocal ; A. Young, The French Ear.) la
A. D Y — M A C
179
France there ie a distlnctioa 'between avocals and avouei.
The latter, whose number is Imuted, act as procurators or
agents, representing the parties before the tribunals, draft
and prepare for them all formal acts and writings, and
prepare their lawsuits for the oral debates. The office of
the avocat, on the other hand, consists in giving advice as
to the law, and conducting the causes of his clients by
written and oral pleadings. The number of avocats is not
limited; every licentiate of law being entitled to apply to
the corporation of avocats attached to each court, and after
presentation to the court, taking the oath of office, and
passing three years in attendance on some older advocate,
to have himself recognised as an advocate. The Faculty
of Advocates is the collective term by which the members
of the bar are known in Scotland. They professionally
attend the supreme courts in Edinburgh ; but they are
privileged to plead in any cause before the inferior courts,
where counsel are not excluded by stattite. They may act
in cases of appeal before the House of Lords ; and in some
of the British colonies, where the civil law is in force, it is
customary for those who practise as banisters to pass as
advocates in Scotland. This body has existed by imme-
morial custom. Its privileges' are constitutional, and are
founded on no statute or charter of incorporation. The
body formed itself gradually, from time to time, on the
model of the French corporations of avocats, appointing like
them a dean or doyen, who is their principal officer. No
curriculum of study, residence, or professional training was,
until 1856, required on entering this profession ; but the
faculty have always had the power, believed to be liable to
control by the Court of Session, of rejecting any candidate
for admission. The candidate undergoes two private ex-
aminations— the one in general scholarship, in lieu of
which, however, he may produce evidence of his having
graduated as master of arts in a Scottish university, or ob-
tained an equivalent degree in an English or foreign univer-
sity ; and the other, at the interval of a year, in Roman,
private international, and Scots law. He must, before
the latter examination, produce evidence of attendance at
classes of Scots law and conveyancing in a Scottish univer-
sity, and at classes of civil law, public or international
law, constitutional law, and medical jurisprudence in a
Scottish or other approved university. He has then to
undergo the old academic form of the public impugnment
of a thesis on some title of the pandects ; but this cere-
mony, called the public examination, has degenerated into
a mere form. AJarge proportion of the candidate's entrance
fees (amounting to j£339) is devoted to the magnificent
library belonging to the faculty, which literary investigators
in Edinburgh find so eminently useful
Lord Advocate, or Kino's Advocate, is the principal
law-officer of the crown in Scotland. His business is to
act as a public prosecutor, and to plead in all causes that
concern the crown. He is at the head of the system of
public prosecutions by which criminal justice is administered
in Scotland, and thus his' functions are of a far more ex-
tensive character than those of the English law-officers of
the crown. He is aided by a solicitor-general and subor-
dinate assistants called advocates-depute. The office of
king's advocate seems to have been established about the
beginning of the 16th centiiry. Originally he had no power
to prosecute crimes without the concurrence of a private
party; but in the year 1597 he was empowered to prose-
cute crimes at his own instance. He has the privilege of
pleading in court with his hat on.
ADVOCATION, in Scottish Law, was a mode of appeal
from cert:iin inferior courts to the supreme court. It was
abolished in 1868, a simple "appeal" being substituted.
I ADVOWSON, or Advowzen (advocatio), in Engluh
Common Law, the right of presentation to a vacant eccle-
siastical benefice, is so called becaiue the. patron defends
or advocates the claims of the person whom he presents.
Originally all appointments within a diocese lay with the
bishop ; but when a landowner founded a church on his
estate and endowed it, his right to nominate the incumbent
was usually recognised. Where the right of presentation
remains attached to the manor, it is called an adtows»n
appendant, and passes with the estate by inheritance or
^e without any special conveyance. But where, as is
often the case, the right of presentation has been sold by
itself, and so separated from the manor, it is called an
advowson in gross. Advowsons are further distinguished
inta presentative, collative, and donative. In a presentative
advowson, the patron presents a clergyman to the bishop,
with the petition that he be instituted into the vacant
living. The bishop is bound to induct if he find the
clergyman canonically qualified, and a refusal on his part
is subject to an appeal to an ecclesiastical court either by
patron or by presentee. In a collative advowson the bishop
is himself the patron, either in his own right or in the right
of the proper patron, which has lapsed to him through not
being exercised within the statutory period of six months
after the vacancy occurred. No petition is necessary in
this case, and the bishop is said to collate to the benefice.
In a donative advowson, the sovereign, or any subject by
special licence from the sovereign, confers a benefice by a
simple letter of gift, without any reference to the bishop,
and without presentation and institution. The incumbent
of such a Hving is to a great extent free from the jurisdic-
tion of the bishop, who can only reach him through the
action of an ecclesiastical court. 'When an ecclesiastical
body owned an advowson, it very frequently, by appropria-
tion, exercised the right in its own favour, the corporation
becoming the incumbent of the living, the actual duties of
which were discharged by a vicar or perpetual curate. An
advowson, being property, may be sold, or mortgaged, or
seized by the creditors on a bankrupt estate, under certain
restrictions intended to prevent simony. A sale is abso-
lutely prohibited during the mortal sickness of the incum-
bent, or during the existence of a vacancy. There are
upwards of 13,000 benefices in the Church of England,
the advowsons being distributed as shown in the following
list, which may be taken as approximately correct : — Under
the patronage of the crown there are 1 144 livings; bishops,
2324; deans and chapters, 933; the universitiep. 770;
parochial clergy, 931 ; and private persons, 7000.
ADYTUM, the most retired and sacred place of ancient
temples, into which none but the officiating priests were
allowed to enter. The Most Holy Place of the temple of
Solomon was of the nature of the pagan adytum; none but
the high priest being admitted into it, and he but once a year.
M, or AE, a diphthong, compounded of A and E, of fre-
quent occurrence in Latin and in Anglo-Saxon. In the best
editions of the classics the form now preferred is ae. In
English words derived from Latin the diphthong is gene-
rally converted into the simple e, but it is not unfrequently
retained, as in ^olian, medicevaZ, &c. In some words it
represents the Greek at, to which the Latin ce corresponds,
as in CEstketics {aiaO-ijriKd).
j'EACUS, in Mythology, the son of Jupiter by jEgina.
'When the isle of iEgina was depopulated by a plague, his
father, in compassion to his grief, changed all the ants
upon it into men and women, who were called Arip-midones,
from /ivp/jiT]^, an ant. The foundation of the fable is said
to be, that when the country had been depopulated by
pirates, who forced the few that remained to take shelter
in caves, jEacus encouraged them to come out, and by
commerce and industry to recover what they had lost His
character for justice and piety was such that, in a time of
universal drought, he was nominated by the Delphic oracle
380
m D l — M G I
to intercede for Greece ana hib prayer was answered The
OBcients iilso imagined that yEacus, on account of his im-
partial justice, was clioseu by Pluto one of the three ju(l;;u3
of the dead, and that it was his 'irovinco to judge the
Europeana.
jEDILE {axliHs), in Roman Antiquity, a magistrate
whoso chief business was to suporiuteud buildings of all
kinds, but more especially public ones, as temples, aque-
ducts, bridges, <fec To the aediles likewise belonged the
care of the highways, public places, weights and measures,
&c. They also superintended the markets, fixed the prices
of -provisions, took cognisance of breaches of decency and
public order, and "took charge of police matters generally.
JThe custody of the plchiscita, or decrees of the people, and
senatua consulla, or decrees of the senate, was likewise
committed to them. They had the inspection of theatres
and plays, and were obliged to eichibit magnificent games
to the people, usually at their own expense, whereby many
of them were ruined. They had the power, on ceitain oc-
casions, of issuing edicts, and by degrees they proc ircd to
themselves a considerable jurisdiction. At first theie were
only two aidiles, viz., the (cdiles of the people, adiles plebeii,
or minorcs. Tliey were first created iu the same year as
the tribunes, B.C. 494 ; for the tribunes, finding themselves
oppressed with the multiplicity of affairs, demanded of the
senate to have officers to whom they might entrust matters
of less importance ; and accordingly two a;diles were created ;
and henceforward the a;diles were elected every year at the
same assembly as the tribunes. But these plebeian ajdiles
having refused, on a signal occasion, to continue the great
games for four days instead of three, on account of the
expense, the patricians made an offer to do it, provided
they were admitted to the honours of the ajdileship. Ac-
cordingly two new fcdiles were created, from the order of
the patricians, iu the year of Rome 388. They were called
(sdiles curules, or majores, as having a right to sit on a
cunile chair when they gave audience; whereas the plebeian
aediles only sat on benches. The curule rediles alone had
the right to i.sr,ue edicts. Otherwise they shared all the
ordinary functions of the plebeian a>dilcs; they had to
procure the celebration of the grand Roman games, and
to exhibit comedies, shows of gladiators, ifec, to the people;
and they were also appointed judges in all cases relating to
the selling or exchanging of estates. To assist these first
four iEdiles, Caesar (is.c. 45) created a new kind, called
<sdUes ccreale$, so named from their being deputed chiefly
to take care of the supply of corn, which was called donum
Cereris. These aediles cereales were also taken crut of the
order of patricians. In the municipal cities and colonies
there were aediles having much the same authority as at
Rome. We also read of an cedilU alimmlarius, expressed
in abbreviature by adil. alim., whose business seems to
Jiave been to provide diet for those who were maintained
at the public charge, though others assign him a different
office. .In an ancient inscription we also meet with adile
of the camp, cedilis castrorum.
-SQADES, or jEoates, a group ot islands off the west-
ern coast of Sicily, between Tnapaniand Marsala, consisting
of Maretimo, Levanzo, and Favignana. These isknds are
rendered historically famous by the great naval victorj*
gained there by the Romans over the Carthaginians in B.C.
241, which put an end to the first Punic war
jEGEAN sea, a part of the Mediterranean, now more
usually called the Archipelago or Grecian Archipelago,
bounded on the north by Thrace and Macedonia, on the
west by Greece, and on the cast by Asia Minor. The
origin of the name is uncertain. Various derivations are
given by the ancient grammarians — one from the town of
-/Egi-e; another from jEgea, queen of the amazons, who
perished in this sea ; and a third from JF.treus. the father
of Theseus, wbo throw himself headlong into it. Bee
Ancnn-ELAoo.
jEGEUS, iu Fahuout Uiatory, the son of Pandion, was
king of Athens, and the father of Theseus. Ho was one
of the Athenian heroes, but is notable chiefly for the man-
ner of his death. Tlie Athenians haWng killed Androgeus,
the son of Minos, king of Crete, for carrying away the
prize for wTcstling from them, Minos made war upon
them; and being victorious, imposed this severe condition
on .lEgeus, that he should annually send into Crete seven
of the noblest of the Athenian youths and as many
maidens, chosen by lot, to bo devoured by the Minotaur.
On the fourth year of this tribute the choice fell on
Theseus, or, as others say, he himself entreated to be sent.
The king at his son's departure gave orders that, as the
ship sailed with black saiLs, it should return with the same
in case he perished; but if be came back victorious he
should change them for white. When Theseus returned
from Crete alter killing the Minotaur, he forgot to change
the sails in token of his victorj', according to the agree-
ment; and his father, who sat on a rock watching the
return of the vessel, imagining from the black sails that his
son was dead, cast himself headlong into the sea, which
was supposed in consequence to have obtained the name of
the jEyean Sea. The Athenians decreed dirino honours
to J<;geus, and sacrificed to him as a marine deity and a,n
adopted son of Neptune.
jEGINA, in Fabulous Jlitlory, the daughter of Asopus,
king of Boiotia, was beloved by Jupiter, who carried her
from Epidaurus to a desert island called (Enom or (Enopia,
which was afterwards called by her name. See .^Acus.
.(EGINA, or Egina, or Engia, an island in the Saronic
gulf, 20 miles distant from the Piraeus, formerly vying
with Atlicus in naval power, and at the sea-fight of Salamis
disputing the palm of victory with the Athenians. It was
the native country and kingdom of jEacus, who called it
jEyiiia, from his mother's name. (Ovid.) The inhabitants
were called JEginetce and jEginenses. .lEgina is triangular
in shape, and is about 8 miles long from N.W. to S.E., and
about 6 broad, with an area of about 41 square miles.
Strabo states its circumference at 180 stadia, or about 22 J
Engli.sh miles. Its western side consists of stony but
fertile plains, which are well cultivated, and produce
luxuriant crops of grain, with Eorae cotton, vines, almonds,
and figs. The rest of the island is mountainous, and
rather barren. The southern end rises in the conical
Mount Oros, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches to the
north, from which fertile narrow valleys descend on either
hand. From the absence of marahcf, and its insularity,
the ciimate is mild, and the most salubrious of Greece. The
ruins of the ancient vEgina extend along two small ports,
still protected by well-built ancient moles, and the shores
of an open bay, defended by an ancient breakwater, near
the N.W. cape of the island. On the land side the city
walls are still distinctly traceable, 10 feet in thickness,
strengthened by towers at unequal distances, and pierced
by three gates. They abutted on those of the poils, which
were thus included within the line of fortifications, as at
Athens and elsewhere in ancient Greece. Two elegant
Doric columns and substructures are all that remain of
the buildings noticed by Pausanias within the precincts of
a city that was long the greatest and most opulent mari-
time power of Greece ; but the ruins of seventeen Christian
churches, still visible, prove that after the glories of the
proud city had passed away — after what it suffered from
the jealousy of its rival Athens, and from an earthquake
about the beginning of our era — a considerable modrirn
town had occupied its site. Some of these may perhaps
only date from the time that .lEgina remained under its
Venetian toasters, as does a tower erected at the entrance
^ G I— ^ G I
181
of tlie largest port. The Venetians resigned possession
of the island to the Turks in 1715, under whom it became
the prey of Mainote and other pirates, until the emancipa-
tion of Greece made it, in 1828-29, the seat of the Greek
government. On a hill near the N.E. corner of the island
stands the modern little town of Mgina, (as it is pronounced
by the modem Greeks). It is separated by a ravine from
the hill, on which rise in lonely majesty the yuins of a
noble temple, supposed to be that of Jupiter Panhelleniua,
though the point has been disputed. The temple occupies
the rocky summit of a hiU, in the midst of a forest of
pines, at the extremity of the Panhellenian ridge. It was
a ruin in the days of Cicero, as mentioned in one of hia
letters, and seems to have been thrown down by an earth-
quake at an unknown epoch. This temple is conspicuous
from a distance, and was visited by Chandler in the last
century; but has been chiefly known to us by the success-
ful excavations of our countrymen CockereU and Foster,
assisted by Baron Haller and M. Linckh of Stuttgard, in
1811. These gentlemen united ui clearing away the rub-
bish which the lapse of 2000 years had acoiunulated on
the basement and floor of the ceUa ; and after twenty days'
exertion they were rewarded by the discovery not only of
many interesting details relating to Grecian architecture,
but also of many statues, ia wonderfully energetic atti-
tudes,-that had once adorned the fallen pediments of this
celebrated temple. These consist of the eleven figures of
the eastern and five statues of the western pediment,
almost entire, besides fragments of the rest, and two
statuettes, and other ornaments of the acroteria. These
sculptures supply an important link in the history of
ancient art, and connect the schools of early Greece with
that of Etruscan sculpture. The efforts of Messrs CockereU
and Foster to secure those treasures to their coimtry are
well known, as well as their failure through an unlucky
mistake of the agent sent out to purchase them for the
British Museum, They now form one of the most interest-
ing acquisitions of the magnificent Olyptotkek of Munich.
The temple stands on a stylobate of 94 feet by 45 feet.
The original number of columns in the peristyle was thirty-
two, of which twelve were ranged on each side, and six in
each front, 17 feet 2 inches high, including the wide
spreading ovolo of the capital, and a diameter of 3 feet 3
inches at the base. Two other columns, of 3 feet 2 inches
between antae, are in the pronaos, and two similar in the
opisthodomos or posiicum. The ceUa had a door at each
end; a double row of smaller columns, 2 feet 4 inches^in
diameter, were within the cella to support its partial roof;
but the greatest' portion of the ceUa was open, as this temple
was hypcetkral. There still remain twenty-one colunms of the
peristyle, with their architraves; six of the eastern front,
and continuously with them are five columns of the north
side ; the four columns of the .pronaos and opisthodomos,
and the lower -part of the shafts of five within the cella.
The tympana had been painted of a bright azure, to give
relief to the statues ; and the drapery of Minerva, the
middle figure of ea'ch group, had been painted ted and
blue. The whole of the ornaments on the cornices and
upper mouldings of the pediment had been painted in
encaustic, not cajjved. The subject of the groups of statuary
appears td be the contest for the body of Patroclus, one of
.the jEacidcB (or royal progeny of Mgina of old), as described
by Homer. (CockereU On the Mgina Marhles; Brand's
Jo/umal.y Thjfl magnificent structure was erected most
probably; in the 6th ceotjiry b.o., but, at all events, un-
doubtedly belongs to the brilliant period of ./Eginetan
power, when its navy and its commerce were the pride of
Greece, and carried its citizens to the remotest shores of
the Mediterranean and the Euxino. Silver money is said
to have been struck at vEgina long before it was coined
even at Athens. The victory of Salamis was in a great
measure owing to the thirty ships of jEgina, and the voice
of grateful Greece assigned to her warriors on that event-
ful day the prize of valour. Yet not long after, the rivalry
of Athens began to cloud the prosperity of the haughty
islanders, whose fleet she had before defeated; and Mgaxa.
at length sunk under the enmity of a relentless commercial
rival, that banished her citizens and supplied their place
with Attic colonists. After the close of the Peloponnesian
war Lysander restored the banished inhabitants, but
iEgina never recovered its ancient prosperity.
.^GINETA, Paulus, a celebrated sargeon of the island
of iEgina, whence he derived his name. According to
Le Clerc's calculation, he lived in the 4th century; but
Abulfaragius the Arabian places bim with more probability
in the 7th. His knowledge in surgery was very great,
and his works are deservedly famous. The title of the
most important of them, as given by Suidaa, is "Emro/i^s
'larpiKT^s Bt/5X(a "ETrra {Synopsis of Medicine in Seven
Boohs). The sixth book, which treats of surgery, is par-
ticularly interesting. The whole work in the original
Greek was published at Venice in 1528, and another
edition appeared at Basle in 1538. Several Latin trans-
lations have been published, and an excellent English
version, with commentary, 'by Dr F. Adams (1844—48).
jEgineta is the first writer who takes notice of the cathartic
property of rhnbarb, and, according to Dr Milward, is the
first in all antiquity who deserves the title of accoucheur.
.^GIS, in Classical Mythology, a name given to the shield
or buckler of Jupiter. The goat Amalthaea, which had
suckled that god, being dead, he is said to have covered
his buckler with the skin, or used the skin as a buckler;
whence the appellation cegis, from ai|, diyos, goat. Jupiter
afterwards restored the animal to life, covered it with a new
skin, and placed it among the stars. A fuU description
of the segis of Jupiter is given by Homer, //. v. 738, eqq.
ApoUo is also represented as bearing the a^gis, and Minerva
stUl more frequently. After Perseus kiUed Medusa, Minerva
nailed her head in the middle of the aegis, which thence-
forth had the faculty Medusa herself had during her life
of converting aU who looked on it into stone. Later writers
regard the segis sometimes as a buckler, but oftener as a
cuirass or breastplate. The cegis of Pallas, described by
Virgil {JUn. lib. viii. v. 435), must have been a cuirass,
since the poet says expressly that Medusa's head was on the
breast of the goddess. But the aegis of Jupiter, mentioned
a little before (v. 354), seems from the description to have
been a buckler. The jegis appears to have been reaUy tho
goat's skin used, as weU as the skins of other animals, as a
belt to support the shield. When so used it would usually
be fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially
envelope the chest as it passed obUquely round in front
and behind to be attached to the shield under the left arm.
Hence, by transference, it would be employed to denote at
times the shield which it supported, and at other times a
lorica or cuirass, the purpose of which it in part served.
Illustrations of the assumption of tho a;gis by the Roman
emperors may be seen in ancient statues and cameos.
.(EGISTHUS, in Ancient History, was the son of Thy-
estos by his own daughter Pelopea, who to conceal her
shame exposed him in the woods. Some say ho was taken
up by a shepherd and suckled by a goat ; whence he was
called .^igisOius. After he grew up he was recognised by
his father, and on tho death of tho latter he became king
of Mycenaj. He did not join the expedition against Troy;
and after tho departure of the expedition he seduced
Clytomnestra, the wife of Agamemnon, and lived with her
during the siege of Troy. Afterwards, with her assistance,
he slew her husband, and reigned seven years in Mycenaj.
Ho was slain, together with Clytemnestra, bv Orestes.
182
M G 0- M O L
^GOSPOTAMI, in Ancienl Geography, a Binall river in
the Thracian Cheraonesua, running south-caiit, and falling
into the Hellesijont to the north of Sestos, — with a town
of the same name, and a station or road for ahips, at its
mouth. Here the Athenians under Conon, through the
fault of his colleague Philocles, received a signal overthrow
from the Lacedemonians under Lysander (b.g 405), which
involved the taking of Athens, and put an end to the
Peloponnesian war. The tovra does not appear to have
ciisted till after the date of the battle.
jELFRIC, "the Grammarian," as he has been called, is
one of the most voluminous of our old English writers
before the Conquest. He flourished at the latter end of
the 10th century and the beginning of the 11th. Of his
personal history little can be learned, and his birth and
death are alike involved in obscurity. We know that he
was a pujiil of Ethelwold, the friend of Duiistan, at Abing-
don. On Ethelwold's udvancement to the see of Win-
chester, .(Elfric accompanied him, and filled the office of
chief instructor in thu diocese. For the use of lus scholars
he wrote his Latin and English Grammar and Glossary and
his Colloquium. The last of these is in Latin, with an
old English interlinear translation, in which the Latin is
rendered word for word. It is interesting for its account
of ancient manners, and shows that i'Elfric made use of the
conversational method in hia teaching. The words in his
Glossary are not arranged alphaboticaUy, but grouped
together into classes. jElf ric afterwards removed to Ceme
Abbey, in Dorsetshire, where he composed his Homiliea,
the work on wh'ch his fame as an author chiefly depends.
They are 80 in number, and were edited by Thorpe in
1844-46 for the JE'Jric Society, In composing tliem,
jElfric drew largely from the fathers. Thdr style is very
simple and pleasing, and obscure words are carefully
avoided in order to adapt them to the capacity even of the
most ignorant. Subsequent writers made great use of
them, and not a few are to be found unabridged in the
transition (semi-Saxon) English of the succeeding centuries.
They excited great attention about the time of the Refor-
mation, and were appealed to — especially the " Paschal
Homily" — to prove that the doctrines of the English
Church before the Conquest were at variance with those
held by the Church of Rome. Among jElfric'a other
works may bo mentioned his Treatise on the Old and New
Testaments, and his Abridgment of the Pentateuch and the
Book of Job. Of the rest of his life we have little on
which we can rely. He attained to the dignity of abbot,
but hp seems to be a ditferent person from .^Ifric,
archbishop of Canterbury (995-1006), with whom he is
sometimes confounded.
jELIA CAPITOLINA, a name given to the city built by
the Emperor Hadrian, a.d. 134, near the spot where the
ancient Jerusalem stood, wldch he found in ruins when he
visited the eastern parts of the Roman empire; A Roman
colony was settled here, and a temple was dedicated to
Jupiter CapitoUnus. Hence the name Capitolina, to which
Hadrian prefixed that of his own family.
jELIAJNUS, Claudius, born at Proeneste, in Italy. He
taught rhetoric at Rome, under the Emperor Alexander
Severus, accordiiig to Perizonius, but more probably under
Hadrian. Hewa3sumamedMe\i'yXuo-(ro9,"Honey-tongued,"
on account of the ease and accuracy with which he spoke
and wrote Greek ; and he wias also named "the Sophist," from
his being a teacher of rhetoric. He loved retirement, and
devoted himself to study. He greatly admired and studied
Plato, Aristotle, Isocrates, Plutarch, Homer, Anacreon,
Archilochus, &c. ; and, though a Roman, gives preference
to the writers of the Greek nation, and employs the Greek
language in his works. His curious and entertaining work
entitled Vari/s liistoria has been frequently republished, as
wtU as hia treatise De Kalura Animalium. A very nsefu]
edition of the latter was publialied by Schneider, at Leipsic,
in 1784, in Svo; another at Jena, in 1832, by Fr. Jacobs.
The collected edition of hia works, by Gesner, 155C, foL,
contains another work ascribed to him, earned £pUlola
liuiticcg.
jEMILTUS, Pauius, the name of a celebrated family
of the jEmilia Gens. See Pauxub.
jEMILIUS, Paulus, or Paolo Esulio, a celebrated histo-
rian, born at Verona, who obtained such reputation in Italy
that he was invited into France by the cardinal of Bonrlwn,
in tlie reign of Charles VIII., in order to write the history
of the kings of Franco, in Latin, and was presented to a
canonry in Notre Dame. He enjoyed the patronage and
support of Louis XII. He died at Paris on the 5th of
May 1529. His work entitled De Kehus ge^tit Francorum
was transkted into French by Rcnard in 1581, and has
also been translated into Italian and German.
yENEAS, in Faiulous History, a Trojan prince, the son
of Venus and Anchises. He plays a conspicuous part in
the Iliad, and is represented, along with Hector, as the
chief bulwark of the Trojans. Homer always speaks of
.(Eneas and his descendants as destined to reign at Troy
after the destruction of Priam and his house. Virgil has
chosen him as the hero of his great epic, and -the story of
the .^neid, though not only at variance with other tradi-
tions, but inconsistent vdth itself, can never lose its place
as a biography 6f the mythical founder of the Latin power.
./Ene-Oo is described in the jEneid as escaping from the
destruction of Troy, bearing his aged father on his
shoulders, carrying in one hand his household gods, while
with the other he leads his little son Ascanius or liilus.
Hia wife Creiisa is separated from them and lost in the
tUEjult. After a perilous voyage he lands in Africa, and ia
kindly received by Dido, queen of Carthage; who, on hi4
forsaking her to seek a new home, destroj'S herself. Again
escaping the dangers of the sea, he arrives in Italy, where
he lands in Latium, and forms an alliance with Latiaus,
the king of the country, marries his daughter Lavinia, and
founds a city which ho calls, after her, Lavinium. Tumus,
king of the Rutuli, a rejected suitor of Lavinia, makes war
on Latiuus, and both are slain in battle. The story of
the .£neid ends with the death of Turnus. According to
Livy, on the death of Latinus, ./Eneaa assumes the sove-
reignty of Latium, and the Trojan and Latin powers are
united in one nation. After a reign of three years, jEneas
falls in a battle with the Rutuli, assisted by Mezcntius,
king of Etrtlria, and is supposed to be carried up into
heaven, because his body cannot be found. After his death
or disappearance he receives divine honours.
.£NEAS SYLVIUS, Pope. See Pins H.
MOUJS, LNSUL.1E, the modem Lipaei Islaitds, a
group of islands between Italy and Sicily. They are so
called from jEolus, the god of the winds, who was supposed
to rule over them; but they are also frequently termed
Insul(B Vulcanite, or Hephcestiae, from their volcanic erup-
tions, and Insulce Liparcorum,ftom Lipara{modcTn Lipari),
the chief of the group. According to Pliny, the other
islands are Iliera, now Vulcano; Strongyle, now Stromboli;
Didyme,novr SaJina; Phoenicusa,now Feticudi ; Euonymus,
probably Pa nana; and .£'rt««a,now Alieudi. Besides these
there are several small islets. Homer mentions only one
./Eolian island {Od. x. 1).
jEOLIAN HARP, named from .lEolus, god of the wind,
a musical instrument consisting of cat-gut strings stretched
over a wooden sound-box. AVhen exposed to a current of
air, the strings produce a variety of pleasing harmonic
sounds in strange succession and combination.
yEOLIS, or JEoUA, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Asia Minor, settled by colonies of .<EoUan Greeks. The
^ 0 L — ^ R A
183
name in its limited sense was applied to the coast ex-
tending from the river Hennna to the promontory of
Lectum, on the north side of the entrance to the Gulf of
Adramyttium, and lying between Ionia to the S. and
Troas to the N. In its wider acceptation it comprehended
Troas and the coasts of the Hellespont to the Propontis,
■where there were likewise several jEoUan colonies.
.(EOLUS, in Heatlicn Mythology, the god and father of
the winds, was variously represented as the son of Hip-
potes, or of Neptune by a daughter of Hippotes, or of
Jupiter. In the Odyssey he is mentioned as the king of
the .iEolian isle to whom Jupiter had given the super-
intendence and distribution of the winds. Later poets
make him the god and father of the winds, who dwelt in
one of the jEolian islands — according to some in Strom-
1)011, according to others in Lipari, while others place his
residence at Rhegium in Italy. He is represented- as
having authority over the winds, which he confined in a
vast cavern. Strabo and some other writers cozisider him
to have had a real existence ; and derive the fable of his
power over the winds from his skill in meteorology and the
management of ships.
H?c vasto rex Mo\\\a antro,
Luctantea ventos tempestatesque sonoras
iTiperio premit, ac vinclis et carcere frenat.
lUi indignantes magno cum murmure mentis
Circum claustra fremunt ; celsd sedet .^olus area
Sceptra tenens, mollitque animos, et temperat iras :
Ni laciat, maria ac terras ccelumque profundum
Quippe ferant rapid! aecum, venantque per auraa.
JEwid, lib. i. 52
Here ^olns, in cavern vast,
With bolt and barrier fetters fast
RebeUioua storm and howling blast.
They with the rock's reverberant roar
Chafu blustering round their prison door :
He, throned on high, the sceptre sways, *
Controls their moods, their wrath allays.
Break but that sceptre, sea and land.
And heaven's etherial deep.
Before them they would whirl like sand,
And through the void air sweep.
Conirigions Translaiion.
Through Hippotes, ^Eolus is usually represented as de-
scended from .(Eolus, one of the sons of Hellen, and the
mythological ancestor of the .iEoUan tribes.
.iEON (aiMi'), a space of time, was often used in Greek
to denote indefinite or infinite duration; and hence, by
metonymy, for a being that exists for ever. In the latter
sense it was chiefly used by the Gnostic sects- to denote
those eternal beings or manifestations which emanated
from the one incomprehensible and ineffable God. See
Gnosticism.
jEPINUS, Franz Maeia Uleich Theodok, a distin-
guished German natural philosopher, was born at Kostock
in Saxony in 1724, and died at Dorpat in August 1802.
He was descended from John .S^pinus (6. 1499 — d.
1553), the first to adopt the Greek form (aOTtiras) of the
family name, a leading theologian and controversialist
at the time of the Reformation. After studying medicine
fbr a time, Francis jEpinus devoted himself to the physical
and mathematical sciences, in which he soon gained such
distinction that he was admitted a member of the Berlin
Acidemy of Sciences. In 1757 he settled in St Peters-
burg as member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences and
professor of physics, labouring there and pursuing his
favourite studies with great success till his deatL He
enjoyed the special favour of the Empress Catharine 11.,
who appointed him tutor to her son Paul, and endeavoured,
without success, to establish normal schools throughout the
empire under his direction. jEpinus is best known by his
researches, theoretical and experimental, in electricity and
magnetism. TTia principal work, Tcntamen Theoriae Elec-
tricitatis et Magnetisnii, published at St Petsrsbnig in
1759, may be regarded as the first systematic and suo-
cessful attempt to apply mathematical reasoning to these
subjects. Adopting Franklin's theory of positive and
negative electricities, or electric forces, he investigated the
relations of these fuUy, and especially the conditions of
their equilibrium; and many of the conclusions he arrived
at do not depend for their value and importance on the
theory of Franklin, .^pinus himself extended the theor;r,
holding that the particles of the electric fluid repel each
other, attract the particles of all bodies, and are attracted
by them, with a force inversely proportional to the dij-
tance ; that the fluid resides in the pores of the surfaces (if
bodies, moving readily through some, called conductors or
non-electrics, and with difficulty through others ; and that
electric phenomena are produced either by the approach cl
bodies unequally charged, or by the unequal distribution
of the fluid in the same body. He propounded a kindred
theory of magnetism, a magnetic fluid being supposed tu
exist corresponding to the electric fluid, but acting on,
and acted on by, the particles of iron only; It is to bti
added that jEpinus was the first to perceive and define,,
with any measure of clearness, the affinity between elec-
tricity and magnetism. There is a remarkable similaritj
between portions of the work above named and a papei
by Cavendish — the result of independent investigations —
given in the Philosophical Transactions for 1771. In
1787 the Abb^ Haiiy published an exposition of ./Epihus'a
theories. .iEpinus did not confine himself to one or two
departments of natural science. He published a treaiise,
in 1762, On the Distribution of Heat at the Surface of the
Earth; and he was also the author of valuable memoirs on
di0"erent subjects in astronomy, mechanics, optics, meteor-
ology, and pure mathematics, contained in the journals of
the learned societies of St Petersburg and Berlin. His
discussion of the effects of parallax in the transit of a
planet over the sun's disc excited great interest, having
appeared (in 1764) between the dates of the two transits
of Venus that took place during last century.
.^iQUI, an ancient and warlike people of Italy, inhabit-
ing the upper valley of the Anio, who, in confederacy with the
Volsci, carried on a long series of hostilities with the early
Romans, but were finally subdued in the year 302 ac.
jERARIANS, a class in ancient Rome, composed of
citizens who had suffered the severest kind of degraSation
the Censors could inflict, but concerning whose exact posi-
tion we have no precise information. Though heavily
taxed, they did not enjoy the rights of citizenship beyond
their liberty and the general protection of the state. They
could not vote in assemblies or serve in the army, and
were deprived of and excluded from all posts of honour
and profit. Romans of the higher classes, as well as the
plebeians, were liable to become jErarians. The name may
be derived from aes, eerie, money, since they were mere
tax-payers; or, which is more probable, it may refer to the
list of them which the censors gave in to the oerarium or
public treasury.
JiRARlUM, the public treasury at ancient Kome. It
contained the moneys and accounts of the state, and also
the standards of the legions, the public laws engraven on
brass, the decrees of the senate, and other papers and
registers of importance. The place where these public
treasures wore deposited, from the time of the establish-
ment of the republic, was the temple of Saturn, on the
eastern slope of the Capitoline bill In addition to the
cominon treasury, supported by the general taxes and
charged with the ordinary expenditure, there was a reserve
treasury, also in the temple of Saturn, the oerarium sanc-
tum (or sanctiue), maintained chiefly by a tax of 5 per cent,
on the value of all manumitted slaves, which was not to
184
A E R — A E R
be had rccourseto, or even entered, except in the extreme
necessity of the state. Under the emperors the senate
continued to have at least the nominal management of the
mrarium, while the emperor liad a separate o«chequer,
called the fiscus. But after a time, as the power of the
emperors increased and their jurisdiction extended till the
senate existed but in form and name, this distinction vir-
tually ceased. Besides creating the jUciu, Augustus also
established a military treasury {(Brarium militare), con-
taining all moneys raised for and appropriated to the main-
tenance of the army. The later emperors had a separate
cerarium privatum, containing the monies allotted for
their own use, distinct from the facua, which they ad-
ministered in the interests of the empire.
AERATED WATERS. Waters impregnated with an
unusually largo proportion of carbonic acid, or other gaseous
substances, occur abundantly in springs throughout the
world ; and, in addition to their gaseous constituents,
generally hold in solution a largo percentage of different
salts. The manufacture of aerated waters arose out of the
attempt to imitate these by artificial means, but till about
the beginning of the present century such efforts did not
meet with great success. The earliest method of producing
acidulated water was that which still obtains iu the pre-
paration of effervescing draughts, such as are made from
" Seidlitz " powders. These powders consist of separate
portions of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid, which,
on being dissolved together in water, form sodium tartrate
and liberate carbonic acid, which bubbles up through the
water. In recent years " granular " effervescent pre-
parations have been introduced, in which the acid and
salt are mixed in a dry state, and produce their reaction
on being dissolved. The popular preparation termed effer-
vescent citrate of magnesia, and several others under a
variety of names, consist essentially of sodium bicarbonate
and tartaric acid, to which a little (jitric acid is sometimes
added. A limit, however, is set to the use of waters so
aerated on account of the purgative action of the alkaline
earths they necessarily contain.
In the manufacture of common aerated waters the car-
bonic acid is prepared apart from the pure water in which
it is to be dissolved. There are essentially only two
methods on which the manufacture is conducted, although
there is an endless variety in the apparatus used. In the
first process, which may be distinguished as the method of
chemical pressure, the carbonic acid gas saturates the water
by its own pressure, passing directly from the chamber in
which it is produced and purified, into the cylinder or
cylinders containing the water to be aerated. The small
apparatus frequently used in private houses and hospitab
may be taken as an illustration of this method. The most
common form consists of two strong
glass globes A and B, protected by
netting in case of breakage. Into the
globe A are placed the materials for
generating carbonic acid, usually in
this case tartaric acid and sodium bi-
carbonate. When charged with these
materials, a metal tube C, accurately
fitted to the aperture in the globe, is
inserted. The globe B is inverted and
filled with water, and in this position
the globe A is screwed tightly up by
the joint D, the metal tube reaching to
near the top of globe B. On placing
the apparatus upnght, a proportion of
water escapes through the" metal tube
into globe A, acts on the charge it con-
tains, and evolves carbonic acid, which passes np the tube
and saturates the water in B. As the pressure of the gas
augments, the quantity absorbed increases, and when tiiAy
saturated the aerated water may be draw^n off by the cock
E. In manufacturing on a largo scale, a combination of
globes or cylinders is used for producing continuous
action, and less expensive sources of carbonic acid than
sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid are employed. The
second or mechanical pressure process is that generally
followed Ui the manufacture in this country. In this
process the gas is prepared in a lead chamber by the
action of sulphuric acid on chalk, and is washed by pa8»
ing through water into the gasholder in which it is col-
lected. By the action of a force-pump, water, filtered
when necessary, and carbonic acid, are pressed, in duo
proportions, into a vciy strong copper cylinder, tinned
internally, teimed a receiver or saturator, in which, an
agitator is kept revolving. A pressure gauge is attached
to the receiver, and when the index indicates from 120
to 140 lb pressure per square inch, what is termed
aerated water, and very frequently does duty for soda-
water, is ready for drawing off at the bottling apparatus.
Real soda-water is best prepared by adding to the water
before aeration a proportion of sodium bicarbonate equal
to about 30 Or 3G grains per pint of water. Potash-water,
Seltzer, lithia, Carrara, bromide of potassium, and a host
of other waters, are similarly prepared, the various salts
being used in different proportions, according to the taste
and experience of manufacturers. Lemonade, and other
aerated drinks flavoured with fruit syrups, have the pro-
portion of syrup placed in the bottle to which simple
aerated water taken from a receiver, indicating a pressure
of 80 to 100 Bi per square inch, is added. From a
syrup composed of 14 11> of sugar, 2 J oz. of tartaric acid,
3| oz. of citric acid, and 4i drachms of essence of lemon,
dissolved in 2 J gallons of water, 30 dozen bottles of an
excellent quaUty of lemonade can be prepared. On ac-
count of the rapidity with which the gas escapes on the
removal of pressure, special arrangements are required for
the bottling and corking, processes, and the frequent ex-
plosion of bottles necessitates guards to protect the bottler.
A dexterous bottler will fill and cork 5000 bottles in ten
hours. The consumption of aerated waters, csnecially in
hot climates, is very great.
AEROE, or A-Bkoe, an island of Denmark, in the Little
Belt, lying 7J miles S. of Funen, between Alsen and
Langeland. It is of an irregiilar triangular shape, about
15 miles long and 8 broad at the widest points, with a
billy surface, but a fertile and well-cultivated soil Popu-
lation, 1 f\a00 ; chief town, Aeroeslgobing, on the east
coast. ^
AEROLITE [a-qp, air, and XiOm, a stone}, a stony or
metallic body, which, falling through the atmosphere,
reaches the earth's surface. These meteoric stones gene-
rally contain a considerable proportion of iron ; indeed,
the iron in some of these substances exceeds the siliceoua
matter, and some have then given them the name of mete-
oric irons. A remarkable aerolite that fell at ./Egospotami,
in 467 B.C., was, according to Pliny, to be seen in his day,
and was then as large as a waggon. In 1492 one fell at
Ensiaheim, in Alsace, that weighed 270 ft. ; and, not
to mention others, one of 12 lb weight is reported to
have fallen in California in August 1873, which penetrated
the earth to the depth of 8 feet, and when dug up was
so hot that it coiild not be handled. Aerolites often reach
the earthin groups or showers, as at L'Aigle, in Normandy,
in 1803; at New Concord, Ohio, in May 1860; and at
DhurmsaJa, in the Punjaub, in July the same year. The
area on which a shower of aerolites falls is usually ellipti-
cal, the largest stones being near one end of the ellipse,
the major axis of which extends in some cases to a length
of eighteen or twenty miles, a See Keteos.
VOL I
Ai: 110 NAU TICS
PLATE r
UONTlUM.flRirS BALtXIUH
BLAJVCBARD'a B&]J,OOir.
'r
D J) D P. Zh» ^vt^t ff-ffftd. by JKa**^"*'* £
of<UiC0it t/'JifJialU><r%, tKo\Ud.bur$X,
CAiuTERUJs Parachute
CARNCKfyS PAIMCUVTS
tVSARVlS BAIXOON'
Scale of Feft
IS 20 a
CHARLES' A ROHERTS DaLLOOJA
■ -J
J9 Jtf 4C
£NCYCLOP/tOI* BRITANNICA. NINTH COITION
:a5
AERONAUTICS
gradual
Biacovery
of oaviga-
tioD.
Analogy
between
navigation
and flying
only very
IN every stage of society men have souglit, by tie combi-
nation of superior skill and ingenuity, to attain those
distinct and obvious advantages which nature has conferred
on the different tribes of animals, by endowing them with a
peculiar structure and a peculiar force of organs. The
rudest savage learns from his very infancy to imitate the
swimming of a lish, and plays on the surface of the water
with agility and perseverance. But an art so confined in
its exercise, and requiring such a degree of bodily exertion,
could not be considered of much avail It must have been
soon perceived (even if the discoveries of the arts of nata-
tion and navigation were not absolutely simultaneous), that
the fatigue of impulsion through the water could be greatly
diminished by the support and floating of some Ught sub-
stance. The trunk of a tree would bear its rude proprietor
along the stream ; or, hoUowed out into a canoe and fur-
nished with paddles, it might enable him even to traverse
a river. From this simple fabric the step was not great
to the construction of a boat or barge, impelled by the
force of oars. But it was a great advance to fix masts and
apply sails to the vessel, and thus substitute the power of
wind for that of human labour. The adventurous sailor,
instead of plying on the narrow seas or creeping timidly
along the shore, could now launch with confidence into the
wide ocean. Navigation, in its most cultivated form, may
be fairly regarded as one of the sublimest triumphs of
human genius, industry, courage, and perseverance.
Having by his skill achieved the conquest of the waters
that encompass the habitable globe, it was natural for man
to desire likemse the mastery of the air in which we
breathe. In all ages, therefore, great ingenuity has been
expended in efforts at flying, all of which have as yet re-
sulted in failure. But the analogy between sailing on the
water and sading in the air is not -so close as many enthu-.
siasts have supposed it to be. There is a general resem-
blance, inasmuch as in both cases the propulsion must be
made by means of a fluid. But in the one case the fluid
Is inelastic, in the other elastic ; and the physicist or mathe-
matician knows how vastly different are the properties of
liquids, even in fundamental points, from those of aeriform
or gaseous bodies. Again, in the one case the vessel floats
on the surface of the water, in the other it must float
totally immersed in the aerial fluid. A ship, while sailing,
is acted on by two fluids — the water supports it and the
air propels it ; but a ship sading in the air would be only
under the action of the one fluid that surrounds it on all
sides. These few considerations — and many more might
be added — indicate the essential distinctions between the
two cases ; and a very little thought shows that it is not so
remarkable as it at first sight appears, that the invention
of the art of sailing on the water should be lost in prehis-
toric antiquity, while that of saUing in the air is not a
century old; and that while navigation is one of the most
perfect of the arts, the power of directing a body floating
in the air still remains unattained. Many have argued,
that because navigation is an accomplished fact, therefore
the navigation of the air must be possible ; and without
denying the truth of the conclusion, it is worth while at
the outset of this article to point out the fallacy of the
reasoning. It is true that there is no reason to despair of
the attainment of aerial navigation, as the history of inven-
tion and science records many "ictories as great and at one
time apparently as far off ; still, it is as well to notice how
Little assistance the old discovery affords towards the solution
of the new : it may, indeed, oven be that progress has been
tutarded by the false analogy, for v.e may feel pretty certain
that if ever the air is navigated, it will be by ships pre-
senting little resemblance to those that traverse the ocean.
The subject of aerostation is scarcely ever alluded to by
the classical writers, and the fable of Dsdalus and Icarus,
and the dove of Archytas, form almost all we have to re-
cord in relation to flying previous to the dark ages. Dae-
dalus, an Athenian, killed his nephew Talus through
jealousy of his talents, and fled with his son Icarus to Crete,
where he built the celebrated labyrinth for Minos, the
king. But having offended Slinos, so that he was im-
prisoned by him, he made wings of feathers, cemented with
wax, for himself and his son, so that they might escape by
flight. He gave his son directions to fly neither too low
nor too high, but to foUow him. Icarus, however, be-
coming excited, forgot his father's advice, and rose so high
that the heat of the sun melted the wax of his wings, and
he fell into the sea near Samos, the island of Icaria and
the Icarian sea being named after him. Dcedalus accom-
plished his flight in safety. (Ovid, Met. lib. viii. Fab. iii.)
The explanation of the myth may be, as has been supposed,
that Daedalus used sails, which, tiU then, according ta
Pausanius and Palaphatus, were unknown, and .so was
enabled to escape from Minos' galleys, which were only
provided with oars; and that Icarus was drowned near the
island Icaria. But the whole story of Daedalus is so fan-
ciful a romance, that it is scarcely worth while even to
speculate upon what the infinitesimal fragment of truth that
lay at the bottom of it may have been.
Archytas of Tarentum was a well-known geometer and Arctftus.
astronomer, and he is apostrophised by Horace (Ode 28,
lib. i. ) The account of his flying pigeon or dove we owe
to Aulus Gellius [Nodes Attica:), who says " that it was the
model of a dove or a pigeon formed in wood, and so con-
trived as by a certain mechanical art and power to fly : so
nicely was it balanced by weights, and put in motion by
hidden and enclosed air." Gellius gives as his authorities
" many men of eminence among the Greeks," whom he
does not mention by name, and Favorinus the philosopher.
Archytas thus has been regarded as holding to aeronau-
tics much about the same position as Archimedes does to
the mechanical sciences ; but while the claim of the latter
rests on real discoveries and great contributions to know-
ledge, the former owes his position merely to an unsup-
ported and untrustworthy tradition. When the fire-baUooa
was invented, it was only natural that many should see in
the " hidden and enclosed air " of Archytas' dove a pre-
vious discovery of the hot-air balloon. It is qtiite possible
that Archytas may have rarefied the air in his dove by
heat, and so made it ascend; but in this case it certainly
could not have been made of wood. But if the dove ever
was made to appear to fly, it is much the more probable that
this effect was produced, as in the scenes at theatres, by
means of fine strings or wires invisible to the spectators.
The ancients seem to have been convinced of the im-
possibility of men being able to fly, and they appear to
have made no attempts in this direction at all. The power
of flying was attributed only to the most powerful of the
divinities ; and it was regarded as only secondary to Jupi-
ter's prerogative of flashing the lightning and hurling the
thunderbolt.
The history of aerostatics in the Middle Ages, like that of Aerostatics
every other subject relating eveifi remotely to science or in tho dark
knowledge of any kind, is httle better than a record of the "o**
falsehoods or chimeras circulated by impostors or enthu-,
siasts. Truth was completely obscured by ignorance and
fanaticism, and every person of Buoerior talents and acquire-
L 24
186
AERONAlJTiCS
[early IXPEniKENTR.
Attfm;'
at fiyiji^
mcnts was believed to deal in magic, and to perform his
feats of skill chiefly through the secret aid granted hiiu by
the prince of darkness; and in a later and comparatively
recent period, those wretched creatures whom the unfeeling
credulity of our ancestors, particularly during the prevalence
of religious fanaticism, stigmatised and murdered under
the denomination of witches, were supposed to work all
their enchantments, to change their shapes at will, and to
transport themselves through the air with the swiftness of
thought, by a power derived from their infernal master, to
whom was thus assigned the privilege of conferrinj; the gift
of aerial navigation upon his s'ervanti
' During the darkness of the Middle Ages every one at
all distinguished for his knowledge in physics was gene-
rally reputed to have obtained the power of flying in the
air. I'riar Bacon did not scruple to claim the invention;
and the credulity and indulgent admiration of some authors
have lent to these pretensions more credit than they really
deserved. Any one who takes the trouble to examine the
passages of Bacon's obscure and ponderous works will find
that the propositions advanced by him are seldom founded
on reality, but ought rather to be considered as the illu-
sions of a Uvely fancy. Albertus Magnus, who flourished
in the first half of the 13th century, was reputed to have
discovered the art; and to give an idea of the state of the
physical sciences at that time, it is worth while to quote
the following recipes from his De Mirahilibus Naturae: —
"Take one pound of sulphur, two pounds of willow-carbon,
six pounds of rock-salt ground very fine in a marble mortar;
place, when you please, in a covering made of flying papy-
rus to produce thunder. The covering, in order to ascend
and float a\vay, should be long, graceful, well filled with
this fine powder; but to produce thunder, the covering
should be short, thick, and half full." (Quoted in Astra
Coitra, p. 25.) Regiomontanus, the first real mathema-
lician after the partial revival of learning, is said, like
j^rchytas, to have formed an artificial dove, which flew
before the Emperor Charles V. at his public entry into
Nuremberg; but the date of Regiomontanus' death shows
• this to have been impossible.
Attempts at flying have, as a rule, been made by a some-
what low class of projectors, who have generally united
some little share of ingenuity to a smattering of mechanics.
At the beginning of the 1 6th century an Italian alchemist
■risitcd Scotland, and was collated by James IV. to the
abbacy of Tungland, in Galloway. Ilaving constmcted a
set of wings, composed of various plumage, ho .undertook
from the walls of Stirling Castle to fly through tho air to
France. This feat he actually attempted, but he soon came
to the ground, and broke his thigh-bone by the violence of
the fall — an accident he explained by asserting that tho
feathers of some fowls were employed in his wings, and
that these had an afllinity for the dunghill, whereas, if
composed solely of eagles' feathers, they would have been
atttacted to the air. This anecdote has furnished to
Dunbar, the Scottish poet, the subject of one of his rude
satires. In 1617, Fleyder, rector of the grammar school at
Tiibingen, delivered a lecture on flying, which he published
eleven years afterwards. A poor monk, however, ambitious
to reduce the theory to practice, provided hinwelf with
wings; but his machinery broke down, and falling to the
ground, he broke his legs and perished. Bishop WiUdns
(Mathematical Magick, 1648) says it was related that "a
certain English monk called Elmerus, about the Confessor's
time," fleW by means of wings from a tower a distance
of more than a furlong; that another person flew from
St Mark's steeple at Venice; and another, at Nuremberg.
Ho also quotes Busbequius to the effect that a Turk also
attempted something of the kind at Constantinople. It
.would probably not be very difficult to make a long list of
such narrations, in some of which the experimenter is
related to have been successful, and in others to have failed;
but the evidence is in no case very good, and we may feel
certain that all tho traditions of attemnts with a successful
issue are false.
In Borelli's posthumous work, De Motu Animalium, pub-
lished at Rome in 1680-81, ho calculated the enormous
strength of tho pectoral muscles in birds ; and his proposition
cciv. (vol L pp. 322-326) is entitled " Est impossibilo, ut
homines propriis viribus artificiosi volare possint," in which
bo clearly points out the impossibility of man being able by
his muscular strength to give motion to wings of suflTicient
extent to keep him suspended in the air. But Boretli did
not, of course, as has sometimes been stated, demonstrate
the impossibility of man's flying otherwise than merely by
means of his own muscular power.
A .very slight consideration of the matter shows that,
although tho muscles of man may not be of sufficient
strength to enable him to use wings, this objection does not
apply against the possibility of making a flying chariot in
which the motive power should be produ ced mechanically as
in a watch, or a boat to float in the atm( sphere. Both these
projects have therefore always engaged the attention of
abler men than, has the art of flying, and it was only tho
ignorance of the nature and force of the atmosphere, as
well as of the properties of all aeriform bodies, that caused
so long a time to elapse before the invention of the balloon.
Albert of Saxony, a monk of the order of St Augustine,
and a commentator on the physical works of Aristotle,
seems first to have comprehended (though in a very vague
and erroneous manner) the principles on which a body
might be made to float in the atmosphere. Adopting, of
course, Aristotelian views with regard to the nature of the
elements, ho considered that, as fire is more attenuated,
and floats above our atmosphere, therefore a small portion
of this ethereal substance, enclosed in a light hollow globe,
wc',iJd raise it to a certain height and keep it suspended
in the air; and that, if more air were introduced, the
flobe would sink like a ship when water enters by a leak,
long afterwards Francis Mendoza, a Portuguese Jesuit,
who died in 162G, at the age of forty-six, embraced this
theory, and he held that the combustible mature of fire was
no real obstacle, as its extreme levity and the extension of
the air would prevent it from supporting inflammation.
Casper Schott, also a Jesuit, adopted the same specula-
tion, only that ho replaced the fire by the thin ethereal
substance which he believed floated above our atmosphere ;
but, of course, the difficulty of procuring any of this ether
was a sufficient obstacle.
Similar notions have been revived at different times.
They were likewise often blended with the alchemical tenets
so generally received in the course of the IDth, 16th, and
part of the 17th centuries. Thus Schott quotes Lauretus
Lauras to the effect that if swans' eggs or leather balls be
filled with nitre, sulphur, or quicksilver, and be exposed to
the sun, they will ascend. It was also believed that dew
was of celestial origin, being shed by the stars, and that it
was drawn up again in the course of the day to heaven by
tho heat of the sun. Thus Laurus states that hens' eggs
filled with dew and exposed to the solar heat will rise.
He was eo grossly ignorant, however, of the principles of
motion, that it is not worth while even to allude to his
other assertions.
Cyrano de Bergerac (bom 1620) wrote a philosophical
romance entitled Histolre Comique des Estais ft Empire de
la Lutie, and Les Estait et Empire du Soleil (from which
Swift is supposed to have derived the idea of writing
portions of Gvlliver't Travels). To equip himself for per-
forming the journey to the moon, the French traveller
fastens round his bodj a multitude of rerv thin flasks
Bcrelll
.'^howfl th»
inipofini*
uility of
.iMO flyin?
l-y the oiii
of wings.
SnUing in
the air
Alb«rt ot
8axoo7.
Francis
MfndoEa.
t as per
Schott.
Alchemi«»
LOtiODS.
T-.'.aretus
L.t tiros.
P.omance
ot C)Tanc
'lo Ber
gerac
EARLY EXPERIMENTS.]
AERONAUTICS
187
Cardan.
Fabry
Francis
Laua.
Lana s Aeronautical Machine.
Jo,, '.h
Gal. m.
filled with the morning's dew; the heat of the sun, by its
attractive power on the dew, raised him up to the middle
region of the atmosphere, whence, some of the flasks being
broken, the adventurer sank again to the ground. Other
aeronautical ideas occur La the romance.
Cardan proposed that ascensional power might be applied
as in a rocket; and one Honoratus Fabry has described a
huge apparatus, consisting of long tin pipes, worked by air
compressed by the action of fire.
The most noted .scheme for navigating the au" promul-
gated previously to
the successful ex-
periments of the
Montgolfiers, is due
to a Jesuit, Francis
Lana, and was pro-
posed by him in a
work entitled Pro-
dromo dell' Arte
Maestra, Brescia,
1670. His idea,
though useless and
unpractical in so
far that it could
never be carried
out, is yet deserv-
ing of notice, as
the principles in-
volved are sound;
and this can be
Eaid of no earlier
aj^tempt. His pro-
ject was to procure
four copper balls
of very large dimensions, yet so extremely thin that
after the air was exhausted from them they would be
lighter than the air displaced, and so would rise; and to
those four balls he proposed to attach a boat, with sails,
(fee, and which would carry up a man. He submitted the
whole matter to calculation, and proposed that the globes
should be about 25 feet in diameter and -j-J-jth of an inch
in thickness; this would give from all four balls a total
ascensional force of about 1200 lb, which would be quite
enough to raise the boat, sails, passengers, (fee. But the
obvious objection to the whole scheme is, that it would be
quite impossible to construct a globe of so large a size and
of such small thickness which would even support its own
weight without falling to pieces if placed on the ground,
much less bear the external atmospheric pressure when the
internal air was removed. Lana himself noticed the latter
objection, but he thought that the spherical form of the
copper shell would, notwithstanding its extreme thinness,
enable it, after the exhaustion was effected, to sustain the
enormous pressure, which, acting equally on every point of
the surface, would tend to consolidate rather than to break
the metal Of course this assumed the ball to be absolutely
spherical, a state of affairs as impossible as indifferent equi-
librium actually is. He proposed to exhaust the air from
the globes by attaching each to a tube 36 feet long, fitted
with a stopcock, and so produce a Torricellian vacuum. He
was thus apparently ignorant of the invention of the air-
pump by Otto Guericke about 1650; and though his pro-
ject is noteworthy as the hydrostatics of it is correct, still
Lana displays his ignorance of philosophical facts kno^vn
in his day, quite as much as his originality; and his pro-
position has, since Jlontgolfier's discovery, received a greater
share of notice than it deserves.
So late as 175.'), and not long before the invention of
balloons, a very fanciful Echomo was proposed by Joseph
OaKen. a Dominican friar, and professor of pliiloaophy and
theology in the papal university of Aviguon. This vision-
ary proposed to collect the diffuse air of the upper regions,
and to enclose it in a huge vessel extending more than a
mile every way, and intended to carry fifty-four times as
much weight as did Noah's ark. It is unnecessary to
notice at greater length this absurd chimera, which is
merely mentioned here at all because it is sometimes re-
ferred to, though only on account of the magnitude of the
fantastic scheme.
It is proper here to remark, that nearly aU the early pro-
jectors imagined that the atmosphere was of no great
height, and that it covered the earth like a shallow ocean,
having a well-defined boundary ; and the aerial vessels
which they proposed were intended to float on the surface
of this ocean, exactly as ships do on the sea, with their
upper portions in the ether or diffuse air, or whatever the
fluid might be, that lay above. And these ideas were, of
course, not dispeDed till -after the invention of the barometer
and the discovery of the law of the decrease of atmospheric
pressure with elevation.
Some writers have stated that Francis Bacon first pub-
bshed the true principles of aeronautics. This assertion we
cannot help noticing, because it has really no foundation
except in the propensity, fostered by indolence, which
would gladly refer all the discoveries ever made to a few
great names. They mistake, indeed, the character ol
Bacon who seek to represent him as an inventor. His claim
to immortality rests chiefly on the profound and compre-
hensive views which he took of the bearings of the difl'erent
parts of human knowlege; for it would be difficult to point
out a single fact or observation with which he enriched
the store of physical science. On the contrary, being very
deficient in mathematical learning, he disregarded or
rejected some of the noblest xiiscoveries made in his own
time.
We can find only two passages in Bacon's works which
can be considered as referring to aeronautics, and they
both occur in that collection of loose facts and -nconclusive
reasonings which he has entitled Natural History. The first
is styXaA. Experiment Solitary, touching Flying in the Air,
and runs thus — " Certainly many birds of good wing (as
kites and the like) would bear up a good weight as they
fly; and spreading feathers thin and close, and in great
_ breadth, wiU likewise bear up a great weight, being even
"laid, without tilting up nn the sides. The farther ex-
tension of this experiment might be thought upon." The
second passage is more difi"use, but less intelligible; it is
styled Experiment Solitary, touching the Flying of uneqttal
Bodies in the Air: — " Let there be a body of unequal
weight (as of wool and lead or bone and lead) ; if you throw
it from you ^ath the light end forward, it will turn, and
the- weightier end will recover to be forwards, unless the
body be over long. The cause is, for that the more dense
body hath a more violent pressure of the parts from the first
impulsion, which is the cause (though heretofore not found
out, as hath been often said) of all \'iolent motions; and when
the hinder part moveth swifter (for that it less endureth
pressure of parts) than the forward part can make way for
it, it must needs be that the body turn over; for (turned)
it can more easily draw forward the lighter part." _ The
fact hero alluded to is the resistance that bodies experience
in moving through the air, which, depending on the quan-
tity of surface merely, must exert a proportionally greater
effect on rare substances. The passage itself, however,
after making every allowance for the period in which it
was written, must be deemed confused, obscure, and un-
phUdsophicaL
Wo now come to the discovery of the balloon, which
was due to Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, sons of Peter
Montgolfier, a large and celebrated paporniaker at Annonay,
False ideas
with regarii
to the at-
mosphere.
Confused
ideas of
Bacon OQ
aeronautics
Discovery
..fUie
balloon.'
188
AERONAUTICS
[discovery of
The bro- a town aboul 40 miles from Lyons. The brothers hud
there Mont- observed the suBpension of clouds in the atmosphoie, and
golfler.
Ascent of
tlip first
nir-lallooi
it occurred to them that if they could enclose any vapour
of the nature of a cloud in a large and very light bag, it
might rise and carry the bag with it into the air. They
accordingly made experiments, inflating bags with smoke
from a fire placed underneath, and found either that the
smoke or some vapour emitted from the fire did ascend
and carry the bag with it. Being thus assured of the cor-
rectness of their views, they determined to have a public
ascent of a balloon on a large scale. They accordingly
invited the States of Vivarais, then assembled at Annonay,
to witness their aerostatic experiment; and on June 5,
1783, in the presence of a considerable concourse of spec-
tators, a linen globe of 105 feet in circumference was
inflated over a tiro fed with small bundles of chopped
straw, and when released rapidly rose to a great height,
and descended, at the expiration of ten minutes, at
the distance of about IJ mile. Thi3 was the dis-
coveiy of the balloon. The brothers Montgolfier imagined
that the bag rose because of the levity of the smoke or
other vapour given forth by the burning straw; and it
was not till some time later that it was recognised that
the ascending power was due merely to the lightness of
heated air compared to an equal volume of air at a lower
temperature. Air, like all other fluids, expands by heat,
and thereby becomes rarefied, so that any volume of hot
air weighs less than the corresponding volume of air at a
Ipwer temperature. If, then, the air inside the balloon be
*o heated that it, together with the balloon, weighs lejs than
the air displaced, the balloon will rise till it arrives at such
a height that it and the enclosed air are equal in weight to
that of (he displaced air, when equilibrium will be ob-
lained. In Montgolfier's first balloon, no source of heat
was taken up with it, so that the air inside rapidly cooled,
and the balloon soon descended.
The news of the experiment at Annonay rapidly spread
over Europe, and at Paris attracted so much attention that
' il. Faujas de Saint-Fond, a naturalist, set on foot a sub-
scription for pa}nr.g the expense of repeating the experi-
ment. The balloon was constructed by two brothers of the
name of Robert, under the superintendence of M. Charles,
professor of natural philosophy in Paris, and afterwards a
member of the Academy of Sciences. It had at first been
suggested to copy the process of Montgolfier, but Charles
proposed the appUcation of hydrogen gas, which was
adopted. The filling of the balloon, which was made of thin
silk varnished with a solution of elastic gum, and was about
13 feet in diameter, was commenced on August 23, 1783,
in the Place des Victoires. The hydrogen gas was obtained
by the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon iron filings, and
was introduced through leaden pipes; but as the gas was
not passed through cold water, great difiiculty was experi-
enced in filling the balloon completely; and altogether
about 500 D) of sulphuric acid and twice that amount of
iron filings were used. Bulletins were issued daily of the
progress of the inflation; and the crowd was so great
that on the 26th the balloon was moved to the Champ
de Mars, a distance of 2 miles. This was done secretly,
in the middle of the night, to avoid the crowd; and the
appearance of the balloon being thus removed, preceded
by lighted torches and escorted by a detachment of
, soldiers, is described as having been very remarkable. On
the next day, August 27, an immense concourse of people
coveredi the Champ de Iilars, and every spot from which
a view could be obtained was crowded. About five o'clock
a cannon was discharged as the signal for the ascent,
and the balloon when liberated rose to the height of
about 3000 feet with great rapidity. A shower of rain
■which began to fall directly after the balloon had left the
earth in no way checked its progress; and the excitement
was so great, that thousands of well-dressed spectators,
many of them ladies, stood exposed, watching it intently ths
whole time it was in sight, and were drenched to the skin.
The balloon, after remaining in the air for about three-
quarters of an hour, fell in a field near Gonesse, about
15 miles oQ', and terrified the peasantry so much that
it was torn into shreds by them. Hydrogen gas was at
this time known by the name of inllaramable air; and
balloons inflated with gas have ever since been called by
the people air balloons, the kind invented by the Mont-
golfiers being designated fire-balloons. French writers have
also very frequently styled them after their inventors,
Cliarlih-es and Monijolfikm.
On the 19 th of September 1783 Joseph Jfontgolfier
repeated the Annonay experiment at Versailles, in the pre-
sence of the king, the queen, the court, and an immense
number of spectators. The inflation was commenced at
one o'clock, and completed in eleven minutes, when the
balloon rose to the height of about 1500 feet, and descended
after eight minutes, at a distance of about two miles, in
the wood of Vaucressoru Suspended below the balloon, in
a cage> had been placed a sheep, a cock, and a duck, which
were thus the first aerial travellers. They were quite un-
injured, except the cock, which had its right wing hurt in
consequence of a kick it had received from the sheep; but
this took place before the ascent. The balloon, which was
painted with ornaments in oil colours, had a very showy
appearance.
The first human being who ascended in a balloon was
M. Francois PUatre de Rozier, a young naturalist, who,
two years aftenvards, was killed in an attempt to cross
the English Channel in a balloon. On October 15, 1783,
and following daj-s, he made several ascents (generally
alone, but once with a companion, M. Girond de Villette),
in a captive balloon (i.e., one attached by ropes to the
ground), and demonstrated that there was no difiiculty in
taking up fuel and feedmg the fire, which was iundled in a
brazier suspended under the balloon, when in the air. The
way being thus prepared for aerial na^-igation, on November
21, 17S3, M. Piiatre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes
first trusted themselves to a free fire-balloon. The experi-
ment was made from the Jardin du Chateau de la iluette,
in the Bois de Boulogne. The machine employed, which
was a large fire-balloon, wa» inflated at about two o'clock, and
leaving the earth at this time, it rose to a height of about
500 feet and .passing over the Invalides and the Ecole
Militaire, descended beyond the Boulevards, about DOOOyards
from the place of ascent, having been between twenty and
twenty-five minutes in the air. The result was completely
successful ; and it is scarcely necessaiy to add, the excite-
ment in Paris was very great
Only ten days later, viz., on December 1, 1783, MIL
Charles and Robert ascended from Paris in a balloon in-
flated with hydrogen gas. The balloon, as in the case of
the small one of the same kind previously launched from
the Champ de Mars, was constructed by the brothers
Robert. It was 27 feet in diameter, and the car was sus-
pended from a hoop surrounding the middle of the
balloon, and fastened to a net which covered the upper
hemisphere. The balloon ascended very gently from the
Tuileries at a quarter to two o'clock, and after remaining
for some time at an elevation of about 2000 feet, it de-
scended in about two hours at Nesle, a small town
about 27 miles from Pari", when M. Robert left the car,
and M. Charles made a second ascent by himself. He
had intended to have replaced the weight of his companion
by a nearly equivalent quantity of baUast; but not having
any suitable me.ins of obtaining such ready at the place of
descent, and it being just upon sunset, he gave the wori
AsMnt of ft
cock, anil a.
tluciL
So PKito I.
Accent of
M. Piijitre
ilo Roztcr
(iri'l the
Jl.irquM
d'Arhnileic
Ascfnt
cf MM.
Claries
nnd Robert
in a haltoou
inflated
with ky»lr>
:pii gM,
e Plate t
s:
THE BALLOON.]
AERONAUTICS
189
Remarks
on the di]-
covery of
tbeballooD,
to let go, and the balloon being thus so greatly lightened,
ascended very rapidly to a height of about 2 miles.
After staying in the air about half-an-hour, he descended
3 miles from the place of ascent, although he believed
the distance traversed, owing to different currents, to have
been about 9 miles. In this second journey M. Charles
experienced a violent pain in his right ear and jaw, no
doubt produced by the rapidity of the ascent. He also
witnessed the phenomenon of a double sunset on the same
day; for when he ascended, the sun had set in the valleys,
and as he mounted he saw it rise again, and set a second
time as he descended.
■ All the features of the modern balloon as now used are
more or less due );o Charles, who invented the valve at the
top, suspended the car from a hoop, which was itself at-
tached to the balloon by netting, &c. The M. Robert
who accompanied him in the ascent was one of the brothers
who had constructed it.
On January 19, 1784, the largest balloon on record
(if the contemporary accounts are correct) ascended from
Lyons. It was more than 100 feet in diameter, about
130 feet in height, and when distended had a capacity,
it is said, of over half-a-milUon cubic feet. It was called
the Flesselles (from the name of its proprietor or owner,
we believe), and after having been inflated from a straw
fire in seventeen minutes, it rose with seven persons
in the car, viz., Joseph Montgolfier, PUatre de Rozier,
Count de Laurencin, Count de Dampierre, Prince Charles
de Ligne, Count de Laport d'Anglefort, and M. Fontaine,
the last gentleman having leaped into the car just as the
machine had started. The fire was fed with trusses of
straw, and the balloon rose majestically to the height of
about 3000 feet, but descended again after the lapse of
about a quarter of an hour from the time of starting, in
consequence of a rent in the upper part.
It is proper here to state that researches on the use of
gas for inflating balloons seem to have been carried on at
Philadelphia nearly simultaneously with the experiments
of the Montgolfiers ; and when the news of the latter
reached America, Messrs Rittenhouse and Hopkins, mem-
bers of the Philosophical Academy of Philadelphia, con-
structed a machine consisting of forty-seven small hydrogen
gas-balloons attached to a car or cage. After several pre-
liminary experiments, in which animals were let up to a
certain height by a rope, a carpenter, one James Wilcox,
was induced to enter the car for a email sum of money ;
the ropes were cut, and he remained in the air about ten
minutes, and only then effected his descent by making in-
cisions in a number of the balloons, through fear of falling
into the river, which he was approaching.
The improvements that have been made in the manage-
ment and inflation of balloons in the last ninety years have
only had reference to details, so that as far as essential
principles arc concerned the subject is now in pretty much
the same state as it was in 1783. We have therefore ar-
rived at a point in the history of the balloon where it is
weU to consider how much the Montgolfiers and Charles
owed to their predecessors ; and it is proper here to state
that, although we have assigned the invention to the two
brothers, Stephen and Joseph — as no doubt they both
conducted the early experiments together — still there is
reason to believe tliat the share of the latter was very
small. Stephen, however, although the originator of
balloons, does not appear ever to have ascended himself,
and Joseph did not repeat the ascent just mentioned in the
Flesselles. The Montgolfiers had studied Priestley's £x-
ptrimenls relating to diffirerU kinds of Air, whence they
first conceived the possibility of navigating the atmosphere ;
but their experiment was so simple as to reqidre scarcely any
pliilosophical knowledge. They had seen smoke ascend,
and thought that if they could imprison it in a bag, the
bag might ascend too ; and the observation and reasoning
were both such as might occur to anybody. This does not
detract from their merit; it, on the contrary, adds to it.
The fact that millions of persons must have observed the
same thing, and had not derived anything practical there-
from, only enhances the glory of those who in such well-
wom tracts did make a discovery; but the simplicity of
the invention shows that it is needless to inquire whence
the brothers were led to make it, and how far any part of
the credit is due to their predecessors. It is scarcely pos-
sible to imagine anything more remarkable than that, the
fact that a light bag held over a fire would ascend into the air
was not discovered till 1783, notwithstanding that men in
all ages had seen smoke ascend from fire (though, of course,
the fire-baUoon does not ascend for exactly the same reason
that smoke does). It might be supposed that the connec-
tion of the • Montgolfiers with a paper manufactory gave
them facilities for constructing their experimental balloons
of thin paper; and perhaps such was the case, although
we can find no evidence of it. With regard to Charles's
substitution of hydrogen gas, there are anticipations that
must be noticed. As early as 17GG Cavendish showed
that this gas was at least seven times lighter than ordinary
air, and it immediately occurred to Dr Black, of Edinburgh,
weU known as the discoverer of latent heat, that a thin bag
filled with hydrogen gas would rise to the ceiling of a room.
He provided, accordingly, the allantois of a calf,, with the
view of showing at a public lecture such a curious experi-
ment ; but for some reason it seems to have failed, and
Black did not repeat it, thus allowing a great discovery,
almost within his reach, to escape him. Several years
afterwards a similar idea occurred to Tiberius Cavallo,
who found that bladders, even when carefully scraped, are
too heavy, and that China paper is permeable to the gas.
But in 1782, the year before the invention of the Mont-
golfiers, he succeeded in elevating soap-bubbles by in-
flating them with hydrogen gas. The discovery of
fire-balloons might have taken place almost at any time
in^ the world's history, but the substitution of hydrogen
gas for heated air could not have been made previously tc
the latter half of the last century; and although aU the
honour of an independent discovery belongs to the Monf-
golfiers, Charles, by his substitution of " inflammable air "
for heated air, merely showed himself acquainted wjth
the state of chemical science of his day. Charles never
again ascended after his double expedition on the 1st of
December 1783.
We now return to the history of aerial navigation, and
commence with an account Of the first ascents of balloons
in this country. Although the news of the Annonay and
subsequent experiments in France rapidly spread all over
Europe, and formed a topic of general discussion, still it
was not tUl five months after the Montgolfiers had first
publicly sent a baUoon into the air that any aerostatic
experiment was made in England. In November 1783
Count Zambeccari, an Italian, who happened to be in
London, made a balloon of oil-silk, 10 feet in diameter,
and weighing 11 Ih. It was publicly shown for several
days, and on the 25th it was three-quarters filled with
hydrogen gas, and launched from the Artillery ground at
one o'clock. It descended after two hours and a half near
Petworth, in Sussex, 48 miles from London. This was
the first balloon that ascended from English ground. ' On
February 22, 1784, a hydrogen gas balloon, 5 feet in
diameter, was let up from Sandwich, in Kent, and de-
scended at Wameton, in French Flanders, 75 miles
distance. This was the first baUoon that crossed the
Channel. The difiicultics and dangers of, aerial navi-
gation having been junnountod by the end of the year
Dr Black'*
experi-
lucnta.
Cavallo
inflated
soap bub-
bles with
bydrogen
gas iu
1782.
thirst
a-scenta of
balloons la
England^
190
AERONAUTICS
[rKMARKABLK ARCENTfl.
1783, the asccnta of balloons were now multiplied in all
quarters. It ■n-ill therefore be sufTicient to notice very
briefly only the more remarkable of the succeeding ascents.
ARJreaiii. The Chevalier Paul Andreani, of Jlilaii, constructed a fire-
balloon 68 feet in diameter, and on February 25, 1784,
ascended from Milan with two brothers of the name of
Gerli, and remained in the air for about twenty minutes.
This is usually regarded as the first ascent in Italy (but
Bee Monck Mason's Aeronautica, p. 247). Andreani
ascended again on March 1 3, with two other persons.
BlaucliarJ. On the 2d of March M. Jean Pierre Blanchard, who had
Decn for some years before occupied with projects for
flying, made his first voyage from Paris in a balloon 27
feet in diameter, and descended at Billancourt, near
Sivres. Just as the balloon was about to ascend, a young
man jumi)ed into the car, and, drawing liis sword, de-
clared his determination to ascend with Blanchard. He
■was ultimately removed by force. The episode is worth
noting, as it has sometimes been stated that the young
man was Napoleon Bonaparte, but this is untrue ; his
name was Dupont do Chambon. Blanchard made sub-
sequently, it is said, more than thirty aerial voyages, and
ho is one of the most celebrated of the earlier aeronauts.
He also crossed the English Channel, as noticed further on.
On July 15, 1784, the Due de Chartres and the two
brothers Robert ascended from St Cloud ; but the neck of
the balloon becoming choked up with an interior balloon
filled with common air, intended to regulate the ascending
and descending power, they were obliged to make a hole in
the balloon, in order to allow of the escape of the gas, but
they descended in safety.
Fi'tkr. The first person who rose into the air from British
ground appears to have been Mr J. Tytler,' who ascended
from the Comely Gardens, Edinburgh, on August 27,
1784, in a fire-baUoon of his own construction. He
descended on the road to Restalrig, aboat half-a-mile from
the place where he rose. A brief account appeared in a
letter, under date Augiist 27, in the London Chronicle,
■"1 we have Seen a picture of the balloon copied in some
jouTu.." '"-om a " ticket in the British Museum." Mr Tjrtler's
claims weie for a long time entirely overlooked, the honour
being invariably assigned to Lunardi, till attention was
called to them by Mr Monck Mason in 1838. After
Lunardi's successful ascents in 1785, Mr Tytler addressed
a set of verses to him (quoted in Astra CaUra, p. 108), in a
note, to which ho gives a modest account of his own " mis-
-fortunes," describing his two " leaps." This is, perhaps,
the most correct name for them, as his apparatus having
been damaged at different times, he merely heated the air
in the balloon, and went up without any furnace, being
seated in an ordinary basket for carrying earthenware. He
reached a height of from 350 to 500 feet.
Vuuardi. Although by a few days Tj'tler has the precedence, still
his attempts and partial success were all but totaUy un-
known; whereas Lunardi's experiments excited an enormous
amount of enthusiasm in London, and it was he that
practically introduced aerostation into this country in the
face of very great disadvantages. We have already referred
to the extraordinary apathy displayed in England with
regard to aerostatic experiments, one consequence of which
was that their introduction was due to a foreigner. Vincent
L'.'.nardi was secretary to Prince Caramanico, the Keapoh-
tan ambassador, and hLs published letters to his guardian,
the Chevalier Compagni, written while he w;l3 carrj-ing
out his project, and detailing all the difficulties, ic, he
met with as they occurred, are very interesting, and give a
S^ Plate 1. vivid account of the whole matter. .His balloon was 33
^ Mr Tytler contributed largely to, and, indeed, appears to have
jeen virtually editor of, the'second edition (1778-83) of the Encyclo-
jKEdia liritannica.
feet in circumference, and was exposed to the pubMc ^new
at the Lyceum in the Strand, where it was visited by
upwards of 20,000 people. It was his onginal inten-
tion to have ascended from Chelsea Hospital, but the con-
duct of a crowd at a garden at Chebiea, which destroyed
the fire-balloon of a Frenchman named De Moret, who
announced an ascent on Angu.st 11, but was unable to
keep Ids word, led to the withdrawal of the leave that
had been granted. Ultimately, after some difficulties had
been arranged, he was permitted to ascend from the Artil-
lery ground, and on September 15, 1784, the inflation
wlh hydrogen gas took place. It was intended that Mr
Biggin, an English gentleman, should accompany Lunardi;
but the crowd becoming impatient, the latter^judged it
prudent to ascend with the balloon only partially full
rather than risk a longer delay, and accordingly Mr Biggin
was obliged to leave the car. Lunardi therefore ascended
alone, in presence of the Prince of Wales and an enormous
crowd of spectators. He took up with him a pigeon, a
dog, and a cat, and the balloon was provided with oars,
by means of which he hoped to raise or lower it at
pleasure. Shortly after starting, the pigeon escaped, and
one of the oars became broken and fell to the ground.
In about an hour and a half ho descended at South
Mirams, in Hertfordshire, and landed the cat, which had
sufl'ered from the cold: he then ascended again, and de-
scended, after the lapse of about three-quarters of an hour,
at Standon, near Ware, where ho had great difliculty in
inducing the peasants to come to his assistance; but at
length a young woman, taking hold of one of the cords,
urged the men to follow her example, which they then
did. The excitement caused by this ascent was immense,
and Lunardi at once became the star of the hour. He
was presented to the king, and was courted and flattered
on all sides. To show the enthusiasm displayed by the
people during his ascent, he tells himself, in his sixth
letter, how a lady, mistaking the oar which fell for himself,
was so afi'ccted by his supposed destruction that she died
in a few days ; but, on the other hand, ho says he was told
by the judges " that he had certainly saved the life of a
young man who might possibly be reformed, and be to the
public a compensation for the death of the lady;" for the
jury were deliberating on the fate of a criminal, whom
they must ultimately have condemned, when the balloon
appeared, and every one became inattentive, and to save
time they gave a verdict of acquittal, and the whole court
came out to view the balloon. The king also was in con-
ference with his ministers; but on hearing that the balloon
was passing, he broke up the discussion, remarking that
they might resume their -deliberations, but that perhaps
they might not see Lunardi again; upon which he, Mr
Pitt, and the other ministers -siewed the balloon through
telescopes. The balloon was afterwards exhibited in the
Pantheon. In the latter part of the following year (1785)
Lunardi made several very successful ascents from Kelso,
Edinburgh, and Glasgow (in one of which he traversed a
distance of 110 miles): these he has described in a second
series of letters. He subsequently returned to Italy, where
we believe he still followed the practice of aerostation,
and made many ascents. He died on July 31, 180C, at
Lisbon, according to the Gentleman's Magazine, but a con-
temporary newspaper gives Genoa as the place, and adds
that he died in a state of very great indigence.
Lunardi's example was soon followed by others, and on O'.'.r
October 16, 1784, Blanchard ascended from Little Chelsea ascrn
with ilr Sheldon, and having deposited the latter at Sun- ^"&'
bury, rose again alone, and descended at Eomney ^larshes.
On November 12, Mr James Sadler, sen., ascended from
Oxford, and there is every reason to believe that he mad«
a previous ascent from the same place on October 12. fonc
EEMAEKABI.E ASCENTS.]
AERONAUTICS
191
Blanchard
and
Jeffries
cross the
Chaimel.
Fate of
Zamb&ccari.
Fate of
Pilitre do
Eozier.
Pnnale
■aeronaut'.
Ascent .'\'
Constanii
Dople,
days previoua to Blanch.ird'a (see Monck Mason, p. 274,
where it is stated that he attempted to ascend in a fire-
balloon on September 12, but that the balloon was burnt).
On November 30, 1784, Blanchard again ascended, accom-
panied this time by Dr J. Jefifries, an American physi-
cian. On January 4, 1785, Mr Harper ascended from
Birmingham ; and on January 7, Blanchard and Dr Jeffries
achieved the feat of crossing the Channel from Dover to
Calais. At seven minutes past one the balloon left Dover
Castle, and in their passage they had a most magnificent view
of both shores. When about one-third across they found
themselves descending, and threw out every available thing
from the boat or car. When about three-quarters acrc-is
they were descending again, and had to throw out not only
the anchor and cords, but also to strip and throw away part
of their clothing, after which they found they were rising,
and their last resource, viz., to cut away the car, was
rendered unnecessary. As they approached the shore the
balloon rose, describing a magnificent arch high over the
land. They descended in the forest of Guinnes.
On March 23, 1785, Count Zambeccari, v/ho had, as we
■ have seen, launched the first baUoon from English ground,
ascended for the first time with Admiral Vernon from
London. Shortly afterwards he returujed to his own
country, and there applied himself assiduously to the prac-
tice of aerial navigation. He twice, in 1803 and 1804,
descended into the Adriatic, and both times only escaped
after undergoing much danger. Descending in a fire-
balloon on September 21, 1812, after a voyage from
Bologna, the shock of the grapnel catching in a tree caused
the balloon to catch fire ; and to Bare themselves from
being burnt, Zambeccari and his companion, Signor Bonaga,
leaped from the car. The former was killed on the spot,
but the latter, though fearfully injured, escaped with
his life.
On June 15, 1785, PilAtre de Tiorier made his last fatal
voyage from Boulogne. It was his' intention to have
repeated the exploit of Blanchard and Je6Eries in the
reverse direction, and have crossed from Boulogne to Eng-
land. For this piu^ose he had contrived a double baUoon,
which he expected would combine the advantages of both
kind.s — a fire-balloon, 10 feet ir. diameter, being placed
underneath a gas-balloon of 37 feet in diameter, so that
by increasing or diminishing the fire in the foiTner it might
be possible to ascend or descend without waste of gas.
Eozier was accompanied by M. P. A. Eomain, and for
rather less than half-an-hour after the aerostat ascended all
seemed to- be going on well, when suddenly the whole
apparatus was seen in flames, and the unfortunate adven-
turers came to the ground Irom the supposed height of
more than 3000 feet. Rozier was killed on the spot, and
Komain only survived about ten minutes. A monument
was erected on the place where they fell, .which was near
the sea-shore, about four miles from the starting-point.
The Marquis de la Maisonfort had accompanied Rozier to
Boulogne, intehding to ascend with him, but M. Remain
there insisted on a prior promise. Either the upper bal-
loon must have been reached by the flames, and the gas
taken fire, or the gas must have poured down into the
lower balloon, and so have caused the explosion.
Wo must not omit to mention that on June 4, 1784,
Madame Thible ascended from Lyons in a fire-balloon
with M. Fleurand, in the presence of King Gustavus of
Sweden, then travelling under the name of Count Haga.
Madame Thible is very likely the only woman who ever
ascended in a fire-balloon. The first Englishwoman who
ever ascended into the air was Mrs Sage, who accompanied
Mr Biggin in his voyage from London on June 29, 1785.
Accounts are given "f an n^ccnt at Constantinople, made
in the presence of' the Sultan, by a Persian physician.
accompanied by two Bostangis, early in the year 178f),
who, crossing the sea which divides Europe from Asia,
descended about 30 leagues from the coast.
We have now given a brief account of all the noteworthy Most of tbs
voyages that took place within the first- two or three years subsequent
after the discovery of the balloon by Montgolfier. Ascents ^""t'*
were multiplied from this time onwards, and it is impos- o„d^rtaken
sible to give even a list of the many hundreds that have for ple.--
taken place since: this omission is, however, of slight sure, ami
importance, as henceforth the balloon becanxe little better °^ "" P*'*
than a toy, let up to amuse people at /Sles or other pubUo ""J"*"'
occasions. When the Erst ascents wore made in France,
the glow of national vanity was lighted up, and the most
brilliant expectations were felt with regard -to aerostation,
and the glory to the nation that would accrue therefrom.
These anticipations have not been realised, and the baUoen
at this moment has received no great improvement since
the time of Charles, except the substitution of ordinary
coal-gas for hydrogen, which has rendered the inflation of
a balloon at any gas-works a comparatively simple matter,
bearing in mind the elaborate contrivances required for the
generation of hydrogen in sufficient quantities. But in
one respect the balloon has been of real service, viz., to
science, in rendering the attainment of observations in
the higher strata of the atmosphere not only possible but
practicable. In regard to such matters the balloon is
unique, as the atmosphere is the great laboratory of nature,
in which are produced all the phenomena of weather, the
results of which we perceive on the earth; and no observa-
tions made on mountain-sides can take the place of those
made in the balloon, as what is required is the knowledge
of the state of the upper atmosphere itself, free from the
disturbing effects of the contiguity of the land. Although,
therefore, in what followc, we shall notice any particularly
rcfnarkable ascents, we shall chiefly confine ourselves to the
few that have been undertaken for the sake of advancing
science, and which alone are of permanent value. It will
be necessary to make one exception to this rule, however,
in the case of the parachute, the experiments with which
require some notice, although they have been put to no
useful purpose. The balloon has also been used in warfare
as a means of observing the movements of the enemy;
and the applications of it to this ptirpose deserve notice,
although we think not so much use. has been made of the
balloou in this direction as might have been.
The substitution of coal-gas for hydrogen is due to Mr Substitu-
Charles Green, the veteran aeronaut, who made several tionofcoal-
bundred ascents, the first of which took place on July 19, •'^^ "' . ''
1821, the coronation day of George IV. In this ascent ^ q^j^^
ordinary coal-gas was first used; and every balloon, with
very few exceptions, that has ascended since this date has
been so inflated. Pall Mall was fijst lighted by gas in
1807, and at the end of 1814 the general lighting of
London by gas conunenced; so that coal-gas could not
have been available for filling balloons long before it ■was
actually used.
Leaving out of consideration the ascents undertaken for Subsequent
scientific objects (very many of which were remarkable for famoua
the height attained or the distance traversed, and which ,' ._
° . . (non-scum-
will bo specially noticed further on), we proceed to men- j^g,,)
tion the most noteworthy ascents that have taken place
and that have not ended fatally (these latter will bo re-
ferred to separately). Mr Crosbic, a gentleman who was
the first 10 ascend from Ireland (January 19, 1786), on the
19th July 1785 attempted t6 cross St George's Channel
to England, but fell into the sea; he was saved by some
vessels that came to his rescue. Lunardi also fell into the
sea, about a mile and a half from the shore, after an ascc:^t
from Edinburgh in December 1785; he was rescued by a
fishing-boat. Richard Maguiro was the second persoD
192
AFRONAUTICS
fBBM^BKABtB ASCENTS.
who ascended from Ireland, llr Crosbic had inflated his
balloon on May 12, 1785, but it was unable to take him
Qp, when Mr Maguire, a student at the university, who
was present, offered to ascend. His ofi'er was aoceptcd,
and he made the ascent. For this he was knighted by the
Lord-Lieutenant (Monck Mason, p. 26C). On July 22,
1785, Major Money ascended from Norwich. The balloon
was blown out to sea, and he was obliged to descend into
the water. After remaining there seven hours he was rescued
by a revenue cutter which had been despatched to his
assistance. Mr James Sadler attempted to cross St George's
Channel on the let of October 1812, and had nearly suc-
ceeded, when, in consequence of $ change in the wind, he
was forced to descend into the sea o£F Liverpool After
remaining in the water some time, he was rescued by a
fishing-boat. But on July 22, 181 7, Mr Windham Sadler, his
second son, succeeded in crossing the Channel from Dublin
to Holyhead. On May 2*; 1837, Mr Sneath ascended
from near Mansfield in a fire-balloon, and descended
safely. ' At half-past one o'clock on November 7, 1836,
Mr Robert Holloud, Mr Monck Mason, and Mr Charles
Green ascended from Vauxhall Gardens, and descended at
about two leagues from Wcilburg, in the duchy of Nassau,
at half -past seven the next morning, having thus traversed
u distance of about 500 miles in 18 hours; Li^ge was
passed in the course of the night, and Coblentz in the early
morning. ■ A full account of this trip is given by Mr Monck
Mason in his Aeronautka (1838). The balloon in which
the journey was performed (a very large one, containing
about 85,0Q0 cubic feet of gas), was subsequently called
the Nassau Balloon, and under that name became famous.
and ascended frequently.
The Greit ffassau Balloon.
Equestrian We ought also, perhaps, to notice a curious ascent made
»«<a't«- by Mr Green on July 29, 1828, from the Eagle Tavern,
City Road, on the back of a favourite pony. Underneath
the balloon was a platform (in place of a car) containing
places for the pony's feet, and some straps went loosely
under his body, to prevent his lying down or moving about.
Everything passed off satisfactorily, the balloon descending
safely at Beckenham ; the pony showed no alarm, but
quietly ate some beans with which its rider supplied it in
the air. Equestrian ascents have since been repeated. In
1852, Madame Poitevin, who had made several such jour-
neys in Paris,- ascended from Cremome Gardens, London,
on horseback (as " Europa on a bull"); but after the firet
journey its repetition was stopped in England by applicar
tion to the police courts, as the exhibition outraged public
feeling. Lieutenant Gale was killed at Bordeaux on Sept
8, 1850, in descending after an equestrian ascent, through
mismanagement in landing of the horse. M. Poitevin, de-
scending in 1858, after an equestrian ascent from Paris,
was nearly drowned in the sea near Malaga. Among
remarkable balloon ascents must also be noticed that of
Mr Wise, from St Louis, on June 23, 1859, in which a
distance of 1120 miles was traversed.
In 1863, Nadar, a weli-known photographer at Paris, Xadar'w '
constructed an enormous balloon, which he called " Le ' iHooo
Geant." It was the largest gas-balloon ever constructed,
containing over 200,000 cubic feet of gas. Underneath it
was placed a smaller balloon, called a compensator, the
object of which was to prevent loss of gas during the voyage.
The car had two stories, and was, in fact, a model of a
cottage in wicker-work, 8 feet in height by 13 feet in
length, containing a small printing-office, a photographic
department, a fofreshment-room, a lavatory, ifec. The first
ascent took place at five o'clock on Sunday, October 4,
1863, from the Champ do Mars. There were thirteen per-
sons in the car, including one lady, the Princess de la Tour
d'Auvergne, and the two aeronauts Louis and Jules Godard.
In spite of the elaborate preparations that had been made
and the stores of provisions that were taken up, the balloon
descended at nine o'clock, at Meaux, the early descent
being rendered necessary, it was said, by an accident to the
ValveUne. A second asceit was made a fortnight later.
viz., on October 18; there were nine passengers, including
Madame Nadar. The balloon descended at the expiration
of seventeen hours, near Nienburg in Hanover, a distance
of about 400 miles. A strong wind was blowing, and
the balloon was dragged over the ground a distance of 7
or 8 miles. ' All the passengers were bruised, and some
more seriously hurt. The balloon and car were then brought
to England, and exhibited for some time at the Crystal
Palace at the end of 1863 and beginning of 1864. The
two ascents of Nadar's balloon excited an extraordinary
amount of enthusiasm and interest, vastly out of pro-
portion to what they were entitled to. Ttie balloon was
larger than any of the same kind that had previously
ascended ; but this was scarcely more than just appreci-
able to the eye, as the doubling the contents of a balloon
makes comparatively slight addition to its diameter. iL
Nadar's idea was to obtain sufiScient money, by the ex-
hibition of his balloon, to carry out a plan of aerial
locomotion he had conceived possible by means of the
principle of the screw ; in fact, ho spoke of " Le G&int"
as "the last balloon." He also started L' Aeronaute, a
newspaper devoted to aerostation, and published a small
book, which was translated into English -under the title
The Eight to Fly. Nadar's ascents had not the remotest
connection with science, although he claimed that they had ;
nor was his know^cJ^;, as shown in his writings, sufficient
to have enabled him to advance it in any way.
Directly after Nadar's two balloon ascents, M. Eugene Eugene
Godard constructed what was perhaps the largest aerial cjodard's
machine that has ever been made. It was a Montgolfier or '^'B« ^"^
fire-balloon, of nearly half-a-miUion cubic feet capacity '^*^''^''-
(more than double the capacity of Nadar's). The balloon
Flestelles, 1783, is said to have slightly exceeded this
size. The air was heated by an 18 feet tove, weigh;
CELEBRATED AERONAUTS ]
AEEONAUTICS
193
hig, with the chimney, 980 lb. This fuiuace was fed
by straw; and the "car" consisted of a gallery sur-
rounding it. Two ascents of tliis balloon were made
ffom Cremorne Gardens, on July 20 and July 28, 1864.
After the first journey the balloon descended at Greenwich,
jai after the second at Walthamstow, where it was in-
jured by being blown against a tree. Notwithstanding
She enormous size of the balloon, M. Godard asserted that
it could be inflated in half an hour, and the inflation
at Cremorne did not occupy more than an hour. The
rscent of the balloon was a very striking sight, the flames
roaring-up the chimney of the furnace into the enormous
globe above. The trusses of straw were suspended by ropes
from the gallery below trie car, and were drawn up and placed
in ths furnace as jequired. This was the first fire-balloon
seen by the inhabitants of London, and it was the second
ascent of this kind that had been made in this country, Mr
Bneath's ascent at Mansfield having been the first, as Mr
Tytler's experiment at Edinburgh in 1784 was a leap, not
an ascent, as no source of heat was taken up. In spite of
the rapidity with which the inflation was efl'ected, few who
saw the ascent could fail to receive au impression most
favourable to the gas-baUoon in the matter of safety, as a
rough descent, with a heated furnace as it were in the car,
could not be other than most dangerous.
Frojected In the summer of 1873 the proprietors of the New York
baOoon Daily Graphic, an illustrated paper, determined to cou-
•/ajae^ struct a very large balloon, and enable Mr Wise, the weU-
^''"'.. ^ known American aeronaut, to realise his favourite scheme
1873. °f crossing the Atlantic Ocean to Europe. It, was believed
by many that a current from west to east existed con-
stantly at heights above 10,000 feet, but this seems very
uncertain. Mr Green having stated that he had met with
such a current, Mr Glaisher made a point of investigating
the directions of the wind at different heights in his ascents,
but found that tley were as capricious as near the ground.
The same result was found by others, ^nd a comparison of
the courses of the balloons sent up from Paris during the
eiege will show that no constant current exists. The
American project came to nothing owing to the quality
of the material of which the balloon was made. The size
was said to be such as to contain "400,000 cubic feet, so
that it would lift a weight of 14,000 a. On Septem-
ber 12, 1873, during its inflation, Mr Wise declared the
material of which it was made was so bad that he could
not ascend in it, though the other two persons who were to
accompany him agreed to go. 'When, however, 325,000
feet of gas had been put into the baUoon, a rent was ob-
served, and the whole rapidly collapsed. Although, this
accident was greatly regretted at the time, it seems pretty
certain, from what subsequently took place, that the
aeronauts would not have succeeded in their object, and
a serious mishap was probably avoided. On October
6, 1873, Mr Donaldson and two others ascended from New
York in the balloon after it had been'repaired, and effected
a perilous descent in Connecticut. During the autumn of
1873 a great amount of discussion took place both in Eng-
land and America about the existence of the westerly current
and the subject of aerostation. In September 1873 Mr
Barnum, the well-known American showman, visited Eng-
land with the view of eliciting whether, in the opinion of
those best qualified, there was sufiicient probability of a
successful result to induce him to undertake the construction
of a suitable balloon.
Caebraled By- aeronauts (omitting the pioneers Lunardi, Zarabec-
CTonauta. can, and others who have been already spoken of) we
mean persons who have followed ballooning as a business
or trade. Of these, perhaps the best known and most
successful have been Blanchard, Oarnerin, the Sadlers,
Mr Charics Green. Mr Wise, Mr Coxwel), and the brothers
1—8
Godard. Blanchard made, it is said, thirty-six ascents, his
first having taken place on March 2, 1784. His wife also
made many ascents; she was kiUed on July 7, 1819.
Garnerin is said to have ascended more than fifty times;
h^ introduced night ascents with fireworks. Inc., the first of
which took place on August 4, 1807. We shaD have
occasion to refer to him again when we treat of parachutes.
Mr James Sadler made about sixty ascents, the first of
which took place on October 12, 1784. His two sons,
John and Windham, both followed in their father's steps;
the latter was killed in 1817. In the minds of most
Englishmen the practice of ballooning wiU, for a long time,
be associated with the name of Mr Charles Green, the most
celebrated of English aeronauts, who, having made his first
ascent on July 19, 1821, only died in the year 1870, at a
very advanced age. He is credited with 526 ascents by
Mr Turner; and from advertisements, &c., we see that in
1838 he had made 249. Mr Green may be said to have
reduced ballooning to routine, and he made more ascents
than any other person has ever accomplished! He
accompanied Mr Welsh in his scientific ascents, and to
him is also due the invention of the guide rope, which he
used in many of his voyages with success. It merely con-
sisted of a rope not less than 1000 feet in length,
which was attached to the ring of the baUoon (from which
the car is suspended), and hung down so that the end of
it was allowed to trail along the surface of the groimd, the
object being to prevent the continual waste of gas and
ballast that takes place in an ordinary balloon journey, as
such an expenditure is otherwise always going on, owing to
the necessity of keeping the balloon from getting either too
high or too low. If a balloon provided with a guide rope
sinks 80 low that a good deal of the rope rests on the
earth, it is relieved of so much weight and rises again; if,
on the contrary, it rises so high that but a little is supported
by the earth, a greater weight is borne by the balloon, and
equilibrium is thus produced. Mr Green frequently used the
guide rope, and found that its action was satisfactory, and
that it did not, as might be supposed, become entangled in
trees, &c. It was used in the Nassau journey, but mord
recent aeronauts have dispensed with it. StiU, in crossing
the sea or making a very long journey, where the preser
vation of the gas was of great importance, it could not
fail to be valuable. Mr Green had, in his time, more
experience in the management than has fallen to the lot of
any one else, and he brought to bear on the subject a great
amount of skill and practical knowledge. ' There is also a
plain matter-of-fact style about his accounts of his ascents
that contrasts very favourably with the writings of some
other aeronauts. Mr CoxweU, who has made several
hundred ascents, first ascended in 1 844, under the name of
Welis. He it was who, as aeronaut, accompanied Mr Glaisher
in most of his scientific ascents, 1862-65. The Godard
family have made very many ascents in France, and are
well known in all countries in connection with aeronautics.
It was to two of the Godards that the management of the
military balloons in the Italian campaign was entrusted;
it was M. Jules Godard who succeeded in opening the valve
in the dangerous descent of Nadar's balloon in Hanover in
1863, and it was Eugene Godard who constructed perhaps
the largest Montgolfier ever made, an account of the ascen-
sions of which has been given above. M. Dupuis Delcourt
was also a well-known aeronaut ; ho has written on the sub-
ject of aerostation, and his balloons were employed by MM.
Bixio and Barral in their scientific ascents. In AJaerica
Mr Wise is par excellence the aeronaut; he has made
several hundred ascents, and many of them are distin-
guished for much skill and daring. He also appears to
have pursued his profession with more energy and capacity
than has any other aeronaut in recent times, and his History
■L ~2S
194
AERO N A. U TICS
[sciEKTIFrc-
McideDta
that have
tcrniioatcd
fttaUy.
The num-
ber of pti"-
eons who
have
nsceinle<i
tu balloons.
Scientific
ascents.
0/ Seroslatioii allows him to poi-seSS much higliof scicutific
V-taimnents than ballooniats usually have. In fact, Mr
Wise stands alono in this respect, as nearly all profcasional
isronaufs are destitute of scientific itnowledge.
Iho number of fataLaccideuts that have cccnrrfiJ in the
history of balloons Is not very {;feat, and nearly all have
resulted either from the use of the fire-balloon, or from
want of knowledge, or carelessness on the jjart of the
aeronauts themselves. Wo have already referred to the
accidents that closed the careers of Pilatre de Rozicr and
Zambeccari. On November 25, 1802, Signor Olivari, at
Orleans, and on July 17, 1812, Ucrr Bittorff, at Mannheim,
perished in consequence of the accidental combustion of
their ilonlgoljUrei. On April 7, 180G, M. Mosment
ascended from Lille upon a platfonn, from which he acci-
dentally fell and was killed. On July 7, 1819, Madamo
31anchard a.sccnded from Paris at night with fireworks
ittached to the car, a epark from one of wliich ignited the
iaa in the balloon, and she was precipitated to the ground
and killed. Lieut. Harris ascended from London on May
25, 182-1, but, through mismanagement of the valve-line,
he allowed all the gas to escape suddenly from the balloon,
wliich descended with terrible velocity. He was killed by
the fall, but his companion. Miss Stocks, escaped almost
uninjured. In an ascent from Blackburn on September 29,
1821, by Mr Windham Sadler, the balloon, in rising, struck
against a chimney, and the aeronaut fell over the side of
the car and was killed. On July 24, 1837, Mr Cocking
descended from a balloon in a parachute, which struck the
ground with such violence that he was killed on the spot.
In desceniling with a horse on September 8, 1850, Lieut.
Gale was killed; and in 18G3 Mr Chambers was killed at
Nottingham, his death arising froA suffocation by the gas
that poured out at the neck of the balloon, which was not
separated from the ear by a sufficient interval.
The number of accidents that have occurred bears but a
very small proportion to the number of successful ascents
that have been made. Mr Monck Mason, in his Aeronuutica,
gives a list of the names, with the dates and places of their
ascent, of all persons who, as far as he could find, had
ascended previously to 1838. His list contains 471 names,
which are distributed among the inhabitants of the different
countries asfoUows: — England, 313; France, 104; Italy,
18; Germany and the German States, 17, Turkey, 5;
Prussia, 3; Russia, 2; Poland, 2; Hungary, 2, Denmark,
I ; Switzerland, 1 ; and the United States, 3. Among
these are the names of 49 women, of whom 28 are English,
17 French, 3 German, and 1 Italian. Some of the persons
had ascended a great number of times; thus Mr Charles
Green's ascents alone amounted to more than 249; and
those of the members of the same family to 535. Mr
Mason calculated that the whole number of ascents executed
by Englishmen was 752. Of the 471 adventurers only nine
were killed, and of these six owed their fate to the dangers
attendant on the use of the fire-balloon, and one to bravado.
The great number of our own countrj-men that appear in
the above list is no doubt partially due to the fact that it
was compiled by an Englishman, to whom English news-
papers and other records were more accessible; still there
is no reason to doubt that a much greater number of
Englishmen have ascended than inhabitants of any other
country, as balloons as an amusement at fetes, <tc., have
beeu more common here. The number.of Englishmen who
have ascended might now be estimated aff rom 1 500 to 2000.
We can call to mind but three fatal casualties that have
-aken place since Mr Mason compiled his list, viz., Mr
^Docking's parachute accident, Mr Gale's death in 1850,
and Mr Chambers' death in 1863.
We come now to an account of the use to wliich the
balloon has beeu applied for the advancement of science.
The eacents that have been niojlh iu6 by Sacharof, Biot,
and Oay-Lu.s8ac in 1804. by Bixio and Bairal in 1800, by
Mr Welsh in 1852, by Mr Glaieher in 1802- 66, and MM.
Flammarion and De FonvicUe ia 1867-08. We shall give
a brief account of these ascents, because, as has been
rujuarked, with a few exceptions, they form the only useful
purpose to which the balloon has been applied. The gene-
ral description of the phenomena, <tc., met with in a high
ascent, and the general results found, are referred to in tho
account of Mr Glaisher's experiments, as not only are his
accounts more detailed, but the number of ascents made by
him is much in excess of that of all the others put together.
The Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg, entertaining
the opinion that the experiments made on mountainsides
by Do Luc, De Saussure, Humboldt, and others must give
results different from those made in free air at the same
heights, resolved in 1803 that a balloon ascent should be
made for the purpose of making scientific researches. Accord-
dingly, on January 30, 1804, M. Sacharof, a member of the
academy, ascended, with M. Robertson as aeronaut, in a
balloon belonging to tho latter, which was inflated with
hydrogen gas. The ascent was made at a quarter past seven,
and the descent effected at a quarter to eleven. No great
height was reached, as the barometer never sank below
23 in., corresponding to less than IJ mile. The esperimenta
were not very systematically made, and the chief results
were the filling and bringing down several flasks of
air collected at different elevations, and the supposed
observation that the magnetic dip was altered. A tel&
scope was fixed in the bottom of the car pointing verticallj
downwards, so that the travellers might be able to ascer-
tain exactly the spot over which they were floating at any
moment il. Sacharof found that, on shouting downwards
through his speaking-trumpet, the echo from the earth was
quite distinct, and at his height was audible after an
interval of about ten seconds. M. Sacharofs account IS
given in the Philomphical Magazine (TiUoch's), vol ^'^
pp. 193-200 (1805).
At the commencement of 1804 Laplace proposed to the
members of the French Academy of Sciences that balloons
should be employed for the purpose of solving certain
physical problems, adding that, as the government had
placed funds at their disposal for the prosecution of use-
ful experiments, he thought they might be well applied
to this kind of research. The proposition was supported
by Chaptal the chemist, who was then minister of the
interior, and accordingly the necessary arrangements were
speedily effected, the charge of the experiments being given
to MM. Gay-Lussac and Biot.
The principal object of this ascent ■was to determine if
the magnetic force experienced any appreciable diminution
at heights above the earth's surface, De Saussure having
found that such was the case upon the Col du Gcant. On
August 24, 1804, MM. Gay-Lussac and Biot (the former
eminent as a chemist and the latter as a natural philo-
sopher) ascended from the Conservatoire des Arts at ten
o'clock in the morning. Their magnetic experiments were
incommoded by the rotation of the balloon, but they found
that, up to the height of 13,000 feet, the time of vibration
of a magnet was appreciably the same as on tho earth's
surface. They found also that the air became drier as they
ascended. The height reached was about 13,000 feet,
and the temperature declined from 63° Fahr. to 51°. The
descent was effected about half -past one, at MeriviUe, 16
leagues from Paris.
In a second experiment, which was made on September
16, 1804, M. Gay-Lussac ascended alone. The balloon
left the Conservatoire des Arts at 9.40 A.M., and descended
at 3.45 P.M. between Rouen and Dieppe. The chief result
obtained was that the magnetic force like cravitation, did
Ajceit of
M.Sacbuuf
at St
Peters
burg,
January
30, 1804.
Ascent ol
Gay-Loa-
6ac and
Biot,
August 21
1801
Ascent oX
M. Gay.
Lussac,
Sept«mbez
16, 1804.
ASCENTS.]
AERONAUTICS
195
Jiscent ol
MM. Bixio
and Banal
on June
29. 1850.
On July
87. 1850.
MrWelsU'i
four as-
cents in
1852.
British As-
lociatton
tppoLuta
tuJlooD
cauuniltee.
Qo? experience any sev.sible varLtion at heights from
tto earth's surface which tvs can attain to. Gay-Lussac
also brought down air collected at the height of nearly
.V3,000 feet,' and on analysis n appeared that its constitu-
tion was the same as that of air collected at the earth's
surface. At the time of leaving the earth the thermometer
stood at 82° Fahr., and at the highest point reached (23,000
feet) it was 14°'i) Fahr. Gay-Lussac remarked that at
Lis highest point there were stiU clouds above him.
From 1804 to 1850 there is no record of any scientific
ascents in balloons having been undertaken. In the latter
year MM. Bixio and Barral made two ascents for this pur-
pose. They ascended from the Paris Observatory on June
29, 1850, at 10.27 A.M., the balloon being inflated with
hydrogen gas. I'he day was a rough one, and the ascent
took place suddenly, witho\jt any previous attempt having
been made to test the ascensional force of the balloon.
When liberated, it rose with great rapidity, and becoming
fuUy inflated it pressed upon the network, bulging out at
the top and bottom. As the ropes by which the car was
suspended were too short, the baUoon soon covered the
travellers like an immense hood. In endeavouring to
secure the valve-rope, a rent was made iu the baUoon, and
the gas escaped so close to the faces of the voyagers as
almost to suffocate them. Finding that they were descend-
ing then too rapidly, they threw overboard everything
available, including their coats, and only excepting the
instruments. The ground was reached at lOh. 45m.. near
Lagny. Of course no observations were made.
MM. Bixio and Barral determined to ascend again with-
out delay, and accordingly, on July 27, 1850, they repeated
the experiment. The ascent was remarkable on account of
the extreme cold met with. At about 20,000 feet the
temperature was 15" Fahr., the balloon being enveloped in
cloud; but on emerging from the cloud, at 23,000 feet, the
temperature sank to - 38° Fahr., no less than 53° Fahr.
below that experienced by Gay-Lussac at the same eleva-
tion. The existence of these very cold clouds served to
explain certain meteorological phenomena that were ob-
served on the earth both the day before and the day after
the ascent. Some pigeons were taken up in this, as in
most other high ascents, and liberated; they showed a re-
luctance to leave the car, and then fell heavily downwards.
In July 1852 the committee of the Kew Observatory
.•esolved to institute a series of balloon ascents, with the
view of investigating such meteorological and physical
phenomena as require the presence of an observer at a
great height in the atmosphere. Mr "Welsh, of the Kew
Observatory, was the observer, and Mr Green's great Nassau
balloon wis employed, Mr Green himself being the aeronaut.
Four ascents were mad^in 1852, viz., on August 17,
August 26, October 31* and November 10, when the
respective heights of 10,510, 19,100, 12,640, and 22,930
feet were attained. A siphon barometer, dry and wet
bulb thermometers, asi)irated and free, and a Eegnault's
hygrometer were taken up. Some air collected at .a con-
siderable height was found on analysis not to diS"er appre-
ciably in its composition from air collected near the ground.
The original observations are printed in extenso in the Philo-
sophical Transactions for 1853, pp. 311-346. The lowest
temperatures met with in the four ascents were respectively
8°-7 Fahr. (19,380 feet); 12°-4 Fahr. (18,370); 16°-4
Fahr. (12,640); - 10° -5 Fahr. (22,370); the decline of tem-
perature being very regular.
At the meeting of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science held at Aberdeen in 1859, a com-
mittee was appointed for the purpose of making observations
in the higher strata of the atmosphere by means of the
balloon. For the first two years nothing was effected,
owing to the want both of an observer and of a suitable
balloou. In 1861, at Manchester, the committee was reap-
pointed, and it then consisted of Colonel Sykes (chairmaU^
Mr Airy, Sir David Brewster, Mr Fairbaim, Admiral Fitzroy,
Mr Gassiot, Mr James Glaisher, Sir J. Herschel, Dr Lea,
Dr Lloyd, Dr AN^. A. Miller, Dr Robinson, and Dr Tyudall.
Some unsuccessful experimeuts were made with a balloon of
Mr Green's, and also with one hired from the proprietors of
Cremorne Gardens, which turned out to be in a hopelessly
leaky condition; the trained observers also, on whom the
committee had relied,^ failed to perform their duties. In
this state of affairs, Mr CoxweU, an aeronaut who had
made a good many ascents, was communicated with, and
he agreed to construct a new baUoon, of 90,000 cubic
feet capacity, on the condition that the committee would
undertake to use it, and pay £25 for each high asjpent
made especially for the committee, the latter defraying also
the cost of gas, &c., so that the expense of each high ascent
amounted to nearly £50. An observer being still wanted,
Mr Glaisher, a member of the committee, offered himself to Mr
take the obser("ations, and accordingly the first ascent was Glaislier'j
made on July 17, 1862, from the gas-works at Wolverbamp- ascents,
ton, this town being chosen on account of its central position
in the country. Altogether, Mr Glaisher made twenty-eight
ascents, the last having taken place on May 26, 1866. Of
these only seven were specially high ascents, although six
others were undertaken for the objects of the committee
alone. On the other occasions Mr Glaisher availed himself
of public ascents from the Crystal Palace and other places
of entertainment, merely taking his place like the other
passengers. In the last six ascents another aeronaut, Mr
Orton, and a smaller baUoon, were employed. The dates,
places of ascent, and greatest heights (in feet) attained in
the twenty-eight ascents were — 1862: July 17, Wolver-
hampton, 26,177; July 30, Crj-stal Palace, 6937; August
18, Wolverhampton, 23,377; August 20, Crystal Palace,
5900; August 21, Hendon, 14,355; September 1, Cryst.il
Palace, 4190; September 5, Wolverhampton, 37,000:
September 8, Crystal Palace, 5428. 1863: March 31^
Crystal Palace, 22,884; AprU 18, Crystal Palace, 24,163;
June 26, Wolverton, 23,200; July 11, Crystal Palace,
6623; July 21, Crj-stal Palace, 3298; August 31, New-
castle-upon-Tj-ne, 8033; September 29, Wolverhampton,
16,590; October 9, Crystal Palace, 7310. 1864: January
12, Woolwich, 11,897; April 6, Woolwich, 11,075; June
13, Crystal Palace, 3543; June 20, Derby, 4280; June
27, Crystal Palace, 4898; August 29, Crj-stal Palace,
14,581; December 1, Woolwich, 5431; December 30,
Woolwich, 3735. 1865: February 27, Woolwich, 4865;
October 2, Woolwich, 1949; December 2, Woolwich,
4628. 1866: May 26, Windsor, 6325. Of these, aU the
ascents from Wolverhampton (four in number) and from
Woolwich (seven in number) were undertaken wholly for
the committee, and Mr Glaisher was merely accompanied
by the aeronaut, whose business it was to manage th(
baUoon. The expense of the special high ascents (about
£50 for each, as stated above) rendered it desirable, when
possible, to take advantage of the desire felt by many to
accompany Mr Glaisher in his journey, and admit one or
two other travellers; and of this kind were one or two of
the ascents from the Crj-stal Palace, though the majority,
in which the elevation attained frequently fell short of a
mUe, were the ordinary pubUc ascents advertised before-
hand. It is not possible here to give any complete account
of the results obtained, and it would be superfluous, as the
observations, both as made and after reduction, are printed
iu the British Association Reports, 1862-66. It wiU be
enough, after explaining the objects of the experiments,
itc, to describe briefly one or two of the most remarkable
ascents, and then state the kind of conclusions that follow
from them as a whole.
196
AERONAUTICS
pbjects 01
fihe experi-
BMDtV.
iQstni-
iDonta and
apparatus.
Obsarring
aiTonge-
rneuts.
Hr
Glaisher's
ascent on
JuJyir,
1862.
■ The primary object was to determine the temperat'tre of
the air, and its hygrometrical state at different elevations
to as great a height as could bo reached; and the secondary
objects were — (1) to determine the temperature of the dew-
point by DanieU's and Regnault'a hygrometers, as well as
by the dry and wet bulb thermometers, and to compare the
results; (2) to compare the readings of an aneroid baro-
meter with those of a mercurial barometer up to the height
of 5 miles; (3) to determine the electrical state of the air,
(4) the oxygenic condition of the dtmosphere, and (5) the
time of vibration of a magnet; (6) to collect air at different
elevations; (7) to note the height and kind of clouds, their
density and thickness; (8) to determine the rate and direc-
tion <rf different currents in the atmosphere ; and <d) to
jnake observations on sound.
The instruments used were mercurial and aneroid baro-
meters, dry and wet bulb thermometers, Dauiell'a dew-
point hygrometer, Rcgnault's condensing hygrometer,
luaiimum and minimum thermometers, a magnet for hori-
zontal ^-ibration, hermetically sealed glass tubes exhausted
of air, and an electrometer. In one or two of the ascents
a camera was taken up.
One end of the car was occupied by the aeronaut; near
the other, in front of Mr Glaisher, was placed a board or
table, the extremities of which rested on the sides of the
car; upon this board was placed suitable framework to
carry the several thermometers, hygrometers, magnet,
aneroid barometer, itc. ; a perforation through it admitted
the lower branch of the mercurial barometer to descend
below, leaving the upper branch at a convenient height for
observing. A watch was placed directly opposite to Mr
Glaisher, the central space being occupied by his note-
book. The aspirator (for Eegnault's hj'grometer) was
filed underneath the centre of the board, so as to be con-
eeniently workable by either feet or hands. Holes were
cut in the board to admit the passage of the flexible tubes
required for Rcgnault's hygrometer and the drv and wet
bulb thermometers.
The first ascent was made, as has been stated, from
Wolverhampton on July 17, 1862, -ind the journey was
merarkable on account of a warm current that was met
with at a great elevation. The weather, previous to the
ascent, had been bad for a long time, and it had been
delayed in ^^nsequence. The wind was still blowing from
the west, and considerable difficulty was experienced in
the preliminary arrangements, so that no instrument was
fixed before starting. The balloon left at 9.43 a.m., and a
height of 3800 feet was reached before an observation
could be taken. At 4000 feet clouds were entered, and
left at 8000 feet. The temperature of the air at starting was
59" Fahr.,.at 4000 feet it was 45°, and it descended to 20°
at 10,000 feet, from which height to that of 13,000 feet
there was no diminution. While ' passing through this
space Mr Glaisher piit on additional clothing, feeling
certain that a temperature below zero would be attained
before the height of 5 miles was reached; but at the
elevation of 15,500 feet the temperature was 31°, and at
each successive reading, up to 19,500, it increased, and
was there 42°. The temperature then decreased rapidly,
and was 16° at '26,000 feet. On descending it increa.sed
regularly to 37°-8 at 10,000 feet. A very rough descent,
in which nearly X50 worth of instruments were broken,
■was effected near Oakham, in Rutlandshire, Jlr Coxwell
having judged it prudent to descend on account of the
proximity, as he supposed, of the WasL In coming down,
a cloud was entered at an elevation of 12,400 feet, and
proved to be more than 8000 feet in thickness. The rise of
temperature met with in this ascent was most remarkable.
The weather on the day (Aug. 18, 1862) of the third as-
cent ivas favourable, and there was but little wind. All the
[SCIENTIFIC
instnimeute were fixed before leaving the eartL A height
of more than 4 miles was attained, and the balloon remained
in the air about two hours. A\"hen at its highest point
there were no clouds between the balloon and the earth,
and the streets of Birmingham were distinctly viiible.
The descent was effected at Solihull, 7 miles from Bir-
mingham. On the earth the temperature of the air was
67°'8, and that of the dew-point 54°'6; and they steadily
decreased to 39°'5 and 22°-2 respectively at 11,500 feet.
The balloon was then made to descend to the height of
about 3000 feet, when both increased to 56°0 and 47°-5
respectively. On throwing out ballast the balloo|i rose
again, and the temjierature declined pretty steadily to
24°0, and that of the dew-point to- 10°0, at the height
of 23,000 feet. During this ascent Mr Glaisher's hands
became quite blue, and he Acperienced a qualmish sensa-
tion in the brain and stomach, resembling the approach of
sea-sickness; but no further inconvenience, besides such
as resulted from the cold and the difficulty of breathing,
was experienced. This feeling of sickness never occurred
again to Mr Glaisher in any subsequent ascent
The ascent from the Crystal Palace on August 20, 1 862,
was merply an ordinary one for the public amusement, in
which Mr Glaisher took a place in the car. In these low
ascents from places of entertainment, in which other per-
sons also were passengers, the large board stretching right
across the car could not be used. A smaller frame
was therefore made, which could be screwed on to the
edge of the car, to carry the watch, siphon barometer,
aneroid barometer, dry and wet bulb thermometers, grid-
iron thermometer,^ and DanieU's and Rcgnault's hygro-
meters, which comprised all the instruments usually taken
up in these low ascents. In the first low ascent, July 30,
this framework was fixed inside the car; but as it seemed
possible that the warmth proceeding from the voyagers
might influence the readings of the instruments, it was
always afterwards fixed outside, and projected beyond the
car, so that aU the instruments were freely exposed to the
surrounding air. The ascent on August 20 was a low one,
and presented no remarkable feature except that the balloon
was nearly becalmed over London. The earth was left at
6.26 P.M., and the air was so quiet that at the height
of three-quarters of a mOe the balloon was still over the
Crystal Palace. At 7h. 47m. it was over London, and
moving so slowly that it was thought desirable to ascend
above the clouds in hopes of meeting with a more rapid
current of air. At 8h. 5m. the voyagers were above the
clouds, and it became quite light again, darkness having
come on whilst hovering over London, at which time the
gradual illumination by the lights in the streets formed
a most wonderful sight, and one never to be forgotten.
The roar, or rather loud hum, proceeding from the great
city was also most remarkable. After having been above
the clouds some time, the lowing of cattle and other agri-
cultural sounds were heard. Accordingly, the valve-Une
was pulled, and the balloon descended below the clouds,
when the light of London was seen in the distance as a misty
glare. The darkness increased as the balloon descended very
slowly, and it at length touched the ground so gently in the
middle of a field at Mill Hill, near Hendon, that those in the
car were scarcely aware of the contact. There were twelve
voyagers altogether, and when with some trouble sufficient
countrymen were collected to take their places and enable
^ This was a thermometer with a bulb shaped like a gridiron, so an
to ba?e a verj great surface exposed to the air. It was thought that
the ordinary p«a-sized bulb wouJd not pennit of the thermometer being
sufficiently delicate to register the rapid changes of temperature due
to the quick motion of the balloon, as it reqnires some little time for
such a thermometer to take np the tusperature of the sorrooaiUog
aediauL
Atcnt
from Wol-
verhamp-
tcn,ADgtt>'
18, 1862.
Awent
from Crys-
tal Palace,
Aug-dst 20,
and from
Hendon,
August 21,
18«2.
Ascent
from the
'Crystal
P^ace on
September
1, 1862.
Ascent
from Wol-
verb an p-
ton on Sep-
■ tember 5,
1862.
The great-
■est height
ever
reached
ASCENTS. I
them to leave the car, it was resolved to anchor tho balloon
for the night and to make an ascent in the early morning.
Accordingly, at 4.30 a.m., on August 21, the earth -was
left, there being altogether five per3on<i in the car. It was
a dull, warm, cloudy morning, with the sky overcast. In
about an hour the height of 3 miles was attained, and
the temperature had fallen to 23**, having been 58° on the
earth before leaving. The aspect of the clouds under for-
mation before and during the rising of the siin was mar-
vellous in the extreme, and baffled description. There
were seen ahining masses of cloud in mountain chains,
rising perpendicularly from the plain, with summits of
dazzling whiteness, forming vast ravines, down which the
balloon appeared to glide, or pass through their sides, into
other valleys, until, as tlie balloon rose far above, all
appeared a mighty sea of white cloud- The descent was
effected aboiit a quarter past seven, and the transition from
the magnificent scene above the clouds to the ugly prospect
of the dreary earth as seen early on a dull morning, with
a uniform leaden sky, was most depressing. The place of
descent was near Biggleswade
The most noteworthy fact in connection with the ascent,
September 1, 1862, was, that from the balloon the clouds
were observed to be forming below, and seen to be follow-
ing the whole cours'e of the Thames from the TS'ore to
Richmond. The clouds were above the river following all
its windings, and extending neither to the right nor to the
loft It was about the time of high water at London
Bridge, and the phenomenon was no doubt connected
with the warm water from* the sea.
As in the ascent, September-- 5, 1862, the greatest
height ever reached was attained, it is desirable to give
the account of it in some detail, and in Mr Glaisher's own
words. It is only necessary to premise that it was intended
on this occasion to ascend as high as possible. The fol-
lowing is an extract from Mr Glaisher'a account (British
Association RepoH. 1862 pp. 383-385):—
This ascent had been aeiayed owing to the unfavourable state of
the •n-eather. The balloon left at Ih. 3m. t.M. The temperature
of the air was 59°, and the dew-point 60°-. At the height of 1
mile it was 41°, dew-point 38"; and shortly afterwards we entered
ft cloud of about 1100 feet in thickness, in which the temperature
of the air fell to 36^°, the dew-point being the same, thus indicating
that the air was here saturated with moisture. On emerging from
the cloud at Ih. 17m. we came upon a flood of strong suidight,
with a beautiful blue sky, without a cloud above U3, and a inagni-
fioent sea of cloud below, its surface being varied with endless hills,
hillocks, mountain chains, and many snow-white ma&ses rising from
if. I here tried to take a view with the camera ; but we were rising
with too great rapidity, and going round and round too quickly, to
enable me to do so. The flood of light, however, was so great that
all I should have needed would have been a momentary exposure,
as Dr Hill ly^rris had kindly furnished me with extremely sensitive
dry plates for the purpose. "We reached 2 miles in height at Ih.
21m. The temperature had fallen to the freezing-point, and the
dew-point to 26°. We were 8 miles high at Ih. 28m., -with a tem-
perature of 18°, and dew-point 1S°. At Ih. 39m. we had reached 4
miles, and the ten\perature was 8°, and dew-point- 15° ; in ten
minutqg naore we had reached the fifth mile, and the temperature^
had passed below zero, and then read- 2°, and at this point no
dew was observed on Kegnault's hygrometer when cooled down to
— 30° ; but a dew-point obtained from the readings of dry and <!'et
fave- 36°. Up to this time I had taken observations with comfort,
had experienced no difficulty in breathing, whilst Mr Coiwell, in
conscmieaice of tho necessary exertions he had to make, had breathed
with aifficulty for some time. #At Ih. 51m. the barometer reading
was 11 05 inches, but this requires a subtractive correction of 0'25
inch, as found by comparison with Lord Wrottesley's standard
barometer just before starting. I aftenvarda read the dry thermo-
meter 03-5°; this must have "been about Ih. 52m. or later;.! could
not see the column of mercury in the wet bulb thermometer; nor
afterwards the hands of the watch, nor the fine divisions on any
instrument. I af^ked Mr Coxwell to help me to read the instru-
ments, as \ experienced a difficulty in seeing. Tn consoquence,
however, of the rotatory motion of tho balloon, whirh had continued
without ceasing sine* thv earth had been left, the valvedino had
become twisted, and he had to leave the car and mount into the
AERONAUTICS
197
rinc above to aajust it. At this time I looked at the barometer,
ana found it to be 10 inches, still decreasing fast ; its true reading
therefore was 9f inches, implying a height of 29,000 feet. Shortly
afterwards I laid my arm upon the table, possessed of its full vigour,
and on being desirous of using it, I found it powerless-^-it must
have lost itg power momentarily. I tried to move the other arm,
and found it powerless also. I then tried to shake mvself, and
succeeded in shaking my body. I seemed %) have no iimbs. I
then loolfed at the barometer, and whilst doing so my head fell on
my left shoulder. I struggled and shook my body again, but could
not move my arms. I got my head upright, but for an instant
only, when it fell on my right shoulder, and then I fell backwards,
my back resting against the side of the car, and my head on its
edge ; in this position my eyes were directed towards Mr Coxwell
in the ring. When I shook my body I seemed to have full power
over the muscles of the back, and considerable power over those of
the neck, but none over either my arms or my legs ; in fact, I
seemed to have none. Aa in the case of the arms, all muscular
power was lost in an instant from my back and neck. I dimly saw
Mr Cox:well in the ring, and endeavoured to speak, but could not ;
when in an instant intense black* darkness came : the optis nerve
finally lost power suddenly. I was still conscious, with as activa a
brain aa at the present moment whilst writing this. I thought I
had been seized with asphyxia, and that I should experience no
more, as death would come unless we speedily descended : other
thoughts were actively entering my mind, when I suddenly became
unconscious as on going to sleep. I cannot tell anything of the
sense of hearing , the jTerfect stillness and silence of the regions 6
miles from the earth {and at this time we were between 6 and 7
miles high) is such that no sound reaches the ear.
My last observation was made at Ih. 54m. at 29,000 feet. I
suppose two or three minutes fully were occupied between pay eyes
becoming insensible to seeing fine divisions and Ih. 64m., and then
that two or three minutes more passed till I was insensible ; there-
fore I think this took place at about Ih. 56m. or Ih. 57m. Whils*
powerless I heard the words 'temperature' and 'observation,' and
I knew Mr Coxwell was in the car speaking to me, and endeavour-
ing to arouse me'; therefore consciousness and hearing had returned.
I then hw.rd him speak more emphatically, but I could not see,
speak, or move. I heard him again s;*y, ' Do try — now do,' Then
I saw the instruments oiraly, then Mr Coxwell, and very shortly
saw clearly. I rose in my seat and looked raimd, as though wak-
ing from sleep, though not refreshed by sleep, and said to Mr
Coxwell, ' I have been insensible.' He said, * You Eave ; and I too,
very nearly.' I then drew up my lega. Which had been extended
before me, and took a pencil in my hand to begin oraervationa.
Mr Coxwell told m^ that he had lost the use of his hands, which
were black, and I poured brandy over them.
*' I resumed my observations at 2h, 7m., recording tne oarometer
reading at ll'oS inches and te-mperature - 2". I suppose that three
or four minutes were occupied from the time of my hearing th«
words 'temperature' and 'observation' till I began to qbserve. li
so, then returning consciousness came at 2h. 4m., and this ^vee
seven minutes for total insensibility. I found the water in the
vessel supplying the wef bulb thermometer, which I had by fre-
quent disturbances kept from freezing, was one soHd mass of ice ;
and it did not all melt until after we had been on the ground sosm
time.
" Mr Coxwell told me that whilst in the ring he felt it piercingly
cold ; that hoar-frost was all round the neck of the balloon ; on at-
tempting to leave th« ring he found his hands frozen, and he had
to place his arms on the ring and drop down ; that he thought for
a moment I had lain back to rest myself ; that he spoke to me
without eliciting a reply ; that he then noticed my legs projected
and my anna hung down by my side ; that my countenance was
serene and placid, without the earnestness and anxiety he had
noticed before going into the ring, and then it struck him I waa
insensible. He wished to approach me, but could not, and he felt
insensfbihty coming over himself ; that he became anxious to open
the valve, but in conseauence of his having lost the use of his
hands he couJd not, and ultimately did so by seizing the cord with
his teeth, and dipping his head two or three times, untiJ.the ballooQ
took a decided turn downwards,
" No inconvenience followed this insensibility, and when we
dropped itjwas in a country where no conveyance of any kind could
be obtained, so that 1 had to walk between 7 and 8 miles.
"Tho descent was at first very^ rapid ; we passed downwaras 3
miles in nine minutes ; the balloon's career was then checked, and
it finally descended in the centre of a large grass field at Cold Wee-
ton, 74 miles from Ludlow
"In this ascent six pigeons were taken ap. One was lorown out
at the height of 3 miles, when it extended ita wmgs and dropped
as a piece of paper ; a second, at 4 miles, flew vi^^rously round axtd
roun^ apparently tafflng a t^p each time ; a third was thrown out
bctwCen 4 and 5 miles, and it fell downwards as a stone ; a fourth
was thrown out at 4 miles on descending ; it flew in a circle, and
shortly alichted <»i the too St the balloon. The two remainiar
198
AERONAUTICS
[scientific
Ascent
from the
Crystal
Palace on
April 18
1863.
Ascent
from Wol-
verton,
June ^6,
1S63. -
pigeons vrcTC brought down to the ground. One was found to Le
dead, and the other, a carrier, waa still living, but would not leave
the hand when I attempted to throw it off, till, after a quarter of
an hour, it began to peck a piece of ribbon which encircled its neck,
and woa then jerked otf the iinger, and Hew with Boino vigour to-
MtirJs WolverhamiJton. One of the pigeons returned to Wolver-
hampton on Sunday, the "th, and lliis is the only one thar tiu
been heard of."
^fr Glaislier found from hi.s observation- oook that the
last observation was made at 29,000 feet, and that at this
time the baLloon was ascending at the rate of 1000 feet per
minute ; and that when he resumed his observations, it was
descending at the rate of 2000 feet per minute, the interval
being thirteen minutes. This gives 3C,000 or 37,000 feet-
for the greatest height attained. Two otlier series of con-
siderations led to the latter height, and there can be no
doubt that the altitude of 37,000 feet, or 7 miles, was
attained on this occasion.
In the ascent, April 18, 1863, 24,000 feet of elevation
was reached. It was remarkable for the rapidity of the de-
scent. At 2h. 41m., the balloon being then at a height of
10,000 feet, Mr Coxwell suddenly caught sight of Bcachy
Head, and Mr Glaisher, looking over the edge of the car,
saw the sea, apparently immediately underneath. There was
no time to be lost, and Mr Coxwell hung on to the valve-
line, telling Mr Glaisher to leave his instruments and do
the same. The earth was reached at 2h. 48m., the two
miles of descent having been effected in four minutes. The
balloon struck the ground near Kewhaven with a terrible
crash, but, from the free use of the v.ilve-line, it was so
crippled that it did not move afterwards. AH the instru-
ments, of the value of more than X25, including some that
were unreplaceable, were broken, and Mr Glaisher was
hurt. In the descent, after the first high ascent on July
17, 1862, the earth was struck with so much violence thiit
most of 'the instruments were broken, and Mr Glaisher
(who was closed in by his observing-board) was a good
deal hurt then. In subsequent ascents, therefore, boxes
were used filled with small mattresses, in which the instru-
ments could be hurriedly placed, and the board was so
arranged that it could be turned over and hung outside
the car. These improvements had the efi"ect of diminish-
ing the danger to himself and the chance of breakage of
the instruments, but in the Newhaven descent there was
not sullicient time to put them in practice.
The circumstances met with in the ascent, June 26,
1863, were so remarkable that a short account cannot be
omitted. The morning was at first very "bright and fine,
but bgtween 11 and 12 o'clock a change took place; the sky
became covered with clouds, and the wind rose and blew
strongly, so that great difficulty was experienced in com-
pleting the inflation. At Ih. 3m. the balloon left; in four
minutes, at 4000 feet high, cloud was entered. Mr Glaisher
expected soon to break through it, and enter into bright
sunshine as tisual, but nothing of the sort 'took place, as,
on emergence, clouds were seen both above and below.
At 9000 feet the sighing and moaning of the wind were
heard, and Jlr Glaisher satisfied himself that this was due,
not to the cordage of the balloon, but to opposing currents.
At this time the sun was seen faintly, but instead of its
brillianco increasing, although the balloon was then two
miles high, a fog was entered, and the sight of the sun lost.
The balloon next passed through a dry fog, which was left
at 12,000 feet, and after the sun had been seen faintly for
a little time, a wetting fog was entered.
" At 15,000 feet," Mr Glaislier proceeds, "we were still in fog,
ont it waa not so wetting. At 16,000 feet we entered a dry fog ;
at 17,000 feet saw faint gleams of the sun, and beard a train.
"We were now about 3 miles high ; at this time we were not in
cloud, but clouds were below us ; others were on our level at a dis-
tance, and yet more above us. We looked with astonishment at
each other, and said as we were rising steadily we surely must soon
riass through them. At 17,500 feet we *ere again enveloped io
fog, which became .wetting at 18,500 feet ; we left this cloud below
at 19,600 feet. At i;0,000 feet the sun was just visible. We were
now approaching 4 miles high; dense clouds were still above us;
for a spice of 2000 to 3000 feet we met with no fog, but on passing
above 4 milts our attention waa first attracted to a dark mass ol
cloud, and then to auother on our level ; both these 'clouds had
fringed edges — they were both nimbi. Without the slightest doubi
both these clouds were regular rain-clouds. Whilst looking at them
we again lost sight of everything, being enveloped in fog whilst
passing upwards through 1000 feet. At 22,000 feet wo again
emerged, and were above cIoxkIs on passing above 23,000 feet. At
six minutes to 2 o'clock we heard a railway train ; the temperature
here was 18". I wished still to ascend to find the limits of this
vapour, but Mr CoxwcU said, ' We are too short of sand ; 1 cannot
go higher ; we must not even stop hefe.' 1 was therefore most
rcluctiintly compelled to abandon the wish, and looked searchiiigly
arnond. At this highest point, in close proximity to us, were
rain clouds ; below us dense fog. I was agafn reminded that \7e
must not stop. With a hasty glance everj-where, above, below,
around, I saw the sky nearly covered with dark clouds of a stratus
character, with cirri still higher, and small spaces of blue sky be-
tween them. The blue was not the blue of 4 or 5 miles high as I
hfid always before seen it, but a faint blue, as seen from the earth
when the air is charged with moisture."
In the dowmvara journey an even more remarkable series
of circumstances was met with; for a fall of rain was passed
through, and then below it a snow-storm, the flakes being
entirely composed of spiculaj of ice and innumerable snow-
ciystals. On reaching the ground near Ely the lower
atmosphere was found to be thick, misty, and murky. At
Wolverton the afternoon was cold, raw, and disagrecible
for a summer's day. The fact of rain-clouds extending
layer above layer to a height of 4 miles, was one never
hitherto regarded as possible; and the occurrence of rain and
snow, and the latter underneath the former, and aU happen-
ing on a day in the very middle of summer, formed a series
of most curious and unexpected phenomena.
Mr Glaisher having, in one of his descents, wliich took Night
place near sunset, obsers-ed that the temperature was the ascents
same through a very considerable height, it occurred to him
that after dark it was quite pdssible that, for some ele-
vation above che earth's surface, the temperature might
even increase with increase of height; and to determine
this he arranged fir some ascents to be made after sunset,
so that the tempen».ure during the night might be observed.
For this purpose he procured a couple of Davy lamps,
which answered their object satisfactorily. Accordingly,
on October 2, 1865, an ascent was made from Wool-
wich Arsenal, the time of starting being about three-
quarters of an hour after the sun had set. The temperature
on the earth was 56°, and it steadily increased to 59°'6
at the height of 1900 feet. This was established con-
clusively by repeated ups and downs, the temperature
faUing as the balloon descended. The view of London
lighted up, as seen from the balloon in this ascent, the
night being clear, was most wonderful. A second night
ascent was made from the same place on December 2,
1865, and the balloon left the earth 2| hours after sunset
On this occasion the temperature did not rise, Mit the
decrease, though steady, was small. In an ascent from
Windsor on May 29, J 866, the balloon was kept up till
half-past eight o'clock, and. the temperature was found to
decrease as the earth was approached during the last 900
feet. In this last ascent no paid aeronaut was employed,
as Mr Westcar, of the Royal Horse Guards, undertook the
management of the bolloon. In the preceding five ascents
Mr Orton, of Bla'ckwall, was employed as aeronaut
It has been found necessary in the present notice to Results af
allude merely to the more striking points noticed in Mr eiperi-'
Glaisher's twenty-eight ascents. The number of observa- meats,
tions made by him was of course great, and it is only neces-
sarj' here to repeat that they are to be found in the ReporU
of thi British Aitociaiion /or the Advancement o/ Science,
ASCENTS.J
AERONAUTICS
199
1862-6G. It appealed as one oi tli» results of the ex-
periments tliat the rate of the decline of temperature with
elevation near the earth was very different when the sky
was clear from what was the case when it was cloudy;
and the equality of temperature at sunset and increase
with height after sunset were very remarkable facts which
were not anticipated, and which have an important bearing
on the theory of refraction, as astronomical observations
are usually made at night. Even at the -height of 5 miles,
cirrus clouds were seen high in the air, apparently as far
above as they seem when viewed from the earth, and the
air must there be so exceedingly dry that it is hard to
believe that their presence can be due to moisture at all
The results of the observations differed very much, and no
doubt the atmospheric conditions depended not only on
the time of day, but also on the season of the year, and
were such that a vast number of ascents would be requisite
to determine the true la\v3 with anything approaching to
certainty and completeness. It is also clear that England
is a most unfit country for the pursuit of such investiga-
tions, as, from whatever place the balloon started, it was
never safe to be more than an hour above the clouds for
fear of reaching the sea. It appeared from the observations
that an aneroid barometer could be trusted to read as accu-
rately as a mercurial barometer to the heights reached.
The time of vibration of a horizontal magnet was taken in
very many of the ascents, and the results of ten different
sets of observations proved undoubtedly that the time of
vibration was lunger than on the earth. In almost all the
ascents the balloon was under the influence of currents of
air in different directions. The thickness of these currents
was found to vary greatly. The direction of the wind on
the earth was sometimes that of the whole mass of air up
to 20;000 feet, whilst at other times the direction changed
within 500 feet of the earth. Sometimes direcUy opposite
currents were met with at different heights in the same
ascent, and three or four streams of air were encountered
moving in different directions. Ignoring the different cur-
rents of air which caused the balloon to change its direction,
and at times to move in entirely opposite directions, and
simply taking into account the places of ascent and descent,
the distances so measured were always very much greater
than the horizontal movement of the air as measured by
anemometers. For example, on January 12, 1862, the
balloon left Woolwich at 2h. 8m. p.m., and descended at
Lakenheath, 70 miles distant from the place of ascent,
at 4h. IDm. p.m. At the Greenwich Observatory, by
Robinson's anemometer, during this time the motion of the
air was 6 miles only. With regard to physiological ob-
servat'ons, Mr Glaisher found that the number of pulsations
increased with elevation, as also the number of inspirations.
The number of his pulsations was generally 76 per minute
before starting, about 00 at 10,000 feet, 100 at 20,000
feet, and 110 at higher elevations. But a good deal
depei.ded on the temperament of the individuah This was
also I he case in respect to colour; at 10,000 feet the faces
of so ne would be a glowing purple, whilst others would be
ecarC'''y affected; at 4 miles high Mr Glaisher found the
pulsations of his heart distinctly audible, and his breathing
was very much affected, so that panting was produced by
the lery slightest exertion; at 29,000 feet he became in-
sensible. In reference to the propagation of sound, it was
at all times found that sounds from the earth were more
or lfc)ii andible according to the amount of moisture in the
air. When in clouds at 4 miles high, a railway 'train
was beard; but when clouds were far below, no sound ever
reached the ear at this elevation. The discharge of a gun
Wat heard at 10,000 feet. The barking of a dog was heard
at '.ne height of 2 miles, while the shouting of a mnlt'tude
uf tieople was not audible at heights ej.ceeding 4000 feet
The majority of Mr Glaisher's experiments were made
in the summer, partly because public ascents took place
at this time of the year, and partly because the weather
was more settled. But some special ascents were made
in the winter ; these were found to be very troublesome
and costly, owing to the time that was wasted before
a suitable day occurred, and to the boisterous w'eather,
which damaged the balloon. Altogether the number of
ascents bore but a small ratio to the number of days
spent over them. Sometimes it was necessary to wait
at Wolverhampton a whole week after the day fixed
for the ascent, owing to the unfavourable state of the
weather and the necessity of keeping the light gas re-
quired for the balloon in a separate gasometer (as the
lightest gas is the worst in illuminating power), added to
the cost and diiBculty. When balloons ascend as public
exhibitions from places of entertainment it is very rarely
that a height of a mile is reached, although, in the absence
of instruments, it is not unusual for the aeronaut to ex-
aggerate the elevation, as the passengers have no reason for
disputing what is told them. This must be borne in mind
when physiological or other phenomena are described by
voyagers unprovided with instruments. We have noticed
the observations made in Mr Glaisher's ascents at greater
length, because they are almost the only ones that have been
made in which the height and other matters are determined
with certainty. A qucntity of air was collected in two large
bags at the height of 12,000 feet in the ascent on January
12, 1SG4, and submitted to Professo- TyndaU, but he has
never made public the analysis of it.
In the years 1867 and 18C8 M. Flammarion made eight
or nine ascents from Paiis for scientific purposes. The
heights reached were not great, but the general result of
the observations was to confirm those made by Mr Glaisher.
See M. Flammarion in Voyages Aeriens, Paris, 1870, or
TravAs in llie Air, London, 1871. Observations were
also made in some balloon ascents by M. de Fonvielle,
which are noticed in the works just referred to.
The balloon had not been discovered very long before it
received a mUitary status, and soon after the commence-
ment of the French revolutionary war an aeronautic school
was founded at Meudon ; Guyton de Morveau, the chemist,
and Colonel Coutelle being the persons in charge. Four
balloons were constructed for the armies of the north, of
the Sambre and Meuse, of the Rhine and Moselle, and of
Egypt. In June 1794 Coutelle ascended with the adju-
tant and general to reconnoitre the hostUe army just before
the battle of Fleurus, and two reconnaissances were made,
each occupying four hours. It is generally stated that it
was to the information so gained that the French victory
was due. The balloon corps was in constant requisition
during the campaign, but it does not appear that, with the
exception of the reconnaissances just mentioned, any great
advantages resulted, except in a coral point of view. But
even this was of importance, as the enemy were much dis-
concerted at having their movements so completely watched,
while the French were correspondingly elated at the supe-
rior information it was believed they were gaining. A l
attempt was made to revive the use of balloors in Jie
African campaign of 1830, but no opportunity occurred in
which they could be employed. It is said that in 1849 a
reconnoitring balloon was sent up from before Venice,
and that the Russians used one at Sebastopol In tha
French campaign against Italy in 1859 the French had
recourse to the use of balloons, but this time there was not
any aerostatic corps, and their management was entrusted
to the brothers Godard. Several reconnaissances wtra
made, and one of especial interest the day before the battle
of Solferino. No information of much importance seems,
however, to have been gained thereby. The Fleurus re-
Ascents oC
M. Flamr
marion, i
186'-68.
Use of ball
loons for
military
purooseSk
Reconnai^
sances be--
fore the
battle of
Fleiuua,
At Sol-
ferino.
200
AERON.AUTICS
[PABACHtJTES.
coDoaisaance was made in a balloon inflated with hydrogen
gaa, while at Solferino a firo-balloon was omployod. Each
system has its advantages and disadvantages; the gas-
balloon requires several hours for inflation, but then it can
remain in the cir any length of tinjo; the firo-balloon can
be inflated rapidly, but it will not stay in the air more
than five or ton mintites unless a furnace is taken up, the
use of which is impracticable in oven a moderate wind;
besides, the fire-balloon must bo of very large dimensions, and
only one poi-son could, aa a rule, ascend ata timo,and he would
have to bo occupied with the firo : the use of fire-balloons also
b always attended with some danger. M. Zugeno Godard,
who was engaged in the management of the, balloons in tlie
Italian campaign, wrote to the Timet, in Augiist 1864, ex-
pressing his opinion of the superiority of fire-balloons for Vr-ar
purposes, 03 thoy are so easUy inflated and are not destroyed
or oJmpclled to descend oven if pierced by several balls;
and this was also, we believe, the opinion of the Aostrians
who made oxperimouta with war balloons.
Balloons In the late American war balloons wore a good deal used
o(«d in the by the Federals. There was a regular baUoon staff attached
American jy M'CleUan's army, -H-ith a captain, an assistant-captain, and
**'' about 80 non-commissioned officers and privates. The appa-
ratus consisted of two generators, drawn by four horses each;
two bolloons, drawn by four horses each, and an acid-cart,
drawn by two horses. The two balloons used contained about
13,000 and 2G,000 feet of gas, and the inflation usually
occupied about' tlireo hours. (See Captain Beaumont's
Account, voL lii. of the Royal Engineers' Papers.) We are
not aware of the value set by the officers in command on
thc)^ in formation obtained by this means; but as we believe
balloons were omployod till the conclusion of the war,
it is clear that somo importance was attached to their use.
In 18(J2 or 18G3 one or two experiments to test the use of
balloons in making roconnaisse.ncea were made at Alder-
abot, but nothing came of them.
When the Montgolfiers first discovered the balloon, its
great use in miUtary operations was at once prophe-
sied; but these anticipations have not been realised. On
the other hand, however, there can be no doubt that the
balloon has never had a fair trial, being viewed coldly by
officers enamourpd of routine, and when used, being often
left uusupplied with suitable appointments. It is probable
that a future still remains fur the balloon in this direction.
U«o of bal- The paramount value of the baUoon during the recent
loons in tba siege of ■ Paris must be fresh in the minds of all It
vieBe of was- by it alone that communication was kept up
between the besieged city and the external world,
as the balloons carried away from Paris the pigeons
which afterwards brought back to it the news of the
provinces. Ihe total number of balloons that ascended
from Paris during the siege, conveying persons and de-
spatches, was sixty-four — the first having started on
September 23, 1870, and the last on January 28, 1871.
Bamb^tta efTectod his escape from Paris, on October 7,
in the balloon Armand-Barbis, an event which doubtless
led to the prolongation of the war. Of the sixty-four
balloons only two were never heard of; they were blown
out to sea. One of the most remarkable voyages was that
of the Yille d'Orlians, which, leaving Paris at eleven o'clock
on Kovembor 21, descended fifteen hours afterwards near
Christiania, having crossed the North Sea. Several of the
balloons on their descent were taken by the Prussians, and
a good njany were fired at while in the air; but we do not
hear £f any being injured from tins cause. The average
size of the balloons was from 2000 to 2060 metres, or from
70,000 to 72,000 cubic feet.. The above facts we have
extracted from Les Ballona du Si^ge de Pa?n3, a sheet pub-
lished by Bulla dz Sons, Paris; compiled by the brothers
Tissandier. well-known French aeronauts, and giving the
P«rls,
1870-71
name, aizo, anu times ol ascent and descent of every balloon
tliat left Paris, vrith the namefi of the aeronaut and gene-
rally also those of the passengers, the weight of despatches,
the number of pigeons, itc. Only those balloons, however, are
noCiced in which some person ascended. A similar list of
sixty-two balloons is given by Mr Ghiishcr in the introduc-
tion to the second edition of Travels in the Air (1871). It
was, however, published too soon after the conclusion of
the siege to be quite so complete as the sheet of the MJL
Tissandier.
It is perhaps worth stating that the balloons were maniv
factured and despatched (generally from the platforms of the
Orleans or the Northern Railway) under the direction of the
Post-Office. The aeronauts employed were mostly sailors,
who did their work very well No use whatever was made
in the war of balloons for purposes of reconnaissance. The
exceedingly important part played by the balloon in the
siege of Paris would alone, if it had been of no other utility,
render it one of the most valuable inventions of the kit
century.
The princii)lo of the parachute is so simple that the idea
must have occurred to persons in all agos. Father Loubere,
in his History of Siam, published two centuries ago, tells of
a person who frequently diverted the court by the pro-
digious leaps he used to take, having two parachutes or
•umbrellas fastened to his girdla In 1783 a certain IL
le Normand practically demonstrated tho efficiency of a
parachute by descending from a high house at Lyons; but
ho merely regarded it as a useful means whereby to escape
from fire. To Blanchard is duo the idea of using it as an
adjunct to the balloon. As early as 1785 ha had con-
'structod a parachute, to which was attached a basket. In
this he placed a dog, which descended safely to tho ground
when the parachute was released from a balloon at a con-
siderable elevation. It is stated that he descended himseli
from a balloon in a parachute in 1793; but, owing to soma
defect in its construction, he fell too rapidly, and broke his leg.
Andr6 Jaques Garnerin was the first person who success-
fully descended from a balloon in a parachute, and ho
repeated this experiment so often that ho may bo said to
have first demonstrated tho practicability of using tho
machine; and, in fact, that he invented it in a practical
and suitable form. In 1793 Garnerin had been taken
]irisoner at llarchiennes, and he was confined for between
two and three years in the fortress of Bude, in Hungary.
^\Tiile in captivity he elaborated in his mind the means ol
descending from a baUoon by means of a parachute; and
on October 22, 1797, ho made his first public exi>en-
ment. Ue ascended from the park of Monceau at Paris,
and wbon at the height of about 1 J mile ha released the
parachute, which was attached to tho balloon in place of a
car; the balloon, relieved suddenly of so great a weight,
roBO very rapidly till it burst, while the parachr',e de-
scended very fast, making violent oscillations all tho
way. Garnerin, however, reached the earth in safety upon
the plain of Monceau. In 1802 Garnerin came to England
and made a good many ascents in all parts of tho country,
many of which excited much enthusiasm, as can be seen
from tho contemporary accounts; and on September 21,
1802, he repeated his parachute experiment in England.
The parachute was dome-shaped, and bore a resemblance
to a large umbrella. The case or dome was made of white
canvas, and was 23 feet in diameter. At the top was a
truck or round piece of wood 10 inches in diameter, with a
hole in its centre, fastened to the canvas by 32 short pieces
of tape. The parachute, was suspended f'om a hoop at-
tached to the netting of the balloon, and below the para-
chute was placed a cylindrical basket, i feet high and 2 J feet
in diameter, which contained the aeronaut. The ascemt took
place at about six o'clock from North Audlev Street. London ;
P&n-
cbate^
Bbachar^
GaRMcIs,
G&meno
descends bl
a paia'
chute iB
England.
SeePla«e'
PARACHUTES.]
AERONAUTICS
201
Fatal para-
chnt? de-
Kert of Mr Cocking.
t
aud, at a heigLt of about (it is believed) 8000 ieet, Garnerin
separated the parachute from the balloon. For a fe^
seconds his fate seemed certain, as the parachute retaip.ed
the collapsed state in which it had originally ascended, and
fell very rapidly. It suddenly, however, e.xpanded, and the
rapidity of its descent was at once checked, but the oscil-
lations were so violent that the car, which was suspended
20 feet below, was sometimes on a level ivith the rest
of the apparatus. Some accounts state that these oscilla-
tions increased, others that they decreased as the parachute
descended, and the latter seems most probable. It came
to the ground in a field at the back of St Pancras Church,
the descent having occupied rather more than ten minutes.
Garnerin was hurt a little by the violence with which the
basket containing him struck the earth ; but a few cuts and
a slight nausea represented all the ill efifects of Ms fall.
He made, certainly, one other descent in a similar way (as
that just described is stated to have been his third), and
^e believe several others on the Continent, but this was
the only one he effected in England.
.Tqrdaki Jordaki -Kuparento, a Polish aeronaut, is the only person
Kup&rento. who ever made any real use of a parachute. He ascended
from Warsaw on July 24, 1808, in a fire-balloon, which, at a
considerable elevation, took fire; but being provided with a
paraciute, he was enabled to effect his descent in safety.
The next experiment made with a parachute was that
which resulted in the unfortunate death of Mr Robert
So early as 1814 this gentleman had lectured
on the subject before the City Philosophical Society, and
also before the Society of Arts. He always retained an
interest in ballooning, and made two ascents — one with Mr
Sadler, and the other on September 27, 1836, with Mr
Green. The success of the balloon trip of Messrs Hollond,
Mason, and Green, seems to have incited Mr Cocking to
demonstrate practically the truth of his views. He accord-
ingly constructed a suitable parachute on his principles, and
having succeeded in obtaining the consent of Messrs Hughes
and Gye, the proprietors of VauxhaU Gardens, fb permit
the ascent to be made there, he prevailed on Mr Green
to ascend in his great Nassau balloon with the parachute
attached. The great defect of Gamerin's umbrella-shaped
parachute was its violent oscillation during descent, and
Mr Cocking considered that if the parachute were
made of a conical form (vertex downwards), the whole
of this oscillation would be avoided ; and if it were
made of sufficient size, there would be resistance enough to
check too rapid a
descent. He there-
fore constructed a
parachute en this
principle, the radius
of which at its widest
part was about 17
feet. It was stated
in the public an-
nouncements previ-
ous to the experi-
ment that the whole
weighed 223 lb; but
from the evidence
at the inquest it
appeared that the
weight must have Cooking's Parachute.
beon ovft 400 lb. Mr Cocking's weight was 177 5>, which
was so much additional. On July 24, 1837, the trial
took place; and the Nassau balloon, with Mr Green andi
Mr Spencer, a solicitor, in the car, and having suspended
below it the parachute, in the car of which was Mr Cocking,
rose from the ground at twenty-five minutes to eight in
the evening, A good deal of diificulty was experienced in
1—8*
rising to a suitable height, partly in consequence of the ;3-
sistance to the air offered by the expanded parachute,
and partly owing to its weight. Mr Cocking wished the
height to be 8000 feet; but when the balloon reached the
height of 5000 feet, it being then nearly over Greenwich, Mr
Green called out to Mr Cocking that he should be unable
to ascend to the requisite height if the parachute was to
descend in daylights Mr Cocking accordingly let slip the
catch which was to liberate him from the balloon. The
parachute for a few seconds descended very rapidly but
still evenly, until suddenly the upper rim seemed to give
way, and the whole apparatus collapsed (taking a form
resembling an umbrella turned inside out, and nearly
closed), and the machine descended with great rapidity,
oscillating very much. When about two or three hundred
feet from the ground, the basket became disengaged from
the remnant of the parachute, and Mr Cocking was found
in a field at Lee, literally dashed to pieces.
ilr Green and Mr Spencer, who were in the car of the
balloon, had also a narrow escape. At the moment the
parachute was disengaged they crouched down in the car,
and Mr Green clung to the valve-Uae, to permit the escape
of the gas. The balloon shot upwards, plunging and
rolling, and the gas pouring from both the upper and
lower valves, but chiefly from the latter, as the great
resistance of the air checked its egress from the former.
Mr Green and Mr Spencer applied their mouths to tubes
communicating with an air-bag with which they had had
the foresight to provide themselves, otherwise they would
certainly have been suffocated by the gas. Notwith-
standing this precaution, however, the gas almost totally
deprived them of sight for four or five minutes. When
they came to themselves they found they were at a height
of about four miles, and descending rapidly. They effected,
however, a safe descent near Maidstone.
Many objections were made, after the result, to the form
of Mr Cocking's parachute ; but there is little doubt that
had it been constructed of sufficient strength, and perhaps
of somewhat larger si^e, it would have answered its pur-
pose. As it was, the^upper rim was made of tin, which
soon -gave way. Mr Wise, the American aeronaut, made
some experiments on parachutes of both forms (Gamerin's
and Cocking's), and found that the latter always were
much more steady, descending generally in a spiral curve.
In 1839 Mr Hampton made three descents in a para-
chute, on Gamerin's
pattern, from his bal-
loon, the " Albion."
He followed Gar-
nerin's example in
attaching the para-
chute to the nettinj,
of the balloon, so
that when the con-
nection between the
two was severed the
latter was left to its
own devices. Mr
Hampton took mea-
sures, however, that
it should descend soon after the parachute, and it was
generally found no great distance off? and- returned' to liim.
All his parachute descents were safely performed, although
in one he was a good deal shaken.
We may remark that a descending balloon half-full oi
gas either does rise, or can with a little managenJent be
made to rise, to the top of the netting and take the form of a
parachute, thus materially lessening the rapidity of descent.
Mr Wise, in fact, having noticed this, once purposely
exploded hia balloon when at a considerable altitude, and
I. — 26
Mr Hamp>
ton's para-
chute
descents.
Ilampton's Parachate.
De^xendJDg
galloon
takes the
pftrachoto
form.
202
AERONAUTICS
[fiyiso machines.
the resistance offered to tLe air by the envelope of the
l);illoon was sufficient to enable him to reach the ground
without injury. And a siiuilar thing took place in one of
Mr Glaisher's high scientific ascents (April 18, 18G3),
when, at a height of about 2 miles, the sea appeared
directly underneath; the gas was let out of the balloon
as quickly as possible, and the velocity of descent was so
great, that the 2 miles of' vertical height were passed
through in four minutes. On the balloon reaching the
ground at Newhaven, close to the shore, it was found to
be nearly empty. The balloon had, in fact, for the last
mile or more, merely acted as a parachute; the shock was
a severe one, and all the instruments were broken, but
nothing serious resulted to the occupants of the car.
Flying > Numerous attempts have been made both to direct
mKiuio^ balloons and contrive independent tlj-ing machines. After
gable bal- ^'"^ invention of the balloon by the brothers Montgolfier,
looM. it was at once thought that no very groat ditficulty would
bo found in devising a suitable steering apparatus ; in fact,
it was supposed that to rise into the air and remain there
was the chief difficulty, and that, this being accomplished,
the power of directing the aerostat would be a secondaiy
achievement that must follow before long. Accordingly,
in most of the early balloons the voyagers took up oars,
sail.s, or paddles, which they diligently worked while in the
air; sometimes they thought an effect was produced, and
sometimes not. If we consider the number of different
currents in the atmosphere, it is no wonder that some
should have announced with confidence that their course
was changed from that of the wind by means of the sails
or oars that«they used; in fact, it is not very often that the
whole atmosphere up to a considerable height is moving
eii masse in the same direction, so that generally the course
taken by the balloon, as determined merely by joining the
places of ascent and descent, is not identical with the
direction of the wind, even when it is the same at both
places. Although there is no reason why balloons shoidd
not be so gvuded by means of mechanical appliances
attached to them as to move in a direction making a small
angle with that of the wind, still it must have been evident
to any one who has observed a balloon during inflation on
a windy day, that any motion in which it would be exposed
to the action of a strong current of air must result in its
destructiiJn. It has therefore gradually become recognised
that the balloon is scarcely a step at all towards a system of
aerial navigation; and many have thought that the principles
involved in ,the construction of a flying machine must be
very different from the simple statical equilibrium that
Subsists when a balloon is floating in the air. " To navigate
the air the machine must be heavier than the air," has fre-
quently been regarded as an axiom; and there can be nodoubt
chat an apparatus constructed of such light material as is
necessary for a balloon must either be destroyed or become
ungovernable in a high wind. Recently, however, M.
Dupuy de Lome, an eminent French engineer, has con-
structed and made experiments with a balloon which he
considers satisfies some of the conditions. The balloon is
spindle-shaped, the longer axis being horizontal, and it
contains about 1 20,000 cubic feet. The car is suspended
below the, middle of the balloon, and there aj-e provided a
rudder and a screw. The rudder consists of a triangular
sail placed beneath the balloon and near the rear, and is
kept in position by a horizo&tal yard, about 20 feet long,
turning round a pivot in its forward extremitjr ; the height
of the sail is 16 feet, and its surface 160 square feet. Two
ropes for working the rudder extend forward to the seat" of
the steerer, who has before him a compass fixed to the ear,
the central part of which will contain fourteen men. The
screw is carried by the car, and is driven by four or eight
men working at a caostaa. A trial was made with the
machine on February 2, 1872, on a windy day, and M. de
LOme considered that he had been enabled by his screw
and rudder to alter his course about 1 a'. ^Sco Jieporl of the
Aeronautical Society, 1872).
Whatever difficulties may present themselves in regu-
l.ating the horizontal movement of the balloon, there can
be no doubt that the vertical motion could bo obtained by
means of a screw or other mechanical means ; and the
power of being able to ascend or descend without loss of
ballast would be a considerable gain. In the opinion of
many, however, the balloon is not worth improvement ;
and as ballooning is now generally practised merely as a
spectacle by which the aeronaut or showman gains •Jiia
living, it is not likely that any advancement will be made.
Of flying machines, in which both buoyancy and motion
were proposed to be obtained by purely mechanical means,
the number has been very great. Most of the projects
have been chimerical, and were due to persons possessed
of an insufficient knowledge of the principles of natural
philosophy, both theoretically and practically. They serve, .
however, to show how great a number of individuals must
have paid attention to the matter, and even at the present
time several patents are taken out annually on the subject.
We do not propose here to give an account o^ny of these
projects, for but few have ever passed beyond projects, but
will merely refer to Mr Benson's aerial carriage, which in Benson's
1843 attracted some attention. The apparatus was an i":'"'*' «*•
elaborate one, and its principal feature was the great ""8"-
expanse of the sustaining planes. The machine was to
advance with its front edge a httle raised, the effect of which
would be to present its under surface to the air over which
it was passing; the resistance of this air, acting on it like the
strong wind on thesails of a windmill, would, it was thought,
prevent the descent of the machine. Mr Henson invented a
steam-engine of great lightness, but he proposed that the
machine should be started down an inclined plane, so that
the steam-engine would only have to make up for the
velocity lost by the resistance of the air. The scheme
never came to anything.
In the still air of a room it is, of course, not difficult to]
attach an apparatus to a balloon so as to direct its motion,'
and even models of flying machines have been made which,
when tried in a room, seemed moderately successful Some
instruments which would very nearly support themselves
in the air were shown at the Aeronautical Society's exhi-
bition at the Crystal Palace. A good deal would be
accomplished if an accurate knowledge of the exact motion
of a bird's wing could be obtained ; in fact, until this is
known, or until sufficient experimeuis on the resistance
experienced by different-shaped laminae with different
motions are made, there seems little chance of the con-
struction of a satisfactory flying machine, unless means
can be found to make a steam-emrine of much less weight
than is at present necessary.
In 1865 the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain waa Aeronaut!,
founded, the officers being — President, the Duke of Argyle; "^^I Societj
Treasurer, Mr J. Glaisher; and Secretary, Mr Brearey. It °' preat
has published an annual report every year since [1873], con- ""'*"'•
taining selections from the papers read to the society, and
abstracts of the discussions that took place thereon at the
meetings. The numerous papers submitted to this society
bear witness to the great number of minds that are engaged
on the solution of the problem of aerial navigation. Of
course, not a few of the methods proposed are the fanciful
projects of ignorant men, but some show the careful thought
and elaborate experiment of trained engineers and other
qualified persons. In 1868 the society held an 'exhibition
of flying machines, ic, at the Crystal Palace, wTiich waa
visited by many persons. A fire-balloon of a 51. de la
Marne. which should have a-soended during this exhibition.
JliTHEMATICAL TETEOEY. I
AERO^JAUTICS
203
Theory of
tbe equili-
Ijnura of
the balloon.
I
ca'Jj'"'' 'i^'O and was burnt. In 1871 a series of experi-
mciits was made at Penn's factory (Green\\ich) on the
resistance of diii'erent shaped planes placed at different
angles, iu a current of air produced by a rotary fan. In-
vestigations of this kitd not only form the first step
towards obtaining data for a true knowledge of the exact
nature of flying, but are also independently of high scientific
interest. The chief object of the society is to bring together
those persons who are interested in the subject of aero-
nautics (except balloonists by trade, who are ineligible),
and to encourage those who, possessing suitable acquire-
ments, are devoting their time to the investigation of the
question.
Aerost/itie societies have also been founded in other
cooutries ; but although they have been inaugurated with
considerable eciat, more than one hare already terminated
a short .ived career. The Vienna society seems, however,
to have been unusually active during the recent exhibi-
tion of 1873.
The principle in virtue of which a balloon ascends is
exactly the same as that which causes a piece of wood or
other material to float partiaUy immersed in water, and
may be stated as follows, viz., that if any body float in
equilibrium in a fluid, the weight of the body is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced. By the " fluid dis-
placed " is meant the fluid which would occupy the space
actually occupied in the fluid by the body if the body were
removed. 'Wlien the fluid is inelastic and incompressible,
i.e., a liquid, as water, its density is the same throughout,
and bodies placed in it either rise to the surface and float
there partially immersed, or sink to the bottom. Thus,
suppose a body only one-third as heavy as water (in other
words, whose specific gravity is one-third) was floating on
the surface of water, then, as the weight of the body must
be equal to that of the water it displaces, it is clear that one-
third of the body must be immersed. In the case, however,
of an elastic or gaseous fluid, such as air, the density gradu-
ally decreases as we recede from the surface of the earth,
for each layer has to support the weight of all above it, and
as air is elastic or compressible, the layers near the earth are
more pressed upon, and therefore denser than those above.
Thus, if a body lighter than the air it displaces be set
free in the atmosphere, it rises to such a height that the
air there is so attenuated that the weight of it displaced is
equal to that of the body, when equilibrium takes place,
and the body ascends no higher. In all cases, therefore,
a body floating in the air is totally immersed, and it can
never get beyond the atmosphere, and float, as it were,
upon its surface.
To find, therefore, how high any body (lighter than the
air it disphices), such as a balloon, of given capacity and
weight, will rise, it is only necessary to calculate at what
height the volume of a quantity of air equal to the given
capacity will be equal in weight to the given weight.
Leaving temperature out of the question, the law of the
decrease of density in the atmosphere is such that the
density at a height x is eqvial to e * ' x the density at the
earth's surface, g being the measure of gravity, and k also
h
a constant; the value of - is caUed the height of the homo-
geneous atmosphere, viz., it is equal to what would be the
height of the atmosphere if it were homogeneous through-
out, and of the same density as at the earth's surface. Its
value may be taken at about 20,000 feet. Thus, let V be
the volume of a balloon and its appurtenances, car, ropes,
<fec. (viz., the number of cubic feet, or whatever the unit
of solidity may be, that H displaces), and letW be its
weight (including that of the gas), then it will rise to a
height X such that
W = V^ X density of air,
g being the value of the force of gravity, and o-j being the
density of the air at the surface of the earth. This equa-
tion is not quite accurate, for several reasons— (1) because
the decrease of temperature that results from increase of
elevation has not been taken into account; (2) because g
has been taken to measure the force of graWty on the
earth's surface, whereas it should represent this force at
a height x; this is easily corrected by replacing g by g',
a'
where a' = q ; , a being the radius of the earth, but
^ •'(a-hx)*' °
as a is about 4000 mUes, and x is never likely in any ordi-
nary question to exceed 10 miles, we can replace ^r' by ^
without introducing sensible error, for the correction due to
this cause would be much less than other uncertainties
that must arise; and (3) because Wand V could not both
remain constant. If the balloon be not fuUy inflated on
leaving, so that the gas contained in it can expand, then
V, the volume of air displaced, will increase; while, if the
balloon be full at starting, the envelope must either be
strong enough to resist the increased pressure of the gas
inside, due to the removal of some of the pressure outside
(owing to the diminished density of the air), or some of the
gas must be allowed to escape. The former alternative
of the second case cuuld not be complied with, as the balloon
would burst; some of the gas must therefore escape, and
so W is diminished. The weight of gas of which the
balloon is thus eased cannot properly be omitted from the
calculation, if x be considerable ; but a good approximation
is obtained without it, as the weight of the gas that escapes
will generally bear a small proportion to the weight of
balloon, car, grapnel, passengers, &c. Thj true equation
(except as regards temperature) is therefoie, for a balloon
full at starting —
-..^y _g°%Po(l-e~**) ^ gg'^'oV t'
Ifi + xf (a + xf '
»„ denoting the volume actually occupied by the gas, ^
denoting g
(a + x)-
, viz., gravity at height x, and p^ being
the density of the gas on the ground. It will generally be
sufiicient, especially when temperature is omitted, to take
the formula in the approximate form written previously.
As the volume of air dispkced by the car, ropes, passengoi-s,
ic, is usually trifling compared to that displaced by the
balloon itself, no great error can arise from taking w, = V„.
As an example, let us find how high a balloon of 100,000
cubic feet capacity would rise if inflated with pure hydrogen
gas, carrying with it a weight of 3000 J) (this including
the weight of the balloon itself and ajipurtenances). A
cubic foot of air, at temperature 32° Fahr., and under a
pressure of 29-922 in., weighs -080728 Bj, and a cubic
foot of hydrogen weighs ■005592 5), so that (supposing
the barometer reading on the earth to be 29-922 in., and the
temperature of the air to be 32°) at the surface of the
earth the balloon, &c., weighs 3559 D), and the wei-lit of
the air displaced is 8073 ft. The balloon wiU therefore
approximately rise to such a height x that 100,000 cubic
feet of air shall there weigh 3559 2); and x is gi\en in feet
by the equation
« 3559
''"•*"= 8573
or ar = 26,000 (log 8073 - log 3559),
the logarithms being hj-perbolic; if common or Briggiatt
logarithms be used, the result must bo multiplied by
2-30258 . . . (the reciprocal of the modulus). In the ubovft
204
A.ERONAUTJCS
[mathematical
case we find x =» aoout 21,000 icet, and as at this height
rather more than half the gas will have escaped (it ha^^ng
been supposed that the balloon was full at starting). This
only reduces the value 35!i9 by about 300, and the result
of taking it into account is only to increase the height just
found by about 200 feet. If 2000 lb out of the 3000
were thrown away during the ascent, the balloon would
reach a height of about 10 miles; the weight of the gae
that escapes is here important, as, if it be not taken into
account, the height given by the formula is only about
8 miles.
In actual aerostation, as at present practised, ordinary
coal gas is used, which is many times heavier than hydrogen,
being, in fact, usually not less than half the specific gravity
of air. Even when balloons are inflated with hydrogen,
generated by the action of sulphuric acid on zinc filings,
the gas is very far from pure, and its density is often
double that of pure hydrogen, and even greater.
The hydrostatic laws relating to the equilibrium of float-
ing bodies were known long previous to the invention of
the balloon in 1783', but it was only in the latter half of
the 1 8th century that the nature of gases was sufliciently
understood to enable these principles to have been acted
on. As we have seen, both Black and Cavallo did make
use of th|m on a small scale, and if they had thought
it possibleVo make a varnish impervious to the passage
of hydrogen gas they could have easily anticipated the
Montgolfiers. As it was, no sooner was the fire-balloon
invented, than Charles at once suggested and practically
carried out the idea of the hydrogen or inflammable air
balloon.
Mathem«- The mathematical theory of the rate of ascent of a
ticiil theory oalloon possesses remarkable historic interest, from the
of the fa^-t (jjjjt it was the last problem that engaged the attention
""b^u" °^ ■ °^ ''^'^ greatest mathematician of the last century, Euler.
the^last" ' The news of the experiment of the Montgolliers at Annonay
problem on June 5, 1783, reached the aged mathematician (he was
that en- in his 77tli year) at St Petersburg, and with an energy that
gaged the ^.^ characteristic of him he at once proceeded to investi-
attenlion ^^^^ ^^^ motion of a globe lighter than the air it displaced.
Eor many years he had been all but totally blind, and was
in the habit of performing his calculations with chalk upon
a black board. It was after his death, on September 7,
1783, that this board was found covered with the analytical
investic;ation of the motion of an aerostat. This investi-
gation is printed under the title, Calculs sur les Ballons
Aerostaliques fajts par feu M. Leonard Elder, ieh qu'on les
a trouves siir son ardoise, aprh sa mart arrivee le 7
Septemhre 1783, in the Memoirs of the French Academy
for 1781 (pp. 264-2G8). The explanation of the earlier
date is that the volume of memoirs for 1781 was not
published tiU 178-1. The peculiarity of Euler's memoir is
that it deals with the motion of a closed globe filled with a
gas lighter than air, whereas the experiments of the Mont-
golfiers were made with balloons inflated with heated air.
The explanation of this must be that either an imperfect
account reached Euler, and that he supjlied the details
himself as seemed to him most probable, or that he, like
the Montgolfiers themselves, attributed the rising of the
balloon to the generation of a special gas given off by the
chopped straw with which the fire was fed. The treatment
of the question by Euler presents no particular point of
importance — indeed, it could not; but the fact of its having
given rise to the closing work of so long and distinguished^
a life, and having occupied the last thoughts of so great a
mind, confers on the problem of the balloon's motion a
peculiar interest.
Motion, of We now proceed to the investigation of the vertical
a baCooD. mot 'bn of a balloon inflated with gas, the horizontal motion,
of ouTse, being always equal to that of the current in
which it is phiced. In supposing, therefore, the balloon to
be ascending vertically into a perfectly calm atmosphere,
there is no loss of generality. There are two cases of the
problem, viz., when the balloon is only partially filled with
gas at starting, and when it is quite filled. The motion in
the former case we shall investigate first, as the balloon
will ascend till it becomes comyilettly full, and then the
subsequent motion will belong to the second case. We m.ay
remark that it is iisual in investigations relating to the
motions of a balloon to regard it in the way that Euler did,
viz., as a closed inextensible bag, capable of bearing any
amount of pressure. In point of fact, the neck or lower
orifice of the balloon is invariably open while it is in the
air, 80 that the pressure inside and outside is practically
always the same, and when the balloon continues ascending
after jt has become quite full, the gas pours out of the neck
or is allowed to escape by opening the upper valve. It ifi
to be noticed that we have not thought it necessarj- to trans-
form the formula; obtained in such -n-i-se that they may be
readily adapted to numerical calculations as they stand, aa
our object is rather to exhibit the nature of the motion, and
clearly express the conditions that are fulfilled in the case
of a balloon, than deduce a series of formulae for practical
use. We shall, however, indicate the simplifications allow-
able in practical applications. The effect of temperature,
though important, is neglected, as the connection between
it and height is still unknown. It was chiefly to determine
this relation that Mr Glaisher's ascents were imdertaken,
and at the conclusion of the first eight he deduced aa
empirical law which seemed to accord pretty well with the
observations ; the succeeding twenty ascents, however, failed
to confirm this law. In fact, it is evident, even without ob-
servation, that the rate of the decline of temperature when
the sky is clear must differ from what it is when cloudy,
and that, being influenced to a great amount by radiation
of heat from the earth's surface, it will vary from hour to
hour. Under these circumstan'ces, as our object is not to
deduce a series of practical rules for calculating heights,
kc, we have supposed the temperature to rcnain constant
throughout the atmosphere. The assumption of any law of
decrease would considerably compHcate the equations. Per-
haps the simplest law, mathematically considered, would
be to assume the cur\'e of descent of temperature to be
y = e~'*. The curve Mr Glaisher deduced from his eight
ascents was a portion of a hyperbola, the constants bein/r
determined empirically.
Let M = the mass of the balloon, car. netting, gas, pas- Motion of
sengers, &c., on etartine. a balloon
», = the capacity of the envelope of the balloon when""'!' P*'*
full ''»i'y f^J
r, = the volume of gas at the pressure of the air intro- **• 'tartii,
duced into the balloon before starting.
0 = the volume (supposed less than Vj) occupied by the
gas at the height x.
(5 = density of the gas in the balloon on tne earth.
; = „ „ „ at the height x.
»„ = density of the air on the earth,
ff = „ „ at the height x.
u = the initial upward velocity of the balloon (which is
introduced for the sake of complete generality,
but is always zero).
ti. = the velocity (vertically upwards, as all horizontal
motion is ignored) at height x,
Theu the equation of motion at any time previous to the ■
balloon becoming completely fillsd is
Mu^ = .t^ - M/ - MH-i • ,
the last term being dne to ihe resistance of the air, whicb
is assumed to vary directly as the square of the*elocity
and as the density of the fir. In very slow motions the
INVESTIGATIONS.
AEROKAUTICS
205
resistance appears from erperiinenta to vary pretty nearly
as the velocity; and when the motion is very swift, as in
the case of a rifie-bullet, as the cube of the velocity; but
when the motion is neither very rapid nor very slow, the
law of the square of the velocity probably represents the
truth very fairly. By g is denoted the value of gravity
at the lieight x, so that
<i being, as above, the radius of the earth. In the exponen-
tial term, we shall replace g by g, as no sensible error can
result therefrom. The value of o-v is constant, as by
Boyle's and Marriotte's law it always = o-^v,. Writing,
therefore, for brevity —
2X Icq . q
MM k
= m.
tlie equation of motion takes the form
— -r »ir- "u^ = /3 ;
ax (a + x)-
ivhence, following the usual rule for the integration of
linear differential equations of the first order, and writing
X for e~*', for convenience of printing,
( a+r I a+x )
= eo'i -^^■i-a/^{^--~i«-5-»+^,f-'--...)
I a + x Ja + x- 1.2
= ^'^'[_- ^7^ + '>{<^'"'Ei{-'w-'w)
- nK'""Ei( - 2na - inx^
+ ,"' £"" Ei (-3ito - Z,ix) - ... } n + C .
Herein put a; = 0, so that u = u„, and we have
Uj=e-- = flaM ■¥ij.{c"''d{-vji)-mc'"'^(-2na)
+ pl,.J..Ei(-37ia-)..,}^ +C;
whence, by subtraction,
+aie"Ei(-na-nx)
a a + x
- )7M*"Ei( - 2?M - 2ni) + ..-«■"£;(- Tia) + OT«'~Ei( - 2m) - ... } |
therefore
pe-«(i-x) 1
+ o£"' {e""Ei( -Tia-nx)- e""EiC - na) - m«'""Ei( - 2m» - 2iu;)
+ jrK'"Ei( - 2na) + p^c=""Ei( - Sna - Snx^
.^e>"Ei{-3»ia) + ...}]
in which Ei j: is used to denote the exponential integral of
/•e'
- dx, according to a recognised notation. ' The
values of the integral Ei x, which may be regarded as a
known function, have been tabulated (see Philosophical
Transactions for 1870, pp. 3C7-3S8).
We thus have, except for temperature, the complete
solution of the problem of the motion of the balloon so far
as velocity and height are concerned; it would not be
possible to connect the time and the height except by the
performance of another integration, for the practicability of
which It would be necessary to submit to some loss of
generality, viz., we should have to regard x as small as
compared to a, and take A. as small, and so on. The equa-
tion last written gives the motion until the height (say h)
is attained at which the baUoon becomes quite full, after
which the gas begins to escape, and we have the second
case of the problem.
Before proceeding, however, to the discussion of this
second case, it is worth while to examine the solution more
carefully, leaving out of consideration quantities that make
no very great difference in the practical result, for the sake
of simplicity. Supposing, then, gra'i'ity to be constant ai
all heights, and A. to be zero, the i:.quation of motion take?
the simple fonn
d.u2 ,
whence «'-«(' = /to;
and we see, what is pretty evident from general reasoning,
that if a balloon, partially filled, rises at all, it will at least
rise to such a height that it will become completely full
The letters meaning the eame as before, the equation of Motion ri
motion of a balloon completely fiUed at starting is "■ balloon
{ M-V„(^„-,)| u'g=g^,i^ V,,-M + Vo(;,-f)| starting
or substituting for p and o- their values
M-V„^„(l-e-")
) du
>{ V«« — -M
+ Vafo(l-«— )
(a -1-1)2
The integral of this differential equation could be obtainei^
in series as before, only that the resulting equations
would be more complicated. As we do not propose to
discuss the formula obtained, it will be sufficient for our
purpose to deduce an approximate solution by neglecting
V^„(l -e"") compared to M, viz., neglecting the mass of
the gas that has escaped during the ascent compared to the
mass of the whole balloon and appurtenances. It must be
borne in mind, however, that when coal gas is used, and
the ascent is to a great height, the mass of gas that escapes
is by no means insensible. The equation thus becomes
gar
dx
du'
dx
+ xe-
(.+x)-4V«e-'-M}
I Vo.„e — -M }
ya
ybemg -.
(a + xY
This is an equation which can be integrated
in exat't-Iv the same way as that previously considered, viz.,
by m - .:•" by a factor e~"'^, and integrating at once;
thus,
- ' = - ^. -blya- 1 -. -, '
r-fC
I a + -"^ / a + x J
■
a + x
-n(e"Ei l-BO-ni) -riie="Ei ( - 2rui - 2njc) -i- . . . }
'-<«{c'"Ei(-2na-2;u:)-m<,-'""Ei(-3na-3njc}-h ... }1
20G
AERONAUTICS
— - + « ^ «"Ei ( - )ia - nx)
~me^'"Ei(-2iia-2nz)+ ... | |+C,
and C is determined as before by putting x - 0 , when we
Lave a = «„ .
In tliia case u^ is not zero, except when the balloon
starts from the earth quite full. Tho general case is, when
the balloon is only partially filled on lea\'ing; the previous
equations then hold untU a height h, at which it becomes
quite full, when the motion changes, and is as just investi-
gated. Then u^ becomes the velocity at the height k, and
everything is measured from this height as if from the sur-
face of the earth, a being then tho radius of the earth + k,
Pj, <r„ the densities at height A, and p, <r at height x + h,
(tc. We have therefore, except as regards time, completely
determined the motion <5f a balloon inflated with gas in an
atmosphere of constant temperature. The introduction of
temperature would modify the motion considerably, but in
the present state of science it cannot be taken into account.
Principlo The general principle of the equilibrium of a fire-balloon
of th« lire is, of course, identical with that of a gas-balloon ; but the
balloon. niotion is diilerent, as the degree of buoyancy at each
moment varies mth the temperature of the air within the
balloon, and therefore with the heat of the furnace by
which the air is warnled. Dry air expands ^jd part of its
volume for every increase of temperature of 1" centigrade,
or jj-j-th of its volume for every increase of temperature
of 1° Fahr. If, therefore, the air in an envelope or bag
be heated 60' Fahr. more than the surrounding air, the
air within tho bag will expand jV'r''^ °f ^^ volume, and
tlus air must therefore escape. The air within the bag
weighs less, therefore, than the air it displaces by the
/^fth part of the latter ; and if the weight of this be
greater than the weight of the bag and appurtenances, the
latter will ascend.- It is, therefore, always easy to calcu-
late approximately the ascensional power of a fire-baUoon
if the temperature of the surrounding air be known, and
also the mean temperature of the air within the balloon.
Thus, let the balloon contain V cubic feet of hot air at the
temperature t' (Fahr.), ani let the temperature of the
surrounding air be t (Fahr.; Also, suppose the weight of
the balloon, car, itc, is W tt>, and let the barometer reading
be k inches, then the ascensional power is equal to the
weight of the air displaced - weight of the heated air
— W H), viz.,
h. f V X -060728 Y X -080728 ) „
29-922), {-32 ~ , «'-32 1 10 - VV ID,
'i+i9r ^+:49r
•080728 lb being the weight of a cubic foot of air at tem-
perature 32°, under the pressure of one atmosphere, viz.,
when the reading of the barometer is 29-922 in. Of coarse,
the motion depends upon the temperature of the air in the
balloon as due to the furnace, if the latter is taken up with
the balloon ; but if the air in the balloon is merely warmed,
and the balloon then set free by itself, the problem is. an
easy one, as tho rate of cooling can be determined approxi-
mately; but it is destitute of interest. We have said that
dry air increases its volume by ij-r'^ P^'^ '"'' ^^^T i°'
crease of 1° (Fahr.), but the air is generally more or less
saturated with moisture. This second atmosphere, formed
of the vapour of water, is superposed over that of the air,
as it were, and, in a very careful consideration of the
question, should be taken into account. Even, however,
when the air is completely saturated with moisture but
little difference is produced ; so that for all practical pur-
poses the presence of the vapour of water in the air may
be ignored. Of couree the amount of vapour depends on
the dew-point, and tables of the pressure of the vapour of
water ut different temperatures are given in most modem
works on heat ; but, as has been stated, the matter, in an
aeronautical point of view, is of very httlc importance.
At first it was supposed that the cause of the ascent of the
balloon of the Montgolfiers was traceable to the generation
of gas and smoke from the damp straw which was set light
to ; but the advance pf science showed that the fire-balloon
owed its leWty merely to tho rarefaction of the air oroduced
by the heat generatei
A formula giving the height, in terms of the readings of Height of
the barometer and thermometer, on the surface of the "'= baUooo
earth, and at the place the height of which is required, b '^'■'":''™|ped
easily obtained from the principles of ^drostatics. The 7t'h''b"'^
formula given by Laplace, redu<-ed to English units, is — meur aad
thermo-
meter.
^log^^') xCOlSO^H-'-i^-^Vl-f -002837 cob 2 L)
(-
900
2+^2251\
20886900/'
Z being the height required in feet, h, h' the heights of the
barometer in inches at the lower and upper stations, t, t' the
temperatures (Fahr.) of the air at the lower and upper
stations, L the latitude, z the approximate altitude, and
20,886,900 the earth's mean radius in feet. This was the
formula used by Mr Glaisher for the reduction of his
obser\'ation.s. It is open to the obvious defect that the
temperature is assumed uniform, and equal to the mean of
the temperatures at the upper and lower stations ; but till
the law of decline of temperature is better determined,
perhaps this is as good an approximation to the truth as
we can have without introducing needless complication in
the formula.
A sphere is not a developable surface — i.e., it cannot be Shape of a
divided in any manner so as to admit of its being spread 8"™ "f a
out flat upon a plane, so that no spherical balloon could be "^'l'""'-
made of stiff plane material However,, the silk or cotton
of which balloons are manufactured is sufficiently flexible
to prevert any deviation from the sphere being noticeable.
Balloons are made in gores, a gore being what, in spherical
trigonometry, is called a lune, viz., the surface enclosed
between two meridians. The approximate shape of these
gores is very easy to calculate.
Thus, let A B E C be a gore,
then the sides ABE, ACE,
are not arcs of circles, but
curves of sines, viz., PQ bears
to D B ihe ratio that sin A P
does to sin A D, or, which
comes to the same thing, sup-
posing A D = 90°, and A P
= x°, then PQ = BD sin x°.
It is thus easy, by means of a
table of natural sines, to form
a pattern gore, whatever the
required number of gores may
be. Thus, supposing there are
to be n gores, then B 0 must
be -th o' the circumference —
n
o
viz., "ths of AE; and BD
n <
and A D being given, any num-
ber of points can be found
on the curve ABE in the
marmer indicated above, A
slight knowledge of spherical
trigonometry shows the reason for the above rule. Bal-
loons, as usually constructed, are spherical, except for the
neck, which is made to slope down, 80_that-the_whgl»
B&llooD Gore.
AERONAUTICS
207
Elniiu resembles latUtr thut ol a tear. The pattern gore
sliould originriUy be inadt, as if for a spheiical balloon, and
afterwards the slight modificatiua necessarj- for the formar
tion of the neck sho.dd be applied.
CoBstnic The gores are seim together, and a small portion of the
tion of upper end of each is cut away, so as to leave an aperture at
baJoon. jj^^ ^^p ^f jj^g balloon of from 1 to 3 feet in diameter.
This pace is occupied by the Talve, which is generally
made of strong wood, and consists of two semicircular
shutters hinged to a diameter of the circular frame, and
kept closed by a spring. The vaive is opened by pulling a
string, technically called the valve-line, which passes down
;hrough the balloon and out at the lower orifice in which
ohe neck terminates. The ftet-work which, like the gores,
is attached to the circumferences of the valve, passes
over the surface of the balloon, and supi)orts the ring or
lioop from which the car is suspended by half a dozen
strong ropes, of perhaps 4 or 5 feet in length. The net-
work is thus stretched between the valve and the ring. It
is very-important that all the ropes by which the car hangs
Irom the ring should be so adjusted that each may bear
jjretty nearly the same weight, as otherwise the whole net-
1-jg and balloon will be strained, and perhaps to a serious
ei^tcnt. The car is usually merely a large basket made of
vicker-work. The neck of the balloon should be 7 or 8
ioet above the car, so that the aeronaut can easily reach it
by mounting into the ring. The best material for the
envelope is silk ; but on account of the expense cotton or
alpaca is generally used: in all cases it must be varnished,
in order to render it more impervious to the gas. The
grapnel or anchor is a large five-pronged hook attached
to the ring by a rope 100 or 1'20 feet long. The
fii'st care of the aeronaut on leaving the earth is to
lower thp grapnel gently to the full extent that the rope
will pennit. Thus, when the balloon is in the air, the
grapnel hangs down below it, and when the descent is
being effected, is the first thing to touch the ground. If
the descent is well managed, and the balloon is moving
downwards slowly, the weight of which it is relieved when
the grapnel is supported by the earth checlis any further
descent, and the wind carries the balloon along horizontally,
the grapnel trailing over the ground until it catches in
some obstruction and is held fast. The baUoon is then in
uuicli about the same position as a kite held by a string, and
if the wind be strong, plunges about wUdly, striking the
ground and rebounding, until the aeronaut, by continued use
of the valve-line, has allowed sufficient gas to escape to
de])rivc it of .all buoyancy and prevent its rising again,
fractice of The chief danger attending ballooning lies in the descent;
•erosta- for if a strong wind be blowing, the grapnel will some-
*''"'• times trail for miles over the ground at the rate of ten or
twenty miles an hour, catching now and then in hedges,
ditches, roots of trees, &c. ; and, after ginng the balloon a
terrible jerk, breaking loose again, till .at length some
obstruction, such as the wooded bank of a stream, affords
a firm hold. If the balloon has lost all its buoyant power
by the escape of the gas, the car also drags over the ground.
But even a very rough descent is usually not productive of
any vciy serious consequences; as, altbough the occupants
of the car generally receive many bruises, and are perhaps
cut by the ropes, it rarely happens that anything worse
occurs. On a day when the wind is light (supposing that
there is no want of ballast) nothing can be easier than the
descent, and the aeronaut can decide several miles oflT on
the field in which he will alight. It is very important to
have a good supply of ballast, so as to be able to check the
rapidity of the descent, as in passing downwards through
a wet cloud the weight of the balloon is enormously in-
creased by the water deposited on it; and it there is no
ballast to throw out to compsiisate t^'" accession of mass,
the velocity is sometimes very great. It is also ccnvcnieiit,
if the district lipon which the balloon is descending appear
unsuitable • for landing, to be able to ixse again. The
ballast consists of fine baked sand, which becomes so scat:
tered as to be inappreciable before it has fallen far below
the balloon. It is taken up in bags containLng* about
J cwt. each. The balloon at starting is liberated by a
spring catch which the aeronaut releases, and the ballast
should be so adjusted that there is nearly cquihbrium
before leanng, else the rapidity of ascent is too great, and
has to be checked by parting with gas. It is almost im-
possible to Uberate the balloon in such a way as to avoid
giving it a rotai-y motion about a vertical axis, which con-
tinues during the whole time it is in the air. This rotation
makes it difficult for those in the car to discover in what
direction they are moving; and it is only by looking down
along the rope to which the grapnel is suspended that the
motion of the balloon over the counti-y below can be traced.
We may mention that the upward and downward motion
at any instant is at once known by merely dropping over
the side of the car a small piece of paper: if the paper
ascends or remains on the same level or stationary, the
baUoon is descending; while, if it descends, the balloon is
ascending. This test is so delicate that it sometimes
showed the motion at a particular instant with more pre-
cision than did Mr Glaisher's very delicate instruments.
Contrivances are often proposed by which the valve
might be opened in less crude ways than by merely puUing
a string attached to it ; by which the jerks produced by the
catching of the grapnel might be diminished, Ac. These im-
provements are not adopted, because simplicity is requisite
before everything. Any mechanical contrivance might be
broken and rendered useless by the first blow of the car on
the eartb; whereas the primitive arrangements in use are
such that scarcely any rough treatment can impair their
efficiency.
The most important works that have appeared on tho WoiKs'il
subject of aerostation are —
Dadahis^ or Mechanical Motions^ by Bishop Wilkins, London,
1648 ; A Treatise on the Nature and Properties of Air and other
Pennancnthj Elastic Fluids, by Tiberius Cavallo, London, 17S1 ;
AccQU7lt of the First Aerial Voyage in England, in a Series oj
Letters to his Guardiaji, by Vincent Luuardi, London, 1784 ;
History and Practice of Aerostation, by Tibeiius Cavallo, London,
1785 ; Annals of some Remarkable Aerial and Alpine Voyages,
including those of the author, by T. Foreter, London, 1832 ;
Aeronautica, by Ifonck llason, London, 1838 ; A Syslctn of Aero-
nautics, comprehending its Earliest Investigations, by John "Wise,
Piiiladclphia, 1850 ; Astra Castra, Experiments and Adventures in
the Atmosphere, by Ilatton Tumor, London, 1865 ; Voyages Aericns,
par J. Glaislier, C. Flammarion, W. de FonWellc, ct G. Tissandier,
I'ari.s, 1870; the same translated into English and published,
edited by James Glaisher, under the -title. Travels in the Air,
London, 1871.
AH the above books we have seen ourselves, and used
in the preparation of the present article. Asti'a Castra
is a work of 530 pp. large quarto ; it consists chiefly of
extracts from other works and writings, and it is useful
as affording data for a history rather than as a history
itself. On pp. 463-465 is a list of books and papers on
aeronautics, which seems fairly complete up to the dato
1864. In the list are also included memoirs and "papers
which we have not noted in the last paragraph, .is the most
miportant of them are referred to under their ■special sub-
jects in the course of this article. We shoidd advise
any one desirous of studying the history of aeronautics to'
consult Mr Tumor's list in Astra Castra, which is th(i
most perfect we have met mth. He has marked with an
asterisk ttose works that may bo consulted by the public
■ in the library of the Patent Office, which contains, besides
books, a valuable collection of prints and broadsheets on
the subject of aerostation. (J- c.)
aerosta-
tion,>
208
JE R T — M a C
^RTSZEN, PiETER, called "Long Peter" on account of
his Ueiglit, au historical paiuter of great merit aa regards
both drawing and colouring, was born at Amsterdam in
1520, and died in 1573. When a youth he distinguished
himself by painting homely scenes, in which he reproduced
articles of furniture, cooking utensils, <tc., with marvellous
fidelity, but he afterwards cultivated historical painting.
Several of his best works — altar-pieces in various churches
— were destroyed in the religious wars of the Netherlands.
An excellent siwciraca of his style on a small scale, a
jMctura of the crucifixion, may be seen in the Antwerp
iluseum. iErtszcn was a member of the Academy of
St Luke, in whoso books he is entered as Langht I'ettr,
Khilder. Three of his sons attained to some note as paint«rs.
£.ii is commonly translated brau, but the a:s of the
P.omans, like the xoAxot of the Greeks, was used to signify
not only pure copper, but abo a bronzt, or alloy of copper
and tiu. Brats, in the modern acceptation of an alloy of
copper and :inc, was unknown to the ancients. The cutting
instnuuenls of the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians
were originally of bronze. The Romans borrowed their
arms, aa well as their money, from the Etruscans.
Analysis of the bronzes of these nations shows that thev
contained about 12 per cent of tin, which gave them haca-
ness and the c&\ ability of reviving a good edge. As *ie
most ancient coined money of the Romiuis was of copper or
bronze, at came to be nsed for money in general, even after
the introduction of silver and gold coinage; and ces alUnum
was nsed to signify lyyrroitfd money, dfbt. jEi fquestre,
jEi hordearium, A^» militare, were terms for the pay of
Roman soldiers (previous to the introduction of the regular
ttipcndium), which was furnL^hed, it would appear, not
from the public treasury, but by certain private persons as
decreed by the state. The first, which amounted to 1-0,000
aases, was the purchase-money of the horse of an equfs.
The second, amounting to 2000 asses, was the pay of an
eques, and was furnished by unmarried women, widows,
and orphans, if possessed of a certain amount of property.
The CCS militare, reckoned by Niebuhr at 1000 asses a
year, was the pay of a foot soldier.
.iESCHIXES, an Athenian philosopher, said to have
been the son of a sausage-maker. He was continually
with Socrates; which occasioned that philosopher to say that
the sausage-maker's son was the only person who knew how
to pay a due regard to him. It is alleged that poverty
obliged him to go to Sicily to the court of Dionysius; and
that he met with great contempt from Plato, but was ex-
tremely well received by Aristippus, to whom he showed
some of his dialogues, receiving from Tiim a handsome sum
of money. He did not venture to profess philosophy at
Athens, Plato and Aristippus being in such high esteem ;
but he ppened a school, in which he taught philosophy to
maintain himseif He afterwards WTot« orations for the
forum. Phrynicus, in Photius, ranks h'tm amongst the
best orators, and mentions his orations as the standard of
the pure Attic style. Hermogenes has also spoken very
highly of him. He wrote, besides, several dialogues: — 1.
Concerning virtue, whether it can be taught; 2. Eryxiaa,
or Erasistratus: concerning riches, whether they are good;
3. Axiochua : concerning death, whether it is to be feared, —
but those extant on the several subjects are not genuine
remains. M. le Clerc has given a Latin translation'of
them, with notes and several dissertations, entitled Siivcc
PhilologicfB.
yESCHINES, a celebrated Grecian orator, was bom in
Attica 389 years before the Christian era. According to
hia own account, he was of distinguished birth; according
to that of Demosthenes, he was the son of a courtesan, and
a humble performer in a company of comedians. But
whatever was the true history of his birth and early life,
his services as a sold.icr, and his talents, which were con-
siderable, procured him great applause; and, as a public
speaker, ho became a formidable rival to Demosthene.'i
himself. The two orators, inspired probably with mutual
jealousy and animosity, became at last the strenuous
leaders of opposing parties. yEschines had almost from tha
first advocated peace with Philip of Macedon, and having
been sent on several embassies to negotiate with the king,
had been treated with much respect. He was, in conse-
quence, accused by Demosthenes of having received money
as a bribe when he was employed on one of these
embassies. Ho indirectly retaliated by bringing an accu-
sation against Ctesiphon, the friend of Demosthenes, for
having moved a decree, contrary to the laws, to confer on
Demosthenes a golden crown as a mark of public appro-
bation. A numerous assembly of judges and citizens met
to hear and decide the question. Each orator employed
all his powers of eloquence; but Demosthenes, with superior
talents, and with more justice on his side, was victorious;
whereupon vEschines went into exile. According to Plutarch,
the resentment of Demosthenes was now softened into
generous kindness; for when vEschines was going into
banishment, he requested him to accept of a sum of money;
which made him exclaim, "How do I regret leaving a
country where I have found an enemy so generous, that I
must despair of ever meeting with a friend who shall be
like him!" But this story seems more than doubtful.
jEschines, after staying some years in Asia Minor, opened
a school of eloquence at Rhodes. He is said to have com-
menced his lectures by reading to his audience the two
orations which had been the cause of his banishment. His
own oration received great praise, but that of Demosthenes
was heard with boundless applause. In so trying a
moment, when vanity must be supposed to have been deeply
wounded, he is reported to have said, with a noble gene-
rosity of sentiment, "What would you have thought if you
had heard him thunder out the words himself 1" .iEschines
afterwards removed to Samoe, where he died in the 75th
year of his age. Three only of his orations are extant.
His eloquence is of a very high order, and as an orator he
is second only to Demosthenes.
jESCHVLUS, the father of the Greek tragic drama, was
bom in the year 525 B.C., in the Attic demos of EleusL-i.
The period of his youth and manhood coincides, therefore,
with that great uprising of the national spirit of the Greeks,
caused by the successive attempts of Darius, king of Persia,
and his son Xerxes, to enslave their European neighbours
on the north and west shores of the .iEgean; and it was no
doubt as much for the advantage of his poetical faciJty a£
for the development of his manhood, that he took an active
part in those famous military achievements by which the
march of the insolent Asiatic hosts was repelled. The
father of Attic tragedy helped, in the year 490, to drive
the captains of Darius into the marshes of Marathon, and,
ten years later, encompassed with ruin the multitudinous
armament of Xerxes within the narrow strait of Salamis.
The glories of this naval achievement, the bard who had
helped to win it with hia sword afterwards lived to cele-
brate with the lyre, and left to the world the play of th.'
Peraians, as a great national record of combined poetry
and patriotism almost unique in history. Of his subse-
quent career at Athens only a few scanty notices remain,
and those chiefiy connected with the representation of hi?
plays. We know that he composed seventy plays, and that
he gained the prize for dramatic excellence thirteen times,
further, that the Athenians esteemed his works so highly
as to allow some of them to be represented after his death,
— a privilege, in their dramatic practice, altogether anom.i-
lous. We know, abo, that in the course -if his life he paid
one or two visits to Sicily, to which country he waa attracted.
^] S C — ^ S I
209
no doubt, by the same literary iaflueuce in the person of
its ruler Hiero, that drew thither Bacchylides, Simonides,
£.nd other notable men of that rich epoch. There can, at
the same time, be little doubt that one cause of his visits
to that island may have been a want of sympathy as to
political matters between Mm and the Athenian pubUc;
for while the Athenians, from the time of Cleisthenes (a.c.
510), had been advancing by rapid and decided steps to
the full expansion of the democratic principle. It is evident,
from some passages in his plays, especially from the whole
tone and tendency of the Eumfnides, that the political
leanings of the poet of the Prometheus were towards aris-
tocracy, and that, in the days of Pericles, he foresaw, with
a- sorrowful fear, the ripeness of those democratic evils
which within so short a period led Xenophon to seek a new
fatherland in Sparta, and opened to the Macedonian a plain
path to the sovereignty of Greece. But whatever may
have have been his motives for retiring from the scene of
80 many literary triumphs (and the gossipers of ancient
times have of course transmitted to us their pleasant in-
ventions on this point), it is certain that, in the year A.c.
456, two years after the representation of his great trilogy,
the Orestiad, he died at Gela, in Sicily, in the sixty-ninth
year of Ms age; and the people of Qela, rejoicing in his
bones, as Ravenna does in those of the banished Dante,
inscribed the following memorial on his tomb: —
. " Here ^chylus lies, from his Athenian home
Remote, 'neath Gela'a wheat-producing loam ;
How brave in battle was Eupnorion's son.
The long-haired Mede can tell who fell at Marathon. "
And thus he lives among posterity, celebrated more as a
patriot than as a poet; as if to witness to all times that the
great world of books, with all its power, is but a small
thing unless it be the reflection of a greater world of acrion.
Of the seventy plays which an old biographtr reports him
to have composed, only seven remain, with a few fragments
of little significance save to the keen eye of the professed
philologist. These fragments, however, are sufficient to
justify the high esteem in which he was held by the Athenian
public, and by that greatest of all the great wits of a witty
age and a witty people, Aristophanes. In the grand trilogy
which exhibits, in three consecutive tragedies, the story of
the murder of Agamemnon, and its moral sequences, we have
A perfect specimen of what the Greek tragedy was to the
Greeks, as at once a complex artistic machinery for the
-exhibition of national legend, and a grave pulpit for the
preaching of important moral truths; nor could a more
worthy founder than ^Eschylus of such a "sacred opera"
be imagined. His imagination dwells habitually in the
loftiest region of the stern old religious mythology of
primeval Greece; his moral tone is pure, his character
earnest and manly, and his strictly dramatic power (not-
withstanding the very imperfect form of the drama in his
day), as exhibited more .especially in the Agamemnon, in
the Eumenides, and in some parts of the PrometheTis, is
such as none of his famous successors, least of all Euripides,
could surpass. Of his other plays, the Seven against Thebes
U a drama, as Aristophanes expressed it, " full of war,"
and breathes in every line the spirit of the age and of the
people that saved Europe from the grasp of oriental
despotism; the Persiajis, though weak in some parts, con-
tains some fine choral poetry, and a description of the battle
of Salamis, that will belong to the poetry of the world
80 long as the world lasts; while the Suppliants presents
much in a tasteful translation that makes us lament the
loss of the missmg piece of the trilogy to which it belonged,
no less than the blundering of the thoughtless copjists of
the middle ages, by whose pen it has been so egregiously
defaced. For in ancient times the flowing rhetorical
Euripides was found a more useful model for the schools
oi eloquence than tie loft)', stem, and sometunea harsh,
and occasionally it may be obscure, .^chylus: therefore
the text of the latter has been comparatively neglected,
and much work was left for the tasteful philologist
before many parts of his noblest choiuses could be ren-
dered legible. Of the editions of /E.schylu8, the most
notable in the earlier times of modern scholarship is that
of Stanley; in more recent times, that of Schiitz, who
undertook the work of restoration with much learning and
great boldness. The impulse given by this scholar was
moderated by Wellauer, who, in his edition, along with
some happy emendations, principally endeavoured to vin-
dicate the authority of the manuscript readings from the
large license of conjectural critics; and now from the
remains of the gre£it Hermann has been published a text
that should present the just medium between the timidity
of WeUauer and the rashness of mere conjectural criticism,
though it is much to be feared that the learned German
has been not seldom led astray by the itch of emendation,
which is the old besetting sin of critical scholarship. Of
English poetical translations there are the old one by Potter,
and recent ones by BlacHe, Plumptre,jindSwanwick, There
is also a translation in literal prose by Buckley, (j. s. B.) ■
iESCULAPIUS, in the Heathen MytMogy, the god of
medicine, was the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis.
He was educated by the centaur Chiron, who taught him
the art of healing; and his skUl enabled him to cure the
most desperate diseases. But Jupiter, enraged at his
restoring to life Hippolytus, who had been torn in pieces by
his own horses, killed him with a thunderbolt. According
to Cicero, there were three deities of this name : the first,
the son of Apollo, worshipped in Arcadia, who invented
the probe and bandages for wgunds; the second," the
brother of Mercury, who was killed by lightning; ,' and
the third, the son of Arsippus and Arsinoe, who was the
first to teach tooth-drawing and purging. At EpidaurusJ
^sculapius's statue was of gold and ivory, with a long
beard, the head surrounded with rays, a knotty stick in one
hand, and the other entwined with a serpent: the figure
was seated on a throne of the same materials as the statue,'
and had a dog lying at its feet. The Romans crowned
him with laurel, to represent his descent from Apollo; and
the Phliasians represented him as beardless. The cock, the
raven, and the goat were sacred to this deity. His chief
temples were at Pergamos, Smyrna, Tricca, a city in Thes-
saly, and the isle of Coos ; in all which places votive tablets'
were hung up, showing the names of those cured and the
diseases of which they were healed by his assistance. But
his most famous shrine was at Epidaurus, where, every five
years, games were celebrated in his honour, nine days after
the Isthmian games at Corinth.
jESIR (plural of As, or Ass, god), the gods of tK8
Northmen of Scandinavia and Iceland. There were twelve
chief gods or jEsir besides Odin (the All-fa'&ir, All-
father), \-iz., Thor, Baldur, Niord, Frey, 1^ or T^t, Bragi,
Heimdal, Hod, Vidar, Ull, Forsetti, Loki or Lopt. «; The
chief goddesses of Asgaed (q.v.), the Odinic Olympus,
were — Frigg, Freyia, Nanna, Sif, Saga, Hel, Gefion, Eir,
Hlin, Lofn, Viir, Snotra. The names of the iEsir, con-
sidered in the primary old northern significance of the
words, convey in most instances an allusion to their char-;
acteiTstics; but it is impossible to decide' whether they
merely personify certain physical powers in nature, and
abstract ideas of definite mental conditions, or whether
they were originally borne by individuab connected with
the pre-historic ages of the people. V It is probable that
the ideas underlying the myths connected with the -Esir
have a mixed origin, and may be referred to a blending of
physical, material^ and historical elements. . Our knoVv-
Icd^e ot northern mythology Las been derived ^rincipall)
210
iE S 1 R
from the iragnicntary remains of ancient Scandinavian
pongs, first collected in Iceland in the Uth century, and
fcmbodied in the »3th century with nUmerous other prose
and poetic myths in a compilation now known to us as the
Eddat. From these highly interesting but frequently
obscure sources we are able to reproduce to a certain extent
the imago and conception of each of the /Esir, as they
presented themselves to the imagination of their early
northern worshippers.
In yVior, who seems to have been a god of that earlier
Phoenician form of nature-worship which was superseded
in Scandinavia and Northern Germany by the faith of
Odin, we have the impersonation of the disturbing and
destructive agencies in the universe. He is the son of
heaven and earth — of Odin, the All-father, and of Prigg
or riiirgvin, the vivifj-iug — and is the strongest of the
./Esir. From his hammer flashed tho lightning, and his
chariot wheels sent thunder rolling through the clouds
as he went on his way, cleaving mountains, loosening
the pent-up streams and fires, and slaying all giants
and misshapen monsters. Ever busily engaged in these
labours, he seldom tarried in Asgard with the other ^sir,
but dwelt in his mansion, Bilskimir, in the densest gloom
of the clouds. With bis mallet he consecrated the newly-
wedded, and hence the sign of the mallet or hammer was
made by the Northmen when they took an oath and bound
themselves by vows, whether of marriage or any other
obligation. The early Christian missionaries of Norway,
finding the faith in Thor too strong to be suddenly up-
rooted, tried to transfer' many of his characteristics to their
zealous royal convert, St Olaf, who was said to have re-
sembled the old northern god in his comeliness of person,
his bright red beard, hot, angry temper, and personal
strength; while some of . the monks of a later period en-
deavoured to persuade the Northmen that in Thor their
forefathers had worshipped the Christ, tie strong and
mighty Saviour of the oppressed, and that his mallet was
the rude image of the cross. Slaves and all thralls killed
in battle were believed to be under the protection of Thor,
who, as god of the Finns before the spread of the As
religion, was honoured as their special guardian against
the tyranny of their new masters.
In Baldur the Northmen honoured all tnat was beauti-
ful, eloquent, wise, and good, and he was the spirit of
activity, joy, and light; but his name signifies the strong
in mind, and the earliest conception of Baldur is that of
mental rather than physical or material perfection. His
wife, Nanna, reflected these attributes in a less degree.
On his life depended the activity and happiness of all the
JDsir, excepting only Loki, the earthly fire or incarnation
of evil, and hence this As, from envy of the beauty and
innocence of Baldur, brought about his death, and hindered
his releeise from the power of Hel, the goddess of death.
According to the myth, the ^air, distressed at Baldur's presenti*
ment of his own approaching end, joined his mother, Fri^, in
exacting an oath from animals, plants, and minerals, not to injure
him. The mistletoe alone among plants had been forgotten, and
n'heu this was discovered by Loki he pulled a wand of it, and .
hastening to the assembly of the jEsir, where all were engaged in
the sport of shooting at Haldur, as he was supposed to be invulner-
able, he gave it to Hod, the blind god of brute strength, and
directed him how to aim it. The mistletoe pierced Baldur through,
and he fell dead to the ground in the presence of the ^Esir, who,
foreseeing the evil that would befall them, since light and purity
had been taken from them, gave way to sorrow ana fear. When
all their efforts to release Baldur from Hel had been thwarted by
the machinations of Loki, they resolved to avenge themselves.
Having captured their foe, they confined him within a muuntain-
cave, and hung above his head a venomous snake, to drop its poison
on his face ; but his wife, Sigj-n, stood by him, and caught the
drops in a cup, and it was only while she emptied the goblet that
the venom touched him, when he shrank aside, and caused the earth
to be shaken as with an earthquake. There Loki will rt-main till
Bii^aiock, the twiligh; of the world, when the /Esir, the earth, and
all awellors tnerein, will be deatroyed by the powere of evil, thB
rescuei-s and companions of Loki. Only Odin, the All-father, will
survive, and gather around him on Ida's plain, where Asgard had
once stood, the JJair, regenerate and puiined by Surt'a buck 6re,
and then a new and better world will ariae, in which Baldur will
again come with hij imconscious alaver. Hod, and all evil r-ili
cease, and light and darkneaa will dwell together in unity.
Under one form of the mjrth of Baldur's death he is the
bright god of day or summer, and Hod, the blind and the
strong, is dark night or fiercely-raging winter, his pre-
ordained foe and destroyer. After that final purification
by suffering or fire, and the regeneration to w^ch the
Northmen looked as the means of the ultimate adjustment
of the disturbed balance between evil and good, and fi-om
which they did not exempt their gods, the influence of
good was to prevail Baldur would reappear, and Loki,
the consuming power of evil, be no more heard of.
Loki, in the beginning of time, under the name of
Lodlhur, flame, and as the foster-brother of the All-father,
had united with him in imparting blessings to the universe,
and had given blood and a fair colour to Ask and Embla,
from which the first men were created. Afterwards he
left the council of the .^sir, and like a fallen angel wan-
dered away into regions of space, desolating and consuming
all things that came in contact with his fierce flame.
Descending into the bowels of the earth, where his presence
is made manifest by volcanic fires, he consori!*!d with evil
giantesses, by whom he became the father of Hel, pallid
death ; of Augurboda, the announcer of sorrow ;_ and of the
wolf Fenrir, and the serpent of Midgard, which are ever
threatening the destruction of the world and the peace of
the ./Esir.
Loki can assume all forms. As sensuality he courses throngh
the veins of men, and as heat and fire he pervades nature, causing
death and destruction. After the introduction of Christianity, the
attributes and mystic deeds of Loki were transferred to Satan by the
people of Scandinavia, amongst whose descendants his name still
retains its evil reputation. In Iceland an ignU fiUuus is known as
Loki's burning ; and in Jutland, when there is a dazzling light
or a waving motion in the air which impedes the sight of distant
objects, the peasants say, " Loki is scnaing his oals,"
Niord, supposed to be the Nerthus known to the Romans,
and his children Frey or Fricco and Frej-ia, appear to have
been honoured in the north before the time of Odin, and
to have been worshipped by peoples powerful enough to
have been admitted into friendly alliance with his followers.
Nibrd is said to have lived in Vanaheim, and to have ruled
over the Vanir, or light elves, long before he became one
of the .^sir.* He is god of the ocean, the ruler of winds
and stiUer of waves, and to him the seafarer and fisherman
raise altars and make prayers. His attributes and powers
seem to point to the existence of a superior knowledge of
navigation among those ancient races of Scandinavia who
have been idealised in the imagination of the Northmen as
good, bright, and agile elves and water-sprites — the Liis
Alfai — or Vanir of their mythology. Niord's sc/i Ftey is
the god of rain, plenty, and fruitfulness; and his worship,
according to the early northern chronicler, Adam of
Bremen, was accompanied with phallic rites. His sister
and wife, Freyia, who holds a high place among the .lEair,
is the goddess of love; but her influence, unlike her h'OB-
band's, is not always beneficent, and Taries with the form
which she assumes in operating on the minds of men.
Her chariot is drawn by cats, as emblematic of fondness
and passion, and a hog attends upon her and upon Frey,
whose name, like her own, implies fructification or enjoyJ
ment.
The Swedes paid especial honour to Frey, while the Norwegians
worsliipped Thor (who was in all respects his opposite) as their chiel
As. The latter must also have received divine honours amongst the
Germans, as his name is included in the form of objurgation used by
the e^rly Saxon missionaries ; but this fact and the German name of
the fifth diiy of 'he week — Donners-tag, the Thunderei's day— are
iE S O — IF. S O
211
i'hi'. only rvidcTi'Tq still OTfint of tlie enrly worsliip oi Tliov in
Germany.
By their alliance with Niord and his children the JEsir secured
fertility to the earth and mankind, and the intervention of mild
gentle agencies in nature to counteract the destructive influence of
Thor's power.
In Ty or Tyr we have tlie Mars of tl>e Northmen. It
is he who gives victory, and although he is as wise as he .
is brave, it is he who stirs men to strife, and not to peace.
ITis name, which signifies honour, is found in the names
of the days of the week in O. Nor., Dan., A.-S., and in our
own "Tuesday;" and shows that, like Thor and Frey or
Fre}'ia, whose memory is perpetuated in our Thursday and
Friday, the worship of this bravest of the JEsir was widely
spread among peoples of Northern origin
In Bragi the Northmen honoured the originator of their
Skaldic poetry, the god of eloquence and wise utterances.
At guilds and at grave-feasts the Bragi-cup was drunk; and
at the funeral of kings or jarls the heir was not permitted
to take his father's seat tUJ the " BragarfuU" was brought
in, when, rising to receive it, he drank the contents of the
cup, and was led to the high seat of honour. At guild
feasts the Bragi-cup was signed with Thor's mallet, and
was drunk after the company had drained Odin's cup for
victory, and Nicird's and Frey's cup for a bountiful year.
The peculiarity of Bragi's cup was that, on drinking it, a vow
— held to be inviolable — was made to perform some deed worthy
of a skald's song. Bragi's wife, Idun, as the guardian of the casket
which contained apples that gave to those who ate them perpetual
youth, was specially cherished by the other ^sir. In her aoduction
by the giant Thiassi, and her removal to the nether world through
Loki's craft, her mute grief, and her release in the spring, we have
an analogy with the myth of Proserpine ; and like her she presides
over fresh verdure.
Heimdal, whose attribute is the rainbow, is the god of
watchfulness, the doorkeeper of the ^Esir; while Vidar, the
strongest of the gods after Thor, is the impersonation of
silence and caution ; Ull decides the iscue of single com-
bats, and Forsetli settles all quarrels.
In the goddesses Lofn and Vijr lovers find protectors; the
former unites the faithful, the latter puni.shes the faithless.
Gefion, to whom the Danes owe the formation of the island
Seeland, watches over maidens, and knows the decrees of
fate. mill guards those whom Frigg, the queen and
mother of heaven, is desii-ous of freeing from peril; Frigg
herself, as Odin's wife and the mother of the jEsir, knows
the destinies of men, but is silent in regard to them. As
goddess of the earth, she is known as Frygga, the fertile
summer earth, and Piinda the frost-hardened surface, and
is attended by Fulla, the full, Eir, the young goddess of
healing, and many other goddesses.
Saga, whose name is derived from Segja, to narrate, is
the goddess of history" and narration. Odin and she pledge
each other daily in golden cups filled from the copious
ever-flowing streams of her abode, Sockquabek (from Siikk,
abyss, in allusion to the abundant streams of narrative).
Snotra is the goddess of sagacity and elegance, from whom
men and women seek good sense and refinement of manners.
The Norns and the ValkjTiur, if not actually goddesses,
are closely connected with the ^sir. The three principal
Norns or Nornir are Urd, past time; Verdandi, present
time; and SkuUd, future time. They and the VaUcyriur,
who are known under many n.ame.s, twist and spin the
threads of destiny, and make known what has been decreed
from the beginning of time.
From this brief outline it may be seen that in their
wEsir the Northmen recognised the creatora, sustainers,
and regulators of the world as it now \n, from whom eraan-
aled the thought and life that pervade and animate all
n-.iture, and th^ effort.i to subject it to the spiritual will.
With Odin and the yEsir the intellectual life .of the
nrrlhem people began ; and alibough they ascribed to thrni
human forms and acts, tlifso were seldom without some-
thing higher and nobler than what pertains to mortals;
and whil'e they recognised the existence of a state of chaos
and darkness before this world began with the creation
of the ^sir, they anticipated the advent of another stats,
in which gods, like men, would receive their award at the
hands of a supreme All-father. (e. c. o.)
jESOP, the fabulist, is supposed to have been born about
the year 620 B.C., but the place of his birth is uncertain,
that honour being claimed alike by Samos, Sardis, Mesem- '
bria in Thrace, and Cotifeum in Phrygia. He was brought,
while young, to Athens as a slave, and having seri'ed several
masters, was eventually enfranchised by ladmon the Samiaii.
He thereupon ■visited Crcesus, king of Lydia, at whose court
he is represented by Plutarch as repro-sing Solon for his
discourteous manner towards the king. During the usurpa-
tion of Pisistratus he is said to have visited Athens, and
composed the fable of Jupiter and the Frogs for the instruc-
tion of the citizens (Ph.-edrus, L 2). As the ambassador
of Croesus at Delphi he was charged with the payment of
the large sum of four mmse to each of the citizens; but in
consequence of some dispute, he declined to distribute the
money. The Delphians, incensed at his conduct, accused
him of sacrUege, and threw him headlong from a precipice,
about 564 B.C. A pestilence which ensued being attri-
buted to this crime, the people declared their w-illingness
to make compensation for his death ; which, in default of
a nearer connection, was claimed and received by ladmon,
the grandson of his old master (Plut. de sera Num. Viiid.,
p. 556, Herodot. ii. 134). None of ^sop's works are extant.
The popular stories regarding him are derived from a life
prefixed to a book of fables purporting to be his, collected
by Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th century, in
which he is represented as a monster of ugliness and de-
formity, a notion utterly without foundation, and doubtless
intended to heighten his wit by the contrast. That this
life, however, was in existence a century before PLinude.s'.s
time, ajipears by a manuscript of it found at Florence, and
published in 1800. In Plutarch's Conviviiim, where /Esoji
is a guest, though there are many jests on his original scr-
\-ile condition, there are none on his appearance; and it
would seem that the ancients were not usually restrained
by delicacy in this point, since the personal defects of
Socrates, and his resemblance to old Silenus, afi'ord ample
matter for merriment and raillery in the Symposium of
Plato. We are told, besides, that the Athenians erected
in honcair of jEsop a noble statue by the famous sculptor
Lysippus, a circumstance which alone would be sufiicient
to coiifute the absurd fiction of his deformity ; but more to
the point is the statement of Pliny (xxxvi. 12), that he
was the C.ontubernalis of Rhodopis, his fellow-slave, whose
extraordinary beauty passed into a proverb :
The obscurity in which the history of jEsop is involved
has induced some to deny his existence altogether; and
Giambattista Vico, in his Scienza Nwova, chooses rather
to consider him as an abstraction, an excess of scepticism
which is quite unreasonable. W'hether jEsop left any
written fables has been more justly disputed, and Bentley
inclines .to the negative. 'Thus Aristophanes (Vesper,
V. 1259) represents Philocleon as learning his fables in
conversation, and not from a book ; and Socrates essayed
to versify such as he remembered (Plat. Fha-d. p. 61).
Others, again,, are of opinion that a collection had been
made of them before the time of Socrates (Mm. Crit.
i. 408). It is, however, certain that fables bearing yEsop's
I name were popular at Athens during the most brilHant.
period of its literary history; though the discrepancies of
authors in quoting the same fables seem in favour of
Benlley's hypothesis. {(Jnmparc Aristot. De Part. Antvii
212
^ S O — iE S T
iiL 2; and Lucian, Nigr. 32). Tlio original faoies were in
prose, and wcro turned into verso by several writers; the
first, after the example of Socrates, being DemetrtUs
Phalereus. Next appeared an edition in elegiuc verse,
often cited by Suidas, but the author's name is unknown;
then Babrius, an excellent Greek poet, turned them into
choliambics (Le. limping iambics); but of ten books, a few
fables only are preserved entire. Of the Latin writers of
iEsopcan fables, Phajdrus is tho most celebrated
*' ^sopus auctor qimm materiam repcri^
Hanc ego polivi vcrsibus Bcnariis. '
Tho fables now extant in prose under jEsop's name are en-
tirely spurious, as is proved by Bentley in his Dissertation
on the Fables of jEsop, and have been assigned an oriental
origin. Tho identitication of yEsop with the Arabian
philosopher and fabulist Lokman (who is made by some
traditions tho contemporary of tho psalmist David) has
frequently been attempted ; and the Pereian accounts of
Lokman, which among other things describe him as an
ugly black slave, appear to have been blended by tho
author of tho Life, published by Planudcs, with tho
classical stories respecting Ms,o\). Tho similarity of the
fables ascribed to each renders it probable that they were
derived from the same Indo-Persian source, or from tho
Chinese, who appear to have possfssed such fables in very
remote antiquity. A complete collection of tho jEsopean
fables, 231 in number, was published at Breslau by J. G.
Schneider in 1810.
iESOP, a Greek histonan, wuoso life of Alexander the
Great is preserved in a Latin translation by Julius Valerius.
It is a work of no credit, abounding in errors.
jESOP, Clodius, a celebrated actor, who flourished
about the 670th year of Rome. He and Roscius were con-
temporaries, and the best performers who ever appeared
upon the Roman stage; the former cxceUing in tragedy,
the latter in comedy. Cicero was on intimate terms with
both actors, and put himself under their direction to per-
fect his action. jEsop performed many friendly services to
Cicero, especially during the period of his banishment. He
appears to have spared no pains to improve himself in his
art, and to have always studied his part with the greatest
care. On the stage his declamation was emphatic and his
action vehement, and he became entirely absorbed in his
part. Plutarch mentions it as reported of him, that while
he was representing Atreus deliberating how he should
revenge himself on Thyestes, he forgot himself so far in
the heat of action that with his truncheon he struck and
killed one of the servants crossing the stage. His age and
the time of his death are uncertain ; but ho made his last
appearance on the stage in B.C. 55, at the dedication of
Pompey's theatre, on which occasion hia voice failed him.
iEsop lived in a somewhat expen.sive manner; but he
nevertheless contrived to leave an ample fortune to his
spendthiift son. This is the son of /Esop mentioned by
Horace {Sat. iii. 3, 239) as taking a pearl from the ear-
drop of CsBciUa Metella, and dissolving it in vinegar, that
ho might have the satisfaction of swallowing eight thousand
pounds' worth at a draught.
^ESTHETICS is tho term now employed to designate
the theory of the Fine Arts — the science of the Beautiful,
with its allied conceptions and emotions. The province of
the science is not, however, very definitely fi.\ed, and there
is still some ambiguity about tho meaning of the term, arising
from its etymology and various use. The word esthetic, in
its original Greek form {aio-Or^iKoi), means anything that
has to do with- perception by the senses, and this wider
connotation was retained by Kant, who, under the title
Transcendental /Esthetic, treats of the a priori principles
of all sensuous kuowledse. Tho limitation of the term to
tbe comparatively narrow class of s^eations and percep
tions occupied with the Beautiful and its allied propertica
is due to the Germans, and primarily to Baumgartcn, who
started from the supposition that, just as truth is tho end
and perfection of pure knowledge or the understanding,
and good that of the will, so beauty must be tho supreme
aim of all sensuous knowledge. Yet, spite of these sources
of vagueness in tho subject and its name, some considerable
part of the theory can be looked upon as pretty clearly
defined, and it may be possible, by means of careful reflec-
tion on this ascertainable quantity, to indicate, roughly at
least, the extent and boundaries of a complete system of
aesthetic doctrine.
A very brief survey of what has been written under
the name sesthetics is sufficient to show that it includes,
as its first and foremost problem, the determination of the
nature and laws of Beauty, including along with the Beau-
tiful, in its narrower signification, its kindred subjects, the
Sublime and tho Ludicrous. To discover what it is in
•things wliich makes them beautiful or ugly, sublime or
ludicrous, is one constant factor in the aesthetic problem.
Intimately connected with this objective question is the
subjective and psychological inquiry into tho nature of the
feelings and ideas that have beauty for their object.
Further, it wiU bo found that all attempts to construct a
complete aesthetic theory aim at determining the highest
ends of the Fine Arts (wliich obviously concern them-
selves largely, if not exclusively, with the Beautiful), and
at marking out the distinctions and tracing tho depen-
dencies of natural and artistic beauty. All this part of
the field of aesthetic inquiry seems fairly agreed on, and
it is only when we approach other sides of the Fine Arts
that the precise scope of the science appears obscure. But
while there is this measure of agreement as to tho proper
subject matter of a;sthetics, we find two diametrically
opposed methods of approaching it, which distinctly colour
all parts of the doctrine arrived' at, and impose different
limito tions to the boundaries of the subject. The first
\s the metaphy-sical or a priori method; the second the
scientific or empirical method. The one reasons deduc-
tively from ultra-scientific conceptions respecting the ulti-
mate nature of the universe and- human intelligence, and
seeks to explain the phenomena of beauty and art by
help of these. The other proceeds inductively from the
consideration of these phenomena, as facts capable of
being compared, classified, and brought under certain- uni-
formities. At the same time, it must not be supposed that
either method is customarily pursued in complete inde-
pendence of the other. The most subtle exponent of
transcendentalism in art appeals to generalisations drawn
from the facts of art; nor have the professedly scientific
critics often abstained from introducing conceptions and
hypotheses of a metaphysical character.
(A.) JIetaphysical Pboblems.
Metaphysical speculation in aesthetics centres about the
objective nature of beauty, and arises somewhat in the
following manner : — The appreciation of the Beautiful is a
mode of perception. In estimating a beautiful landscape or
a beautiful statue, the mind perceives tho beauty as a pro-
perty of the object. It is, moreover, a single property; the
name beautiful always denoting tho same essential thing,
whatever this may be. Now we find that it is not a simple
propeity of matter known through one particular class of
sensations, as colour; and the question arises, what it really
is in itself, whether inherent in and inseparable from
matter, or something superior to it, and if so, how revealed
through it. Tho directions of this inquiry have been
almost as numerous as the systems of metaphysical thought.
On the supposition of a real substance matter, independent
^ESTHETICS
2ia
Wall inteUigende, inman or divine, writers lia\ e attempted
to discover the essential principle which beautifies ;t. It
has been universally considered by metaphysicians that
patter in itself is devoid of beauty, if not positively ugly,
land the only question arises as to the extraneous principle
which imparts beauty to it This has been conceived
either as a simple force distinct from matter, yet setting it
in motion, vivifying it, and reducing it to forms, ae by
Li^v6que; or as a divine being, whose volition directly
invests material objects with all their beautiful aspects, as
by Reid; or, lastly, as self-existent 'orms or ideas superin-
duced upon matter, which are in truth the beauty of objects,
as by Plato and his modem followers.
In the prevailing German systems of aesthetics, which
are based on an ontological idealism, the independent
existence of matter has been denied. These writers con-
ceive an absolute Thought or Idea as the ultimate reality,
of which matter and consciousness are but the two sides.
Matter is conceived as the negative or limiting principle in
the action or self -movement of the Absolute. The problem
of objective beauty becomes on this hypothesis the deter-
mination of the particular mode in which the Beautiful is a
manifestation of the supreme thought; for the Good and
the True are equally revelations of the Unconditioned, and
it is necessary to mark off beauty from these. Various
definitions of the Beautiful, based on this mode of concep-
tion, may be fo\md in the systems of Hegel, Weisse, and
the Hegelians. The second great problem in the meta-
physics of aesthetics is to co-ordinate the species of the
aesthetic genus, namely, the Beautiful (in its narrow sense),
the Ugly, the SubUme, and the Ridiculous. Tfiis has been
ondertaken by the Hegelians, and their attempts to construct
what the^caU the dialectics of sesthetics are among the
most cmious products of metaphysical thought It being
assumed that there is some one ontological process running
through every manifestation of the aesthetic Idea, these
writers have sought to determine how each of the subaltern
notions is related to this process. The last problem in the
scheme of metaphysical aesthetics relates to the nature and
functions of Art, looked at on one side as a reproduction in
altered form of the beauty of Nature, and, on the other, as
the conscious product of aesthetic intuition in the human
mind. First of all, the arts are appreciated and classi-
fied according to the several modes in which they body
forth the Idea to our minds. Secondly, since the Absolute
may be spoken of as revealing itself to human intelligence,
60 human intelligeoee may be looked on as groping through
long ages after the Absolute, and thus the historical evolu-
tion of art linds its place in a complete metaphysic of
aesthetics. In concluding this preliminary sketch of the
mstaphysical systems, it should be added that they can be
adequately estimated and criticised only in connection with
the whole systems of thought of which they are organic
parts. Within the scope of a purely scientific criticism
it is only possible to point out any inconsistencies in the
application of these ideas to beauty and art, and to show how
much or how little they effect, as hypothetical instruments,
is helping us more clearly to understand the phenomena.
(B.) SCIENTIFIO PkOBLEMS.
In the scientific discussion of aesthetic subjects, the anti-
thesis of subject and object in human cognition is accepted
88 a phenomenal distinction, without any inquiry into
its oatologicaJ meaning Inquirers no longer discuss the
essence of beauty, looked on as a transcendental conception
above all experience, but seek to determine in what the
Beautiful, as a series of phenomena, clearly and visibly
consists. VKsthetic speculation becomes, accordingly, more
purely psychological. First of ail. the unity of beauty is
queatiuncd. It is asked whether all objects which appear
beautiful are so became of some one ultimate property, pr
combination of properties, running through all examples of
beauty, or whether they are so called simply because they
produce some common pleasurable feeling in the mind.
This is a question of induction from facts and consequent
definition, lying at the very threshold of aesthetic science.
It has been most vigorously disputed by British writ^ers on
the subject, and many juf them have decided in favour of
the plurality and diversity of elements in beauty. Again,
it has been asked in which category of our experience,
objective or subjective, beauty originates. By some it has
been referred to an objective source, whether to sensation,
as a direct result of physiological action, as by Burke, or
to something distinctly perceived by means of sensation, as
a certain relation of unity, symmetry, <tc., among the
parts of an object, its colours, forms, and so on, as pro-
bably by Aristotle, Diderot, Hogarth, and most writers.
By others the source of beauty has been sought in the
inner Life of the mind itself, in certain ideas and emotions
which have become reflected on external objects by asso-
ciation. This is the doctrine of Alison. A third class
recognise both of these sources, attributing the effects of
beauty partly to the pleasurable effects of external stimu-
lation, partly to the activities of perception, and partly
to multitudinous associations of ideas and feehngs from
past experience. This class mcludes Dugald Stewart,
Professor Bain, and Mr Herbert Spencer. A third question
in the general scientific theory of beauty which is closely
related to the last and largely determined by it, is the precise
nature of the mental faculty or activity concerned in the
perception and appreciation of the Beautiful This, too, has
been widely discussed by English writers, — answers to the
other two questions frequently appearing as the necessary
implications of the solution of this one. By those who
affirm that beauty is a simple property or conjunction of
properties in external objects, the subjective perception of
this property has been regarded either as a unique' faculty
(the internal sense), or as the rational principle acting in a
certain way. By the school of Alison, who find the source
of beauty in a certain Cow of ideas suggested by an object,
the perception of the same, as a property of the object,
would be explained as the result of inseparable association,
producing a kind of momentary delusion. And this same
effect of association, in producing an apparent intuition of
one simple property, would be made use of by those later
writers who resolve the nature of beauty into both objective
and subjective elements. It is noticeable, too, that while
some writers have treated the appreciation of beauty as
purely intellectual, others- have confined themselves to the
emotional element of pleasure. 'With respect to the Ludi-
crous aind the Sublime, as distinguished from the Beautiful,
there seems to have been a tacit agreement that both of
these are imique and single properties, whether originally
in the object of sense, or reflected on it from the mind ;
and various theories have been suggested in explanation of
the characteristic effects of these properties on hnmsD
sensibility and thought
What strikes one most, perhaps, in these discussions is
the vagueness due to the great diversity of conception as
to the real extent of the Beautiful — the numbef of objects
it may be supposed to denote. While one class of writ€r^
appears to limit the term to the highest and most refined
e.xamples of beauty in nature and art, others have looked
on it as properly including the lower and more vulgarly
recognised instances. There is certainly a great want of
definiteness as to the legitimate scope of aesthetic theory.
It will be seen, too, how closnly this point bears on the
question of the relativity of aesthetic impressions, whether
there is tny form of l)eauty which pleases universally and
I necessarily, as Kant aiilrms- .The true method of resolving'
214
AESTHETICS
thi.s difficulty would appear to be to look on SBsthetic
impressions more aa a growth, rising, with the advance of
intellectual culture, from the crude enjoymenta of sensation
to the more refined and subtle delights of the cultivated
mind. The problem of the universal and necessary would
then resolve itself into an inquiry into a general tendency.
It would be asked what kinds of objects, and what ele-
ments of sensation, idea, and emotion, tend to become con-
spicuous in Esthetic pleasures, in proportion as the mind
advances in general emotional and intellectual culture.
Another defect in nearly all the theories of the Beautiful
that have been proposed, refers to the precise relation of
the intellectual element in the esthetic impression. In
opposing the narrow view, that the appreciation of beauty
is a purely intellectual act, a cold intuition of reason,
writers have fallen sometimes into another narrowness, in
resolving the whole of the effect into emotional elements, or
certain species of pleasure. Unless beauty is, as Hutcheson
affirmed, a simple property of objects like colour, the per-
ce|)tion of it as objective, which all must allow to be a
mental fact, can only be explained by means of certain intel-
lectual activities, by force of which the pleasurable effects
come to be referred to such a seemingly simple property.
The solution of this point would doubtless be found in
a more complete discussion of the perceptive or discrimi-
native and aasimilitive activities of the intellect which are
invariably called into play by complex objects, and which
correspond to the attributes of proportion, unity in variety,
(fee, on which so much stress has been laid by the intui-
tivists. Not only so, but any theory of sesthetic operations
must be incomplete which does not give prominence to
those more subtle and exalted intellectual activities that
are involved in the imaginative side of esthetic apprecia-
tion, as in detecting the curious half-hidden implications
which make up the essence of a refined humour, in con-
structing those vague yet impressive ideas which enter into
our intuition of sublimity and infinity, and even in appreciat-
ing such seemingly simple qualities as purity of colour and
tone, or the. perfectly graduated blending of two adjacent
colours. Such activities of the mind constitute, among
othef things, the symbolic aspect of the Beautiful, and
give, as Mr Mill suggests, a basis of truth to such seem-
iiigly fanciful notions respecting the meaning of beautiful
qualities as one finds in the works of Mr Ruskin.
But comparatively little has been done in a purely
scientific manner to determine the nature and functions
of Art so as to fix the relations of the difi'erent arts
to ."^implo or natural beauty. Aristotle supplied a few
valuable doctrines, which have been rendered stOl mere
precise by Lessing and others. Yet there seems even now
no consensus of opinion as to the precise aims of art, how
far it has simply to reproduce and constructively vary the
beauties of nature, or how far to seek modes of pleasurable
effect wider than those supplied by natural objects. A theory
of art at all comparable in scientific precision to existing
theories of morals has yet to be constructed. The few
attempts to establish a basis for art of a non-metaphysical
kind are characterised by great one-sidedness. Thus, for
example, the theory that the function of art is to imitate
nature, has been broached again and again with scarcely any
reference to music, merely, as it seems, out of an impatience
for some one defining property. Without attempting to
sketch a complete doctrine of art, a suggestion may be ofi'ered
as to the right direction of inquiry. First of aU, then, the
widest possible generalisations on the various emotional
susceptibilities to which art can appeal must be collected,
from a study both of mental phenomena as a whole, and
of all varieties of pleasurable feeling actually ministered by
the several forms of art. This would fix the end of the
fine arts in the widest sense, marking it off from the ends
of utility and morality. Secondly, the hi^heit aimi of »rt,
or the ideal of art, would have to bu detarmined by a con-
sideration of the laws of compatibility and incompatibility
among these various orders of gratification, the requirement*
of quantity, variety, and hannony, in any lofty eesthetio
impression, and the relative value of the sensational,
intellectual, and emotional elements in esthetic effect.
This part of the subject would include the discussion of
the value and universal necessity of the real and the ideal
ia art, truth to nature and imaginative transformation.
These conclusions would require verification by means of
the widest and most accurate study of the development of
the arts, in which coidd be traced the gradual tentative
progress of the artistic mind towards the highest achieve-
ments of art, as well as the permanent superiority of all
those forms of art which most clearly embody thin tendency.
This part of the theory of art would clearly connect itself
with the problem of the general law or tendency in sesthetic
development already referred to. The proper determina-
tion of these two idea."!, the whole range of possible esthetic
delight, and th^ direction of the highest, purest, and most
permanent delight of cultivated minds, would at once dis-
pose of many narrow conceptions of art, by recognising the
need of the widest possible diversity and grades of artistic
value, if only as experiments requisite to the discovery of
its highest function. At the same time the meaning
and limits of the universal and necessary in art would be
defined, and the unsuggestive and dreary conflicts between
an unbending absolutism and a lawless individualism
shown to be irrelevant. The validity of canons of art, and
their limitations, would in this manner be fixed, and the
impatient exaltation of certain schools and directions of
taste reduced to a modest assertion of a purely relative
truth. The aims of art as a whole being thus determined,
the next thing would be to define and classify the individual
arts of painting, music, poetry, <tc., according to their
respective powers of embodying these aims. This would
require a careful consideration of the material or medium
of expression employed by each art, and the limitations im-
posed by it as to the mode of representation. The deter-
mination of this part of sesthetic theory, which Lessing com-
menced, would require not only technical but considerable
psychological knowledge. Similarly, any conclusion arrived
at on this subject wo'ild need to be venfied by a reference
to the history of the arts, as exemplifying both the successes
of a right conception of the scope and possibilities of the
particular art, and the failures resulting from a mistaken
conception. Many other points, such as the nature of
genius, the function and bounds of criticism, the relation
of aesthetic culture to inteUectual, moral, and social pro-
gress, would be included in a complete scheme of art
doctrine.
(C.) HisTOBr or Systems.
In the following brief account of the most important
contributions to sesthetic doctrine, only such writings will
be recognised as aim at some general conception of Art
and the Beautiful Much that passes in current literature
for sesthetic speculation, namely, a certain thoughtful way
of criticising special works of art, is simply the application
of recognised principles to new cases. Sometimes, how-
ever, in the hands of a philosophic critic the mere appre-
ciation of a single poem or the works of a particular artist
may become a luminous discussion of some general prin-
ciple, and this method of constructing sesthetic theory from
the criticism of a single work or series of works was ren-
dered very productive by Lessing.
I. Greek Speculations. — Ancient Greece supplies ns with
the first speculations on the Beautiful and the aims of
the fine arts. Nor ia it surprising tliat among a people
^STHETLCS
215
■o productive of uoble artistic creations, and at the same
time so speculative, numerous attempts to theorise on these
subjects should have been made. We have in classic
writings many allusions to works of an sesthetio chafacter
now lost, such as a series on poetry, harmony, and even
painting, by Democritus. It is to be gathered, too, from
Plato's Dialogues that the Sophists made the principles of
beauty a special department in their teaching. The first
Greek thinker, however, whose views on these subjects are
Socrates, at all known is Socrates. Accepting Xenophon's account
of his views in the Memorabilia and the Symposion, we
fa^ that he regarded the Beautiful as coincident with the
Good, and both of them as resolvable into the Useful Every
beautiful object is so called because it serves some rational
end, whether the security or gratification of man. It looks
as though Socrates rather disparaged the immediate grati-
fication which a beautiful object afforc^ to perception and
contemplation, and emphasised rather its power of further-
ing the more necessary ends of life. Thus he said that
pictures and other purposeless works of art, when used to
adorn a house, hindered rather than furthered enjoyment,
because of the space they took from useful objects. This
n»de of estimating the value of beauty is, however, no
necessary consequence of the theory that the whole nature
of beauty is to minister pleasure. It arises from undue
attention to mere material comfort as a condition of happi-
ness. The really valuable point which Socrates distinctly
brought to light is the relativity of beauty. Unlike his
illustrious disciple, he recognised no self-beauty [airo to
KoXov) existing absolutely and out of all relation to a per-
cipient mind.
PUto. Of the precise views of Plato on this subject, even if
they were really formed, it is very difficult to gain a just
conception from the Dialogues. In some of these, called
by Mr Grote the Dialogues of Research, as the Hippias
Major, he ventures on no dogmatic theory of Beauty, and
several definitions of the Beautiful proposed are rejected
as inadequate by the Platonic Socrates. At the same time
we may conclude that Plato's mind leaned decidedly to a
theory of an absolute Beauty, this, indeed, being but one side
of his remarkable scheme of Ideas or self-existing Forms.
In the Sympoeion he describes how love (Eros) produces
aspiiation towards the pure idea of beauty. It is only
this absolute beauty, he teUs us, which deserves tlie name
of beauty; and this is beautiful in every manner; and the
ground of beauty in all things. It is nothing discoverable
as an attribute in another thing, whether living being,
earth, or heaven ; for these are only beautiful things, not
the Beautiful itself. It is the eternal and perfect existence
contrasted with the oscillations between existence and non-
existence in the phenomenal world. In the Phoedrm, again,
he treats the soul's intuition of the self-beautiful as a
reminiscence of its prK-natal existence, undefiled by union
with the body. With respect to the precise forms in
which the idea of beauty reveals itself, Plato is veryi un-
decided. Of course his theory of an absolute Beauty is
incompatible with' the notion of its ministering simply a
variety of sensuous pleasure, to which he appears to lean in
the Gorgias and even the Hippias Major. Farther, his
peculiar system of ideas naturally led him to confuse the
seif-bcautiful with other general conceptions of the tme and
the good, and so arose the Platonic formula KoXoK^yaOia,
expressive of the intim^e union of the two principles.
So far as his writings embody ti.e notion of any dis-
tinguishing clement in beautiful objects, it is proportion,
harmony, or unity among the parts of an object. The
superior beauty of proportion is taught in the Philebus, and
in the Phoedon it is applied to virtue. As a closely-related
view, we see him emphasising unity in its simplest aspect
of ovennoss and purity, the cjfcd of variety being over-
looked. Thus in the Philehut he states his preference for
regular and mathematical forms, as the straight line and
the circle. So he selected among colours pure white,
among tones the pure and equal, and among impressions
of touch the smooth. At the same time the Dialogues
evince many other tentative distinctions in the Beautiful,
as, for example, the recognition in the Politics of two
opposed classes of beautiful things, those characterised by
force and velocity, and those by a certain slowness and
softness ; which points to a contrast between the stimula-
tive and the restful in sensation, since enlarged upon by
English psychologists. Elsewhere he descants on the
beauty of the mind, and seems to think, in the Republic,
that the highest beauty of proportion is seen in the union
of a beautil'ui mind with a beautiful body. In spite of
his lofty theory of the origin and nature of beauty,
Plato seems to have imperfectly appreciated the worth
of art as an independent end in human life and culture.
He found the end of art in imitation (/i4"?o"'?)) but esti-
mated the creative activity of art as a clever knack, little
higher in inteUectual value than the tricks of a juggler.
He tended to regard the effects of art as devoid of all serious
value, and as promoting indolence and the supremacy of
the sensual elements of human nature. (See the Sophities,
Gorgias, and Republic.) Accordingly, in his scheme for
an ideal i«public, he provided for the most inexorable
censorship on poets, Ac, so as to make art as far as possible
a mere instrument of moral and political training. As to
particular arts, Plato appears to have allowed a certain
ethical value to music, in combination with dance and song,
if of a certain character, as expressing either the woKthy
and manly, or the quiet and orderly. With respect to
pdetry, his views, as expressed in the Republic and else-
where, were very uncertain. Thus at times he condemns
tragedy and comedy in toto ; at other times he admits the
claims of a lofty di'amatic poetry. He seems not to have
fully considered the aims and influences of painting and
sculpture, which he constantly disparages.
A loftier conception of the aims of poetry was afforded Aiistotlft
by the strictures of Aristophanes in the Frogs and else-
where. But the one Greek who, as far as we know, fully
appreciated and clearly set forth the ends of the fine arts,
considered, independently of ethical and political aims, as
the vehicles to the mind of the ideas and delights of
beauty, was Aristotle. Unlike Plato, he proceeded less
metaphysically and more scientifically to investigate the
phenomena of beauty by a careful analysis of the principles
of art. In las treatises on poetry and rhetoric, he gives
us, along with a theory of these arts, certain principles o£
beauty in general ; and scattered among his other viTi tings we
find many valuable suggestions on the same subject. First of
all, Aristotle ignores all conceptions of an absolute Beauty,
and at the same time seeks to distingi^ish the Beautiful from
the Good. Thus, although in the mora popular exposition,
the Rhetoric, he somewhat incorrectly makes praiseworthi-
ness a distinguishing mark of the Beautiful, regarded as a
species of the Agieeable or Desirable, he seeks in the Meta-
physics to distinguish the Good and the Beautiful thus: the
Good is always in action (o- irpo^ti) ; the Beautiful, however,
may exist in motionless things as well (cv QKin/To«). Else-
where he distinctly teaches that the Good and the Beautiful
are different {iTtpov), although the Good, under certain con-
ditions, can be called beautiful Ha thus looked on thti
two spheres as co-ordinate species, having a certain area in
common. It should bo noticed that the habit of the Greek
mind, in estimating the value of moral nobleness and eleva-
tion of character by their power of gratifying and impress-
ing a spectator, gave rise to a certain ambiguity in th«
meaning of to koAoi', which accounts for tho prominence
the Greek thinkers gave to the connection between the
216
ESTHETICS
Beautiful and the Good or morally Worthy. Aristotle
further distinguished the Beautiful from the Fit, and in a
passage of the Polilio set Beauty above the Useful and
Necessary. Another characteristic of the Beautiful fixed
by this thinker in the Jihetoric is the absence of all lust
or desire in the pleasure it bestows. This is an important
point, as suggesting the disinterested and unmonojtJising
side of a;3thetic pleasure. The universal clenrents of
beauty, again, Aristotle finds in the Metaphysics to be order'
(ra^is), symmetry, and definitencss or detcrminateness (to
ispiiriiivov). In the Poetics he adds another essential, namely,
a certain magnitude, it being desirable, for a syiraptic and
single view of the parts, that the object, whether a natural
body or a work of art, should not be too largo, while clear-
ness of perception requires that it should not be too small.
At the same time he seems to thiuli that, provided the
whole be visible as such, the greater magnitude of an
object is itself an element of beauty. This is probably to
be understood by help of a passage in the Politics, which
lays down the need of a number of beautiful parts or
aspects in a highly beautiful object, as the human body.
With respect to art, Aristotle's views are an immense
advance on those of Plato. Ho distinctly recognised, in the
Politics and elsewhere, that its aim is simply to give imme-
diate pleasure, and so it docs not need to seek the useful
like the mechanical arts. The essence of art, considered
as an activity, Aristotle found in imitation, which, unlike
Plato, he considers not as an unworthy trick, but as in-
cluding knowledge and discovery. The celebrated passage
in the Poetics where he declares poetry to be more philo-
sophic and serious a matter {cnrovSaioTtpof) than philo-
sophy, best shows the contrast between Plato and Aristotle
in their estimates of the dignity of artistic labour. In the
Poetics he tells us that the objects to be imitated by the
poet are of three kinds — (1.) Those things or events which
have been or still are; (2.) The things which are said to be
and seem probable; (3.) The things which necessarily are
(tti/at Sci). The last points, as Schasler supposes, to the
ideal character of imitation as opposed to mere copying of
individual objects or events, and acccfunts for the lofty
value assigned to it by Aristotle. More particularly the
objects of imitation in poetry and music, if not in all art,
are dispositions (^^rj), passions, and actions. Aristotle
gives us some interesting speculations on the nature of
the artist's mind, and distinguishes two varieties of the
poetic imagination — the easy and versatile conceptive
power of a man of natural genius (eVj^uij?), and the more
emotional and lively temperament of an inspired man
(naviKOi). He gives us no complete classification of the
fine arts, and it is doubtful how far his principles are to
be taken as applicable to other than the poetic art. He
seems, however, to distiijguish poetry, music, and dancing —
all of whiTh are supposed to imitate some element of human
nature, some feelingjOr action — by the means they employ,
nameIy,rhylhm^harinony,melody,and vocal sound. Paint-
ing and sculpture are spoken of as imitative arts, but their
special aims are not defined. Architecture seems ignored
by Aristotle as non-imitative. His peculiar theory of
poetry can only be just glanced at here. Its aim, he says,
is to imitate disp.ositions and actions. Metrical form is
hardly looked on as an essential. Poetic imitation, as in-
cluding the selection of the universal in human nature and
history, is ably treated; and from this part of Aristotle's
theory all modern ideas of poetic truth are more or less deriv-
able*. He distinguishes, somewhat superficially, the epic
poem, th3 drama, and a third variety not named, but appa-
rently lyric poetry, by the manner in which the poet speaks
in each Variety, whether in his o^vn person, or in that of
ajiother, or in both alffemately. The epic and the dramatic
poem ftqufre unify of action, a certain magnitude, with
beginning, middle, and end, and ako those chaagea of fot'
tune and recognitions that make up the thrilling character
of plot. The end of tragedy Aristotle defines as the effecting,
by means of pity and fear, of a purification of these passions;
and this is perhaps the point of gieatest interest for
a.'stJjetic3 in the whole of his theory of poetry. Whether he
is referring to any moral influence of tragedy on the emo-
tions, bringijjg both fear and pity in the spectator's mind to
their proper ethical mean, as Lessing and others conceivej
whether he simply means the elimination of all painful
ingredients in these feelings, cither by the recognition of
the imaginary nature of the evil represented, or by the simul-
taneous satisfaction of other and deeper feelings as moral
approval or wide human sympathy; or, finally, whether by
" purification " we are to understand the grateful relief by
artificial means of a recurring emotion needing periodic vent,
as Uebcrweg argues, — this subtle point may be left to the-
student to decide. It would bo interesting to know how
far Aristotle attributed something analogous to this KaOapvit
to the other arts. In the Politics he certainly speaks of a
purif^-ing effect in certain kinds of music in quieting the
wilder forms of excitement. Finally, it might perhaps
be conjectured from his definition of the Ludicrous, as
something faulty and disgraceful, yet free from pain, and
not destructive, that he would find in the laughter of
comedy something analogous to this purification, namely,
the gradual resolution of the more painful feelings of con-
tempt or disgust into the genial moods of pure hilarity.
Omitting to notice the few valuable remarks on ses- Plotiani.
thetic subjects of the later Greeks and their. Roman
contemporaries, one may briefly refer to the views of the
Alexandrian mystic and Neo-Platonist Plotinus, not only
because of their intrinsic interest, but on account of their
resemblance to certain modern systems. His theory is to
be found in an essay on the Beautiful in the series of dis-
courses called Eiineades. His philosophy differs from the
Platonic in the recognition of an objective i-oCs, the direct
emanation from the absolute Good, in which the ideas or
notions (Xoyoi), which are the prototypes of real things, are
immanent. This Reason, as self-moving, becomes the for-
mative influence reducing matter, which in itself is dead,
to form. Matter thus formed becomes a notion (Xdyos),
and this form is beauty. Objects are ugly so far as they
are unacted upon by Reason, and so remain formless. The
creative voCs is absolute Beauty, and is called the more
than beautiful (to irripKaWov). There are three degrees
or stages of the Beautiful in manifestation, namely, the
beauty of subjective voCs, or human reason, which is the
highest ; that of the hnman soul, which is less perfect
through the connection of the soul with a material body;
and that of real objects, which is the lowest manifestation
of all. As to the characteristic form of beauty, he sup*
posed, in opposition to Aristotle, that a single thing not
divisible into parts might be beautiful through its unity
and simplicitx- He attached special worth to the beauty
of colours in which material darkness is overpowered by
light and warmth. In reference to artistic beauty, he s»id
that when the artist has Xoyot as models for his creations,
these may become more beautiful than natural objects.
This is a very curious divergence of opinion from the
Platonic.
After Plotinus there is little speculation on aesthetic "t Aogus-
subjects till we come to modern writers. St AugMstint liie
wrote a treatise on the Beautiful, now lost, in which ht p«ns\t»o"'
appears to have reproduced Platonic ideas under a Christian (.,t^^'™
guise. He taught that unity is the form of all beauty
(" omnis porro pulchritudinis forma unitas est"). Infinite
'goodness, truth, and beauty are the attributes of the Deity,
and communicated by him to things. But passing from
these fragmentary utterances, we m.ay consider more fully
ESTHETICS
217
Bie modern theories, beginning with the German systems,
as being the most metaphysical, and having most affinity
with ancient speculation. In German literature the two
divisions of metaphysical deduction and critical construc-
tion of aesthetic principles are very sharply contrasted,
and nearly every writer on the subject is easily referred to
one or other of tht classes. On the one hand, we have
the laborious systematic philosophers, as Kant and Hegel ;
and on the other, men who entered upon aesthetic specula-
tion either as connoisseurs of some special department, as
Winckelmaun and Lessing, or even as productive artists —
for example, Schiller and Goethe.
Systematic 11. German Writers. — The iirst of the Germans who
trealises:— attempted to fit a theory of the Beautiful and of Art
Biningar- into a complete system of philbsqphy was Baumgarten.
t«n. Adopting the WoliSan principles of knowledge, as modi-
fied by~ Leibnitz, he thought he was completing that
system by setting over against logical knowledge, whose
object is truth, esthetic knowledge, which has to do
with beauty. The former is conceptive knowledge (6«-
greiff tides Erhennen), the, att of the understanding, and
its result as the science of clear conceptions is embodied
in logic. Esthetic has to do, not with clear, but con-
fused conceptions [verworfene Vorstellungen), namely, sen-
Buoiis knowledge. The beautiful is defined by Bauragarten
aa the perfection of sensuous knowledge, and the ugly is
that which struggles against this perfection; and, con-
sistently with this view, he first employed the term
aesthetic {aesthetica) to denote a theory of the ^Beautiful
He held that perfection, as harmony of object with its con-
ception or notion (Be^riff), presents itself under three as-
pects ;: — (1.) As truth for pure knowledge ; (2.) Af< beauty for
obscure perception; H.) As goodness for the capacities of
desire or will. It will be seen at once by the thoughtful
student that this mode of dealing with impressions of
beauty, &c., simply as intellectual elements (confused con-
ceptions), must fail to account for their emotional aspects^-
fee.''ng, which is the very soul of the aesthetic impression,
being radically distinct from conception and knowledge.
Still Baumgarten did service in separating so sharply the
provinces of logic, ethics, and jesthetics, and in connecting
the latter with the impressions of the senses. The details
of his aesthetics are mostly unimportant. From Leibnitz's
theory of a pre-established harmony, and its consequence
that the world is the best possible, Baumgarten concluded
that nature is the highest embodiment of beauty, and that art
- must seek as its highest function the strictest possible imita-
tion of nature. Baumgarten had several disciples in this con-
ception of aesthetics, as Sulzer and Moses Mendelssohn.
&*iiti The next original philosophical scheme of aesthetics
is that of Kant. His system of knowledge falls into
three branches-"— the critique of pure reason, which has to
determine what are the a priori elements in the know-
ledge of objects; the critique of practical reason, which
inquires into the a priori determinations of the will ; and
the critique of judgment, which he regards as a connecting
link between the other two, and which has to do with any
a priori principles of emotion (pleasure and pain), as
the middle term between cognition and volition. This
judgment .Kant divides into the aesthetic, when pleasure
or pain is felt immediately on presentation of an object;
and the' teleological, which implies a pre-existing notion,
to which the object is expected ,to conform. He attempts,
in a somewhat strained marfner, to define the Beautifulyby
help of his four categories. In quaiity beauty is that
which pleases without interest or pleasure in the existence
of the oVject. This distinguishes it from the simply Agree-
able and the Good, the former stimulating eiesire, and the
latter giving motive to the wUL In quantity it is a uni-
versal pleasure. Under the aspect of relation, the Beautiful
is the form of adaptation (Zweckrruissigkeit) without any
end being cbnceived. Finally, in modality it is a necessary
satisfaction, pleasing not by a, universal rule, this being
unassignable, but by a aensus communis, or agreement of
taste. Kant is not very consistent in carrying out these
distinctions. Thus, for example, he recognises in fitness a
particular species of beauty, namely, " adhering " as dis-
tinguished from " free "or intrinsic beauty, without re-
cognising that this implies the presence of a notion. So,
in discussing the objective validity of our asthetic im-
pressions, he decides that the highest meaning of beauty
is to symbolise moral good; and, in even a more fanciful
manner than that of Mr Kuskin, he attaches moral ideas,
as modesty, frankness, courage, a-'c. , to the seven primary
colours of the Newtonian system. . Yet he does not admit
that the perception of this symbolic function involves any
notion. Once more, he attributes beauty to a single colour
or tone by reason of its purity. But such a definition of
the form of the Beautiful clearly involves some notion in
the percipient mind. Kant further applies his four cate-
gories, with still less of fruitiol suggestion, to the Sublime.
The satisfaction of the Sublime is a kind of negative plea-
sure created through the feeling of a momentary restraint
[Hemmung) of vital force, and of a subsequent outpouring
of the same in greater intensity. The feeling of the in-
adequacy of the imagination is succeeded by a consciousness
of the superiority of reason to imagination. The sentiment
is thus a kind of wonder or awe. Sublimity is either mathe-
matical, that of magnitude, or dynamical, that of nature's
might. He allows no subUraity to passions, as rage or
revenge. Kant has, too, a theory of the Ridiculous, the
effect of which he lays, oddly enough in respect to the rest
of his doctrine, in a grateful action of the body, the muscles
of the diaphragm, ic, giving a sense of health. This
action takes place on the sudden relaxation of the imder-
standing when kept in a state of tension by expectation.
The cause of laughter, or the Ridiculous, may hence be
.defined as "-the sudden transformation of a tense expecta/-
tion into nothing." He placed the Tjeauty of nature
above that of art, which can be of value only mediately,
not as an end in itself. He classifies the arts according as
they express the aesthetic idea — whatever this may mean
after his exclusion of all definite conception from the per-
ception of beauty. Just as expression in speech consists
of articulation, gesticulation, and modulation, answering
to thought, intuition {Anschauung), and feeling, so we have
three kinds of art — (1.) Those proceeding orally (redende),
oraterj' and poetry; (2.) Those of visible image (bildende),
plastic !irt and painting; and (3.) "the art of the play of
feelings," namely, music and " colour art," which last is
not defined. Kant's system is very defective, and some
of its inconsistencies were pointed out by Herder in his
Kallitfone, who lacked, however, philosophic accuracy.
Herder denied" Kant's distinctions between the Beautiful,
the Good, and the Agreeable, saying that the first must be
desired as well as satisfpng, and the second be loved as well
as prized. Yet herein Kant is decidedly superior to his
critic. Herder held, in opposition to Kant, that all beauty
includes significance (JBedeutsamkeit), and cannot affect
ua apart from a notion of perfection. But here, too, Kant
is to be preferred, since his theo*^ does not assume all
beautiful objects to contain some one element or form
capable of being detected. Kant's real additions to
aesthetic theory consist in thq better separation of the
Beautfful from tl^e Good and Agreeable, in the promlnen«e
given to the emotional side" of assthetia impressions, and
in the partial recognition of the relativity of aesthetic
judgment, more especially in the case of the Sublime.
After Kant the next philosopher to discuss the meta- ScbeUiog
physics of the Beautiful and art is Schelling. He sought
L — 28
•2i8
^ S T H E 1' 1 C H
to engraft art upon his curious Bystcm of transceudental
idealism in a manner which can only bo faintly indicated
here. In Schelling's metaphysical system the relation of
subject and object is conceived as identity. Each exists,
yet Jot independently of the other, but identiiiod in a
higher, the absolute. Thoy may be conceived as two poles
representing different directions, but yet inseparably joined.
All knowledge rests on this agreement Either nature, the
object, may bo conceived as the pr'.iu, and the subject con-
structed out of it ; or the subject may bo taken as the print,
and the object constructed from it. These are the two
poles of knowledge, and constitute the philosophy of nature
and the transcendental philosophy. The latter, like Kant's
philosophy of mind, is based on a threefold conception of
the powers of human nature. It consists of — (1.) Theoretic
philosophy, dealing with perception; (2.) Practical philo-
sophy, discussing the will and freedom; and (3.) The phUo-
Bophy of art. The aim of the last is thus expresmcd ; The
ego must succeed in actually perceiving the concord of sub-
ject and object, which is half disguised in perceptipn and
volition. This concord is seen within the limits of the trjo
in artistic perception only. Just as the product of nature
is an unconscious product like a conscious one, in its de-
eignfulness, so the product of art is a conscious product
like an unconscious one. Only in the work of art does
intelligence reach a perfect perception of its reil self.
This is accompanied by a feeling of infinite satisfaction, all
mystery being solved. Through the creative activity of
the artist the absolute reveals itself in the perfect identity
of subject and object. Art is therefore higher than philo-
sophy. Schelling thus sets the beauty of art far above that
of nature. As to the form of the beautiful he is very vague,
leaning now to a conception of harmony in the totality of
the world { Wtltall), and now to a Platonic conception of
primitive forms ( Urbildtr) of perfection. He has a very
intricate classification of the arts, based on his antithesis
of object and subject, reality and ideality. A curious
feature of Schelling's theory is his application of his one
fundamental idea to tragedy. The essence of tragedy is,
hi) thinks, an actual conflict of liberty in the subject wth
objective necessity, in which both being conquered and
conquering, appear at once in the perfect indifference.
Antique tragedy he holds, accordingly, to be the most per-
fect composition of all arts.
Passing over Solger, whose esthetic doctrine is little
more than a revival Qf Platouism, wo come to Hegel. His
system of philosophy falls into three parts, all based on
the self-movement of the idea or alisolute : — (1.) The
logic discussing the pure universal notions which are the
logical evolution of the absolute, as pure thought; (2.)
Philosophy of nature — the disruption of thought, the idea,
into the particular and external; (3.) Philosophy of the
spirit — the return of thought or the absolute from this
self-alienation to itself in self-cognisant thought. Just
as the absolute, so has spirit a series of three grade- to
traverse — (a.) Subjective spirit or intelligence, relating
itself to the rational object as something given; (b.) Ob-
jective spirit or will, which converts the subjecti\-ised
theoretical matter (truth) into obJ8cti\-ity ; (c.) Absolute
spirit, which is the return of the spirit from objectivity to
the ideality of cogn'tion, to the perception of the absolute
idea. This again has three stages^(l.) Art, in which th'^
absolute is immedi.Ttely present to sensuous perception;
(2.) Religion, which embodies certainty of the idea as
above all immediate reality; and (3.) Philosophy, the unity
of these. According to this conception, the beautiful is
defined as the shining of the idea through a sensuous
medium (as colour or tone). 'It is said to have its life in-
shining or appearance {Schein), and so differs from the true,
which is not real sensuous existence, but the universal idea
contained in it for thought. He defines the Torm ot th«
Beautiful as xinity of the manifold. The notion {Bcjrif)
gives necessity in muto&l dependence of parts (unity),
while the reality demands the appearance or ecmblanco
{.'icftein) of liberty in the parts. He discusses very fully
the beauty of nature as immediate unity of notion and
reality, and lays great emphasis on the beauty of organic
life. But it is in art that, like Schelling, he finds the
highest revelation of the Beautiful Art makes up the
deficiencies of natural beauty by bringing the idea into
clearer light, by showing the eitemal in its life and spirit-
ual anim^ition. The various forms of art depend on the
various combinations of matter and form. In Oriental
or symbolical art matter is predominant, and the thought
is struggling through with pain so as to reveal the ideaL
In the classical form the ideal has attained an adequai«
existence, form and matter being absolutely commensurate.
Lastly, i'n the romantic form, the matter ia reduced to a
mere show, and the ideal is supreme. Hegel classifies the
individual arts according to this same principle of the rela-
tive supremacy of form and matter — (1.) The beginning of
art is architecture, in which as a symbolic art the sensuous
material is in excess. (2.) Sculpture is less subjected to
matter, and, as representing the living body, is a step to-
wards a higher ideality. (3. ) Painting, which is the romantic
art KUT iioxr/v, expresses the full life of the soul. By the
elimination of the third dimension of sjjace, and the
employment of a coloured plane, painting rids itself of the
coarse material substrate of sculpture, and produces only
a semblance of materiality. (4.) In music, which employs
pure tone, all the elements of space are suppressed, and
hence its content is the inner emotional nature (Gemutk).
Music is the most subjective of the arts. (5.) Poetry has the
privilege of universal expression. It contains all the other
arts in itself, namely, the plastic art in the epos, music in
the ode, and the unity of both in the drama.
Several systems of {esthetics, more or less Hegelian in Dialectie
character, can only be referred to in passing. Weisse °f "lo
defined aesthetics as the science of the idea of beauty, and Hc-geliaah
explained the Beautiful as the entrance of the universal or of
the essence into the limited and finite, that is, the cancelling
or annulling of truth (die aufgehohene Wahrheil). By thus
recognising an internal contradiction in all beauty, besought
to develope, by a curious dialectical process, the ideas of the
Ugly, the Sublime, and the Ludicrous. He treats each of
these three in immediate contrast to beauty* Ugliness is the
immediate existence of beauty. It appears as the negative
moment in the Sublime, and in the Ludicrous this negativity
is again cancelled and resolved into affirmation so as to con-
stitute a return to the Beautiful . A like attempt to deter-
mine the relations of the Ugly, Comic, itc., as moments of
the self-revealing idea was made by several Hegelians.
Thus Huge, in his Abhandlung iiber das Komuclie, teaches
that sublimity is the assthetic idea striving to find itself,
together with the satisfaction of this striving. If, how-
ever, the idea lose itself, sinking away in a kind of swoon,
we have the Ugly. FinaOy, when the idea recovers from
the swoon, its new birth is attended ^vith a feeling of
amusement (Erheiterung), and then we have the effect of
the Ludicrous. Roserdiranz, in his jEsthetik des Mcifs-
lichen, conceives the Ugly as the negation of the Beautiful,
or as the middle between the Beautiful and the Ludicrous,
and seeks to trace out its various manifestations in form-
lessness in nature, incorrectness in artistic representation,
and deformity or the disorganisation of the Beautiful in
caricature. Schasler, again, seems to hold that the Ugly is
co-ordinate with the Beautiful, being the motor principle
that drives tlie Beautiful from- the unconditioned rest of
the Platonic Idea, from the sphere of empty abstractness
to actuality. ' This fundamental contradiction reveals itself .
ESTHETICS
219
03 tlie contrast. of matter and spirit, rigid motioulessness
and motion, and appears in art as the antithesis of the
sublime and graceful {das Anmuthige), the latter containing
the Naif, the Pretty, and the Ridiculous. Finally, Theodor
Vischer seeks to settle these subtle relationships in this
manner: He supposes the Sublime to be the sundering of
the aesflietic idea and its sensuous image [Gebild) from the
state of unity constituting the Beautiful, the idea reaching
as the infinite over against the finite of the image. The
image now resists the sudden rupture, and in asserting
itself as a totality in defiance of the idea becomes the Ugly.
The Comic, again, is the result of some partial and appa-
rently involuntary recognition of the rigbts ef the idea by
the rebellious image. Schasler says, in criticising the
views of Vischer, that it is difficult not to be satirical in
describing the dialectic artifices to which the idea is here
compelled, little suspecting how easily any similar attempt
to adjust relations between these ideas, looked at objectively •
as movements of the supreme idea, may appear equally naif
and funny to a mind not already oppressed with the resis1>
ing burden of its own abstractions.
Vischer; Theodor Vischer, the last of the Hegelians named here,
nas produced the largest and most laborious system of
metaphysical sesthetics, and a brief account of its scope
must be given to complete our history of the German
systems. He defines aesthetics as the science of the Beau- '
tiful. His system falls into three parts: (1.) Metaphysio
of the Beautiful; (2.) The Beautiful as one-sided existence
— beauty of nature and the human imagination; (3.) The
subjective-objective actuality of the Beautiful — Art. The
metaphysic again falls into two parts — the theory of simple
beauty, and that of the Beautiful in the resistance of its
moments (the Sublime and Ridiculous). He defines the
Beautiful as "the idea in the form of limited appearance."
His discussions of the various beauties of nature, the
organic and inorganic world, are very full and suggestive,
and his elaboration of the principles of art (excepting those
of music, which he left another to elucidate), is marked
by a wide and accurate knowledge. He divides the arts
into— =^1.) The objective, or eye arts (architecture, sculpture,
and painting); (2.) Subjective, or ear arts (music); (3.)
Subjective-objective arts, or those of sensuous conception
(poetry). He subdivides the first into those of measuring
sight (architecture), touching sight (sculpture), and sight
~" proper (painting). Vischer's style is very laboured. His
propositions fall into the form of mathematical theorems,
and are made exceedingly incomprehensible by the ex-
cessive subtleties of his metaphysical nomenclature.
Otber There are several other systems of aesthetics which
German deserve mention here, but space does not allow of a fuU
sjrrtems. account of them. Of these the most important are the
theories of Herbart, Schopenhauer, and von Kirchmann.
Herbart's views are based on his curious psychological
conceptions. He ignores any function in the Beautiful as
expressive of the idea, and seeks simply to determine the
simplest forms or the elementary judgments of beauty.
Schopenhauer's discu.ssion3, connecting beauty with his
peculiar conception of the universe as volition, are a curious
contribution to the subject. As a specimen of his specula-
tions, one may give his definition of tragedy as the repre-
sentation of the horrible side of life, the scornful dominion
of accident, and the inevitable fall of the just and inno-
cent, this containing a significant glimpse into the nature
of the world and existence. Von Kirchmann has written
I two-volume work on aesthetics, which is interesting as a
reaction against the Hegelian method. It professes to be
an attempt to base the science on a realistic foundation,
and to apply the principles of observation and indiiction
long acted upon in natural science.
The German aisthetic speculatious not elaborated into
complete" systems are too numerous to be fully represented Incomplete
here. Only a few of the most valuable contributions to the German
theory will be alluded to. Winckehnann's services to the ^J.^**?*:
development of plastic art do not directly concern us, nj^nj^
Of his theory of plastic beauty, based exclusively on the
principles of Greek sculpture, little requires to be said.
He first pointed to the real soiirces of superiority in antique
creations, by emphasising the distinction between natural
and ideal beauty, the sesthetic value of contour as an
ideal element, the beauty of expression as the manifestation
of an elevated soul, and consisting of a noble simplicity
and a quiet grandeur. But by too exclusive an attention
to Greek art, and indeed to sculpture, his theory, as an
attempt to generalise on art, lacks completeness, making
little room for the many-sidedness of art, and narrowing it
down to one, though an exalted, ideaL
•Lessing'a services to the scientific theory of art are far
greater than those of Winckelmann. He is the first modem
who has sought to deduce the special function of an art
from a consideration of the means at its disposaL In his
Laohoon he defines the boundaries of poetry and painting ,
in a manner which has scarcely been improved on since.
In slight divergence from Winckehnann, who had said that
the representation of crying was excluded from sculpture
by the ancients as unworthy of a great soul, Lessing sought
to prove that it was prohibited by reason of its incom-
patibility with the conditions of plastic beauty. He
reasoned from the example of the celebrated group, the
Laokoon. Visible beauty wag, he said, the first law of
ancient sculpture and painting. These arts, as employing
the co-existent and permanent in space, are much more
limited than poetry, which employs the transitory and suc-
cessive impressions of sound. Hence, expression k to
poetry what corporeal beauty is to the arts of visible form
and colour. The former has to do with actions, the latter
with bodies, — that is, objects whose parts co-exist. Poetry
can only suggest material objects and visible scenery by
means of actions ; as for example, when Homer pictures
Juno's chariot by a description of its formation piece by
piece. Painting and sculpture, again, can only suggest
actions by means of bodies. Fi-om this it follows that the
range of expression in poetry is far greater than in visible
art. Just as corporeal beauty loses much of its charm, so
the visible Ugly loses much of its repxilsiveness by the suc-
cessive and transient character of the poetic medium.
Hence poetry may introduce it, while painting is forbidden
to represent it. Even the Disgusting may be skilfully
employed in poetry to strengthen the impression of the
Horrible or Ridiculous ; while painting can only attempt this
at its peril, as in Pordenone's Intermeat of Christ, in wiuch
a figure is represented aa holding its nose. Visible imita-
tion being immediate and permanent, the painful element
cannot be softened and disguised by other and pleasing
ingredients (the Laughable, ic. ), as in poetry. As Schasler
says, Lessing's theory hardly makes room for the effecta of
individuaUty of character as one aim of pictorial as well aa
of po^ic art. i'et as a broad distinction between the two
heterogeneous arts, limiting, on the one hand, pictorial de-
scripticjn in poetry, and the representation of the painful,
low, and revolting in the arts of vision, it is unassailable,
and constitutes a real discovery in aesthetics. Lessing's
principles of the drama, as scattered through the critiques
of the UamhwQ Dramaturgy, are for the most part a fur-
ther elucidation of Aristotelian principles, of great value to
the progress of art, but adding comparatively little to the
theory. Its conspicuous points are the determination of
poetic truth as shadowed forth by Aristotle, and the dif-
ference between tragedy and comedy in respect to liberty
of invention both of fable and of cliar.actor; secondly, the
rcasscrtion that both fear and pity, and not aijnply one uf
220
ESTHETICS
Ooethe
So bluer
Jean Paul
Other
writers.
Attempts
to deter-
mine the
instincti
or soiisa-
tional ele
mcnt in
beauty.
these, aro ths tOects of every tragcdy,-and that it is false
dramatic art to attempt to roprcsont eitlier the sufferings
of a perfect martyr, or tlio actions of some monstruus
horror of wickedness, as ComeiUe and the French school
hod urge* ; hist'y, the interpretation of Aristotle's purifica-
tion of the pa-ssicjia as referring to thL? very f&r and pity,
and pointing to a certain desirable mean between excessive
sensibility and excessive callousne.ss. Schasler says that
if Lessing h.id had an Aristotle to lean on in the Laokoon as
in the Dramaturgy, it would have been more valuable.
Others might be di.sposed to say that if he had been aa
free from .the traditions of authority in the Dramaturgy
as ho was in the Laokoon, the former might have couta'' "-d
as much in the way of real discovery as the latter.
The partial contributions to esthetics after LeSSng
reed not long detain wa. Goethe wrote several tracts on
aesthetic tojiics, as well as many aphorisms. ■ He attempts
to mediate between the claims of ideal beauty, as taught
by Winckelmann, and the aims of individualisatioii.
Schiller discusses, in a number of disconnected essays and
letters, some of the pi-iucipal questions in the philosophy
of art. lie looks at art as a side of culture and the forces
of human nature, and finds in an testhetically cultivated
soul the reconciliation of the sensual and rational. His
letters on sesthetic education (Ueber die assthclischf Erzic-
hung dts Menschen) are very valuable, and bring out the
connection between iesthetio activity and the universal im-
pulse to play (Spieltrieb). This impulse is formed from
the union of two otbjer impulses — the material {Stofftrieb)
and the formal [Formlrieb) — the former of which seeks to
make real the inner thought, the latter to form or fashion
this reality. Schiller's thoughts on this topic are cast in
a highly metaphysical mould, and he makes no attempt to
trace the gradual development of the first crude play of
children wto the a;sthetio pleasures of a cultivated matu-
rity. He fixes as the two conditions of a>sthetic growth,
moral freedom of the incUvidiuil and sociability. The
philosophic basis of Schiller's speculation is the system of
Kant. Another example of this kind of reflective discus-
sion of art by literary men is afforded lu? in the Yorschule
der ^stketik of Jean Paul Richter. This is a rather am-
bitious discussion of the Sublime and the Liidicrous, and
contains much valuable matter on the nature of humour in
romantic poetry. Jean Paul is by no means exact or
systematic, and his language is highly poetic. His defini-
tions strike one as hasty and inadequate': for example,
that the SubUme is the applied Infinite, or that the Ludi-
crous is the infinitely Small. Other ^sTiters of this class,
as Wilhelm von Humboldt, the two Schlegels, Gervinus,
though they have helped to form juster views of the
several kinds of poetry, kc, have contributed little to the
general theory of art. F. Schlegel's determination of the
principle of romantic poetry as the Interesting,_in opposi-
tion tc the objecti\'ity of antique poetry, may be cited aa
a good example of this group of speculations.
No account of German aisthetics can be complete with-
out some reference to the attempts recently made by one
or two naturalists to determine experimentally the physical
conditions and the net sensational element of artistic im-
pression. Of these, the most imposing is the development
by Helmholtz of a large part of the laws of musical com-
position, harmony, tone, modulation, cia, from a simple
physical hypothesis as to the complex character of what
appear to us as elementary tonss. Another interesting
experimental inquiry has been instituted by Fechuer into
the alleged superiority of " the golden section " as a visible
proportioiL Zeising, the author of this theory, asserts
that the most pleasing division of a hne, say in a cross, is
the golden section, where the smaller division is to the
larifer as tb'e latter to the sma. Fechner describes in his
contribution Zur ejqyerimfnlalm ^sthetik a Ecricf of
experiments on a large nmnber of different perjons, in
which ho supposes ho eliminated all effects of individuai
association, and decides in favour of the hypothesis. He,
■however, assumes that this visible form must please pri-
marily, and does not recognise that any constant association
growing up in all minds alike would give precisely tho
same results. Finally, allusion may bo made to some
ingenious but very forced attempts of Unger and others
to discover harmonic and melodious relations among the
elementary colours.
ni. French writers on jEstlidics. — In passing from German
to French writers on testhetical topics we find, as might be ex-
pected, much less of metaphysical assumption and a clearer
perception of the scientific character of the problem. At the
same time, the authors are but few, and their works mostly
of a fragmentary character. Passing by the Jesuit Andr(S,
who sought to rehabihtate Augustin's theory of the Beauti-
ful, we first light on the name of Eatteux. In his Court
de Belles Lettrcs {1765) he seeks to determine the aims of art
by elucidating the meaning and value of the imitation of
nature. Ho classifies the arts according to tho forms of
space and time, those of either division being capable of
combining among themselves, but not with those of the
other. Thus architecture, sculpture, and- painting may
co-operate in one visible effect ; also music, poetry, and the
dance. Diderot, again, in the Encyclopidie, sought to
define beauty by making it to consist in the perception of
relations. In his Essais sur la Peinture he follows Bat-
teux in extolling naturalness, or fidelity to nature. Another
very inadequate theory of beauty was propounded by Pfere
Huffier. Ho said it is the type of a species which gives
the measure of beauty. A beautiful face, though rare, is
nevertheless the model after which the largest number is
formed. Not unlike this theory Is a doctrine propounded
by H. Taine. In his work, De V Ideal dans V Art, he pro-
ceeds in the manner of a botanist to determine a scale of
characters in the physical and moral man, according to the
embodiment of which a work of art becomes ideal The
degree of universality or 'importance, and the degree of
beneficence or adaptation to the ends of life in a character,
give it its measure of aesthetic value, and render the work
of art, which seeks to represent it in its purity, an ideal
work.
The only elaborated systems of aesthetics in French
literature are those constructed by the spiritualuitea, that
is, the philosophic followers of Reid and D. Stewart on
the one hand, and the German idealists on the other, who
constituted a reaction against the crude sensationalism of
the 1 8th century. They aim at elucidating what they call
the higher and spiritual element in aesthetic impressions,
and wholly ignore aay capaHUty in material substance or
external sensation of affording the peculiar delights of
beauty. The lectures of Cousin, entitled Du Vrai, du Beau,
el du Mien, the Cours d'Estketique of Jouffroy, and the
systematic treatise of L^viique, La Science du Beau, are
the principal works of this school The last, aa the most
elaborate, will afford the student the best insight into this
mode of speculation. -The system of Liiveque falls into
four part.s — (1.) The psychological observation and classifi-
cation of the effects of the Beautiful on human intelligence
and sensibility; (2.) The metaphysic of beauty, which
determines whether it has a real objective exiatence, and
if so, what is the internal principle or substance of this
objective entity ; and further seeks to adjust the relation!
of the Beautiful, the Sublime, the Ugly, and the Ridiculous
in relation to this- principle; (3.) The application of th&e
psychological' and metaphysical principles to the beauty of
nature, animate and inanimate, ^nd to that of the Deity;
(i.) Their application to the arts. The influence of the
Panul
'JiscusmoDS
of the pro
blum
Dutteox.
Diderot
Bitffier.
Taine.
tems of the
spiritual-
isteA
I.ovpQae
ESTHETICS
221
(Jomians in this moda of systematisitig is apparent. All
the characters of beauty in externa! objects, as a flower,
of which the principal are size, unity and variety of parts,
intensity of colour, grace or flexibility, and correspondence
to environment, may be eimimed up as the ideal grandeur
and order of the species. These are perceived by reason
to be the manifestations of an invisible vital force. Simi-
larly the beauties of inorganic nature are translatable as
the grand and orderly displays of an immaterial physical
force. Thus all beauty is in its objective essence either
spirit or unconscious force acting with fulness and in
order. It is curious that L^vfique in this way modiilea
the strictly spiritual theory of beauty by the admission of
an unconscious physical force, equally with spirit or mind,
as an objective substratum of the Beautiful. He seeks,
however, to assimilate this as nearly as possible to con-
_Bcious energy, as immaterial and indivisible. The aim of
art is to reproduce this beauty of nature in a beautiful
manner, and the individual arts may be classified according
to the degree of beautiful force or spirit expressed, and the
degree of power with which this is interpreted. Accord-
ingly, they are arranged by Leveque in the same order as
by Hegel.
IV. Italian and Dutch Writers. — There are a few
writers on ajsthetic subjects to be found in Italian and
Dutch literature, but they have little of original speculation.
The Italian, as Pagano and Muratori, follow French and
English writers. One Dutch writer, Franz Hemsterhuis
(18th century), is worth naming. His philosophic views
are an attempt at reconciliation between the sensational
and the intuitive systems of knowledge. . The only faculty
of true knowledge is an internal sense, nevertheless all true
knowledge comes throurjh the senses. The soul, desiring
immediate and complete knowledge, and being limited by
its union with the senses, which are incapable of perfectly
simultaneous action, sti'ives to gain the greatest number
of the elements of cognition or ideas in the shortest pos-
sible time. In proportion as this effort is successful, the
knowledge is attended with enjoyment. The highest
measure of this delight is given by beauty, wherefore it may
be defined as that which affords the largest number of ideas
in the shortest time.
V. English Writers. — In the assthetic speculations of
English writers, we find still less of metaphysical construc-
tion and systematisation than in those of French thinkers.
Indeed, it may be said that there is nothing answering to
the Gennan conception of sesthetic in our literature. The
inquiries of English and Scotch thinkers have been directed
for the most part to very definite and strictly scientific pro-
blems, such as the psychological processes in the perception of
the Beautiful The more moder>»te metaphysical impulses of
our countrymen have never reached beyond the bare asser-
tion of an objective and independent beauty. Hence we find
that the German historians regard these special and limited
discussions as so many empirical reflections, wholly devoid
of the rational element in true philo.sophy. Schasler speaks
of these essays as " empiristic cesthetics," tending in one
direction to raw materialism, in the other, by want of
•aethod, never lifting itself above the plane of " an sesthe-
ticising dilettanteism." English writers are easily divisible
into two groups — (1.) Those who lean to the conception
of a primitive objective beauty, not resolvable into any
simpler ingredients of sensation or simple emotion, which
is perceived intuitively cither by rcaso?i or by some special
faculty, an internal sense; (2.) Those who, tracing the
genesis of beauty to the union of simple impressions, have
been chiefly concerned with a psychological discussion- of
the origin and growth of our sesthetic perceptions and
eraotiors.
Lord Shaftesbury ia the fijst of the intuitive writers on
beauty. His views are highly metaphysical and Platonic The intu;
in character. The Beautiful and the Good are combined in tiviyts.
one ideal conception, much as with Plato. Matter in itself Sluftos-
is ugly. _ The order of the worid, wherein all beauty really ''"''^'
resides, is a spiritual principle, all motion and life being
the product of spirit. The principle of beauty is perceived
not with the outer senses, but vrith an internal — that is,
the moral — sense (which perceives the Good as well). This
perception afi'ords the only true delight, namely, spiritual
enjoyment. Shaftesbury distinguishes three grades of the
Beautiful, namely, (1.) Inanimate objects, including works
of art; (2.) Living forms, which reveal the spiritual forma-
tive force; and (3.) The source from which these forms
spring, God.
In his Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty Hatcleson,
and Virtue, Hutcheson follows many of Shaftesbury's ideas.
Yet he distinctly disclaims" any independent self-existing
beauty in objects apart from percipient mind-s. "All
beauty," he says, " is relative to the sense of some mind
perceiving it." The cause of beauty is not any simple
sensation from an object, as colour, tone, but a certain
order among the parts, or " unifonnity amidst variety."
The faculty by which this-principle is known is an internal
sense which is defined as " a passive power of receiving
ideas of beauty from all objects in which there is uniformity
in variety." Thus Hulcheson seems to have supposed that
beauty, though always residing in uniformity in variety as
its form, was still something distinct from this, and so
in need of a peculiar sense distinct from reason for the
appreciation of it. But his meaning on this point is not
clear. This faculty is called a sense, because it resembles
the external senses in the immediateness of the pleasure it
experiences. The perception of beauty, and the delight
attending it, are quite as independent of considerations of
principles, causes, or usefulness in the object, as the plea-
surable sensation of a sweet taste. Further, the eflfect of a
beautiful object is like the impression of our senses in its
nece.ssity; a be_autiful thing being always, whether we will
or no, beautiful. In the second place, this sense is called
internal, because the appreciation of beauty is clearly dis-
tinct from the ordinary sensibility of the eye and ear,
whether emotional or intellectual and discriminative, many
persons who possess the latter intact being totally destitute
of the fonner. Another reason is, that in some affaire
which have little to do with the exterrfal senses, beauty is
perceived, as in theorems, universal truths, and general
causes. Hutcheson discusses two kinds of beauty — abso-
lute or original, and relative or comparative. • The former
is independent of all comparison of the beautiful object
with another object of wliich it may be an imitation. The
latter is perceived in an object considered as an imitation or
resemblance of something else. He distinctly states that "an
exact imitation may still be beautiful though the origir.,al
were entirely devoid of itf but, curiously enough, will not
allow that this proves hLs prerious definition of beauty as
" uniformity amidst variety" to be too narrow. He seems
to conceive that the original sense of beauty may be
"varied and overbalanced" with the secondary and subor-
dinate kind. Hutcheson spends a good deal of time in
proving the universality of this sense of beauty, by show-
ing that all men, in proportion to the enlargement of theii
intellectual capacity, are more delighted with uniformity
than the contrary. He argues against the supposition that
custom and education are sources of our jierception oi
beauty, though he admits that they may enlarge the capa-
city of our minds to retain and compare, and so may add to
the delight of beauty.
The next writer of consequence on the intuitive side is KilJ
Ilcid. In the eighth of his Essays on the Intelhctual
Poucri he discusses the faculty of taste. Ho held, on the
222
iE S T Jl E T 1 C S
ground of common sense, tint beauty must exist in objects
indepcnilcntly of our minds. As to the nature of tlie
Beautiful, he taught that all beauty resides primarily in the
faculties of the mind, intellectual and moral. The beauty
which is spread over the face of visible nature is an emana-
tion from this spiritual beauty, and is beautiful because it
symbolises and expresses it. Thus the beauty of a jilant
resides in its perfection for its end, as an expression of the
wisdom of its Creator. Kcid's theory of beauty is thus
purely spirit\ial.
Sir W. The celebrated Lectures on Metaphysics of Sir W. Hamilton
Hamilton, do not, unfortunately, contain more than a slight prelimin-
ary sketch of the writer's theory of the emotional activities.
He defines jjleasure, following very closely the theory of
Aristotle, as " a reflex of the spontaneous and unimpeded
exertion of a power of who.se energy' we are con.scious"
(vol. ii. p. 440). And, in perfect agreement with this con-
ception, he divides the various feelings according to the
faculties or powers, bodily or mental, of which they arc the
concomitants. In the scheme thus faintly shadowed forth,
the sentiments of Taste are regarded as subserving both
the subsidiary and the elaborative faculties in cognition, in
other words, the Imagination and the Understanding. The
activity of the former corresponds to the element of variety
in the beautiful object, while that of the latt»r is concerned
with its unity. A beautiful thing is accordingly defined
" as one' whose form occupies the Imagination aud Under-
standing in a free and full, and, consequently, in an agree-
able activity" (p. 012). In thi§ -syay, the writer conceives,
he comprehends all pre-existing definitions of beauty. He
explicitly excludes all other varieties .of pleasure, such as
the sensuous, from the proper gratification of beauty. The
Eeathetic sentiment is thus regarded as unique and not
resolvable into simpler feelings. Similarly, he denies any
proper attribute of beauty to fitness. The essence of the
sentiment of sublimity he finds, much in the same ■way as
Kant, in a mingled pleasure and pain; "of pleasure in the
consciousness of the strong energy, of pain in the conscious-
ness that this energy is vain." He recognises three forms
of Sublimity: those of Extension or space, of Protension
or time, and of Intension or power. Finally, he thinks
that the Picturesque differs from the Beauciful in appealing
simply to the imagination.- A picturesque object is one
whose parts are so palpably unconnected that the under-
■ standing is not stimulated to the perception of unity.
Ruakin. A very like interpretation of beauty, as spiritual and
typical of divine attributes, has been given by Mr Euskin
in the second volume of his Modo-n Painters. This part of
his work, bearing the title " Of Ideas of Beauty," has a very
systematic ajipearance, but is in fact a singularly desultory
series of aesthetic ideas put into a very charming language,
and coloured by strong emotion.' Mr Euskin distinguishes
between the theoretic faculty concerned in the moral per-
ception and appreciation of ideas of beauty and the
imaginative or artistic faculty, which is employed in re-
garding in a certain way and combining the ideas received
from external nature. The former, he thinks, is ■wrongly
named the oesthctic faculty, as though it were a mere
operation of sense. The object of the faculty is beauty,
■which Mr Euskin divides into typical and -vital beauty.
The former is the external quality, of bodies that typifies
somedivine attribute. The latter consists in "the appearance
of felicitous fulfilment of function in living things." The
forms of typical beauty are— (1.) Infinity, the type of the
divine incomprehensibility; (i.) Unity, the type of the
divine comprehensiveness; (3.) Repose, the type of the
divine permanence; (4.) .Sjnnmetry, the type of the dinne
justice; (5.). Purity, the type of the divine energy; and
(6.) Moderation, the type of government by law. Vital
beauty, again, is regarded as relative when the degree of
exaltation of the function is estimated, or generic if only
the degree of conformity of an individual to the appointed
functions of the species is taken into account Mr Kuskin's
wide knowledge and fine aisthctjc perception make hia
works replete with valuable suggestions, though he appears
wanting in scientific accuracy, and lacks, as ilr Mill has
pointed out, all appreciation of the explanatory power of
association with respect to the ideal elements of typical'
beauty.
Of the more analytic writers on the effects of the Beautiful, Tho analy-
Addison deserves a passing mention, less, however, for the ''''1 tbeur-
scientific precision of his definitions, than for-tho charm f*?",.
of his style. His i,ssays on tho Imagmation, contn-
buted to the Spectator, are admirable specimens of populac
KSthetic reflection. Addison means by the pleasures of im-
agination those which arise originally from sight, and he
divides them into two cbsses — ( 1 . ) Primary pleasures, which
entirely proceed from objects before our eyes; and (2.)'
Secondary pleasures, flowing from ideas of visible objects.
The original sources of pleasure in visible objects are great-
ness, novelty, and beauty. This, it may be said, is a valu-
able distinction, as pointing to the plurality of sources in
the esthetic impression, but the threefold division is only a
very rough tentative, and destitute of all logical value,
novelty of impression being always a, condition of beauty.
The secondary pleasures, he rightly remarks, are rendered
far more extended than the original by the addition of the
proper enjoyment of resemblance, which is at the. basis of
all mimicry and -wit. Addison recognises, too, the effects
of association in the suggestion of whole scenes,,and their
accompaniments by some single circumstance. He has
some curious hints as to the physiological seat of these
mental processes, and seeks, somewhat naively, to connect
these pleasures ■with teieological considerations.
In the Elements of Criiicism of Lord Kaimes, another Lord
attempt is made to affiliate sesthetic phenomena to simpler KAimea.
pleasures of experienas Beauty and ugliness are simply
the pleasant and the tinpleasant in. the higher senses of
sight and hearing. By "higher" he me'ains more intel-.
lectual, and he, conceives these two senses to be placed
midway between the lower senses and the understanding.
He appears to admit no more general feature in beatitiful
objects than this pleasurable quality. Like Hutcheson, he
divides beauty into intrinsic and relative, but understands
by the latter ideas of fitness and utility, which were
excluded from the Beautiful by Hutcheson. ' He illustrates
the English tendency to connect mental processes with
physiological conditions, by referring the'main elements of
the feeling of sublimity to the effect of height in objects in
compelling the spectator to stand on tiptoe, by which the
chest is expanded and muscular movements produced which
give rise to the peculiar emotion.
Passing by the name of Sir Joshua Reynolds, •whose Hogarth,
theoty of beauty closely resembles that of P^re Bufficr, we
come to the speculations of another artist and painter,
Hogarth. He discusses in hh Analysis of Beauty aM t]i&
elements of visible beauty, both form and colour, often
manifesting great speculative skill, and always showing a
wide and accurate knowledge of art. He finds altogether
six elements in beauty, namely — (1.) Fitness of the parts
to some design, as of the limbs for support and movement;
(2.) Variety in as many ways as possible, thus in form,
length, and direction of Une, shape, and magnitude of
figure, <tc. ; (3.) Uniformity, regularity, or symmetry, ■which
is only beautiful when it helps to preserve the character
of fitness; (4.) Simplicity or distinctne.ss, ' which gives
pleasure not in itself, but through its enabling the eye to
enjoy variety ■with ease; (5.) Intricacy, which provides
employment for our active energies, ever eager for pursuit,
and leads tho eye " a wanton kind of chase"; (6.) Quantity
ESTHETICS
223
or magnitude, which draws our attentiou, and produces
admiration and awe. The beauty of proportion he very
acutely resolves into the needs of titness. Hogarth applies
these principles to the determination of degrees of beauty
in lines, and figures, and compositions of forms. Among
lines he singles out for special honour the serpentine
(formed by drawing a line ouce round from the base to^the
apex of a long slender cone) as the line of grace or beauty
par excellence. Its superiority he places in its many
varieties of direction or curvature, though he adds that
more suddenly curving lines displease by their grossness,
while straighte.' lines appear lean and poor. In this last
remark Hogarth tacitly allows another principle in- graceful
line, namely, gentleness, as opposed to suddenness, of
change in direction, though he does not give it distinct
recognition in his theory, as Burke did. Hogarth's opinions
are of great value as a set off against the extreme views of
Alison and the association school, since he distinctly attri-
butes a great part of the effects of beauty in form, as in
colour, to the satisfaction of primitive susceptibilities of
the mind, though he had not the requisite psychological
knowledge to reduce them to their simplest expression. In
his remarks on intricacy he shows clearly enough that he
understood the pleasures of movement to be involved in all
visual perception of form.
•Jarke. Burke's speculations on the Beautiful, in his Philosophical
Inquiry into the Oi-igin of our Ideas of the Sublime and
Beautiful, are curious as introducing physiological con-
siderations into the explanation of the feelings of beauty.
They illustrate, moreover, the tendency of English writers
to treat the problem as a psychological one. He linds the
. elements of beauty to be^-{l.) Smallness of size; (2.)
Smoothness of surface; (3.) Gradual variation of direction
of outline, by which he means gentle curves; (4.) DeUcacy,
or the appearance of fragility; (5.) Brightness, purity, and
softness of colour. The Sublime he resolves, not very
carefully, into astonishment, which he thinks always con-
tains an element of terror. Thus " infinity has a ten-
dency to fill the mind with a delightful horror." Burke
seeks what he calls " efficient causes " for these phenomena
in certain affections of the nerves of sight, which he com-
pares with the operations of taste, smell, and touch.
Terror produces " an unnatural tension and certain violent
emotions of the nerves," hence any objects of sight which pro-
duce this tension awaken the feeling of the Sublime, which
is a kind of terror. Beautiful objects affect the nerves of
sight just as smooth surfaces the nerves of touch, sweet
tastes and odours the corresponding nerve fibres, namely,
by relaxing them, and so producing a soothing effect on
the mind. The arbitrariness and narrowness of this theory,
looked at as a complete explanation of beauty, cannot well
escape the reader's attention.
JijOD. Alison, in his well-known Essays on the Nature and
.Principles of Taste, proceeds on an exactly opposite
method to that of Hogarth and Burke. He considers*
and seeks to analyse the mental process which goes on
when we experience the emotion of beauty or sublimity.
He finds that this consists in a peculiar operation of the
imagination, namely, the fiow of a train of ideas through
the mind, which ideas are not arbitrarily determined, but
alwajKs correspond to some simple affection or emotion (as
cheerTulness, sadness, awe), awakened by the object. He
thus makes association the sole source of the Beautiful, and
denies any such attribute to the simple impressions of the
senses. His exposition, which is very extensive, contains
many ingenious and valuable contributions to the ideal or
association side of ajsthelic effects, both of nature and of art;
but his total exclusion of delight (by which name he dis-
tinguishes aesthetic pleasure) from the immediate effects of
colour, visible form, and tone, makes his theory appear verjr_
incomplete, 'ihia is especially applicable to music, where
the delight of mere sensation is perhaps most conspicuous.
He fails, too, to see that in the emotional harmony of the
ideas, which, according to his view, make up au impression
of beauty, there is a distinct source of pleasure over and
above that supplied by the simple feeUng and by the ideas
themselves.
. Jeffrey's Essay cm Beauty is little more than a modifica- Je&e>
tion of Alison's views. He defines the sense of beauty as
consisting in the suggestion of agreeable and interesting
sensations previously experienced by means of our various
pleasurable sensibilities. He thus retains the necessity of
ideal suggestion, but at the same time discards the sup-
posed requirement of a train of ideas. Jeffrey distinctly
saw that this theory excludes the hypothesis of an inde-
pendent beauty inherent in objects. He fails as completely
as Alison to disprove the existence of a sensuous or organic
beautiful, and, like him, is avowedly concerned to show
the presence of some one, and only one, determining prin-
ciple in all forms of the Beautiful
D. Stewart's chief merit in the aesthetic discussions, con- DugalJ
tained in his Philosophical Essays, consists in pointing out •w<«'.rti
this unwarranted assumption of some single quality (other
than that of producing a certain refined pleasure) running
through all beautiful objects, and constituting the essence
of beauty. He shows very ingeniously how the successive
transitions and generalisations in the mearung of the term
beauty may have arisen. He thinks it must originally have
fonnoted the pleasure of colour, which he recognises as
primitive. His criticisms on the one-sided schemes of
other writers, as Burke and Alison, are very able, though
he himself hardly attempts any complete theory of beauty.
His conception of the Sublime, suggested by the etymology
of the word, renders prominent the element of height in
objects, which he conceives as an upward direction of
motion, and which operates on the mind as an exhibition
of power, namely, triumph over gravity.
Of the association psychologists James Hill did little Professa*
more towards the analysis of the sentiments of beauty than Baiu.
re-state Alison's doctrine. On the other hand, Professor
Bain, in his treatise The Emotions and the Will, carries
this examination considerably further. He asserts with
Stewart that no one generalisation will comprehend all
varieties of beautiful objects. He thinks, however, that
the aesthetic emotions, those involved in the fine arts, may
be roughly circumscribed and marked off from other modes
of enjojTnent by means of three characteristics — (1.) Their
not serving to keep up existence, but being gratifications
sought for themselves only; (2.) Their purity from all
repulsive ingredients; (3.) Their eminently sympathetic
or sharable nature in contrast to the exclusive pleasures
of the individual in eating, itc. The pleasures of art are
divided, according to Mr Bain's general plan of the mind,
into (1.) The elements of sensation — sights and sounds; (2.)
The extension of these by intellectual revival — ideal sug-
gestions of muscular impression, touch, odour, and other
jileasurable sensations; (3.) The revival, in ideal form also,
of pleasurable emotions, as tenderness and power, and in
a softened measure of emotions painful in reality, as fear;
(4.) The immediate gratification, that is in actual form, of
certain wide emotional susceptibilities reaching beyond art,
namely, the elating effect of all change of impression under
the forms of artistic contrast and variety; and, secondly,
the peculiar dehght springing from harmony among im-
pressions and feelings, under its several aesthetic aspects,
musical harmony and melody, proportion, Ac. The details
in Mr Bain's exposition are rich and varied in relation
to the psychology of the subject. He finds the effect of
sublimity in the manifestation of superior power in its
highest degrees, which manifestation excites a sympathetic
224
A E T — A E T
elation in the beholder. The Ludicrous, again, is defined
by Mr Bain, improving on Aristotle and llobbcs, as the
degradation, of something possessing dignity in circum-
stances that excite no other strong emotion. Tlie pleasure
accompanj'ing the impression may bo referred either to the
elation of a sense of power or superiority ideally or sym-
pathetically excited, or to a sense of freedom from restraint,
both of which have in common the clement of a joyous
rebound from pressure. Thus it n-ill be seen that Professor
Bain recognises no new mental principle in a;sthetic effects,
but regards them as peculiar combinations and transforma-
tions, according to known psychological laws, of other and
simpler feelings.
flffUrt An interesting turn has been given to the psychology of
Spopa-r. (esthetics by Mr Herbert Spencer. In some of his essays,
as the one entitled " The Origin and Function of Music,"
and more fully in the concluding chapter of his Psychology
(second edition), on the ^Esthetic Sentiments, ho offers a
new theory of the genesis of the pleasures of beauty and
art, based on his doctrine of evolution. He takes up
Schiller's idea of the connection between aesthetic activity
and play, only ho deals' with this latter not as an ideal
tendency, biit as a phenomenal reajity, seeking to make it
the actual starting-point in the order of evolution of
resthetic action. Play or sport is defined as the superfluous
and useless exercise of faculties that have been quiescent
for a time, and have in this way become so ready to dis-
charge as to relieve themselves by simulated actions.
^Esthetic activities )-ield to the higher powers of percep-
tion and emotion the substituted exercise which play
yields to the lower impulses, agreeing with play in not
directly subserving any processes conducive to life, but
being gratifications sought for themselves only. This
point of affinity between the two classes of pleasures is a
valuable addition to aisthetic theory, and helps one to
■nderstand how the artistic impulse first arose. At the
same time it is doubtful how far all present aesthetic
pleasures, as the passive enjoyments of colour and tone, can
be interpreted as substituted activities in Mr Spencer's
sense. They seem rather to be original and instinctive
modes of gratification not dependent on any previous exer-
cises of life-function, except so far as the structure and
functions of the souses as a whole may be viewed as the
product of multitudinous life-ptocesses ill animal evolu-
tion. Mr Spencer, moreover, forms a hierarchy of aesthetic
pleasures, the standard of height being either the number
of powers duly exercised, or what comes to the same
thing, the degree of complexity of the emotional faculty
thus exercised. The first, and lowest class of pleasures,
are those of simple sensation, as tone and colour, which
are partly organic and partly the results of association.
The second class are the pleasures of perception, as em-
ployed upon the combination of colours, kc The highest
order of pleasures are those of the aesthetic sentiments
proper, consisting of the multitudinous emotions ideally
excited by aesthetic objects, natural and artistic. Among
these vaguely and partially revived emotions Mr Spencer
reckons not only those of the individual, but also many of
the constant feelings of the race. Tlius he would attri-
bute the vagueness and apparent depth of musical emotion
to associations with vocal tones, built up during the course
of vast ages. This graduated scheme is evidently dictated
by the assumption that the higher the stage of evolution,
the higher the pleasure. Yet Mr Spencer admits that this
measure of aesthetic value will not suffice alone, and he
adds, that the most perfect form of aesthetic gratification
is realised when sensation, perception, and emotion, are
present in fuUest and most pleasurable action. Mr Spen-
cer's supposition, that much of the pleasure of aesthetic
emotion is referrible to transmitted experience, offers a
very ingenious, even if not very definite, mode of explain,
ing many of the mysterious effects of tone, and even of
colour.
Among works on the history of aesthetic doctrines, the
student may bo referred to the following : —
la German literature, which contains the moat complete histories,
Mai Schoskr's KrUische OeschielUe cUr ^sihtlik, forming the first
two volumea of an (esthetic system, is the fuUi^t StiJl he hardly
dofcs justice to Englislt writers, there being no mention of Alis^ju
and recent tliinkera. Hia stand-point is only definable as a new
modification of Ilegelianism. Zimniermann's Geschichlt der yEslhetik
is also to be recommended. l^iz't'iO'^schichUdcr JUUietikin Deutsch- '
land is a highly critical risumf of German systems, characterised by
a good deal of caution, and a desire to mediate between opposing
views, and if not very definite in its result, very appreciative and
suggestive of the many-sidedness of the subject. In French,
Wveque's work. La Science du Beau, ooalafaa a very fair account of
the most conspicuous systems, ancient and modern. In our own
literature, numerous references to 'other systems are to be found in
the essays of Alison ; and Jeffrey attempts a brief historical suni'cy
of the doctrines of beauty in his article on the subject. Dugald
Stewart's essays mostly fall into critical examination of the cnief
theories of beauty. Finally, Professor Bain, in his Compendium of
Mental and Moral Sciericc, supplies a brief but cai'eful account of
most of the known theories of the Beautiful. (j. 8.)
AETION, a painter, whose famous picture of the mar-
riage of Eoxana and Alexander was exhibited at the
OljTiipic' games, and gained Action so much reputation
that the president of the games gave him his daughter in
marriage. The picture is minutely described by Lucian.
Aetion appears from that author to have flourished in the
times of Hadrian and the Antonines.
AETIUS, a Roman general of the closing penod of the
western empire, born at Dorostolus in Moesia, late in the
4 th century. While detained for some time as a hostage
in the camp of Rhuas, king of the Hung, he acquired an
influence with the barbarians that was afterwards of much
advantage to himself, though the same cannot be said of it
as regards the empire. He led into Italy an army of
00,000 Huns, which he employed first to support the usurp-
ing Emperor John, and, on the death of the latter, to enforce
his claim to the supreme command of the army in Gaul
upon Placidia, the empress-mother and regent forValen-
tinian IIL j\iterwards, when he incurred the disfavour
of Placidia for the death of his rival Boniface, he again
employed an army of Huns to compel her to reinstate him
in his former position. In Gaul he won his militar)' repu-
tation, upholding for nearly twenty years, by combined
policy and daring, the falling fortimes of the western
empire. His greatest victory was that of Chalons-sur-Marne
(20th Sept. 401), in which he utterly routed Attila and the
Huns — the number slain on both sides being, according to
one computation, 300,000, though this is obviously an
exaggeration. This was the last triumph of the empire.
Three years later (454) Aetius presented himself at court
to claim the emperor's daughter in marriage for his son
Oaudentius; but Valentinian, suspecting him of desigiu
upon the crown, slew him with his own hand.
lAETIUS, sumamed " the Atheist," founder of an ex-
treme sect of the Arians, was a native of Coele-Syria.
After working for some time as a coppersmith, he became
a travelling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations
on medical subjects; but his controversial power soon
found a wider field for its exercise in the great theological
question of the tima He studied successively under the
Arians, Paulinus, bishop of Antioch, Athanasius, bishop of
Anazarbus, and the presbyter Antonius of Tarsus. In 350
he was ordained a deacon by Leontius of Antioch, but was
shortly afterwards forced by the orthodox party to leave
that town. At the first synod of Sirmium, he won a
dialectic victory over the homoiousian bishops Basilius and
Eustathius, who sought in consequence to stir up against
him the enmity of CiEsar Gallus. In 356 he went to
A E T — A F E
225
AlexaDdria with Eunomius in order tp advocate Arianism,
but he WEis banished by Constantiua. Julian the apostate
recalled him from exile, bestowed upon him an estate in
Lesboa, and retained him for a time at his court in Con-
stantinople. Being consecrated a bishop, he used his office
in the interests of Arianism by creating other bishops of
that party. At the accession of Valens (364) he retired to
his estate at Lesbos, but soon returned to Constantinople,
where he died in 367. The Anomcean sect of the Arians,
of whom he was the leader, are sometimes called after him
Aetians. His work De Fide has been preserved in connec-
tion -with a refutation written by Epiphanius.
AETIUS, a Greek physician, born at Amida in Meso-
potamia, who Kved at the end of the 5th or the beginning
of the 6th century. Of his personal history little is known,
except that he studied at Alexandria, and was physician to
the court at Constantinople with the title comes ohsequii.
He wrote a work entitled Bt/JXta 'larpiKa 'EKxatScKa, which
is mainly a compilation from the works of previous authors.
Eight books of this were issued from the Aldine press at
Venice in 1534; various other parts have been frequently
published ; and a Latin translation of the whole, by Cor-
uarius, appeared at Basle in 1542.
.^TNA. See Etna.
MTOIJIK, a country of ancient Greece, bounded on the
N. by Epirus and Thessaly, on the E. by the provinces of
Doris and Locris, on the S. by the Gulf of Corinth, and
separated on the W. from Acarnania by the river Achelous.
The part which lay westward of the river Evenus, and
south of a line joining Thermum and Stratus in Acar-
nania, was called old .^toUa, the rest of the country new
or acqxiired .^tolia. The country ia in general mountainous
and woody, but along the coast from the Achelous to the
Evenue, and northward to Mount Aracynthus, is a plain
of great fertility; while another extensive and fertile plain
stretches north from this mountain along the east bank of
the Achelous as far as the northern limit of old ^tolia.
The jEtolians were a restless and turbulent people,
strangers to friendship or principles of honour, and they
were consequently regarded by the other states of Greece
as outlaws and public robbers. On the other hand, they
were bold and enterprising in war, undaunted in the
greatest dangers, and jealous defenders of their liberties.
They distinguished themselves above all the other nations
of Greece in opposing the ambitious designs of the Mace-
donian princes, who, after having reduced moat of the
other states, were forced to grant them a peace upon very
honourable terms. The constitution of the jEtolian league
was copied from that of the Achseans, and with a fiew
to form, as it were, a counter alliance. The Cleom^nic
war, and that of the allies, called the Social War, were
kindled by the jEtolians with the express purpose of
humbling the Achseans. In the latter they held out, with
the assistance only of the Eleans and I^cedemonians, for
the space of three years, against the united forces of
Achaia and Macedon, but were obliged at last to purchase
a peace by yielding up to Philip all Acarnania. In order
to regain this province they entered into an alUance with
Rome against Philip, and proved of great service to the
Romans in their war with him ; but being dissatisfied with
the terms of peace granted by Flaminius, they m.ado wa,r
upon the Romans themselves. They were speedily over-
come, and only obtained peace on very humiliating term.s.
After the conquest of Macedon by .imiHus Paullus the
./Etolians were reduced to a much worse condition ; for not
only those among them who had openly declared for
Perseus, but those who were only eu.spected to have secretly
favoured him, were sent to Rome to clear themselves
before the senate. Tlioro they were detained, and never
afterwards permitted to return- to their native Country.
Five hundred and fifty of the chief men were barbarously
assassinated by the partisans of Rome solely on the sus-
picion of favouring the designs of Perseus. The .lEtolians
appeared before .^milius Paullus in mourning habits, and
made loud complaints of such inhuman treatment, but
could obtain no redress; on the contrary, ten commis-
sioners, who had been sent by the senate to settle the
affairs of Greece, enacted a decree, declaring that those who
were ki]le<l had suffered justly, since it appeared to them
that they had favoured the Macedonian party. From this
time those only were raised to the chief honours and
employments in the .(EtoUan republic who were known to
prefer the interest of Rome to that of their country, and
thus all the magistrates of .(EtoUa became the creatures
and mere tools of the Roman senate. In this state of
servile subjection they continued till the destruction of
Corinth and the dissolution of the Achaean league, when
jEtoUa, with the other free states of Greece, was reduced
to a Romarf province, commonly called the province of
Achaia. In this state, with little alteration, jEtoUa con-
tinued undee, the emperors till the reign of Constantino the
Great, who, in his new partition of the provinces of tha
empire, divided the western parts of Greece from the rest,
calling them New Epirus, and subjecting the whole country
to the prce/ectus prastorio for lUyricum. Under the succes-
sors of Constantine Greece was parcelled out into several
principalities, especially after the taking of Constantinople
by the western princes. About the begirming of the 13th
century Theodoras Angelus, a noble Grecian of the im-
perial family, seized on iEtolia and Epirus. The foi-mer
he left to Michael his son, who maintained it against
Michael Palseologus, the first emperor of the Greeks, after
the expidsion of the Latins. Charles, the last prince of
this family, dying i-n-1430 without lawful issue, bequeathed
.iEtolia to his brother's son, named also Charles; and
Acarnania to his natural sons Memnon, Tumus, and Her-
cules. But great disputes arising about this division,
Amurath II., after the reduction of Thessalonica, laid hold
of so favourable an opportunity, and expelled all the con-
tending heirs in 1432. The Mahometans were after-
wards dispossessed of this country by the famous prince of
Epirus, George Caatriot, commonly caUed Scanderbeg, who
with a small army opposed the whole power of the Ottoman
empire, and was victorious in twenty-two pitched battles.
That hero at his death left great part of jEtolia to the
Venetians; but they not being able to make head against
such a mighty power, the whole country was soon reduced by
Mahommed IL It is now included in the kingdom of Greece.
AFAJNASIEF; Aleksandr Nikolaevich, a Russian
achohir, distinguished for his researches in Slavonic litera-
ture and archaeology, was born about 1825. He contri-
buted many valuable articles to the serial literature of
his country, but his reputation rests chiefly on two works
of more permanent interest. The first was an extensive
collection, in eight parts, of liussian Popular Stories ;
the other a treatise, in three volumes, on the Poetical
Views of the Old Slavonians about Nature, completed
just before the author's death, which occurred in the
autumn of 1871.
AFER, DoMiTiUB, orator, corn at Nismes, flourished
nnder Tiberius and the three succeeding emperors. Quin-
tilian makes frequent mention of him, and commends his
pleadings. But he disgraced his talents by acting as pubUo
accuser in behalf of the emperors against some of the most
distinguished personages in Rome. Quintilian, in' his
youth, assiduously cultivated the friendship of Domitius.
He tcUa us that his pleadings were superior in point of
eloquence to any he had ever heard, and that there wero
public collections of his witty sayings (dicta), some of
which he quotes. He also mentions two books of hia, On
1— »
226
A F F — A F F
Witneo^es. ' Domitius erected a statuo in honour of Cali-
gula, on which there was an inscription to the effect that
this prince was a seconJ time consul at the age of 27.
This he intended aa an encomium; but Caligula regarding
it as a sarcasm upon his youth and his infringement of the
laws, raised a process against him, and pleaded himself in
person. . Domitius, instead of making a defence, repeated
part of ) the emperor's speech with the highest marks of
admiration; after which he fell upon his knees, begged
pardon, and declared that he dreaded Caligula's eloquence
more than his imperial power. This piece of flattery
succeeded so well, That the emperor not only pardoned
him, but raised him to the consulship. Afer died in the
reign of Nero, a.d. CO.
AFFIDAVIT means a solemn assurance of a matter of
fact known to the person who states it, and attested as his
statement by some person in authority. Evidence is chiefly
taken by means of aflidavits in the practice of the Court
of Chancery in England. By 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 42,
s. 42, provision is made for appointing commissioners in
Scotland and Ireland to take aflidavits. The term is
generally applied to a statement certified by a justice of
peace or other magistrate. Affidavits are sometimes neces-
sary as certifidates that certain formalities have been duly
and legally performed. They are extensively used in the
practice of bankruptcy, and in the administration of the
revenue. At one time they were invariably taken pn oath,
but this practice has been much narrowed Quakers, Mora-
vians, and Separatists have long been privileged in all cases
to make a solemn declaration or aflirmation ; and now, if any
persons called as witnesses, or required or desiring to make
an aSldavit or deposition, shall refuse or be unwilling from
alleged conscientious motives to bo sworn, the. court or
justice may, on being satisfied of the sincerity of such
objection, aUow such person to make a solemn affirmation
or declaration — by 17 and 18 Vict. c. 125, a. 20, extended
to all counties in England, Ireland, and Scotland by sub-
sequent statutes. An Act of 1835 (5 and 6 Will IV.
c. 62) substituted declarations for oaths in certain cases;
and this statute is extensively observed. The same Act
prohibited justices of peace from administering oaths in any
matter in which they had not jurisdiction as judges, except
when an oath was specially authorised by statute, as in the
bankrupt law, and excepting criminal inquiries. Parliamen-
tary proceedings, and instance? where oaths are required to
give validity to documents abroad. But justices are per-
mitted to take affidavits in any matter by declaration, and
a person making a false affidavit in this way is liable to
punishment. Affidavits may be made abroad before any
British ambassador, envoy, minister, cAarjrc (fo^aiVes, secre-
tary of embassy or legation, consul, or consular agent (18
and 19 Vict. c. 42, s. 1).
AFFINITY, in Xaw, as distinguished from consan-
guinity, is applied to the relation which each party to a
marriage, the husband and the wife, bears to the kindred
of the other. The marriage having made them one person,
the blood relations of each are held as related by affinity in
the same degree to the one spouse as by consanguinity to
the other. But the relation is only with the married parties
themselves, and does not bring those in affinity with them
in affinity with'each other; so a "wife's sister has no affinity
to her husband's brother. The subject is chiefly important
from the matrimonial prohibitions by which the canon law
has. restricted relations by affinity. Taking the table of
degrees within which marriage is prohibited on account of
consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended to affinity, so
that wherever relationship to a man himself would be a bar
to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife wiU be the
same bar, and vice versa on the husband's decease. This
rule has been founded chiefly on interpretations of the
eighteenta coapter o* Leviticus. Formerly by law in Enj<-
land, marriages within the degrees of affinity were not
absolutely null, but they were liable to be annulled by
ecclesiastical process during the lives of both parties; in
other words, the incapacity was only a canonical, not a civil,
disability. By an Act passed in 1835 (5 and 6 WilL
IV. c. 54), all marriages of this kind not disputed before
the passing of the Act are declared absolutely valid, while
all subsequent to it are declared null This renders null
in England, and not merely voidable, a marriage with a
deceased wife's sister or niece. The Act does not extend
to Scotland; but it was made quite clear by a leading
decision in 1861 (Fenton v. Livingston) that, as "the
degrees forbidden in consanpainity are also forbidden in
affinity," the marriage of a sister-in-law with a brother-in-
law is absolutely null in that country. Nor can a man
contract a marriage with his wife's sister so as to be valid
in Great Britain, by celebrating his marriage with her in a
country where such marriages are lawful (Brook v. Brook,
9 E. L. Cases, 193).
AFFINITY, Chemical, the property or relation m vinuo
of which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into
chemical combination with each other. Substances that
are so related combine always in fixed and definite propor-
tions ; the resulting compound differs from its comjwnents
in its physical properties, with the exception that its weight
is exactly the sum of their weights ; and the combination
is always accompanied with the evolution of heat In these
respects it differs from a mere mechanical mixture; in the
latter there is contact without combination, and its pro-
perties are a mean or average of those of the substances
that compose it. That effect may be given to chemical
affinity, the substances must be placed in contact; but
mere contact is often insufficient, and combination only
takes place on the application of heat, light, electric agency,
itc, or through the interposition of some foreign substance.
Generally speaking, the affinity is less between substances
that closely resemble each other than between those whose
properties are altogether dissimilar. The term elective
affinity, now generaUy disused, has been employed to indi-
cate the greater affiruty which a substance, when brought
into contact with other substances, often has for one in
preference to another. Advantage is frequently taken of
this greater affinity to decompose compound substances.
For a fuU treatment of chemical affinity »nd combination,
see Chemistky.
AFFIRM A.TION. See Affidavit.
AFFRE, Dbnis AtrotfSTE, Archbishop of Paris, was
born at St Rome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th
Sept. 1793. When fourteen years of age, having ex-
pressed his desire to enter the church, he became a.student
at the seminary of St Sulpice, of which his maternal uncle,
Denis Boyer, was director. His studies being completed
before he had reached the age necessary for ordination, he
was occupied for some time as professor of philosophy in
the seminary at Nantes. He was ordained a priest in 1818,
and held his first charge in connection with the church of
St Sulpice. After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices,
he was elevated to the Archbishopric of Paris in 1840.
His tenure of this office, though it was marked by great
zeal and faithfulness, will be chiefly remembered by its
tragic close. During the insurrection of 1848 the, arch-
bishop was led to believe that by his personal interference
peace might be restored between the soldiery and the
insurgents. He accordingly applied to General Cavaignac,
who warned him of the risk he incurred. " My life," the
archbishop answered, "is of little importance." Soon
afterwards, the firing having ceased at his request, he
appeared on the banicade at the entrance to the Faubourg St
^toine, uccompanied by M. Albert, of the national guard.
AFGHANISTAN
227
bearing a green branch as a sign of peace, and by Sellier,
an attached servant His reception was not very favour-
able, and he had spoken only a few words, when the insur-
gents, hearing some shots, and fancying they were betrayed,
opened fire upon the national guard, and the archbishop
fell He was removed to lus palace, where he died on the
27th June 1848. Next day the National Assembly issued
a decree expressing their great sorrow on account of his
death; and the public funeral on the 7th July was one of
the most striking spectacles of its kind. The archbishop
wrote several treatises of considerable value, including one
on Egyptian hieroglyphics.
AFGHANISTAN
THIS is the name applied, originally in Persian, to
that mountainous region between N.W. India and
Eastern Persia, of which the Afghans are the most nume-
rous and the predominant inhabitants. Afghans, under
that and other names, have played no small part in Asiatic
history. But the present extensive application of the
name Afghdnisidn is scarcely older than the shortlived
empire foimded by Ahmed Khan in the middle of last
century. The Afghans themselves are not in the habit of
using the term.
In treating of this country we include a part of the
IIaz3.ra mountain region, but not that part of the Oxus
basin which is now under Afghan rule, for which see
ApGHAN TuKKESTAif.
Afghanistan generally may be regarded as a great quad-
rilateral plateau, — using that term in the technical sense of
a region whose lowest tracts even are considerably elevated
above the sea-level, — extending from about 62" to 70° E.
long., and from 30° to 35° N. lat. This territory cor-
responds fairly to the aggregate of the ancient provinces of
Aria (Her6,t), Drangiana (SeistSn), the region of the
Paropamisadce (K§,bul), and Arachosia (Kandahir), with
Gandaritis (PeshAwar and Y<lz\ifzai). Though the last
territory belongs ethnically to Afghanistan, an important
part of it now forms the British district of Peshawar,
whilst the remainder acknowledges no master.
The boundaries of Afghanistan can be stated here only
roughly; and, from the area thus broadly defined, many
portions will have to be deducted as occupied by indepen-
dent or semi-independent tribes. But, so understood, they
niny be thus stated: —
On the north : beginning from east, the great range of
Hindu Kush, a western offshoot of the HimS,lya, parting
the Oxus basin from the Afghan basins of the Kabul river
and Helmand. From long. 68° this boundary continues
westward in the prolongation of Hindu Kush called Koh-i-
Babl This breaks into several almost parallel branches,
enclosing the valleys of the river of Herat and tne Murgh^b
or river of Merv. The half-independent Hazara tribes
stretch across these branches and down into the Oxus
basin, so that it is difficult here to assign a boundary. We
assume it to continue along the range called Safed Koh or
"White Mountain," which parts the Herat river vallev
from the Murghab.i
On the east : the eastern base of the spurs of the Suli-
m&ni and other mountains which limit the plains on the
west bank of Indus, and the lower valleys opening into
these, which plains (the " Derajit ") and lower valleys
belong to British India. North of Peshawar district the
boundary will be, for a space, the Indus, and then the limit,
l3dng in unknown country, between the Afghan and Dard
tribes.
On the south : the eastern part of the boundary, occu-
pied by practically independent tribes, Afghan and Bilttch,
is hard to define, having no marked natural indication.
But from the Shai territory (long. 67°), belonging to the
Bildch state of K kt, at, westward, the southern limits of
' Not to be confounded with the mora euterl; Sa/ed Koh of the
K&bol basiu.
the valleys of the Lora river, and then of the Helniand, as
far as the Lake of Seistan in lat. 30°, wiU complete the
southern boundary. Thus the whole breadth of BilflchKtan,
the ancient Gedrosia, a dry region occupying 5° o* lati-
tude, intervenes between Afghanistan and the sea.
The western boundary runs from the intersection of the
Lake of Seistan with lat. 30°, bending eastward, so as to
exclude a part of the plain of Seistan on the eastern bank
of the lake, and then crosses the lake to near the meridian
of 61°. Thence it runs nearly due north, near this meri-
dian, to a point on the Hari-Efld, or river of Herat, about
70 miles below that city, where it encounters the spurs of the
Safed Koh, which has been given as the northern boundary.
But if we take the limits of the entire Afghan, dominions,
as they at present exist, the western boundary will con-
tinue north along the Hari-RM to lat. 36°, and the northern
boundary will run from this point along the borders of the
Turkman desert, so as to include Andkhoi, to Khoja Salch
ferry on the Oxus. The Oxus, to its source in Great Pamir,
forms the rest of the northern boundary. These enlarged
limits would embrace the remainder of the Hazara mountain
tracts, and the whole of what is now called Afghan
TuRKESTAU, as well as Badakhshan with its denendencies,
now tributary to the Afghan Amir.
The extreme dimensions of Aighanistan, as at &tst
defined, will be about 600 miles from east to west, and
4.50 miles from north to south; and, if we take the whole
Afghan dominion, the extent from north to south will
be increased to 600 miles. Within both the areas so
defined, however, we have included some territory over
which the Afghan government has no control whatever,
and much over which its authority is respected only when
backed by a special exertion of force. Under the former
head come the valleys of the Yusufzai clan north of
Peshawar, the Momands, Afrldis, Vazlris, &c., adjoining
that district on the west and south-west, the high-lying
valleys of Chitral or Kashka.r, and of the independent
Pagans or Kafirs, among the loftier spurs of Hindu Kush.
Under the latter head come the eastern districts of Khost
and (partially) of Kurram, the Kakar country in the
extreme south-east, much of the country of the tribes called
Eima,k and Hazara in the north-west, and probably Badakh-
sh^n with its dependencies.
If we suppose the sea to rise 4000 feet above its existing
level, no part of the quadrilateral plateau that we have
defined would be covered, except portions of the lower
valley of the Kabul river, small tracts towards the Indus,
and a triangle, of which the apex should be at the Lake of
Seistan in the extreme south-west, and the base should
just include Herat and Kandahar, passing beyond those
cities to intersect the westerji and southern boundaries
respectively. Isolated points' and ridges within this tri-
angle would emerge.
Fiurther, let us suppose the sea to rise 7000 feet above
its existing level We should still have a tract emerging
so large that a straight line of 200 mdes could be drawn,'
from the Kflshan Pass of Hindu Kush; passing about 35
miles west of Kabul, to Ilangak on the road between Qhazni
and Kandahar, which nowhere should touch the submerged
1 portion. And wo believe it is certain that a line under
228
AFGHANISTAN
[nATUBAL DmSlOKB.
like conditions, but 250 miles in length, could bo drawn at
right angles to the former, passing about 25 miles south of
Ghazni. The greater part of this latter lino, however,
would lie in the Hazara country, in which wo have no
observations.
In the triangular tract that wgold bo submerged accord-
ing to our first supposition, the lowest level is the Lake of
Scistan, 1280 feet above tho sea. Herat is 2050; Kan-
dahar, 3430.
Tho Afghans themselves make a broad distinction between
Kabul, meaning thereby the whole ba.'rin of the Kabul river,
and tho rest of their country, excluding the former from the
largo and vague term Kiiorasan, under which they con-
sider tho rest to be comprehended. There is reason for
such a distinction in history as well as nature. For the
Kabul basin was in old times much moro intimately con-
nected with India,- and to tho beginning of tho 11th cen-
tury was regarded as Indian territory.
Natural Divisions. — Of these, this Kabul ba-sin (1)
forms the first. As others wo may discriminate — (2.) The
lofty central part of the table-land on which stand Ghazni
and Kala't-i-Ghilzai, embracing tho upper valleys of ancient
Arachosia ; (3.) Tho upper Helmand ba.'^in ; (4.) Tho lower
Eelmand ba.sin, embracing Girishk, Kandahar, and the
Afghan portion of Scistan; (5.) The b.i.sin of tho Herat
river; and (6.) Tho eastern part of tho table-land, draining
by streams, cliiefly occasional toiTents, towards the Indus.
Kabul Basin. — Its northern limit is tho range of Hindu
Kush, a name which projjL'rly applies to the lofty, snow-
clad crest due north of Kabul, and perhaps especially to
one pass and peak. But it has been conveniently extended
to the whole line of alpine watershed, stretching west-
ward from the southern end of Pamir, and represents tho
Caucasus of Alexander's historians. Its peaks throughout
probably rise to the region of perpetual snow, and even on
most of the passes beds of snow occur at all seasons, and,
on some, glaciers. We find no precise height stated for
any of its peaks, but the highest probably attain to at least
20,000 or 21,000 feet. The height of the Kushan Fass is
estimated by Lord at 15,000 feet.
The Kabul river (the ancient KopJtes) is the most im-
portant river of Afghanistan. It may bo considered as fully
formed about 30 miles east of Kabul, by the junction there-
abouts (tho confluence does not seem to have been fixed by
any traveller) of the following streams : — (a.) Tho Kabul
stream, rising in the Unai pass towards tho Helmapd, which,
after passing through the city, has been joined by the Logar
river flowing north from tho skirts of the Ghilzai plateau ;
(b.) A river bringing down from tho valleys Ghorband,
Parwdn, and Panjshir, a large part of the drainage of
Hindu Kush, and watering tho fniitful plain of D^man-i-
Koh (tho " Hill-skirt"), intersected by innumerable brooks,
and studded with vineyards, gardens, and fortalices. This
river was formerly called B6r&n, a name apparently obsolete,
but desirable to maintain ; (c. ) The river of Tagao, coming
down from the spurs of Hindu Kush on the Kafir borders.
Some 30 miles further cost, the Alishanrj enters on the
left bank, from Laghmin, above which this river and its
tonfluents drain western Kafijjistan. Twenty miles fur-
ther, and not far beyond Jalilibid, the Kabul river receives
from the same side a confluent entitled, as regards length,
to count as main stream. In some older maps this bears
tho name of Kama, from a place near the confluence, and
in more recent ones Kihier, from a district on its lower
course. Higher it is called tho river of Kaskhar, and the
Beilam. It seems to bo tho Choaspes, and perhaps the
Malamanius of the ancients.' It rises in a small lake near
the borders of Pamir, and flows in a south-west direction
through the length of Kashkar or Chitral, an independent
valley-slate, whose soil lies at a height of COOO to 11,000
feet, 'llie whole length of tho river to its confluence with
tho Kabul river cannot bo less than 250 miles, %.e., about
80 miles longer than that regarded aa the main stream,
measured to its most remote »ourc&
Tho basin of tho Kabul river is enclosed at the head by
tho Paghman range, an offshoot of Hindu Kush, which
divides the Kabul valleys from tho Helmand. Up the
hoad-wators of the stream that pas.ses Kabul, leads tho
chief road to Turkestan, crossing for a brief space into tho
Helmand ba.sin by the easy pass of Unai (11,320 feet), and
then over tho Koh-i-Baba, or western extension of Hindu
Kush, by the Hajjigak passes (12,190 and 12,480 feet), to
B!lmi.1n.
The most conspicuous southern limit of tho Kabul basin
is tho Safed Koh, Spin-gar of tho Afghans ("White Moun-
tain," not to be confounded with the western Safcd Koh
already named), an alpine chain, reaching, in its highest
summit, Sjta lUm, to a height of 15,622 feet, and the
eastern ramifications of which extend to the Indus at and
below Attok. Among the spurs of this range are those
formidable passes between Kabul and Jalalabad, in which
the disasters of 1841—42 culminated, as well as the famous
Khybar passes between Jalalabad and Peshawar. This
southern watershed formed by the Safed Koh is so much
nearer the Kabul river than that on tho north, that tho
tributaries from this side, though numerous, aro indi-
vidually insignificant
After flowing CO miles (in direct nJeasurementj eastward
from the Kuner confluence, the Kabul river issues from
the mountains which have hemmed it in, and enters the
plain of Peshfiwar, receiving, soon after, the combined
rivers of Swit {Soastus) and Panjkora (Gurceus), two of
tho great valleys of the YusufzaL This combined river is
called by the Afghans Landai Sin or Little river, in dis-
tinction from the Abba Sin or Indus, and tho name seems
often to adhere to the lower course of the Kabul river.
Both rivers on entering the plain ramify, in delta fashion,
into many natural channels, increased in number by arti-
ficial cuts for irrigation. Finally the river enters the
Indus immediately above the gorge at Attok.
Tho lowest ford on tho Kabul river is a bad one, near
Jalalabad, only passable in tho dry season. Below the
Kuner confluence the river is deep and copious, crossed by
ferries only, except at Naoshera, below PeshSwar, where
there is usually a bridge of boats. The rapid current is
unfavourable to navigation, but from Jalalabad downwards
the river can float boats of 50 tons, and is often descended
by rafts on blown skins. The whole course of the river,
measured by a five-mile opening of tho compasses, is aa
follows : — From source of Kabul stream in Unai pass to
Attok, 250 miles ; from source either of Logar or of Panj-
shir to the same, 290 miles ; from source of Kashkar river
tg tho same, 370 miles.
A marked natural division of the Kabul basin occurs
near Gand.imak, above Jalalabad, where a sudden descent
takes eff'ect from a minimum elevation of 5000 feet to one
of only 2000. The Emperor Baber says of this :— " The
moment you descend, you see quite another world. The
timber is difl'eront ; its grains aro of another sort ; its
animals are of a difl'eront species ; and tho manners and
customs of its inhabitants are of a different kind." Burnes,
on his first journey, left the wheat harvest in progress at
Jalalabad, and found tho crop at Gandamak, only 25 miles
distant, but 3 inches above ground. Here, in truth,
nature has planted the gates of India. The valleys of the
upper basin, though stUl in the height of summer affected
by a sun of fierce power, recall the climate and products of
the finest part of temperate Europe ; the regita below is a
chain of narrow, low, and hot plains, with climate and
vegetation of an Indian character.
RIVERS.J
A 1^" U 11 A ^' 1 S T A N
22;)
Accounts of Kabul strike us by apparent contradiction.
Some give scarcely any impression but that of extreme
ruggedness and desolation, awful defiles, and bare black
crags; others dwell on the abounding orchards, green
BWard, charming dells, and purling streams. Bnt both
aspects are characteristic. The higher spurs, both of Hindu
Kush and Safed Koh, are often clad with grand forests of
pine, oak, and other alpine trees, and resemble the wooded
ranges of Himalya. But the lower hills generally are
utterly woodless, and almost entirely naked. In the bot-
toms, often watered by clear and copious stTeams, we have
those beauties of verdure and fertility on which some
writers dwell, and which derive new charms from contrast
with the excessive sterility of the bilk that frame them.
We cannot speak at equal length of the other natural
divisions of Afghanistan, but some chief points will be
noticed with the rivers. In general the remainder of the
country, regarded by the Afghans as included in Khorasan,
exhibits neither the savage sublimity of the defiles of the
Kabul region, the alpiae forests of its higher ranges, nor
its nests of rich vegetation in the valleys, save in the
north-east part adjoining Safed Koh, where these characters
still adhere, and in some exceptional localities, such as the
valley of Herat, which is matchless in richness of cultiva-
tion. Generally the characteristics of this country are
elevated plateaux of sandy or gravelly surface, broken by
ranges of rocky hiUs, and often expanding in wide spaces
of arid waste, which terminate to the south-west in a regular
desert of shifting sand. Even in cultivated parts there is
a singular absence <3f trees, and when the crops aie not
visible this imparts an aspect of great desolation and
emptiness to the landscape. Natural wood, however, is
found in some parts of West Afghanistan, as in the almost
tropical delta of the Helmand, in the GhtiT territory, and
on the Herat river below Herat. Generally, indeed, in
such ca.ses the trees appear to be mimosas, tamarisks, and
the like, with little body of foliage.
Rivers. — -Next to the Kabul river in importance, and
probably much exceeding it in volume as it certainly does
in length, is ihsjielmand (EtyTnander), the only considerable
river in its latitude from the Tigris to the Indus. The
Helmand has its highest sources in the Koh-i-Baba and
Paghman hills, between Kabul and Bamian. Its succeed-
ing course is through the least known tract of Afghanistan,
chiefly occupied by Hazaras ; indeed, for a length of nearly
300 miles no European has seen the river. This unvisited
space terminates at Girishk, where the river is crossed by
the principal route from Herat to Kandahar. Till about
40 miles above Girishk the character of the Helmand is
said to be that of a mountain river, flowing between
^scarped rocks, and obstructed by enormous boulders. At
that point it enters on a flat country, and extends over a
gravelly bed. Here, also, it begins to be used in irrigation.
Forty-five miles below Girishk the Helmand receives its
greatest tjcibutary, the Arghand-ab, coming past Kandahar
from the high Ghilzai country. It here becomes a very
considerable river, said to have a width of 300 or 400
yards, and a depth of 9 to 12 feet. But this cannot be at
all seasons, as there are fords at long intervals as far down
aa Pdlalik, 100 miles from the mouth. The desert draws
near the left bank in the lower course, and for the last
150 miles the moving sands approach within IJ mile.
The vegetation on the banks is here of luxuriant tropical
character. The whole of the lower valley seems to have
been once the seat of a prosperous population, and there is
etill a good deal of cultivation for 100 miles below Girishk.
Even this, however, is much fallen off, and lower down
Btill mCSro So~ ovjjtig to disorders and excessive insecurity.
The cwirse or the rivcf is more or less south-west from
its source till in Seistan it approaches meridian G2°, when
it turns nearly north, and so flows on for 70 or 80 miles,
till it falls into the lake of Seistan by various moutha The
whole length of the river, measured as before, is about 615
miles. Terrier considers that it has water enough for navi-
gation-at all seasons, from Girishk downwards. At present
boats are rarely seen, and those in use are most clumsy ;
rafts are employed for crossing.
Arghand-db. — Of this tributary of the Helmand little is kno'^TO
except in its lower course. It rises in the Hazaracountry, N. W. of
Ghazni. It is said to bo shallow, and to run noorly dry in heigJit
of summer; but when its depth exceeds 3 feet its great rapidity
makes it a seiious obstacle to travellers. In its lower course it is
much used for irri;?ation, and the valley is cultivated and populous ;
yet the water is said to be somewhat brackish. Its course may be
reckoned about 235 miles.'
It is doubtful whether the ancient Arachoiits is to he identified
with the Arghand-ab or with its chief confluent the Tamak, which
joins it on the left about 30 miles S.W. of Kandahar.. The tivo
rivers run nearly parallel, inclosing the backbone of the Ghilzai
plateau. The Tamak is much the shorter (length about 197 miles)
and less copious. The rains at Ulin Kobdt, supposed to represent
the city Arachosia, are in its baain ; and the lake known as Ab-i-
Jst&da, the most probable representative of Lake Arachotus, is near
the head of the Tamak, though not communicating with it. The
Tamak is dammed for irrigation at intervals, and in the hot season
almost exhausted. There is a good deal of cultivation along the
river, hut few villages. The high road from Kabul to Kandahar
passes this way (another reason for supposing the Tamak to bo
Arachotus), and the people Uve off the road to eschew the onerous
duties of hospitality.
The Lora is the most southerly river of Afghanistan, and may bs^
regarded as belonging to the Helmand basin, though it is not known
that its waters ever reach that river. It rises near the Kand and
Joba peaks in a branch of the Sulimani, and flows nearly east, pass-
ing through the large valley of Pishin, but lying too deep for
irrigation. The river- has a course of nearly 200 miles, and con-
siderable breadth, but is never for a week together unfordable. In
the Shorawak district (long. 66°-66°) a good deal of irrigation Is
drawn from it. The river is said to terminate in a lake, on the verge
of the sandy desert.
Rivers belonging to the basin of Seistan and the Lower Helmand
are the Khash-Rud, the Farrah-Rud, and the Harut.
The KhAsh-TTtld rises in or near the southern slopes of Siah-Koh
(Black Moimtain), which forms the southern wall of the valley of
Herat, and flows south, in flood reaching the Lake of Seistan, hut
generally exhausted in irrigation. It is named from Ehash, a vil-
lage in the Seistan plain. In the dry season it is q^eiywhere
fordable, hut in floods caravans may be detained by it several days.
The Farrah river flows from the same quarter, and has the same
character in floods. It is a larger stream, and at Farrah is said to
have a width of 160 yards, with 2 feet of water, and a clear, swift
stream. In flood, Khanikotf was struck with the resemblance of
this river, rolling its yellow waves violently between steep banks of
clay, to the Cyrus at Tiflis.
The HariU rises in the mountains S. E. of Herat, and has a course
of about 245 miles to the Lake of Seistan. Canals from it supply
abundant irrigation to the plains of Sabzvar and Anardarah. The
river forms a true delta with fifteen branches, giving rise to marsh
and much vegetation, especially tamarisk, willow, and poplar. The
Harut receives in the plain a considerable affluent, the Khushkek
river.
It is possible that confusion of the name of this river with the
Ilari-Rud, or river of Herat, led to the long prevalent mistake that
the latter river flowed south into the geistan Lake — a mistake as
old as Ptolemy, if his AHa Lacus be (as it seems) that of Seistan.
The Eari-rid is formed by two chief confluents in the lofty
Hazara country, not far from the sources of the river of Balkh.
Its early course is, for more than 100 miles and as far as the village
of Jaor, westward, at a height of many thousand feet above the sea.
It then descends rapidly (it is said with cataracts), but continues ij>
the same direction, receiving numerous streams, to Obeh, where much
water begins to bo drawn off". Sixty -five miles further it flows p»at
Herat, 3 miles to the south of the city. Hereabouts the Kandahar ro«d
crosses the river by a masonry bridge of 26 arches. Near this fifteen
deep canals are drawn off. A few miles below Herat the river
bcgms to turn N.W. ; and after passing for many miles through
a woody tract, abounding in game, in which are Uie preserves of
the Herat princes, at the ancient and now nearly deserted town of
Kass.an, 70 miles from Herat, it turns due north. Though the
drainage brought down by this river must be large, so much ia
drawn off that, below Herat, reaches of it arc at times quite dry.
lielow Kassau it receives fresh supplies, and eventually the Meshed
stream. It flows on towards Sarakhs, and dwindles awayj but
accurate information regarding it is still wanting. The channel is
shown, in a map lately pubUshcd, aa passing Sarakhs for some 260
230
AFGHANISTAN
[towns/
milcq, and ending in a sv/amp adjoining tlio Damao-i-Koli, ou the
border of the Turkman doscrt.
Of the ri"ore tliat run towards tho Indus, south of tho Kabul
rivtT, tho chitf are tho Kurram end ilie Gomal.
The Kunam drains tho fcoutliirn flunk.i of Safod Koh. Tlio
middle valley of Kuri'.im, forming; ilio district so called, is highly
ffrigatod, veil peopled, and crowded with small fortified villages,
orciiards, and grove.s, to which a lino back^'round is alforded by tho
dark pine fores'.s and alpine snows of SafeJ Koh. T'uo beauty and
climate of tlio valley attracted some of tho Mogul enir.erors of iieliii,
aud tho r%muin8 exist of a garden of Shuh Jahan's. Tho river passes
the Ciitish frontier, p.nd enters tho plain country a few mileH above
llanu, sprcadinr into a wide bed of sand oad bouIJcrh, till it joins
tlic Indus uciT Isa-Khcl. after a course of more than 200 miles. Jiy
the Kurram vallej* is one o," tho best routes from huiia into .Afgha-
nistan. It was travelled by ilojor Lumstien's party iii lS57-5ti.
The Oomal, rising in tho Sulimani mountains, though in length
equal to tho Kurram, and draini:);!;, with its tributiriea, a much
Ui-gcr area, i.i littlo more than a winter torrent, diminisliing to a
nicie rivulit, tiU December, when it begins to swell. At its
( xit inte the pinin of tho Derajut a local chief threw a dam across its
char net ; and it is row only in veiy wet seasons th.tt its waters reach
the Indu.i, near Dcra Ismacl Kh.in. Not lonjj before Icai'ing the
bills it rcLeivtts from tho 3. W. a tributary, the Z.iuh, of nc.ii ly equal
length onJ s'iic, coming from tho vicinity of tho Kand aud Joba
(■eaka, in long. 08°.
Lakes. — As wo know nothing of tho hko in which tho
Lora is said to end, and the greater part of tho lake of
Seistan (seo that article) is cxchided from Afghani.';tan,
there remains only the Ab-i-Istada, on Ihi- Ohilzai plateau.
This Li about Co mile's S.S.W. of Ghazni, and stands at a
height cf about 7000 iett; in a site of most barren and
dreary aspect, with no treo or blado of grass, and hardly a
habitation in sight. It is about 44 milee in circuit, and
very shdiow; not more than I'i feet deep in the middle.
Tho chief feeder is the Ghazni river. Tho Afghans speak
of a stream draining tho lake, but this seems to bo an-
founded, and tlio saltness aud bitterness of tho lake is
against it. Fish entering tho salt water from tho Ghazni
river sicken and dio.
PR0vit:cE3 Aim Towns. — The chief political divisions
of Afghanistan in recent times are staled to bo Kabul,
Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat, and AfgiIjVN Tur-
kestan ^q.v.), to which are sometimes added the command
of the Ghi'zais and of the Hazaras. This list Ecems to omit
the tu-.ruly districts of the eastern table-land, such as
Kurram, Khost, &c. But wo must not look for the pre-
cision of European administration in such a case.
In addition to Kabitl, Ghazni, Kandahak, Herat,
described under those articles, there are not many places
in Afghanistan to be called towns. We notice the foUf"-
ing:—
Jcldldhild lies, at a height of 1946 feet, in a plain on
the south of tho Kabul river. It is by road 100 miles from
Kabid, and 91 from Peshawar. Between it and Peshav'-ar
intervene tho Khybar and other adjoining passes ; between
it and Kabul tho pisses of Jagdalak, Khi'rd-Kabtil, o:c.
Tho place has been visited by no imown European since
Sir O. I'ollock's expedition in 1842. As it then existed,
the town, though its walls had an extent of 2100 yards,
contained only 300 houses, and a permanent population of
2000. The walls formed an irregular quadrilateral in a
ruinous state, surrounded on .all sides by buildings, gardens,
tho remains cf tho ancient walls, &,c., affording cover to an
assailant. Tho town walb were destroyed by Pollock, biit
have probably been restored.
Tho higiily-cult'vated plain is, according to Wood, 25
miles in length by 3 or 4 mUes in breadth ; the central part
covered with villages, castle?, and gardens. It is abund-
antly watered.
Tho province under Jalalabad is about 80 nx'les in length
by 35 in width, and includes the large district of Laghman,
north of the Kabul river, as well as that on the south,
which is coded Nangnihar. • The former name, properly
Larcgh&n, the seat of tho ancient Lampogir. is absurdly
derived by tho Muhommedans from the patriarch Lamecli,
whoso tomb they profess to show ; the latter name is inter-
preted (in mixed Pushtu and iVrabic) to mean " nine rivers,''
an etymology supported by the numerous streams. Tho
word is, however, really a distortion of the ancient Indian
ilamo 2'a'jaraMra, borne by a city in this plain long before
Islam, and believed to liave been tho Nagara or Liouyso-
■f-olis of Ptolemy, ilany topes and other Buddhist traces
exist in the valley, but there are no tinruined buildings of
any moment Babor kid out fino gardens here; and his
grandson (Jaliluddln) Akbar built Jaklabad. Hindus
form a considerable part of the town populatio'i, and have
a large temple. Tho most notable point in the history of
Jalalabad is tho stout and famous defence made there, fiom
November 1841 till April 1842, by Six Robert Sale.
Islulif is a town in the Koh Daman, 20 miles N.N.W.
of Kabul, wiiich was stoniied and destroyed, 29th Sep-
tember 1842, by a force under General Jl'Caskill, to punish
tho towns-people for the mas.sacre of tho garrison atCharikar,
and for harbouring the murderei-s of Burnes. Tho pbco is
sirgularly pieturesc^ue and beautiful. The rude houses rise
in terrace over terrace on tJie mountain-side, forming a
pyramid, crowned by a shrine embosomed in a fino clump
of planes. The dell below, traversed by a clear rapid stream,
both sides of which are clothed wicll niieyards and orchards,
opens out to the great plain of the Daman-i-Koh, rich with
trees and cidtivation, and dotted with turrcted castles;
beyond these are rocky ridges, and over all the eteiiiaj
snows of Hindu Kiish. Nearly every householder has his
garden with a tower, to which the families repa'r in the
fruit season, closing their houses in the to'mi. The town
is estimated, with seven villa^s deoending on it, to contain
about 18,000 souls.
Churltdr (population 5000) lies about 20 miles north
of Istalif, at the north end of Koh Daman, and watered by
a canal from the Ghorband branch of tho Baran river.
Hereabouts must have been the Triodon, or meeting of tho
three roads from Bajtria, spoken ol by Strabo and Pliny.
Ic is still the acat of the customs levied on trade with
Turkestan, and al.'io of the governor of the Kohist-in or
hill country of Kcbul, P.nd is a place of considerable trade
with tho regions to the north. During the British occupa-
tion a political agent (Major Eldred Pottinger, famous in
the defence cf Herat) was posted here with a Gdrkha
corps tinder Captain Codrington and Lieutenant Haughton.
In the revolt of 1841, after severe fighting, they attempted
to make their way to Kabul, and a great part was cut off.
Pottinger, Haughton (with the loss of an arm), and one
sepoy only, reached the citythen ; though many were after-
wards recovered.
Kala'tr-i^Ghilzai has no town, but is a fortress of soma,
importance on the right bank of the Tarnak, on the road
between Ghazni and Kandahar, 89 miles from the latter, and
at a height of 5773 feet. The repulse of the Afghans in
1842 by a sepoy garrison under Captain Craigie, was one
of the most brilliant feats of that war.
Girishk is also a fortrather than a town, tho latter bemg
iusigrjficant. It is important for its position on the high
road between Kandahar and Herat, commanding the ordin-
ary passage and summer ford of the Helmand. It was held
by the British from 1839 till August 1842, but during the
latter nine months, amid gieat difficulties, by a native
garrison only, under p gallant Indian soldier, Balwant Singh.
FarraJi belongs to the Seistan basin, and stands on the
river that bears its name, and on one of tho main rentes from
Herat to Kandahar, 164 miles from the former, 236 miles
from the latter. The i^lace is enclosed by a huge earthen
rampart, crowned with towers, and surrounded by a wide
and deep ditch, which can be flooded, and with a covered
way. It has the form of a parallelogram, running north,
CLIMATE.]
AFGHANISTAN
231
and south, and only two gritcs. As a military position it
is of great importance, but it is excessively unhealthy.
Though the place would easily contain 4500 houses, there
were but 60 habitable when Ferrier was there in 1845, nor
was there much change for the better when Colonel Pclly
passed in 1858. Fairah is a place of groat antiquity;
certainly, it would sccni, the I'hra of Isidore of Charax (1st
century), and possibly Propluhasia, though thi:» is more
probably to be sought in the great ruins of Peshawarin,
farther south, ne.ir LAsh. According to Ferrier, who
alludes to " ancient chronicles and traditions," the city on
the prc.'icut site within the groat rampart was sacked by
the armies of Chiughiz, and the survivors transported to
another position, one hour further north, where there are
How many ruins and bricks of immense size (a yard square),
with cuneiform letters, showing that site again to be vastly
older than Chinghiz. The population came back to the
wiuthem site after the destruction of the media;val city by
Shah Abbas, and the city prospered again till its bloody
siugc by Nadir Shah. Since then, under constant attacks,
it has declined, and in 1837 the remaining population,
amounting to GOOO, was carried off to Kandahar. S"ch
are the vicissitudes of a city on this unhappy frontier.
Snbzvdr, the name of which is a corruption of old Persian,
/s/i/i!:ur, " horse-pastures," is another important strategic
l»)iut, D3 miles from Herat and 71 miles north of Farrah,
in similar decay to the latter. The present fort, which in
1845 contained a small bazar and 100 houses, must once
h.ivo bceu the citadel of a large city, now represented by
extensive suburbs, partly in ruins. Water is conducted from
the Harut by numerous canals, which also protect the
approaches.
Zai-ni is a town in the famous but little kuown country
of Ghur, tothe east of Herat, the cradle of a monarchy (the
Ohiirid djniasty) which supjilantod the Ohaznevidos, and
rilled over an exteusivo dominion, including all Afghanistan,
for several generations. Zand, according to Ferrier, was
the old capital of Ghur. Euins abound; the town itself is
Kiuall, and enclosed by a wall in decay. It lies in a pleasant
valley, through which fine streams wind, said to abound with
trout. The hills around are covered with trees, luxuriantly
festooned mth vines. The po[iulation in 1845 was about
1200, among whom Ferrier noticed (a remarkable circum-
stance) some Ghcberfamilics. Thebulk of the people are Sum
and Tiuint'inlf!, apparently both very old Persian tribes.
Climate. — The variety of cUmalc is immense, as might
bo expected. At Kabul, and over all the northern part of
the country to the descent at Gandam.ik, winter is rigorous,
but especially so on the high Arachosian plateau. In
Kabul the snow lies for two or three months; the people
seldom leave their houses, and sleep close to stoves. At
Ghazui the snow has been known to lie long beyond the
vernal equinox; the thermometer sinks to 10° and 15" be-
low zero (Fair.) ; and tradition relates the entire destruction
of the population of Ghazni by snow-storms more than once.
At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally
assume an Indian character, and the hot weather sometimes
briugs the fatal simfin. The summer heat is great every-
where in Afghanistan, but most of aU in the districts
bordering on the Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower
Holmand, and in Scistan. All over Kandahar province
the summer heat is intense, and the simum is not utdvnown.
The hot season throughout the "Khorasan" part of the
country is rendered more trying by frequent dust-storms and
fiery winds; whilst the bare rocky ridges that traverse the
country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it by night,
render the summer nights most oppressive. A* Girishk,
Ferrier records the thermometer in August to have reached
118°tol20' (Fahr.) in the shade. At Kabul the summer sun
has much of its Indian Dower. though the hoat is tempered
occasionally by breezes from'Hindu Kush, and the oighta
are usually cooL Baber says that, even in summer, one
could not sleep at Kabul "Without a sheepskin, but this
seems exaggerated. At Kandahar enow seldom falls on
the plains^r lower hills; when it does, it melts at once.
At Herat, though 800 feet lower than Kandahar, the
summer climate appears to be more temperate; and, in fact,
the climate altogether is one of the most agreeable in Asia,
In Jul}', Ferrier says he found the heat never to pass
98°, and rarely 91° to 93° (Fahr.) These are not low
figures, but must be compared with his register at Girishk,
just given. From May to September the wind blo*sfroni
the N W. with great violence, and this extends across the
country to Kandahar. The winter is tolerably mild; snow
melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie
long. Three yoare out of four at Herat it does not freeze
hard enough for the people to store ice; yet it was not
very far from Herat, and could not have been at a greatly
higher level (at Kafir Kala', near Kassan)" that, in 1750,
Ahmed Shah's army, retreating from Persia, is said to have
lost 18,000 men from cold in a single night.
The summer rains that accomp.auy the S.W. mons.oon in
India, beating along the southern slopes of the Himalya,
travel up the Kabul vaUey, at least to Laghman, though
they are more clearly felt in Bajaur and Paiijkora, under
the high spurs of the Hindu Kush, ar.d in the eastern
branches of Safed Koh. Kaiu also falls at this season at
the head of Kurram valley. South of this the Sulimani
mountains may be ' taken as the western limit of the
monsoon's action. It is quite unfelt in the rest of Afghan-
istan, in which, as in all the west of Asia, the winter raiua
are the most considerable. The spring rain, though less
copious, is more important to agriculture than the winter
rain, unless where the latter falls in the form of snow.
Speaking generally, the Afghanistan climate is a dry one.
The sun shines with splendour for three-fourths of the year,
and the nights are even more beautiful than the days.
Marked characteristics are the great differences of summer
and winter temperature and of day and night temperature,
as well as the extent to which change of climate can bo
attained by shght change of place. , As Baber again say.i
of Kabul, at one day's journey from it you may find a place
where snow never falls, and at two hours' journey, a plac/*
where snow almost never melts !
The Afghans vaunt the salubrity and charm of some
local climates, as of the Tobah hills above the Kakar country,
and of some of the high valleys of the Safed Koh.
The people have by no means that immunity from disease
which the bright dry character of the cUmate and the fine
physical aspect of a large proportion of them might lead ua
to expect. Intermittent and remittent fevers are very
prevalent; bowel complaints are common, and often fatal
in the autumn.- The universal custom of sleeping on the
house-top in summer promotes rheumatic and neuralgic
affections; and in the Koh Daman of Kabul, which the
natives regard as having the finest of cHmates, the mortality
from fever and bowel complaint, between July and October,
is great; the immoderate use of fruit predisposing to such
ailments. Stone is frequent; eye discr-se is very common, as
are liKinorrhoidal affections and .syphilitic diseases in repul-
sive forms. A peculiar skin disease of syphilitic origin
prevails at Kandahar, and native physicians there are said
by Bellow to admit that hardly one' person in twenty is free
from the taint in so le form.
Natural Productions — Mtnrrals. — Afghanistan is
believed to bo rich in minerals, but few are WTought Some
small quantity of geld is taken from the streams in Lagh-
man and the adjoining districts. Famous silver mines
wore formerly wrought near the head of the Panjshir
valley, in Hindu Kush. Iron of excellent quality ia pro-
232
AFGHANISTAN
[botany.
duccd in tLe (independent) territory of Bajaur, north-west
of Peshawar, from magnetic iron sand, and is exported.
Kabul 13 chiefly supplied from the Peraiflli (or FannflLi)
district, hetwccn the Upper Kurram and Goinal, where it
is said to be abundant Iron ore is most abundant near
the passes leading to Bamian, and in other parts of Hindu
Kush. Copper ore from vorious parts of Afghanistan haa
been seen, but it is nowhere worked.
Lead is found, cy., in Upper Eangash (Kurram district),
and in the Shinwari eounti7 (also among the branches of
Safed Koh), and in the Kakar country. There are reported
to be rich lead mines near Herat scarcely worked. Lead,
with antimony, is found near the Arghaud-ab, 32 miles
north-west of Kala't-i-Ghikai ; in the Wardak hills, 24
miles north of Ghazni ; in the Ghorhand valley, north of
Kabul ; and in the Afridi country, near our frontier.
Most of the lead used, however, comes from the Hazara
country, where the ore is described as being gathered on
the surface. An ancient mine of great extent and elabo-
rate character exi.sts at Feringal, in the Ghorband valley.
Antimony is obtained in considerable quantities at Shah-
M.aksud, about 30 miles north of Kandahar.
Silicate of zinc in nodiJar fragments comes from the
Zhob district of the Kakar country. It is chiefly used by
•utlcrs for poliihiug.
Sulphur is said to be found at Herat, dug from the soil
in small fragments, but the chief supply comes from the
Hazara country, and from Pirkisri, on the confines of
Seistan, where there would seem to bo a crater, or fuma-
role. Sal-ammoniac is brought from the same place.
Gypsum is found in large quantities in the plain of Kan-
dahar, being dug out in fragile coralline masses from near
the surface.
Coal (perhaps lignite) is said to be found In Zurmat
(between the Upper Kurram and the Gomal) and near
Ghazni.
Nitre abounds in the soil over all the south-west of
Afghanistan, and often affects the water of the kdrez. or
subterranean canals.
Vegetable Kingdom.' — The characteristic distnbution
of vegetation on the mountains of Afghanistan is worthy
'of attention. The great mass of it is confined to the main
ranges and their immediate offshoots, whilst on the more
distant and terminal prolongations it is almost entirely
absent ; in fact, these are naked rock and stone.
Take, for example, tie Safcd Koh. On the alpine rasge itself
imd its immediate branches, at s height of 6000 to 10,000 feet, we
have abundant groTvih of large forest trees, among which conifers
aro the most noble and promment, such as Ccdms Dcodara, Abies
exalsOf Pinus Jonqifolia^ P. Pinaster, P. Pinea {the edible pine),
and the larch. AVe have also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut,
wild peach, and almond. Growinjr under the shade of these are
Bcvenu varieties of rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, haw-
thorn, rhododendron, and a luxuriant herbage, among which the
niuunculas family is important for frequency and number of genera.
The lemon and vMA vine are also hero met with, but are more
common on the northern mountains. Tlie walnut and oak (ever-
green, hoUy-lcaved, and kermcs) descend to the secondary heights,
where they become mLxed with alder, ash, khinjak, Arhor-vitaf
juniper, with species of AsCraffalus, &c. Here also are Tndigofera
and dwarf hibumum.
Lower again, and down to 3000 feet, we have w*ild olive, species
of rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry, and Ziry-
jthus; and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, OiamcErops
humilia (which js applied to a variety of useful purpose.^), Bignoina
or trumpet flower, sisso, Saltadora pcrsica, verbena, acanthus,
varieties of OcsnercE.
The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, as
has been said, naked in aspect. Their scanty vegetation is almost
wholly herbal ; slirubs ore only occasional ; trees almost non-
existent. Labiate, composite, and umbelliferous plants are most
common Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher
ranges.
1 Chiefly from Beliew,
In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains
of Ibo '* Kborasan " table-lands, wo find leguminouj thorny plants
of the papilionaceous sub-order, such as camel-thom (Hcdysarum
Alhagx), Astragalus in eevcraJ varieties, spiny rest-harrow {Ononis
.ipitwsa), the fibrous roots of which often servo as a tooth-brush ;
plants of the sub-order ^fimotea, as the sensitive mimosa ; a plant of
iho Rno foraily, called by the natives lipdd ; the common worm-
wood ; also certain orchids, and several species of Sahola. Tlio
rue -and wormwood aro in general uso as domestic medicines — the
former for rheumatism and neuralgia ; the latter in fever, debility,
and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge. The lipad, owing to its
hca^'y nauseous odonr, is believed to keep off evil spirits. In soma
]>lacea, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the
rose bay (AVrium Oleander), called in Persian khar-zarah or ass-
bane, the wild laburnum, and various Indigo/erce.
In cultivated districts the chief trees seen ore muJl>err7, willow,
popKir, ashj and occasionally the plane ; but these are due to mau's
planting.
L'ncuiliixiled Products of Value. — One of the most important of
these is the gum-resin of Karthex assafatida, which grows abun-
dantly in the high and dry plcJns of AVestcm Afghanistan, espe-
cially between Kandahar and Herat The depot for it is Kandahar,
whence it finds its way to India, where it is much used as a condi-
ment. It is not 80 used in Afghanistan, but tho Seistan people
eat the green stalks of the plant preserved in brine. The collection
of the gum-resin is almost entirdv in the bonds of the Kakar dan
of Afghans.
In the highlands of Kabul edible rhuborb is an important local
luxurj-. The plants grow wild in the mountains. Tho bleached
rhubarb, which has a very delicate flavour, is altered by covering
tho young leaves, as they sprout from the soil, with loose stones or
an empty jar. Tho leaf-stalks are gathered by tho ncighbourin.i?
hill people, and carried down for sale. Bleached and unbleached
rhubarb are both largely oonsumed, both raw and cooked.
Tho walnut and edible pine-nut are both wild growths, which aro
exported.
Tho ianjU {Elaeapius orimialis), common on the banks of water-
courses, furnisher an edible fruit. An orchis found in tho moun-
tairs yields the dried tuber which allords the nutritious mucilage
called salep: a good deal of this goes to India
Pistacia khinjak affords a mastic 'I'ho fruit, mixed with its
resin, is used for food by the Achokzais in Southern Afghanistan.
Tho true pistachio is found only on the northern frontier ■ the nuts
arc imported from Badaklishan and Kunduz.
Musnrooms and other fungi ore largely used as food, especially
by tho Hindus of the towns, to whom they supply a substitute for
meat.
Manna, of at least two kinds, is sold in tho bazaars. One, called
turanjbin, appears to exude, in small round tears, from tlio camel-
thom, and also from the dwarf tamarisk ; the other, sir-kasht, in
large grains and irregular masses, or cakes, with bits of twig im-
bedded, is obtained from a tree which the natives call tiah eKoi
(black wood), thought by Beliew to be a Friixinus or Omus.
AcRicuLTtTRE. — In most parts of the country there are
two harvests, as generally in India. One of these, called
by the Afghans hahurak, or the spring crop, is sown in the
end of autumn, and reaped in summer. It consists of
wheat, barley, and a variety of lentils. The other, called
piizah or tirmdi, the autumnal, is sown in the end of
spring, and reaped in autumn. It consists of rice, varieties
of millet and sorghum, of maize, Phaseolus Mungo, tobacco,
beet, turnips, &c The loftier refrions have but one har-
vest
Wheat is the staple food over the greater part of the
country. Rice is largely distributed, but is most abundant
in Swat (independent), and best in Peshawar (British). It
is also the chief crop in Kurram. In much of the eastern
mountainous country bajra (Hotcus tpir.atus) is the chief
grain. Most English and Indian garden-stuffs are culti-
vated; turnips in some places very largely, as cattle food.
The growth of melons, water-melons, and other cucurbi-
taceous plants is reckoned very important, especiaUy near
towns; and this crop counts for a distinct harvest
Su^ar-cane is grown only in the rich plains; and though
cotton is grown in the wanner tracts most of the cotton
cloth is imported.
Madder is an important item of the spring crop in
Ghazni and Kandahar districts, and generally over the
west, and supplies tho Indian demand. It is said to be
very profitable, thoush it takes three years to mature
ZOOLOGY.]
AFGHANISTAN
233
Saffron is grown and exported. The castor-oil plant is
everywhere common, and furnishes most of the oil of the
country. Tobacco is grown very generally ; that of Kan-
dahar has much repute, and is exported to India and
Bokhara. Two crops of leaves are taken.
Lucerne and a trefoil called shaftal form important
fodder crops in the western parts of the country, and,
when irrigated, are said to aflord ten or eleven cuttings in
the season. The komal (Prangos pabularia) is abundant in
the hill country of Ghazni, and is said to extend through
the Hazara country to Herat. It is stored for winter
use, and forms an excellent fodder. Others are derived
from -the Holcus sarghum, and from two kinds of panick.
It is common to cut down the green wheat and barley
before the ear forms, for fodder, and the repetition of this,
with barley at least, is said not to injure the grain crop.
BeUew gives the following statement of the manner in which
the soil is sometimes worked in the Kandahar district : —
Barley is sown in November ; in March and April' it is
UwicQ cut for fodder ; in June the grain is reaped, the
ground is ploughed and manured, and sown with tobacco,
which yields two cuttings. The ground is then prepared
for carrots and turnips, which are gathered in November
or December.
Of great moment are the fruit crops. All European
fruits are produced profusely, in many varieties, and of
excellent quality. Fresh or preserved, they form a prin-
cipal food of a large class of the people, and the dry fruit
is largely exported. In the valleys of Kabul, mulberries
are dried, and packed in skins for winter use. This mul-
berry cake is often reduced to flour, and used as such,
forming in some valleys the main food of the people.
Grapes are grown very extensively, and the varieties
are very numerous. The vines are sometimes trained on
trellises, but most frequently over ridges of earth 8 or 10
feet high. The principal part of the garden lands in vil-
lages round Kandahar is vineyard, and the produce must
bo enormous.
Open canals are usual in the Kabul valley, and in
eastern Afghanistan generally ; but over all the western
parts of the country much use is made of the karez, which
is a subterranean aqueduct uniting the waters of several
springs, and conducting their combined volume to the
surface at a lower level Elphinstone had heard of such
couduits 36 miles in length.
Animal Kingdom. -^As regards vertebrate zoology,
Afghanistan lies on the frontier of three regions, viz., the
Eurasian, the Ethiopian (to which region Biluchestan
seems to belong), and the Indo-Malayan. Hence it natu-
rally partakes somewhat of the forms of each, but is in
the main Eurasian.
Mammals. — Monkeys are stated by Mr Bellew to exist in Yusuf-
z:u, and perhaps extend to some other districts north of the Kabul
river; but no speeics has been nametL
Fclidts. — F. catus^ F. chaics (both Eurasian); F. caracal (Eur.,
Ind., Ethiop.), about Kandahar; a small leopard, stated to he
found almost all over the country, perhaps rather the cheeta (F.
jiibalics, Ind. and Eth.) ; F. pardits, the common leopard (Eth.
and Ind.) The tiger is said to exist in the north-eastern hill
country, which is quasi-Indian.
Canidtc. — The jackal {C. aureus, Euras., Ind., Eth.) abounds on
the Uelmand and Argand-ah, and probably elsewhere. Wolves (C.
Bc-n^aU-nsis) are formidable in the wilder tracts, and assemble in
troops on the snow, destroying cattle, and soratftinics attacking
single horsemen. The hyana {U. striata, Africa to India) is com-
mon. These do not hunt in packs, but will sometimes singly
attack a bullock : they and the wolves make havoc among sheep.
A favourite feat of the boldest of the young men of southern
Afghanistan is to enter the hyicna's den, single-handed, muffle and
tie him. Thcro are wild dogs, according to Elphinstone and
Coaolly, The small Indiuu fox {Vulpcs Bcngatiiisis) is found;
also V. fiavcscens, common to India and Persia, the skin of which
Is much used as a fur.
ilttstdidis. — Species of Mungoose {Ucrpcstcs), species of otter,
1—0*
Mustela ermin^a, and two ferrets, one of them with 'tortoise-shell
marks, tamed by the Afghans to kect) down vermin ; a marten (M.
Jlavigula, Indian).
Bears are two : a black one, probably Vrsus torguatus; and one
of a dirty yellow, I/, Isabellinus, both Himalyan species.
Bumitiants. — Capra wgagrus and C. megaceros; a wild sheep
{Ovia ajdoceros or Vignei) ; Qazella suhgutturosa — these are often
netted in batches when they descend to drink at a stream; O.
dorcas, perhaps ; Ccrvus Wallichii, the Indian barasingha, and
probably some other Indian deer, in the north-eastern mountains.
The wild hog {Sua scrofa) is found on the Lower Helmand. Tho
wild ass, Gorkhar of Persia {Equus oiiagcr), is frequent on the sandy
tracts in the south-west. Neither elephant nor rhinoceros now
exists within many hundred miles of Afghanistan ; but there is
ample evidence that the latter was hunted in the Peshawar t)loin
down to the middle of the 16th century.
TaJpidct.-^X mole, probably T. EuropcEa; Sorex Indicus;
Frinaccus coUaris (Indian), and Fr. auritus (Eurasian).
Bats, believed to be Phyllorhimcs ciiuraccxis (Panjab species),
Scotopkilus Bella (W. India), V^sp. auritus and V, bzrbastcllus,
both found ft'om England to India.
Rodcniia. — A squirrel {Sciurus Syriacusf) ; Mus Indicus and if,
Gcrbellinus; a gerboa {ZHpus telum !) ; Alactaga Badriana ; Qer'bil-
lus Indicus, and G. crythrinus (Persian and Indian) ; Lagomys Nepal-
ensis, a central Asian species. A hare, probably L. rujicaudatus.
Birds. — The largest list of Afghan biids that we know of is given
by Captain Hutton in the J. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xvi. p. 775, seqg.;
but it is confessedly far from complete. Of 1 24 species in that hst,
95 are pronounced to be Eurasian, 17 Indian, 10 both Eurasian and
Indian, 1 {Turtur risorius) Eur., Ind., and Eth.; and 1 only,
Carpodac2iS {Bucanitcs) crassirostris, peculiar to the country.
Afghanistan appears to be, during the breeding season, the retreat
of a variety of Indian and some African (desert) forms, whilst in
winter the avifauna becomes overwhelmingly Eurasian.
Reptiles. — The following particulars are from Gray: — Lizards —
Fscudopus gracilis (Eur.), Argyrophis Horsjieldii, Salea Eorsjiddii^
Calotes Maria, C. versicolor, C. ■minor, C. Emma, Phrynoc£phalus
Tickdii — all Indian forms. A tortoise ( T. Horsjieldii) appears to he
peculiar to Kabul. There are apparently no salamanders or tailed
Amphibia. The frogs are partly Eurasian, partly Indian. And the
same, may be said of the fish • but they are as yet most imperfectly
known.
DoMEsnc Animals. — The camel is of a more robust
and compact breed than the tall beast used in India, and
is more carefully tended. The two-hum oed Bactrian camel
is sometimes seen, but is not a, native.
Horses form a staple export to India. The best of these,
however, are brought from Maimana and other places on
the Khorasan and Turkman frontier. The indigenous
horse is the ydOii, a stout, heavy-shouldered animal, of
about 14 hands high, used chiefly for burden, but also for
riding. It gets over incredible distances at an ambling
shuffle; but is imfit for fast work, and cannot stand exces-
sive heat. The breed of horses was improving much under
the Amir Dost Mahommed, who took much interest in it
Generally, colts are sold and worked too young.
The cows of Kandahar and Seistan give very large quan-
tities of milk. They seem to be of the humped variety, but
with the hump evanescent. Dairy produce is important
in Afghan diet, especially the pressed and dried curd
called krUC (an article and name oerhaps introduced by the
Mongols).
Thcro are two varieties of sheep, both having the fat tail
One bears a white fleece, the other a russet or black one.
Much of the white wool is exported to Persia, and now
largely to Europe by Bombay. Flocks of sheep are the
main wealth of the nomad population, and mutton is the
chief animal food of the nation. In autumn large numbers
are slaughtered, their carcases cut up, rubbed with salt,
and dried in tho sua The same b done with beef and
camel's flesh.
The goats, gencr.illy black or parti-coloured, seem to do
a degenerate variety of the shawl-goat.
The climate is found to be favourable to dog-breeding.
Pointers are bred in the Kohistan of Kabul and above
Jalalabad — largo, heavy, slow-hunting, but fine-nosed
and staunch ; very liko tho old double-nosed Spanish
pointer. There arc crcvhounds also, but inferior in speed
L — ^o
234
AFGHANISTAN
[trai
to second-rate English dogs. The khandi IB another
aportiug dog, most useful, but of complti breed. Ho U
often used for turning up quail and partridge to the
hawk.
Industrial PBODUcra — These are not important Silk
is produced in Kabul, Jalalabad, Kandahar, and Herat, and
chiefly consumed in domestic manufactures, though the
best qualities are carried to the Panjab and Bombay.
Excellent carpets — soft, brilliant, and durable in colour —
are made at Herat They are usually sold in India as
Persian. Excellent felts and a variety of woven goods
are made from the wool of the sheep, goat, and Bao-
trian camel A manufacture, of which there is now a con-
siderable export to the Paujab for the winter clothing of
our irregular troops, besides a large domestic use; is that
of the poslin, or eheep&kin poli.'ise. The long wool remains
on, and the skin is tanned yellow, with admirable softness
and suppleness. Pomegranate rind is a chief material in
the preparation.
Rosaries are extensively made at Kandahar from a soft
crystallised silicate of magnesia (chrj'solitc). The best arc
of a semi-transparent straw colour, like amber. They arc-
largely exported, e.specially to Jlccca.
Trade. — Practically, there are no navigable rivers in
Afghanistan, nor does there exist any wheeled carriage.
Hence goods are carried on beasts of burden, chie&y camek,
along roads which often lie through close and craggy
defiles, and narrow stony valleys among bare mountains,
or over waste plains. Though from time immemorial the
larger part of the products of India destined for western
Asia and Europe has been exported by sea, yet at one time
valuable caravans of these products, with the same destina-
tion, used to traverse these rugged Afghan roads.
The great trade routes are the following : —
1. From Periiia by Ifesh'hcd to Herat
2. From Bokhara by Merv to Herat.
3. From tho same quarter by KaraliL Balkh, and Khalm, to
KabuL
4. From the Panjab bv Peshawar and the Tatara or Abkhanab
Posses to Kabul
6. Fiom the Panjab by the Ghawaliri Pa-is towards Ghaznl
6. From SLnd by the Bolan Pass to Kandahar.
There is also a route from eastern Turkistan by Cliitral to Jala-
labad, or to Peshawar by Dlr; but it la doubtful how far there ia
any present trattio by it
Towards Sind the chief exports from or through
Afghanistan are wool, horses, silk, fruit, madder, and assa-
foetida. Tho stipio of local production exported from
Kandahar is dried fruit The horse trade in this direction
is chiefly carried on by the Syads of Pishin, Kakars, Eakh-
tiyaris, and Biluchis. The Syads also do, or did, dabble
largely in slave-dealing. The Hazaras furnished the largest
part of the victims.
Bumes's early anticipation of a large traffic in wool from
the regions west of the Indus has been amply verified, for
the trade has for many years been of growing importance;
and in 1871-72 2,000,000 D> were shipped from Karichi
Tho importation to Sind is chiefly in tho hands of Shikar-
p(ir merchants. Indeed, nearly all the trade from southern
Afghanistan is managed by Hindus. That between Mesh'hed,
Herat, and Kandahar is carried on by Persians, who bring
down silk, arms, turquoises, horses, carpets, (tc., and take
back wool, skins, and woollen fabrics
The chief imports by Peshawar from india mto Afghanis-
tan are cotton, woollen, and silk goods; from England,
coarse country cloths, sugar and indigo, Benares brocades,
gold thread and lace, scarves, leather, groceries, and drugs.
The exports are raw silk and silk fabrics of Bokhara, gold
and sHver wire (Russian), horses, ahnonds and raisins, ai^
fruits generally, furs (including dressed fox skins and
sheep skins), and bullion.
The trade with India waa thus estimated ia 1862 :
Elport* to India.
By Peshawar £156,613
Jiy Ghawalari Paaa
By Bolon Pass..
130,000
81,870
Iniporl* from
lodla.
£120,643
164,000
18,^92
£318,883
£303,fi3S
ToUla.
£277,186
2U4,000
60,762
£621,918
But this omits some passes, and the Bolan exports do not in-
clude the largo item of wool which enters Sind further south.
A rehc of the old times of Asiatic trade has come down
to our day in tho habits of tho class of Lohani Afghan
traders, commonly called Povitidalis, who spend their Uvea
in carrj-ing on trafijc between India, Khorasan, and Bok-
hara, by means of their strings of camels and ponies,
banded in large armed caravans, in order to restrict those
recurring exactions that w'ould render trade impoissible.
Bullying, fighting, evading, or bribing, they battle their way
{wico a year between Bokhara and tlie Indus. Their sum-
mer pastures are in tho highlands of Ghazni and Kala't-i-
Ghilzal In the autumn they descend the Sulimani passes.
At the Indus, in these days, they have to deposit all
weapons ; but once across that, they are in security. They
leave their famihes and their camels in the Panjab plains,
and take their goods by rail to all tha. Gangetic cities, or
by boat and steamer to Karachi and Bombay. Even in
Asam or in di.'itant Rangoon the Povindah is to be seen
pre-eminent by stature and by lofty air, not less than by
rough locks and filthy clothes. In March they rejoin
their families, and move up again to the Ghilzai highlands,
sending on caravans anew to Kabul, Bokhara, Kandahar,
and Herat, tho whole returning in time to accompany the
tribe down the passes in tho autumn. The Povindah trade
by all tho passes is now estimated to reach £1.600,000 in
value annually.
Inhabitants of Afghanistan. — These may first he
divided into Afghan and non-Afghan, of whom the AfgLau
people are predominant in numbers, power,,i.nd character.
The Afghans themselves do not recognise as entitled to
that name all to whom we give it. According to Bellow
they exclude certain large tribes, who seem, nevertheless,
to be essentially of tho same stock, speaking the same
language, observing the same' customs, and possessing the
same moral and physical characteristica These are recog-
nised as PalMns, but not as Afghans, and are all located
in the vicinity of the Sulimani mountains and their off-
shoots towards the east We do not attempt to name
them, because tho information on the subject seems con-
tradictorj'. There are tribes of somewhat similar charactef
elsewhere, such as tho Wardaks, to the south of Kabul;
and there are again some tribes, in contact with these and
with Afghan tribes, who speak the Afghan language, and
have many Afghan customs, but are different in aspect,
and seem not to be regarded as Pathan at all Such aij
♦he Tflris and JAjis of Kurram.
Of the Afghans proper there are about a dozen gref.t
clans, with numerous subdivisions. Of the great claco
the following are the most important: —
The DurrdnU, originally called Abdalis, received tha
former name from a famous clansman, Ahmed Shah. Their
country may be regarded as the whole of the south and
south-west of the Afghan plateau.
The GhUzais are the strongest of the Afghan clans, and
perhaps the bravest They were supreme in Afghanistan
in the beginning of last century, and for a time possessed
the throne of Ispahaa They occupy the high plateau
north of Kandahar, and extend, roughly speaking, east-
ward to the Sulimani mountains, and north to the Kabul
river (though in places passing these limits), and they
extend down the Kabul river to Jalalabad. On the British
INHABITANTS.]
AFGHANISTAN^
285
invasion the Ghilzais Bhowed a rooted Hostility to the
foreigner, and great fidelity to Dost Mahommed, though
of a rival clan. It is remarkable that the old Arab geo-
graphers of the 10th and 11th centuries place in the
GLilzai country a people called Khilijis, whom they call a
tribe of Turks, to which belonged a famous fauuly of
Dehli kings. The probability of the identity of Khilijis
and Ghilzaia is obvious, and the question touches others
regarding the origin of the Afghans, but it does not seein^
to have been gone into.
The Tusufzais occupy an extensive tract of hills and
valleys north ot Peshawar, including part of the Peshawar
plain. Except those within our Peshawar district, they
are independent; thev are noted even among Afghans for
their turbulence.
The Kakars, still retaining in great measure their inde-.
pendence, occupy a wide extent of elevated country in
the south-east of Afghanistan, amon^ the spurs of the
Toba and Sulimani mountains, bordering on the Biluch
tribes. But the region is stiU very imperfectly known.
Of the non-Afghan population associated with the Af-
ghans, the Tdjiks come first in importance and numbers.
They are intermingled with the Afghans over the country,
though their chief localities are in the west. They are
regarded as descendants of the original occupants of that
part of the country, of the old Iranian race; they call
themselves Par3iwfl,n, and speak a dialect of Persian.
They are a fine athletic people, generally fair in com-
plexion, and assimilate in aspect, in dress, and much in
manners to the Afghans. But they are never nomadic.
They are mostly agriculturists, whilst those in towns follow
mechanical trades and the like, a thing which the Afghan
never does. They are generally devoid of the turbulence
of the Afghans, whom they are content to regard as masters
or superiors, and lead a frugal, industrious life, without
aspiring to a share in the government of the country.
Many, however, become soldiers in the Amir's army, and
many enlist in our local Panjab regiments. They are zealous
Sunnis. The Tajiks of the Daman-i-Koh of Kabul are
said to be exceptional in turbulent and vindictive character.
The Kizilbdskes may be regarded as modern Persians,
but more strictly they are Persianised Turks, Hko the
present royal race and predominant class in Persia. They
speak pure Persian. Their immigration dates only from
the time of Nadir Shah (1737). They are chiefly to be
found in towns as merchants, physicians, scribes, petty
traders, (fee, and are justly looked on as the more educated
and superior class of the population. At Kabul they con-
stitute the bulk of the Amir's cavalry and artillery. Many
serve in Our -Indian regiments of irregular cavalry, and
bear a character for smartness and intelligence, as well as
good riding. They are Shlahs, and heretics in Afghan eyes.
It is to the industry of the Parsiwans and Kirilbashes
that the country is indebted for whatever wealth it pos-
sesses, but few of them ever attain a position which is not
in some degree subservient to the Afghan.
The Hazdras have their stronghold and proper home
in the wild mountainous country on the north-west of
Afghanistan proper, including those western extensions of
Hindu Kush, to which modern geographers have often
applied the ancient name of Paropamisus. In these their
habitations range generally from a height of 5000 feet to
10,000 feet above the sea.
The Hazaras generally have features of Mongol type,
often to a degree that we might call exaggerated, and
there can be no doubt that they are mainly descended
from fragments of Mongol tribes who came from the east
with the ^rmies of Chinghiz Khan and his family, though
other races may be represented among liio tribes called
Iloziraa. The Hazaras generally are said by Major Leech
to be called MoyliaU by the Ghilzais; and one tribe, ttill
bearing the specific name of Mongol, and speaking a
Mongol dialect, is found near the head waters of the
Murghab, and also further south on the skirts of the Ghur
mountains. But it is remarkable that the Hazaras generally
speak a purely Persian dialect. The Mongols of the host
of Chinghiz were divided into tomans (ten thousands) and
hazaras (thousands), and it is probably in this use of the
word that the origin of its present application is to be
sought. The oldest occurrence ot this application that M.
de KhanikofiF has met with is in a rescript of Ghazan
Blhan of Persia, regarding the security of roads in Khorasan
dated i.H. 694 (a.d. 1294-95).
Though the Hazaras pay tribute to the Afghan chiefs,
they never do so unless payment is enforced by arms. The
country which they occupy is very extensive, embracing
the upper valleys of the Arghand-ab and the Hehnand,
both sides of the main range of Hindu Kush, nearly as far
east as the longitude of Andar4b, the hill country of
Bamian, and that at the head waters of the Balkh river,
the Murghab, and the Hari-Rud; altogether an area of
something Hke 30,000 square miles. The Hazaras are
accused of very loose domestic morals, hke the ancient
Massagetae, and the charge seems to be credited, at least
of certain tribes. They make good powder, are good
shots, and, in spite of the nature of .their country, are good
riders, riding at speed down very steep declivities. They
are said to have a yodel like the Swiss. They are often
sold as slaves, and as such are prized. During the winter
many spread over Afghanistan, and even into the Panjab,
in search of work. Excepting near Ghazni, where they
hold some lands and villages; the position of the Hazaras
found in the proper Afghan country is a menial one. They
are Shiahs in religion, with the exception of one fine tribe
called the Zeidnat Hazaras, occupying the old territory of
Badghls, north of Herat.
Eimdk is a term for a sept or section of a tribe. It has
come to be applied, much as hazara, to certain nomadic
or semi-nomadic tribes west of the Hazaras of whom we
have been speaking, and immediately north of Herat.
These tribes, it is said, were originally termed " the four
Eimaks." It is- difficult in the present state of information
regarding them, sometimes contradictory, to discern what is
the broad distinction between the Eimaks and the Hazaras,
unless it be that the Eimaks are predominantly of Iranian or
quasi-Iranian blood, the Hazaras Turanian. The Eimaks
are also Sunnis. Part of them are subject to Persia.
.ffinrfiis.— This is the name given to people of Hindu
descent scattered over Afghanistan. Th»y are said to ba
of the Kshatri or military caste. They are occupied in
trade ; they are found in most of the large villages, and in
the towns form an important part of the population, doing
all the banking business of the country, and holding its
chief trade in their hands. They pay a high poll-tax, and
are denied many privileges, but thrive notwithstanding.
The Jats of Afghanistan doubtless belong to the same
vast race as the Jats and Jiits who form so large a part of
the population of the territories now governed from Lahore
and Karachi, and whose origin is so obscure. They are a
fine athletic, dark, handsome race, considerable in numbers,
but poor, and usually gaining a livelihood as farm-ser-
vants, barbers, sweepers, muaiciana, <fec.
BMchis. — Many of these squat among the abandoned
tracts on the lower Hehnand; a fierce* ond savage people,
professing Islam, but not observing ite precepts, and hold-
ing the grossest superstitions ; vendetta their most stringent
law; insensible to privation, and singularly tolerant of
heat ; camel-liko in capacity to do without drink ; superior
to the Afghans in daring and address, which are displayed
in robber raids carried into the very heart of Persia.
S3fi
AFGHANISTAN
[inhabitants.
There remain a vancty of tribes in the liill country
north of the Kabul river, speaking various languages,
eoemingly of Prakritic character, and knou-n as Kohistanis,
I/Sghmanis, Pashais, &c ; apparently converted remnai)ts
of the aboriginal tribes of the Kabul baain, and more or
loas kindred to the still unconverted tribes of Kafiristan, to
the Chitral people, and perhaps to the Dard tribes who lie
to the north of the Afghan country on the Indus.
An able officer of the staff in India (CoL Macgregor) has
lately made a diligent attempt to estimate the population
of Afghanistan, which he bring to 4,901,000 souls. This
includes the estimated population of Afghan Turkestan, the
people of Chitral, the Kafirs, and the indeoendcnt Yusufzais.
We shall deduct the three first —
4.901,000
AfRhan Turkestan 342,000
CUitralis and Kafirs 160.000
792.000
which may be thus roughly oividcd —
Eimaks and Ilazaras
Tajiks
KizUbaahcA
Uindkis and Jats
Kohistanis. &c
Afghans and Path ana, including 400.000 in-
dq>cndont Yusufzais, &c
Totol..
4,109.000
400,000
600,000
150,000
600.000
200,000
2.359,000
4.109.000
The Afghans, in government and general manners, have
a likeness to other Mahommedan nations; but they have
also many peculiarities.
Besides their division into cians and tribes, the whole
Afghan people may be divided into dwellers in tents and
dwellers in houses; and this division is apparently not
coincident with tribal divisions, for of several of the great
clans, at least a part is nomad and a part settled. Such,
e.g., isthe case with the Durrani and with the Ghilzai.
Nomad Afghans exist in the Kabul basin, but their
proper field is that part of their territory which the Afghans
include in Khorasan, with its wide plains. These people
subsist on the produce of thoir flocks, and rarely cultivate.
They may, perhaps, pay something to the Kabul govcrn-
Eaent through their chief, and they contribute soldiers to
the regular army, besides forming the bulk of the militia;
but they have little relation to the government, and seldom
enter towns unless to sell their produce. They are under
some indefinite control by their chiefs, to whom serious
disputes are referred. Petty matters are settled by the
"greybeards" o^the community, guided by the Afghan
traditional code. Many of the nomad tribes are professed
and incorrigible thieves. Among certain tribes the cere-
mony of naming a m.ale child is accompanied by the sym-
bolical act of passing him through a hole made in the wall
of a house, whilst a volley of musketry is fired overhead.'
The settled Afghans form the village communities, and
in part the population of the few tomis. Their chief
occupation is with the soiL They form the core of the
nation and the main part of the army. Nearly all own
the land on which they live, and which they cultivate with
their own hands «t by hired labour. Roundly speaking,
agriculture and soldiering are their sole occupations. No
Afghan will pursue a handicraft or keep a shop, though,
as we have seen, certain pastoral tribes engage largely in
travelling trade and transport of goods.
As a race, the Afghans are very handsome and athletic,
often with fair complexion and flowing beard, generally
black or brown, sometimes, though rarely, red; the features
* Of one trihe at least, of which this is told, the Afghan blood it
highly aquiline. The hair is shaved off from the forehcail
to the top of the head, the remainder at the sides being
allowed to fall in large curls over the shoulders. Their
step is full of resolution ; their bearing proud and apt to
be rough.
The women have handsome features of Jewish cast (the
last trait often true also of the mep); fair complczions,
sometimes rosy, though usually a pale sallow ; hair braided
and plaited behind in two long tresses terminating in silken
tassels. They are rigidly secluded, but intrigue is frequent.
In some parts of the country the engaged lover is admitted
to visits of courtship, analogous to old Welsh customs.
The Afghans, inured to bloodshed from childhood, are
familiar with death, and are audacious in attack, but easily
discouraged by failure; eicessively turbulent and unsub-
missive to law or discipline; apparently frank and afTable
in manner, especially when they hope to gain some object,
but capable of the ^osscst brutality when that hope ceases.
They are unscrupulous in perjury, treacherous, vain, and in-
satiable, passionate in vindictiveness, which they will satisfy
at the cost of their own lives and in the most cruel manner.
Nowhere is crime committed on such trifling grounds, or
with such general impunity, though when it is punished the
punishment is atrocious. Among themselves the Afghans
are quarrelsome, intriguing, and distrustful ; estrangements
and afi'rays are of constant occurrence; the traveller con-
ceals and misrepresents the time and direction of his
journey. The Afghan is by breed and nature a bird of
prey. If from habit and tradition he respects a stranger
within his threshold, he yet considers it legitimate to warn
a neighbour of the prey that is afoot, or even to overtake
and plunder his guest after he has quitted his roof. The
repression of crime and the demand of taxation he regards
alike as t}Tanny. The Afghans are eternally boasting of
their lineage, their independence, and their prowess. They
loot on the Afghans as the first of nation.s, and each man
looks on himself as the equal of any Afghan, if not as tlio
superior of aU others. Yet when they hear of some atro-
cious deed they will exclaim — "An Afghan job that !" Tlicy
are capable of enduring great privation, but when abund-
ance comes their powers of eating astonish an European.
StUl, sobriety and hardiness characterise the bulk of the
people, though the higher classes are too often stained with
deep and degrading debauchery.
The first impression made by the Afghans is favonrable.
The European, especially if he come from India, is charmed
by their apparently frank, open-hearted, hospitable, and
manly manners; but the charm is not of long duration, and
he finds that under this frank demeanour there is craft as
inveterate, if not as accomplished, as in any Hindu.
Such is the character of the Afghans as drawn by Ferrier
and other recent writers, and undoubtedly founded on their
experience, though perhaps the dark colour is laid on too
universally. The impression is very different from that
left by the accounts of Elphinstone and Bumes. Yet most
of the indiridual features can be traced in Elphinstone,
though drawn certainly under less temptation to look on
the darker side, owing to the favourable circumstances of
his intercourse with the Afghans, and touched with a more
delicate and friendly hand, perhaps lightened by wider
sympathies. Sir H. Edwardes, who had intimate dealings
with the Afghans for many years, takes special exception
to Elphinstone's high estimate of their character, and
appeals to the experience of every officer who had served
in the country. " Nothing," he sums up, " is finer than
their physique, or worse than their morale'
Many thmgs in Afghan character point to a nation ia
decadence — the frank manners and joyous temper, the
hospitable traditions, the martial and independent spirit,
tha love of field sports, the nobility of aspect, suggest e
INST1TDTI0N8.]
AFGHANISTAN
2iJ7
time when these were more tnan superficial and deceptive
indications of character, and were not marred by greed and
treacherous cruelty.
Political iNSTiTUTiONS.^The political institutions of
the Afghans present the rude and disjointed materials of a
free constitution. The nation is theoretically divided into
four great stocks, supposed to spring from four brothers.
But these four divisions are practically obsolete, and only
come up in genealogies. Each tribe has split into several
branches, and in the more numerous and scattered tribes
these branches have separated, and each has its own chief.
They retain, however, the common name, and an idea of
community in blood and interests.
The type of the Afghan institutions is perhaps best seen
in some of the independent tribes near the British frontier.
These cling most closely to the democratic traditions.
Their rude state of society is held together by a code as
rode, which is acknowledged, however, and understood by
every one, and enforced by the community, every member
of which considers its infringement as an act committed
against his own privileges. The Malihs or chiefs are the
representatives of the -tribe, division, or family to which
they each belong, but they possess no independent power
of action, and before they can speak in council, they must
have collected the wishes of the bodies which they represent.
The men of the section (Jcandi) of a village, having come
to a decision, send their representative to a council of the
whole village, and these again to that of the sept (khail),
and the appointed chiefs of the septs finally assemble as
the council of the ulus or tribe. These meetings, in all their
stages, are apt to be stormy. If persuasion and argument
fail to produce unanimity, no further steps can be taken,
unless one party be much the weaker, when sometimes the
stronger side will forcibly extort assent. When once a
council has decided, implicit compliance is incumbent on
the tribe under heavy penalties, and the maliks have the
power of enforcing these.
Justice is administered in the towns, more or less defect-
ively, according to Mahommedan law, by a k^zi and muftis.
But the unwritten code by which Afghan communities in
their t3^ical state are guided, and the maxims of which
penetrate the whole naKon, is the PuklUunwali, or usage
of. the Pathans, a rude system of customary law, founded
on principles such as one might suppose to have prevailed
before the institution of civil government.'
A prominent law in this code is that called h anawaiai,
or "entering in." By this law the Pathan is bound to
grant any boon claimed by the person who passes his
threshold and invokes its sanctions, even at the sacrifice of
his own Ufe and property. So also the Pathan is bound
to feed and shelter any traveller claiming hospitality. Re-
taliation must be exacted by the Pathan for every injury
or insult, and for the life of a kinsman. If immediate
opportunity fail, a man will dodge his foe for years, with
the cruel purpose ever uppermost, using every treacherous
artifice to entrap him. To omit such obligations, above all
the vendetta, exposes the Pathan to scorn. The injuries of
one generation may be avenged in the next, or even by
remoter posterity. The relatives of a murdered man may,
however, before the tribal council, accept a blood-price.
Crimes punished by the Pathan code are such as murder
without cause, refusal to go to battle, contravention of the
decision of a tribal council, adultery.
The Afghans are Maliommedans of the Sunni or ortho-
dox body, with the exception of a few tribes, perhaps not
truly Pathan, who are Shiahs. They are much under the
influence of their Mullahs, especially for evil; and have a
stronger feeling against the Shiah heretic than againsA the
' Elphinstone.
unbeHever; their aversion to the Persians bwng aggravated
thereby. But to those of another faith they are more
tolerant than most Mahoinmedans, unless when creed be-
coinea a war-cry. 'They are very superstitious in regard to
charms, omens, astrology, and so- forth; and greatly ad-
dicted to the worship of local saints, whose shrines (zi^drat)
Sire found on every hill-top. The shrine, a domed tomb, or
mayhap a heap of stones within a wall, sometimes marks
the saint's grave, but is often a cenotaph. The saint may
have been unknown in life for his virtues, but becomes
after death an object of veneration, for reasons often hard
to disceriL In the immediate environs of Ghazni there are
no less than 197 of these shrines.
A very marked feature in Afghan character is the pas-
sionate love of field sports, especially hawking. Deer-
stalking in the open plains, the driving of game to well-
known points by a host of beaters, and wild-fowl shooting
with decoys, are others of their sports. They are capital
horsemen, and rmerring marksmen with the native rifle
(jezail).
Among themselves the people are convivial and humorous.
Festive gatherings are frequent, where they come together,
not to buy or sell, or even to quarrel,, but to make a noise
and be happy Tilting, shooting, racing, and wild music
vary the amusements.
They have a wild dance called the dtan, in which the
men work themselves into great excitement. " Among some
Kakar tribes it is said^the atan is sometimes danced by
both sexes together.
GovEKioiENT. — Afghanistan 18 now, and has been be-
fore, under one prince, but it is hardly a monarchy as we
are used to understand the term. It is rather the govern-
ment of a dictator for life over a military aristocracy, and
within this a congeries of small democracies. Elphinstone
compares it with Scotiand in the middle ages; some
things suggest a comparison with Poland, in spite of differ-
ence of physical geography; but in neither was there the
democratic constitution of the Afghan ■utus. The sirdars
govern in their respective districts, each after his own
fashion; jealous, ambitious, turbulen.t, the sovereign can
restrain them only by their divisions. ' there is no unity
nor permanence; everything depends on the pleasure of a
number of chiefs bound by no law, always at variance,
and always ready to revolt when they have the slightest
interest in doing so — almost always ready to plunge into
strife with a wild delight in it for its own sake. In war,
as in peace, chiefs and soldiers are ready to pass from one
service to another without scruple. It is a matter of
speculation, and no disgrace.
The spirit of Afghan character and institutions was
tersely expressed by an old man to Elphinstone, who had
urged the advantages of quiet and security under a strong
king : " We are content with discord, we are content with
alarms, we are content with blood ; but we -wiiX never be
content with a master."
Revenues. — The revenues of Dost Mahommed Khan
were estimated in 1857 at 4,000,000 rupees, or about
X400,000. This included Afghan Turkestan, but not
Herat, which he did not hold. The Herat revenue wts
estimated some years before (probably too low) at X80,000.
In the later years of Dost Mahommed the net revenue is
stated to have amounted to £710,000, of which the army
cost £430,000.1 Information on this subject is very im-
perfect, and not always consistent There seems to bo a
tax on the produce of the soil, both in kind and in money,
and a special tax on garden ground. A house-tax of
about 5 rupees is paid by all who are not Pathans. i The
latter pay a much lighter tax under another name; and
> See Edin. Review, July 1873, p. 273.
238
AFGHANISTAN
[ntSTORY.
Ihe Iluidns pay the separate poll-tax (jazft/a). Taxes are
|.aid on horses, ic, keyt and on the sale of animals in
tho public market.
The aggregate of taxation is not groat, but the emaUost
exaction seems a tyrannical violence to an Afghan. Nor
does payment guarantee tho cultivator from further squeez-
ing. In many ])arts of the country collections are only
inado spasmodically by military force. The people are let
alone for years, till need and op[X)i-tunity arise, when a
force is marched in, and arrears extorted.
Customs dues at Kabul and Kandahar are only 2i per
cent, nominally, but this is increased a good deal by
exactiona There is a considerable tax on horses ex-
ported for sale, and a toll on beasts of burden exporting
merchandise, from 6 rupees on a loaded camel to 1 rupee
on a donkey.
Military Foece. — According to the old system the
Afghan forces were entirely composed of tho ulus, or
tribesmen of tho chiefs, who were supposed to hold their
lands on a condition of service, but who, as frequently as
not, went over to the enemy in the dtiy of need. As a
counterpoise, tho Lite Amir Dost Mahommed began to
form a regular army. In 1858 this contained IG infantry
regiments of (nominally) 800 men, 3 of cavali-y of 300
men, and about 80 field-pieces, besides a few heavy guns.
The pay was bad, and extremely irregular, and punish-
ments were severe. The men were fine, but recruited in
the worst manner, viz., the arbitraiy and forcible seizure
of able-bodied men. There were also Jezailcid (riflemen),
irregulars, some in tho Ainii-'s pay, others levies of the local
chiefs ; and a considerable number of irregular cavalry. We
have failed to obtain recent data on this subject
Language and Liteeattjre. — Persian is the vernacular
of a large part of the non-Afghan population, and is fami-
liar to all educated Afghans. But the proper language of
the Afghans is Fws/idl, or I'ukhtu (these are dialectic
variations). Currency has been given to the notion that
this language has a Semitic character, but this appears to
be quite erroneous, and is entirely rejected by competent
authorities, tho majority of whom class Pushtu positively
as an Arj-an or Indo-Persian language. The Pushtu
vocabulary preserves a number of ancient forms and con-
nections with words that remain isolated in other Ar}-an
languages. Interesting illustrations of this and other
points connected with Pushtu will bo found in a paper by
Isidor Lowenthal in the J. of the As. Soc. of Bengal, vol
zxix.
Pushtu does not seem to bo spoken in Herat, or (roughly
speaking) west of the Helmand.
There is a respectable amount of Afghan literature.
The oldest work in Pushtu as yet mentioned is a history
of tho conquest of Swat by Shaikh Mali, a chief of the
Vusufzais, and leader in the conquest (a.d. 1413-24).
In 1494 ^Kijil Khan became chief of the same clan;
during his rule Buner and Panjkora were completely con-
quered, and he ^\Tote a history of the events. But these
works have not been met with. In the reign of Akbar, .
Bayazld Ansari, called P!r-i-Roshan, " The Saint of Light,"
the founder of an heretical sect, wrote in Pushtu ; as did
his chief antagonist, a famous Afghan saint called Akhund
Darweza.
The literature is richest in poetry. AbdarrahmSn (17th
century) is the best known poet. Another very popular
poet is Khushai Khan, tho warlike chief of the Khattaks
in the time of Aurangzlb. Many other members of his
family were poets also. - Ahmed Shah, tho founder of tho
monarchy, likewise wrote poetry. Ballads are numerous.
History. — The Afghan chroniclers call their people
Bani-Israil (Arab, for Children of Israel), and claim descent
from KLnc Saul (whom they call by the Mahommedan cor-
nijjtion TuliU) through a son whom they ascribe to him,
called Jeremiah, who again had a son called Afghuna.
.The numerous stock of Afghana were removed by Nebu-
chadnezzar, and found their way to the mountains of Ghur
and Feroza (cost and north of Herat). Only nine years
after Mahommed's announcement of his mission they heard
ot the new prophet, and sent to Medina a deputation
headed by a wise and holy man called Kais, to make
inquiry. The deputation became zealous converts, and on
their return converted their countrymen. From Kais and
his 4hrco sons the whole of the genuine Afghans claim
descent.
This story is repeated in groat and varying detail in
sundry books by Afghans, the oldest of which appears to
bo of the IGth century ; nor do wo know that any trace of
the legend is found of older date. In the version given
by Major Kaverty (Introd. to Afylian Grammar), Afghanah
is settled by King Solomon himself in the Sulimaiii moun-
tains; there is nothing about Nebuchadnezzar or Ghur.
The historian Firishta says ho had read that the Afghans
were descended from Copts of the race of PharaoL And
one of tho Afghan histories, quoted by Mr Bellow, relates
" a current tradition " that previous to the time of Kais,
Bilo the father of the Biluchis, Uzbak (evidently the father
of the Uzbegs), and Afghana were considered as brethren.
As Mahommed Uzbeg Khan, the eponyrnus of the medley
of Tartar tribes called Uzbegs, reigned in the 14th century
A.D., this gives some possible light on tho value of these
so-called traditions.
We have analogous stories in the literature of almost all
nations that derive their religion- or their civilisation from
a foreign source. To say nothing of the farce of the Book
of Mormon, there is in our own age and in our own country
a considerable number of persons who seriously hold and
propagate the doctrine that ihp EngUsh people are dcsccndc-d
from the tribes of Israel, and the Literature of this whimsi-
cal theory would fill a much larger shelf than the Afghan
histories. But the Hebrew ancestry of the Afghans is more
worthy at least of consideration, for a respectable number
of intelligent ofiicers, well acquainted with the Afghans,
have been strong in their belief of it ; and though the
customs alleged in proof will not bear the stress laid on
them, undoubtedly a prevailing type of the Afghan physi-
ognomy has a character strongly Jewish. This characteristic
is certainly a remarkable one ; but it is shared, to a
considerable extent, by the Ka-shmiris (a circumstance
which led Bernier to speculate on tho Kashmiris represent-
ing the lost tribes of Israel), and, we believe, by the Tajik
people of Badakhshan.
In the time of Darius Hystaspos (B.C. 500) we find the region
now called Afghanistan embraced in the Acn»meniaii satrapies,
and various paits of it occupied by Saranqiavs <in Seistan), ArioJu
(in Herat), Satiagydinns (supposed in highlands of ujtpcr HelnianJ
and the plateau of Ohazni), DadxoR (suggested to be Tajiks),
Aparytm (mountaineers, jwrhaps of Safed Koh, where lay the
ParyctcE of Ptolemy), Oandarii (in Lower Kabul basin), and' Pak-
tycs, on or near the Indus. In the last name it hfis been plausilly
suggested that we have the Pukhtun, as the eastern Afghans pro-
nounce their name. Indeed, Puskt, PaslU, or Pakht, would secra
to be the oldest nome of the country of the Afghans in their tiadi-
tions.
Alexander's march led him to Artaecana (Herat?), the capital of
Aria, and thence to the country of the ZnTaiifja (Seistan), to that
of th^ Euergdce, upon the Etymandcr (Helmand river), toAradwsia,
thence to the jvaians dwelling among snows in a barren country,
probably the highlands between Ghazoi and Kabul.* Thence he
marched to the toot of Caucasus, and spent the winter among the
Paropamisada, founding a city, Alexandria, supposed to be
Hupian, near Charikar. On his return from Bactria he prosecuted
hia march to India by the north side of the Kabul river.
The Ariami of Strabo corresponds generally with the existing
dominions of Kabul, but overpasses their limits on the west and
south.
About CIO B.C. Seleueus is said by Strabo to have given to the
Indian Sandrocoltus ((Thandrngupta), in consequence of a marriage-
HISTORY.]
AFGHANISTAN
239
contract, Some part of the country west of the Indus, occupied by
an Indian popnlation, and no doubt embracing a part of the Kabul
basin. Some 60 years kter occurred the establishment of an inde-
pendent Greek dynasty in Bactria. Of the details of their history
and ^extent of their dominion in different reigns we know almost
nothing, and conjecture is often dependent on such vague data as
are afforded by the coUation of the localities in which the. coins of
independent princes have been found. ' But their power extended
certainly over the Kabul basin, and probably, at times, over the
whole of Afghanistan, The ancient architecture of Kashmir, the
tope of Mamkyala in the Panjab, and many sculptures found in
the Peshawar valley, show immistakable Greek influence. Deme-
trius {circa B.o. 190) is supposed to have reigned in Arachosia after
being expelled from Bactria, much as, at a later date, Baber reigned
in Kibul after his expulsion from Samarkand. .Eucratides (181
B.C.) is alleged by Justin to have warred in India. "With his coins,
found abundantly in the Kabul basin, commences the use of an
Arianian inscription, in addition to the Greek, supposed to imply
the transfer of rule to the south of the mountains, over a people
whom the Greek dynasty sought to conciliate. Under Heliocles
(147 B.o. ?), the Parthians, who had already encroached on Ariana,
fressed their conquests into India, llenander (126 B.C.) invaded
ndia at least to the Jumna, and perhaps also to the Indus delta.
The coinage of a succeeding king, Hermceus, indicates a barbaric
irruption. There is a general correspondence between classical and
Chinese accounts of the time when Bactria was overran by Scythian
invaders. The chief nation among these, called by the Chinese
Yuechi, about 126 B.C. established themselves in Sogdiana and
on the Oxus in five hordes. Near the Christian era the chief of one
of these, which was called Kushan, subdued the rest, and extended'
his conquests over the countries south of Hindu Kush, including
Sind as well as Afghanistan, thus establishing a great dominion,
of which we hear fiom Greek writers as Indo-Scythia.
Buddhism had already' ax:q\iired influence over the people of the
Kabul basin, and some of the barbaric invaders adopted that system.
Its traces are extensive, especially in the plains of Jalalabad and
Peshawar, but also in the vicinity of Kabul.
Various barbaric dynasties succeeded each other, among which a
notable monarch was Kanishka or Kanerkes, who reigned and con-
quered apparently about the time of Our Lord, and whose power
extended over the upper Oxus basin, Kabul, Peshawar, Kashmir,
and probably far into India. His name and legends still filled the
land, or at least the Buddhist portion of it, 600 years later, when
the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang travelled in India ; they had
even reached the great Mahommedan philosopher, traveller, and
geographer, Abu ESian Al-Biriini, in the llth century ; and they
are still celebrated in the Mongol versions of Buddhist ecclesiastical
story.
In the time of Hwen Thsang (630-45 A.D.) there were both Indim
and Turk princes in the Kabul valley, and in the succeeding cen-
turies both these races seem to have predominated in succession.
The first Mahommedan attempts at the conquest of Kabul were un-
successful, though Seistan and Arachosia were permanently held
from an early date. It was not tiU the end of the 10th century
that a Hindu prince ceased to reign in Kabul, and it fell into the
hands of the Turk Sabaktegin, who had established his capital at
GhaznL ' There, too, reigned his famous sou Mahmfid, and a series
of descendants, till the middle of the 121h century, rendering the
city one of the most splendid in Asia. We then have a powerful
dynasty, commonly believed to have been of Afghan race ; and if .so,
the first. But the historians give them a legendary descent from
Zohak, which is no Afghan genealogy. The founder of the dynasty
was Alauddin, chief of Ghur, whose vengeance for the cruel death
of his brother at the hands of Bahram the Ghaznevide was wreaked
in devastating the great city. His nephew Shahabuddin Mahommed
repeatedly invaded India, conquering as far as Benares. His empire
in India indeed — ruled by his freedmen who after his death became
independent — may be regarded as the origin of that great Mahom-
medan monarchy which endured nominally till 1857. For a brief
period the Afghan countries were subject to the king of Kharizm,
and it was here chiefly that occurred the gallant attempts of Jala-
luddin of Kharizm to withstand the progress of Chinghiz Khan.
A passage in Firishta seems to imply that the-Afgluins in the
Sulimani mountains were already known by that name in the first
century of the Hegira, but it is uncertain how far this may be built
on. The name Afghans is very distinctly mentioned in 'Utbi's
History of Sultan JUahmiul, written about A.D. 1030, coupled with
that of the Khiljis. It also appears frerfuently in connection with
the history of India in the 13th and 14th centuries. The successive
dynasties of Dehli are generally called PaiJuin, but were really so only
in part. Of the Kldljis (1283-1321) we have already spoken. The
Tughlaks (1321-1421) were originally Tartars of the Karauna tribe.
The Lbdis (1450-1526) were pure Pathans. For a century and more
after the Mongol invasion tno whole of the Afghan countries were
under Mongol rule ; but in the' middle of the 14th century a native
dynasty sprang np in western Afghanistan, that of the Kurts,
which. extend(U its rulo over Ghur, Herat, and Kandahar. The
history of the Afghan countries under the Mongols is obscure; but
that regime must have left its mark upon the country if we judgo
from the occurrence of Sequent Mongol names of places, and even
of Mongol expressions adopted into familiar language.
All these countries ■were incliided in Timur'a conquests,
and Kabul at least had remained in the possession of one of
his descendants till 1501, only three years before it fell into
the hands of another and more illustrious one, Sultan Baber.
It was not till 1522 that Baber succeeded in permanently
■nTesting Kandahar from the Arghuns, a famOy of Mongol
descent, who had long held it. From the time of his
conquest of Hindustan (victory at Panipat, April 21, 1526),
Kabul and Kandahar may be regarded as part of the empire
of DehU under the (so-called) Moghul djmasty which Baber
founded. Kabul so continued till the invasion of Nadir
(1738). Kandahar often changed hands between tho
Moghuls and the rising Safavis (or Sofis) of Persia.
Under the latter it had remained from 1642 till 1708,
when in the reign of Husain, the last of them, the Ghilzais,
provoked by the oppressive Persian governor Shahnawaz
Khan (a Georgian prince of the Bagratid house) revolted
under Mir Wais, and expelled the Persians. Mir 'Wais
was acknowledged sovereign of Kandahar, and eventually
defeated the Persian armies sent against him, but did not
long survive {d. 1715).
Mahmud, the son of Mir "Wais, a man of great courage
and energy, carried out a project of his father's, the con-
quest of Persia itself. After a long siege, Shah Husain.
came forth from Ispahan with all his court, and surrendered
the sword and diadem of the Sofis into the hands of the
Ghilzai (Oct. 1722). Two years later Mahmud died mad,
and a few years saw the end of Ghilzai rule in Persia.
Nadir Shah (1737-38) both recovered Kandahar and
took Kabul. But he gained the goodwill of the Afghans,
and enrolled many in his army. Among these was a noblo
young soldier, Ahmed IChan, of the Saddozai family of tlie
AbdaU clan, who after the assassination of Nadir (1747)
was chosen by the Afghan .chiefs at Kandahar to be their
leader, and assumed kingly authority over the eastern' part
of Nadir's empire, with the style of Dttr-i-Hurrdn, " Feitl
of the Age," bestowing that of Durrani upon his clan, the
Abdalis. "With Ahmed Shah, Afghanistan, as such, first
took a place among the kingdoms of the earth. Dm-ing
the twenty-six years of his reign he carried his warlike
expeditions far and wide. "Westward they extended nearly
to the shores of the Caspian ; eastward he repeatedly entered
India as a conqueror. At his great battle of Panipat
(Jan. 6, 1761), with vastly inferior ntmibers, he gave the
Mahrattas, then at the zenith of power, a tremendous
defeat, almost annihilating their vast army; but the suc-
cess had for him no important result. Having long suf-
fered from a terrible disease, he died in 1773, bequeathing
to his son Timilr a dominion which embraced not only
Afghanistan to its utmost limits, but the Panjab, Kashmir,
and Turkestan to the Oxus, with Sind. Biluchistan, and
Khorasan aS tributary governments.
Timur transferred his residence from Kandahar to
Kabul, and continued during a reign of twenty years to
stave off the anarchy which followed close on his death.
He left twenty-three sons, of whom the fifth, Zaman Mirza,
by help of Payindah Khan, head of the Barakzii family
of the Abdalis, succeeded in grasping the royal power.
For many years barbarous wars raged between the brothers,
during which Zaniin Shah, S!iuj;t-ul-MuIk, and Mahmdd,
successively held the throne. The last owed success to
Fatteh Khan, son of Payindah, a man of masterly ability
in war and politics, the eldest of twenty-one brothers, a
family of notable intelhgence and force of character, and
many of those he placed over the provinces. The malig-
nity of Kamran, the worthless son of Mahmud, succeeded
240
AFGHANISTAN
[msTORy.
in making the king jealous of his minister; and with match-
less treachery, ingratitude, and cruelty, the latter was urst
blinded, and afterwards murdered with prolongod torture,
the brutal Kamrail striking the first blow.
The Barakzai brothers united to avenge Fatteh Khan.
The Saddozaia were driven from Kabul, Ghazni, and Kan-
dahar, and with difficulty reached Herat (1818). Hcnit
remained thus till Kamran's death (1842), and after that
•was held by his able and wicked minister Yar Mahom-
mcd. The rest of the country was divided among the
Barakzais — Dost Mahomnied, the ablest, getting Kabul.
Peshawar and the right bank of the Indus fell to the Sikhs
after their victory at Naoshera in 1823. The last Afghan
hold of the Panjab had been lost long before — Kashmir in
1819; Sind had cast off all allegiance since 1808; the
Turkestan provinces had been practically independent since
the death of Tiraur Shah.
In 1809, in consequence of the intrigues of Napoleon
in Persia, the Hon. Mountstewart Elphinstone had been
sent as envoy to Shah Shuja, then in power, and had been
well received by him at Peshawar. This was the first time
the Afghans made any acquaintance iWth Englishmen.
Lieut. Alex. Burnes visited Kabul on his way to Bokhara
in 1832. In 1837 the Persian siege of Herat and the
proceedings of Russia created uneasiness, and Burnes was
sent by tlie Governor-General as resident to the Amir's
court at Kabul. But the terms which tlie Dost sought
were not conceded by the government, and the rash reso-
lution was taken of re-establishing Shah Shuja, long a
refugee in British territory. Eanjit Singh, king of the
Panjab, bound himself to co-operate, but eventually
declined to let the expedition cross his territories. The
" Army of the Indus," amounting to 21,000 men, therefore
assembled in Upper Sind (March 1838), and advanced
through the Bolan Pass under the command of Sir John
Kcane. There was hardship, but scarcely any opposition.
Kohandil Khan of Kandahar fled to Persia. That city
was occupied in April 1839, and Shah Shuja was crowned
in his grandfather's mosque. Ghazni was reached 21st
July; a gate of the eity was blo\vn open by the engineers
(the match was fired by Lieut, afterwards Sir Henry
Durand); and the place was taken by storm. ' Dost
Mahommed, finding his troops deserting, passed the Hindu
Kush, and Shuh Shuja entered the capital (Tth August).
The war was thought at an end, and Sir John Keane
(made a peer) returned to India with a considerable part
of the force, leaving behind 8000 men, besides the Shah's
force, with Sir W. Macnaghten as envoy, and Sir A.
Burnes as his colleague.
During the two following years Shah Shuja and his
allies remained in possession of Kabul and Kandahar.
The British outposts extended to Saighdn, in the Oxus
basin, and to Mullah Khan, in the plain of Seistan. Dost
Mahommed surrendered (Nor. 3, 1840), and was sent to
India, where ho was honourably treated. From the begin-
nin", insurrection against the new government had been
rife. The political authorities were over-confident, and
neglected warninga On the 2d November 1841 the
revolt broke out violently at Kabul, with the massacre of
Burnes and other ofiicers. The jxisition of the British
camp, its communications with the citadel, and the location
of the stores were the worst possible; and the general
(FJphinstone) was shattered in constitution. Disaster after
disaster occurred, not without misconduct At a confer-
ence (23d December) with the Dost's son, Akbar Khan,
-who had taken the lead of the Afghans, Sir W. Macnaghten
was murdered by that chief's own hand. On 6th -January
1842, after a convention to evacuate the country had been
signed, the British garrison, still numbering 4500 soldiers
(of -whoni 690 were Europeans), with some 12,000 followers,
marched out of the camp. The winter was severe, the
troops demoralised, the march a mass of confusion and
massacre ; for there was hardly a pretence of keeping the
terms. On the 13th the last survivors mustered at Oan-
damak only twenty muskets. Of those who left Kabul,
Dr Brydone only reached Jalalabad, wounded and half
dead. Ninety-five prisoners were aftcn\-ards recovered.
The garrison of Ghazni had already been forced to sur-
render (10th December). But General Nott held Kan-
dahar with a stern hand, and General Sale, who had
reachf 1 Jalalabad from Ka'oul at the beginning of the out-
break, maintained that important point gallantly.
To avenge these disasters and recover the prisoners
preparations were made in India on a fitting scale; but
it was the ICth April 1842 before General Pollock could
relievo Jalalabad, after forcing the Khybar Pass. After a
long halt there, he advanced (20th August), and gaining
rapid successes, occupied Kabul (15th September), where
Nott, after retaking and dismantling Ghazni, joined him
two days later. The prisoners were happily recovered from
Bamian. The citadel and central bazaar of Kabul were
destroyed, and the army finally evacuated Afghanistan
December 1842.
Shah Shuja had been assassinated soon after the de[)ar-
lure of the ill-fated garrison. Dost Mahommed, released,
was able to resume his position at Kabul, which he retained
tiU his death in 18G3. Akbar Khan was made vazir, but
died in 1848.
The most notable facts in later history must be briefly
stated. In 1848, when the Sikh revolt broke out. Dost
ilahomined, stimulated by popular outcry and by the Sikh
offer to restore Peshawar, crossed the frontier and took
Attok. A cavalry force of Afghans was sent to join Shcr
Singh against the British, and was present at the battle of
Oujerat (21st Feb. 1849). The pursuit of the Afghans by
Sir Walter Raleigh Gilbert, riglit up to the passes, was so
hot that the Dost owed his escape to a fleet horse.
In 1850 the Afghans re-conquered BaUdi.
In January 1805, friendly intercourse, which had been
renewed between tlio Dost and tlie British government,
led to the conclusion of a treaty at Peshawar.
In November 1855, after the death of his half-brother,
Kohandil Khan of Kandahar, the Dost made himself master
of that province. In 1856 came the new Persian advance
to Herat, ending in its capture, and the English expedition
to the Persian Gulf. In January 1857 the Dost had an
interview at Peshawar with Sir J. Lawrence, at which the
former was promised arms and a subsidy for protection
against Persia. In consequence of this treaty a British
mission under Major Lumsden procaeded to Kandahar.
The Indian mutiny followed, and the Afghan excitement
strongly tried the Dost's fidelity, but he maintained it.
Lumsdeu .' partv held their ground, and returned in May
1858.
In 1863, Dost Mahommed, after a ten montns' siege,
captured Herat; but he died there thirteen days later
(9th June), and was succeeded by his son Sher Ali Khan.
Since then the latter has passed through many vicissi-
tudes in rivalry with his brothers and nephews, and at
one time (1807) his fortunes were so low that he held only
Balkh and Herat. By the autumn of 1868, however, he
was again established on the throne of Kabul, and his
competitors were beaten and dispersed. In April 1869
Sher Ali Khan was honourably and splendidly received at
Amballa by the Earl of Mayo, who had shortly before
replaced Sir J. LawTcnce. Friendly relarions were con-
firmed, though the Amir's expectations were not fulfilled.
He received the balance of a donation of £120,000 which
had been promised and partly paid by Sir John Lawrence.
A considerable present of artillery and arms was.m.ade to
ANTIQUITIES.]
AFGHANISTAN
241
him; since then some small additional aid in money and
arms has been sent, but no periodical subsidy.
Sher Ali Khan now reigns over aU Afghanistan and
Afghan Turkestan, whilst Badakhshan is tributary to him.
In the latter part of 1872 a correspondence which had
gone on between the Governments of Kussia and England
resulted in a declaration by the former that Afghanistan
was beyond the field of Rnssian influence; whilst the
Oxua, from its source in Lake Sirikol to the western
limit of Balkh, was recognised as the frontier of Afghan
dominion
AiiTiQUiTlES. — We can afford space for ordy the briefest
indication on this subject. The basin of the Kabul river
especially abounds in remains of the period when Buddhism
flourished, beginning with the Inscribed Eock of Shah-
baEgarhi, or Kapur-di-giri, in the Peshawar plain, which
bears one of the repliche of the famous edicts of Asoka
(not later than B.C. 250). In the Koh-Daman, north of
Kabul, are the sites of several ancient cities, the greatest of
which, called Beghram, has furnished coins in scores of
thousands, and has. been supposed to represent Ah-^ander's
Nicasa. Nearer Kabul, and especially on the hills some
miles south of the city, are numerous tapes. In the valley
of Jalalabad are many remains of the same character. In
the P/53hawar plain and on the adjoining heights are
numerous ancient cities and walled villages, in many cases
presenting ruins of much interest, besides the remains of
topes, monasteries, cave temples, <fec. ; and frequently sculp-
tures have been found on those sites, exhibiting evident
traces of the influence of Greek art. The Mahaban moun-
tain, near the Indus, which has been plaijsibly identified
with the Aornoa of the Greeks, and the hills more imme-
diately compassing the Peshawar valley, abound in the ruins
of very ancient fortresses. At Talash, on the Panjkora
river, are extensive ruins of massive fortifications; and in
Swat there are said to be remains of several ancient cities.
In the vaUey of the Tarnak are the ruins of a great city
(Ulan Robat), supposed to be ancient Arachosia. About
Girishk, on the Helraand, are extensive mounds and other
traces of buildings; and the remains of several great cities
exist in the plain <5f Seistan, as at Pulki, Peshawaran, and
Lakh, relics of ancient Drangiana, as yet unexamined. An
ancient stone vessel, preserved in a mosque at Kandahar,
is almost certainly the same that was treasured at Peshawar
in the 5th century as the begging-pot of Sakya-Muni
Of the city of Ghazni, the vast capital of Mahmud and hia
race, no substantial relics • suj^ve, except the tomb of
Mahmud and two remarkable brick minarets.
To the vast and fruitful harvest of coins that has been
gathered in Afghanistan and the adjoining regions, we can
here but make an allusion.
(Elphinstone's Caubool ; various papers in J. As. Soc.
Bengal; Fender's Journeys, and Ifist. of the Afghans;
Bellew's Journal, Report on the Yusuf-Mis, and Notes on
Flora of Afgh. ; James's Report on Peshawar District;
Ravertys Afghan Grammar ; Panjab Trad* Report ;
Baber's Memoirs; Kaye's History ; papers by Major Limis-
den, and by Lieut. -CoL C. M. Macgregor, &c. The para-
graph on the Animal Kingdom has been revised by Prof
Henry Giglioli of Florence.) (h. y.)
AFGHAN TURKESTAN is a convenient name applied
of late years to those provinces in the basin of the Oxus
which are subject to the Amir of KabuL Badakhshan
and its dependencies, now tributary to the Amir, are some-
times included under the name, but will not be so included
here. The whole of the Afghan dominions consist of
Afohanistan as defined imder that heading, Afghau
TuRKESTAJf, and Badakhshan with its dependencies.
The territories included here will be, beginning from
the east, the khanates or principalities of Kunduz, Khulm,
Balkh with Akcha; and the western khanates of Sir-i-pul,
ShibrghSn, Andkhfli, and Maimana, sometimes classed
together as the Chihdr Vildyat, or "Four Domains;" and
besides these, such part of the Hazara tribes as lie north
of the Hindu Kush and its prolongation, defined in the
article Afghanistan. The tract thus includes the whole
southern moiety of the Oxus basin, from the frontier of
Badakhshan on the east to the upper Murghab river on
the west. The Oxus itself forms the northern boundary,
from the confluence of the Kokcha or river of Badakhshan,
in 69^° E. long., to Khoja Salih ferry, in 65° E, long,
nearly. Here the boundary quits the river and skirts the
Turkman desert to the point where the Murgh3,b issues
upon it. Along the whole southern boundary we have a
tract of lofty mountain country. Thus, in the east, above
Kunduz, we have the Hindu Kush rising far into the
region of perpetual snow, and with passes ranging from
12,000 to 13,000 feet and upwards. Above Khulm and
Balkh is the prolongation of Hindu Kush, called Koh-i-baba,
in which the elevation of the cols or passes seems to be nearly
as high, though the general height of the crest ia lower.
The mountains then fork in three branches westward, jriz.,
Koh-i^Sidh, " The Black Mountain," to the south of the
Herat river; Koh-i-Snfed, " The White Mountain," between
the Herat river and tte Murghab, and a third ridge north of
the latter river. The second brunch (Safed-Koh) has been
assumed in the article Afouantstan as the boundary of
that region. We know almost nothing of these mountains,
except? from the journey of Ferrier, who crossed all three
watersheds in four days of July 1845. He describes the
mjddle range as very lofty, with a good deal of snow on
the pass; the southern range not so high, the northern
one not nearly so high.
Rivers. — We shall first describe the rivers of this
region in succession.
For the Oxus itself, see that article.
Beginning from the eastward, its first tnoutary within our limits ia
tht) river of Kunduz, known also as the river of Aksarai, the Sarkhdb,
and what not. *■ As the principal source of this river wo may regard
the stream of Bamian, fed close under the Koh-1-Baha by a variety
of torrents which join from the pass of Akrobat and other gorges of
the Hazara country, adjoining that famous site (8496 feet above
sea level). The names of some of these seem to preserve a tradition
of the' ancient population; such are the "Cutlers' Vale," "the
Smiths' Vale," the "Valley of Kye-paint." At the eastern end of
the valley the Bamian stream receives another of nearly equal bulk,
descending from the pass of Haijigak, the most important crossing
of the mountains between Kabul and the Oxus, and from which the
road descends upon Bamian, and thence by Saighan, Khurram, and
Haibak, to Khulm, in the Oxus valley. On the volca»ic rock which
parts the streams stand extensive ruins, the name of which, Zohiik,
connects them with the most ancient legends of Persian history.
From this the river turns nearly north, passing the country of
the Sheikh 'Alis, one of the most famous Hazara clans, and
closely skirting the great range of Hindu Kush. About 40 miles
N.N. E. of Zohak it receives from the left two confluents, of size
probably almost equal to its own — the rivers of Saighan and of
Kilmard, both rising to the westward of Bamian, and crossing tlio
highway from Bamian to Khulm. Hereabouts the river seems tt-
tako the name of Surkhab. The first considerable confluent on the
ri^ht is the AndarAb river, draining the valley of that name, anil
joining at Doehi, about 85 miles in a direct line N.E. of Zohak.
About Ghori, still a place of some note, the valley widens out
greatly, and becomes in places swampy, with expanses of tall grass,
a character which it thenceforth retains. The river is, or has been,
bridged at Thomri, a few miles beyond Ghori, a work ascribed to
Aurangzib. It then receives from the right the Boghl^ river,
coming from NArin and the hills of Khost. The only remaining
confluent is the important one wliich joins immediately below the
town of Kunduz, sometimes called the KhdndMd river, eomotimea
by the muaes uf its chio/ ooDtributarics, the Furokhar and Bangi.
I- — .V
242
AFGHANISTAN
[apchan.
The Farokhar, or river of TalikSn, w the most easterly, cominj^but of
Badakhshan, tho boundary of wliich runs along the watershed on
!t3 left bank. The Bangi (lows through Khost from the highjanda
of Badakhshan, cast of Andarab. A third tributary, the Shorilb,
ealt, as its name implies, drains the high range called Lsk'mushk,
above Narin.
The Surkliab or Run Juz river enters the Orus at a point ajiprou-
mately (no traveller has visited the confluence) 32 miles N.W. of
Kundoz, its whole length, exclusive of minor windings, being about
'220 miles;
From Ghori downwards, tho hills which bound the valley on either
side appear to bo of no great elcv:ition, and to be tolerably clothed
with grass, and occasionally with fir trees ; the a ;pect of tho country
gradually approximating to that of Badakbshan, in ooDtrost to tho
uioro sterile olfshootti ofyKoh-i-Baba to the westward.
Kunduz itself lies very low, scarcely £00 feet above sea level,
and the roads approaching the town have to pass over ' piles amid
the swampy vegetation. The adjacent plain is in the main richly
cultivated and thickly peopled, but it is interspersed with extensive
tracts of jungly grass, and is extremely and proverbially unhealthy.
The plains, which extend, though not imbroken, from Kunduz to
the Oxus, are free from tho baro and repulsive character, of those
further west, and are described as covered in part with rich cultiva-
tion, thick withgrovea and hamlets, and in part with splendid
pasture.
Proceeding westward, the next tributary to tho Oxus basin is tho
Khulm river. Tiio traveller from Bamian northward first touches
tho Khulm river, on descending from tho Kara-Kotal, at a spot
called DoSib ShUhpasand, probably 6000 feet above the sea, where
its two main sources join, and the main road to Turkestan keeps on
or near the river till its exit-on tho Oxus plain. The character of
tho mass of mountains which extends from the Koh-i-Baba to
Khulm is utter rocky aridity, but broken sometimes in the sudden
trench-liko valleys by an exuberant vigour of vegetation. Along a
chain of these trench-like gorges, walled by stupendous cliffs seem-
ing sometimes almost to close overhead, the traveller descends to-
wards Khulm. At Haibak the valley opens out, but closes in again
before Khulm is reached. Here he emerges from a narrow gorge upon
the plain of the Oxus, some 20 miles from the great river, and leaves
the mountains suddenly, as one leaves the gate of a fortress, still
rising behind in a bold rampart to the height of 2500 feet . Tho
river is believed to be spent in irrigation before reaching the Oxus.
As far north at least as Khurram, half-way from Ba mian toJLhulm,
the offshoots of Koh-i-Baba, west of the Khulm defile, must-reach a
height of 11,000 or 12,000 feet; for here Ferrier found bitter cold
ana snow on the top on the 7th of July (latitude nearly 36°).
The next river west^vard is the Balkh river, sometimes called
Dehis. It rises not far from some of the tributaries of the Surkhab,
nor from the sources of the Herat river, .at a remarkable spot which,
under the name of the Band-i-Barbar, or Barbar dam, is the subject
of various legends, though we have no distinct account of it. The
valley of Yekalang, on the upper waters of this river, at a height of
7000 feet above the sea, was visited by A. Conolly, and is described
by him as fertile, well-watered, and populous, about 15 miles in
length by } to i mile in width. Ferrier is the only traveller who
has crossed the mature stream, and he merely mentions that he
forded it^ and that it was rather rapid. We thus know almost
nothing of the river. In length it caimot come far short of tho
Snrkhab. Beyond the lofty mountains recently spoken of, some of
the hills towards the Balkh-ab have a thin clothmg of wood, and
the valleys opening on the river are wide and not unfertile. The
main valley expands into level tracts of pasture, covered by long
grass, and intersected by artificial water-courses ; but (as with the
Khulm river) tho gorge from which the stream issues on the Oxus
plain is narrow, and walled in by very high hills on either side.
The ruins and gardens of ancient Balkh stand about 6 miles from
the hills, but no part of the river ajipears to reach the site in its
natural bed, nor does any part of its waters reach the Oxus -in a'
running stream.
The plains that slope from the gardens of Balkh to the Oxus are
naturally white hard steppes, destitute of spontaneous verdure save
sparse brush of tamarisk and other meagre growths ; but the soil
responds richly to irrigation whenever this is bestowed.
'1 he next stream that we meet with, and the last t^at can be con-
sidered even as an indirect tributary of the 0.xu3, is that which fer-
tilises the small khanates of Shibrghan and Andkhui, on the verge
of the Turkman desert; whilst the two confluents that contribute
to form it have previously watered the territories of Siripul and
Maimana. The river, or whatever survives. .of its water after irri-
gating Andkhui, is lost in the desert The taste of the water is
abommable, and, though the inhabitants are accustomed to it,
strangers suffer from ite use.
The last river that we have to notice is the Murghab, which rises
between the two northern branches of the Koh-i-Baba or Paro-
pamisus. Ferrier is the only traveller who- ha^, been on the upjK-r
waters of the Mnighah. He takes no notice of the river itself, but
describes a remarkable plain or b.iain, about 120 miles in circuit,
entirely surrounded by mountains, well-watered, and rich in vcge-
tation. The people are Mongol Hazaras, and, according to Ferrier,
idolaters. Their country is a part of the old territory of GaijistAn.
At Shah Moshad, about half-way between this and the plains, the
river was crossed by Major Eldred Pottinger, but we have no access
to his report. Further don-n, as the river approaches the foot of
Murghab Balil, on tho road from Maimana to Herat, it runs with
great violence, and the valley narrows to a defile. At Panjdch,
35 to 40 miles below Mur"hab, it begins to flow through a valley of
clay soil, bounded by sandy heights, and gradually opening into the
plain of Merv. Hereabouts, too, it quits the Afghan territory, but
the boundarj' does not seem as yet to have been precisely fixed.
About 100 miles from Panjdeh the river reaches Merv, where for-
merly there was a great dam, securing the fertility of that oasis,
the nucleus of ancient Margiana, This was destroyed by the Amir
Maasum (otherwise Shah Murad) of Bokhara, about 1785, when he
carried off the whole population into slavery. Beyond Merv the
river is lost in the desert.
Provinces astd Places of Note. — We do not know
tho precise divisions maintained under the Afghans, but
they coincide generally with the old principalities or
khanates, the hereditary rulers of which, in several cases,
continue in authority under the Afghan governor of Turke-
stan. Bamian, Saighan, and the higher valleys belong, it ia
understood, to a special command over the Hazara tribes.
L Kunduz. — Beginning again from the east, the first
provinco'is ATunc/uz, having on the east Badakhshan, on
the west Khulm, on the north the Oxus, and on the south
Hindu Kush. The districts of Kunduz are approximately
as follows: — (1.) Kunduz, with the chief town of the pro-
vince, a wretched place, as described by Wood, of some
500 or 600 mud huts, intermingled with straw sheds,
Uzbek tents, gardens, and corn-fields, and overlooked by a
mud fort on an extensive mound (2.) Uazrat Imam, on the
irrigated and fertile Oxus plain. The town, known in tho
Middle Ages as Arhang, is described as about the same
size as Kunduz, with a better fort, protected by a wet
ditch. (3.) Baghl&n, and (4.) Ghori, in the swampy valley
of the Surkhab. (5.) Doshi, further up the same valley, at
the confluence of the Andarab stream. (6.) Killagai and
Khinj&n, near the lower part of the Andarab stream.
(7.) Andarab, at the foot of the Tul and Khawak passes
over Hindu Kush, often supposed to be the Adrapsa of
Alexander's historians. This secluded town was a favourite
minting place of the Samanid sovereigns of Persia and
Turkestan, in the 10th century, probably owing to the
vicinity of silver mines at Paryan. (8.) Ehost lies between
Andarab and Kunduz. The name often occurs in the
history of Baber and his successors. (9.) Narin and Ish-
kimish lie to the east of Baghlan, at the sources of the
Baghlan stream and of the Shorab branch of the Kunduz
river. The second name appears to be the same as Ks?ik-
mushk, which Wood applies to a high mountain in this
quarter. (10.) Farhang and Ck&l lie on the borders of
Badakhshan, and are utterly unknown. (11.) Td'ikdn also
lies on the borders of Badakhshan, but is pretty well known,
being on the main road between Kunduz and Faizabad,
the capital, of Badakhshan. It is now a poor place, but is
ancient, and was once famous. A fortress here stood a
long siege from Chinghiz Khan, and the place is mentioned
by Marco Polo" as Taican. During the rule of Murad
Beg of Kunduz this was the seat of a government that
included Badakhshan. (12.) Khandbad, on the river of
that name, pleasantly elevated above the swampy level of
Kunduz, is, or was, the usual summer residence of the chiefs
of that territory.
II. Khulm was the next of the khanates, lying between
Kunduz and Balkh. The districts, as far aa we know
them, are the follomng : — (1.) TdtlJcurghdn. The old
town of Khulm stood in the Oxus plain, surrounded by
watered orchards of famous productiveness; but it lay so
exposed to the raids of the Ktinduz Uzbeks that the chief,
Killich Ali, in the beginning of this sentuiy, tranafened
TURKESTAN ]
A F G II A N I S T A N
243
bis residence to Taslikurghan, 4 miles furttif-r south,
and just at the mouth of the defile — a cheerless group of
villages, consisting of mud houses with domed roofs, con-
nected by gardens and enclosed by a mud waU; it is sup-
posed to contain at least 15,000 souls, and is a place of
considerable trade. (2.) Haibak. The to\vTi presents
rather an imposing aspect, clustering round a castle of
some strength on an isolated eminence; the domed houses,
however, are compared to large brown bee-hives. • The
Khulm river valley here opens out, and is very fertile; the
banks are shaded by luxuriant fruit trees. The site is
a very ancient one, and, under the name of Samangdn, was
famous in Persian legend. One traveller describes there a
remarkable relic of antiquity called the Takht or Throne
of Rustam. This, from the account, would seem to have
beeu a Buddhist dagoba.' (3.) Khurram. Sarbdgh, so
called from two villages in the upper defiles of the Khulm
river.
m. Balhh. Balkh proper is the populous and weU-
watered territory upon the eighteen canals which draw oflf
the waters of the Balkh-ab, and on which there are said to
be 3G0 villages.
No trace has been recovered of the ancient splendours of
Badra, nor do the best judges appear to accept Terrier's
beUef that he saw cuneiform inscriptions upon bricks dug
up there. A late Indian report by an intelligent Mahom-
medan speaks of a stone throne in the citadel, to which
traditional antiquity is ascribed, but of this we know no
more. The remains that exist are scattered over some 20
miles of circuit, but, they consist mainly of mosques and
tombs of sun-dried brick, and show nothing even of early
Mahommedao date. The inner city, surrounded by a
ruined waU of 4 or 5 miles in compass, is now entirely
deserted ; a scanty population still occupies a part of the
outer city. In 1858 Mahommed Afzal Khan, ruling the
districts of Turkestan on behalf of his father. Dost
Mahommed, transferred the seat of the Afghan govern-
ment and the bulk of the population to Takhtapul, a
position which he fortified, some 8 mOes east of the old
city; and this remains the capital of the Afghan territories
on the Oxus.
The only other place of note m the district is Maz&r-i-
Sharif, or the "Noble Shrine," on the road to Khulm,
where a whimsical fiction has located the body of 'Ah, the
son-in-law of Mahommed. It is the object of pilgrimages,
and the scene of a great annual fair. Vimb(Sry speaks of
the roses, matchless for colour and fragrance, that grow on
the pretended tomb
Of the districts lying on the Ealkh river within the hills
we know nothing.
Akcha, some 40 to 45 miles westward from Balkh, was
an Uzbek khanate before the last Afghan conquest. It is
small, but well-watered and populous. The town is forti-
fied, and has a citadel Accounts differ as to the popula-
tion ; one writer calls them Uzbeks, another Sarak Turk-
mans.
rV. The provinces known as the Four Domains are : —
(I.) Shibrghan, some 20 miles west of Akcha. This was
another small Uzbek khanate. The town, which contains
about 12,000 Uzbeks and Parsiwans, has a citadel, but is
not otherwise fortified. It Li surrounded by good gardens,
and excellent cultivation, but its water supply is dependent
upon Siripul, and, in the frequent case of hostility between
the two, is liable to be cut off. Ferrier speaks highly of
the climate and the repute of the inhabitants for valour.
Shibrghan (Sapurgan) and its fine melons are mentioned
by Marco Polo. {2.) Andkhui, ahovX 20 miles north-west
of Shibrghan, forms an oasia in the desert, watered by the
' Burplcni, A Pcejj into Tiirlcstan, p.> 125.
united streams from Siripul and from Maimana. It was
once a flourishing city, and the oasis was reckoned to con-
tain 50,000 inhabitants, but the place has scarcely recovered
from the destruction it endured at the hands of Yar
Mahommed of Herat in 1840. It was at Andkhui that
Moorcroft died in 1825 ; but his grave is at Balkh. Tre-
beck, the last survivor of his party, died and was buried at
Mazar. (3.) Maimana, 105 miles from Balkh, and some 50
south-west of Andkhui, contains some ten or twelve villages
or townships, besides the capital, and a population estimated
at 100,000 souls. It is a district of considerable produc-
tiveness, industry, and trade, and the Uzbek inhabitants
have a high reputation as soldiers. The chief was formerly
a notorious slave-dealer. (4.) Siripul. This khanate Ijing
within the limits of the undulating country south-west of
Balkh and east of Maimana, is of about the same calibre
as the latter, but somewhat lower in estimated population.
Two-thirds of the people are Uzbeks, the rest Hazaras.
From the last a tribute of slaves is, or used to be, exacted;
and Hazara widows, it is said, were claiined as govern-
ment property, and sold by auction. The town of Siripul
is an irregular mass of houses clustered on the slope ol a
hill crowned by a fort. Many tents gather round it also,
and Ferrier estimates the population of town and tents as
high as 18,000. The valley below is abundantly watered,
and the breadth of orchards and tillage is considerable.
PoptTLATioN. — In the estimate of population cited under
Afghanistan, that of Afghan Turkestan is reckoned at
042,000. This includes 55,000 for Badakhshan (no doubt
too low an estimate) ; and the remainder, for the provinces
included imder our present article, excluding Hazaras, will
be 587,000. Anything but a round number is entirely
inappropriate to such an estimate ; but we shall probably
not be far wrong if we reckon the population at 600,000.
The Tajiks, or people of Iranian blood, are probably the
representatives of the oldest surviving race of this region.
They are found in some districts of Balkh and valleys of
Kunduz. Khost, for instance, is said to be chiefly occu-
pied by them. Uzbeks seem to be the most numerous
race ; and there are some other Turk tribes not classed as
Uzbeks.^ There seem to be a good many famihes claiming
Arab descent; Afghans, especially about Balkh and Khulm;
and in the towns some Hindus and Jews.
Products and iNDUSTEY.-^We have no means of giv-
ing any systematic account of the products of these pro-
vinces, either in natural history or industry. Kock-salt is
worked at Chal, near the Badakhshan frontier, as weU as
beyond that frontier. Pistachio nuts are grown largely in
the hiU country of Kunduz, as well as the adjoining districts
of Badakhshan, and the whole supply of India, Central
Asia, and Russia is said to be derived from this region.
Fruit is abundant and excellent, especially in Khulm and
Balkh. Andklmi, before its decay, was famous for the
black sheepskins and lambskins which we call astrakhan ;
and also for a breed of camels in great demand. Kunduz
produces a breed. of horses, highly valued in the Kabul
market under the name of Kataghan. Maimana also
is famous for horses, which are often exported to India ;
and is a mart for carpets and textures of wool and camels'
hair, the work of Turkman and Jamshldi women. Slave-
dealing and man-stealing have long been the curse of this
region, but late changes have tended to restrict these, aud
the Russian conquest of Khiva will probably have a most
beneficial effect in tliis respect at least.
History. — Ancient Balkh, or Bactra, was probably one
of the oldest capitals in Centr,-il Asia. There Persian tra-
dition places the teaching of Zoroaster. Bactriana was a
' Tlie Uzbeks were, however, a confederation of isiaiy T\irk cjio
Tartar tribes, not one race.
244
A F 1 — A F R
province of the Achimenian empire, and probably was
occupied in great inoasure by a race of Iranian blood.
About B.C. 250, Thcodotus, governor of Bactria under the
Seleucid;u, declared his independence, and couimenccd the
history, 60 dark to us, of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties,
whose dominions at one time or another — though probably
never simultaneously — touched the Jaxartcs and the Gulf
of Cutch. Parthian rivalry first, and then a series of
nomad movements from inner Asia, ovcnvhelmcd the
isolated dominion of the Greeks (circa B.C. 12G). Powers
rose on the O.xus, known to the Chinese as Yuechi, Kwcish-
wang, Yclha, Tukharas, and what not ; dimly to western
Asia and Europe as Kushins, Haiithala, £pluhalitce or
White Iluns, and Tochari. Buddhism, with its monas-
teries, colossi, and gilded pagodas, spread over the valley
of the Oxus. Wo do not know what further traces of that
time may yet bo revealed ; but we see some in the gigantic
sculptures of Bamian. The old Arab historians of the
Mahommedan conquest celebrate a heathen temple at
Balkh, which they call Naohihur, which Sir H. Rawlinson
has pointed out to have been certainly a Buddhist monas-
tery {Nava-Vihdra). The name Kaobihar still attaches to
a, village on one of the Balkh canals, thus preserving,
through so many centuries, the memory of the ancient
Indian religion. The memoirs of the Chinese pilgrim
Hwcn Thsang, in the first part of the 7th century, give
many particulars of the prevalence of his rcUgion in the
numerous principalities into which the empire of the
Tukharas had broken up; and ''. is remarkable how many
of these states and their names arc identical with those
which still exist. This is not confined to what were great
cities liko Balkh and Bamian ; it applies to Khulm, Khost,
Piaghlan, Andarab, and many more.
As llaiathahih, or Tolchdrislun, the country long con-
tinued to be known to Mahommedans ; its political destiny
generally followed that of Khoi-asan. It bore the brunt of
all the fury of Chinghiz, and the region seems never to
have eff'cctually recovered from the devastations and mas-
sacres which he began, and which were repeated in degree
in cue -ending generations. For about a century these
OxuB provinces were attached to the empire of the Dehli
Moguls, und then fell into Uzbek hands. In the lust
century they formed a part of the dominion of Ahmed
K-han Durrani (see Afghanistan), and so remained under
his son Timui-. But during the fratricidal wars of Timur's
sons they fell back under the ifldcpendcnt rule of various
Uzbek chiefs. Among these, the Kataghans of Kunduz
were long predominant; and their chief, Murad Beg (1815
to about 1842), for some time ruled K<lliib beyond the
Oxus, and all south of it from near E;:lkh to Pamir.
In 1850 the Afghans recovered Balkh and Khulm; by
1855 they had also gained Akcha and the four western
khanates; Kunduz in 1859. ..They were proceeding to
extend their conquests to Badakhshan, when the Amir of
that country agreed to pay homage and tribute.
We have noticed, in the conclusion of the article Afohan-
. ISTAN, the correspondence which recently took place (1872-
73) with Russia regarding the recognition of the Oxus as
the boundary of Afghan Turkestan.
Antirjtiittes. — These are known but very imperfectly.
The best known, and probably the most remarkable, are
the famous colossi at Bamian, with the adjoining innumer-
able caves. In the same locality are the ruins of the
niediajval city destroyed by Chmghiz, the great fort called
Sayadabad, and the ruins of Zohak. At Haibak are
numerous caves like those of Bamian. Balkh seems to
have little or nothing to show, though probably excavation
would be rewarded. The Uttle known or unknown valleys
of Badakhshan probably contain remains of interest, but
our only notices of them are so highly spiced mth imagina-
tion as to bo worthless. General Fcrrier saw remarkable
rock sculptures in a defile in the Hazara country, south of
Siripul, and curious rock excavations a little further south.
(Wood's Journey, 2d ed., 1873, with Introductory Ersay;
Ferrier's Caravan Journet/s ; Burnes's Travels; Indian
official documents; VimbcSry's Travels; ice, ic.) (h. y.)
AFIUM-KARAHISSAI\, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in
the pashalic of Anatolia, nearly 200 miles E. of Smyrna,
and 50 miles S.S.E. of Kutaiah. It stands partly on
level ground, partly on a declivity, and above it rises a
precipitous trachytic rock 400 feet in height, on the sum-
mit of which are the ruins of an ancient castle. From its
tituation on the route of the caravans between Smyrna and
western Asia on the one hand, and Armenia, Georgia, i-c,
on the other, the city is a place of extensive trade, and its
bazaars are well stocked with the merchandise both of
Europe and the East Opium in large quantities is pro-
duced in its vicinity, and foims the staple article of its
commerce; and there are, besides, manufactures of black
felts, carpets, arms, and saddlery. Afium contains several
mosques (one of them a very handsome building), and it
is the seat of an Armenian bishop. The population is
estimated at about 60,000.
AFRAGOLA, a town of Italy, in the province of Napoli,
C miles N.N.E. of Naples. It has extensjve manufac-
tures of straw bonnets. Population of commune (1865),
16,493.
AFRANIUS, Lucius, a Latin poet who lived about a
century before Christ He wrote comedies in imitation of
Menander, and was commended by Cicero and Quintilian
for his acute genius and fluent style. The fragments of
his works which are extant have been collected by Bothe
in his Poetce Scentci Lalini, and by Neukirch in his De
Fahula Toaata JRojnanontm.
AFRANIUS, Lucius, whose early history is unknown,
was a devoted friend and adherent of Pompey, whom he
served with distinction as one of his lieutenants in the
Sertorian and Mithridatic wars. In the year 60 B.C., and
chiefly by Pompcy's support, he was raised to the consul-
ship, but in performing the duties of that ofiice he showed,
like many other soldiers both before and since, an utter
incapacity to manage civil afl"airs. In the following year,
while governor of Cisalpine Gaul, he had the good fortune
to obtain the honour of a triumph, and on the allotment
of Spain to Pompey, 55 B.C., ./Vfranius and Petreius were
sent to take charge of the government of that country.
On the rupture between Cssar and Pompey, they were
compelled, after a short campaign in which they were at
first successful, to .surrender to Ca;sar at llerda, 49 B.C.,
and were dismissed on promising not to serve again in thr.
war. Afranius, regardless of his promise, joined Pompey
at Dyrrhachium, and at the battle of Pharsalia, 48 B.C., he
had charge of Pompey's camp. On the complete defeat of
Pompey, Afranius, despairing of pardon from Caesar, re-
paired to Africa, and was present at the battle of Thapsus,
46 B.C., which ruined the hopes of the Pompeians in that
part of the world. Escaping from the field with a strong
body of cavalry, he was afterwards taken prisoner, along
with Faustus Sulla, by the ti-oops of Sittius, and handed
over to Caesar, whose veterans, disappointed at their not
being led to immediate execution, rose in tumult and put
them to death.
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>iicieiit fT^HIS vast continent, thougn associated from the dawn
'^'■"f'j"?''^ JL of civilisatipn with traditions and'niysteries of the
r.'vnt"^''' '^'^"^ stimulating kind, has re'mained until recently one of
the least known, and, both commercially and politically,
one of the least important of the great divisions of the
globe. The knowledge of Africa possessed by the ancients
was very limited, owing principally to its physical construc-
tion. The great desert, which in a broad belt stretches
quite across the continent, forbade every attempt to pass
it until the introduction of the camel by the Arabs. The
want of any known great river, except the Nile, that might
conduct into the interior, contributed to confine the Greek
and Roman colonists to the habitable belt along the north-
ern coast. The Phoenicians are known to have formed
establishments on the northern coast of Africa at a very
early period of history, probably not less than 3000 years
ago ; and the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses dates as far
back as the year B.C. 525. We may consider, therefore,
the coasts of Egypt, of the Bed Sea, and of the Mediter-
ranean, to have been settled and well known to the ancient
Asiatics, who were constantly passing the narrow isthmus
which divided their country from Africa and led them im-
mediately from parched deserts into a fertile valley, watered
by a magnificent river. But whether they were much or
little acquainted with the western coast, which bounds the
Atlantic, and the eastern coast, washed by the Indian Ocean,
is a question that has exercised the research and ingenuity
of the ablest scholars and googi^anhers. and has not vet
been satisfactorily answered.
Wpstfi-n This question being one of curiosity rather than utility,
toast. we shall only state the case, and the results of the several
inquiries, without entering into the merits of the arguments
advanced by the different parties. We are told by Hero-
dotus, that Necho, king of Egypt, sent out an expedition
under the command of certain Phoenician seamen, for the
purpose of circumnavigating Africa ; and that, on their re-
turn, they asserted that they had accomplished this under-
taking. Few of the ancient writers give credit to the story ;
but, among the moderns, the Abb6 Paris and Montesquieu
have contended that this voyage was actually performed.
Isaac Vossius and D'Anville have strong doubts ; and Dr
Vincent and M Qosselin maintain that such an expedition,
at such a period, exceeds all the means and resources of
navigation, then in its infancy. Last of all comes Major
Rennel, who, in his elucidation of the geography of Hero-
dotus, has done more than all the rest in clearing away the
doubts of history ; and lie argues the possibility of such a
voyage, from the construction of their ships, with flat bot-
toms and low masts, enabling them to keep close to the
land, and to discover and enter into all the creeks and har-
bours wliich any part of the coast might present. At all
events, one thing ia evident : if such an expedition ever
circumnavigated the African continent, the fruits of it have
nearly, if not entirely, perished.
About half a century after this supposed expedition, the
account of another voyage, down the western coast, is con-
tained in the Periplua of Hanno, which has also called forth
many learned and elaborate discussions among modem geo-
graphers, some of whom would carrj' Hanno to the Bight
of Benin, other» only to Sherbro Sound or the river Nun
in lat. 28° N.
Ensteni ■ The extent 1 0 which ancient discovery proceeded along
coi.at. tijg eastern coast of Africa, has divided the opinion of the
learned nearly as much as its progress on the western coast.
Delislo, Huet, and Bochart, made the discovery of the coast
to extend as far south as Mozambique and Madagascar.
D'Anville could trace such discovery no farther than to
Cape Delgado; and M. Gosselin contends that the ancients
never proceeded down the coast beyond Brava. But Dr
Vincent, who has entered more profoundly into the subject
than any of his predecessors, and brought a great fund of
learning to bear on the question, in his FerijAus of the
Erythrcan Sea, has with great plausibility extended these
boundaries to Mozambique and to the island of Madagascar.
Sketch Map of Africa.
Egypt, under the Ptolemies, the great patrons of science
and promoters of discovery, possessing the advantage of
the only great river which falls from the African continent
into the Mediterranean, made no progress beyond its an-
cient boundaries ; and though the Romans, who subse-
quently possessed Egypt, penetrated beyond the limits of
their ovna. dependencies, they extended their di.scoveries no
further than Fezzan in one direction, and, at a later period,
beyond Nubia as far as Abyssinia, and the regions of the
Upper NUe. We know nothing of the progiess made by
the Carthaginians in the discovery of Interior Africa ; but The Car-
although it has been asserted that their merchants had thagini:i;ii
reached the banks of the interior river, which we call the
Kawara or Niger, they have left nothing on record that
will warrant such a supposition. The story told by Hero-
dotus, of some Nasamonians crossing tlie desert, and arriv-
ing at a large river, can only be applicable to some western
arm of the Nile. The people fiom whom we derive the TIk- Aralq
first information concerning the interior of Northern Africa
are the Arabs, who, by means of the camel, were able to
penetrate across the great desert to the very centre of the
continent, and along the two coasts as far as the Seneg.al and
the Gambia on the west, and to Sof ala on the cast. On this
latter coast they not only"xpIored to an extent far beyond
any supposed limits of ancient discovery, but planted colonies
at Sofala, Morabas, Melinda, and flt various other places.
The 15th century produced a new era in maritime disJ
covery. The voyages of the Portuguese were the first tc.
give anything liio on accurate outline of the two coasts,^
24G
AFRICA
[PBOORESSITE
Tbs Eng-
lish and
French.
AiVloan
auocU-
tion.
Discoveries
in the 19tli
century.
Porli
Lacerda.
Horne-
niaun.
rnckej .
'.<yon and
litohie.
)enham,
tapper -
>D, and
idney.
Hid ic ?Ciiipleta the circumnaWgation of Africa. TLo dU-
coTery of America and the West India iBlaudB gave riao to
(hat horrid traffic in African negroes, vt'hich has since been
suppressed ; but this traffic has been tl'.e means of acquiring
a more extended and accurate knowledge of that part of
the coast which lies between the rivers Senegal and the
Cainoroons, as well as of the manners and character of the
people who inhabit this extended line of coast. With the
English and French settlements in Africa began a systematic
sur^fey of the coast, and portions of the interior.
The uncertainty and confusion that prevailed in the geo-
graphy oi the interior of Africa induced a few learned and
scientific individuals to form themselves into an association
for promoting the exploration of Inner Africa. This society
was formed in London in 1788, and'under its auspices im-
portant additions were made to the geoj^phy of Africa
by Houghton, Mungo Park, Hornemann, and Burckhardt.
Repeated failures, however, at length discouraged the asso-
ciation from engaging other missionaries, and it subse-
quently merged in the Royal Geographical Society in 1831.
During the last sixty years more has been done to make
us acquainted with the geography of Africa than during
the whole of the 1700 previous years, since Plokmy, taken
together. With Mungo Park, strictly speaking, commences
the era of unceasing endeavours to explore the interior.
Mungo Park proceeded in 1795 from the river Gambia
on the west coast, to the Joliba (commonly called Niger),
traced this river as far as the town of Silla, explored the
intervening countries, determined the southern confines of
the Sahara, and returned in 1797. In 1805 this adven-
turous traveller embarked on a second journey in the same
regions, for the purpose of descending down the river Joliba
to its moutL This journey added little to the discoveries
already made, and cost the traveller ids life. He is ascer-
tained to have passed Timbuktu, and to have reached Boussa,
where he was killed by the natives. In 1798 Dr Lacerda,
a scientific Portuguese traveller, who had already acquired
fame through his journeys 'in Brazil, mode the first great
journey in South-Eastem Africa, inland from Mozambique,
and reached the capital of the African king, known as the
Cazombe, in whose country he died.
Hornemann, in 1796-98, penetrated from Cairo to Mur-
zuk, and transmitted from that place valuable information
respecting the countries to the south, especially Bomu.
He then proceeded in that direction, but it is supposed
that he soon afterv/ards perished, as no accounts of his fur-
ther progress have ever reached Europe. The first actual
crossing of the continent that has been recorded was ac-
complished between the years 1 802 and 1 80C, by two Pom-
beiroa or mercantile traders in the emploj-ment of the Por-
tuguese, who passed from Angola eastward through the
territories of the Muata Hianvo and the Cazembe, to the
possessions on the Zambeze. In 1816 an expedition was
sent out by the English Government, under the command
of Captain Tuckey, to the river Congo, which was at that
time believed to he the lower course of the Joliba. This
was a disastrous undertaking, and the geographical addi-
tions were but slight, the river having been ascended a
distance of only 280 miles.
In 1819 Lyon and Ritchie penetrated from Tripoli to
Murzuk, and a little distance beyond that place.
In 1822 Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney set forth
from Tripoli in the same dire<^on, crossed the Great De-
sert, and reached, on the -Ith February 1823, the great lake
Tsad or Chad. The surrounding countries were explored as
far as Sakatu in the west, and Mandara in the south. This
journey was altogether one of the most successful and im-
portant into the interior. Oudney died in Bornu, but Clap-
perton undertook a second journey from the coast of Guinea,
nro-ssed the Kawara. and arrived at Sakatu, at which place he
also died. His servant, Richard Lander, rcturaed to Eng-
land, after having explored a part of the adjoining regions.
Major Laing succeeded in reaching Timbuktu from Tri- laing.
poli, but was murdered on his return in the desert.
In 1827 and 1828 Caillii set out from the Rio Nunez CdlUt
on the western coast, reached Timbuktu, and returned from
that place through the Great Desert to Marocco. A second
Portuguese journey was undertaken in 1830 from Mozam
bique to the Cazembo's dominions, and Major Monteiro,
the leader of the expeditioti, more fortunate than his pre-
decessor Dr Lacerda, was enabled to complete a map of the
country traversed, and to bring back a complete account
of this portion of the interior
The termination cf the Joliba, Kawara, or Niger, remained Landeic
in obscurity till 1830, when it was ascertained by Lander
and his brother, who succeeded in tracing the river from
Yaouri down to its mouth. They embarked on a second
expedition, which sailed in 1832, for the purpose of ascend-
ing the Kawara as far as Timbuktu. But only Rabba was
reached, and the general results of the expedition were
most disastrous.
The great Niger expedition, similar to the foregoing, Mp-r ix
consisted of three steam-vessels, and was despatched by Ihe p«<utioD-
Government in 1841, under Captain Trotter. It proved a
failure, and resulted in a melancholy loss of life.
In the region between the Kawara and the coast, Mr Duncan.
Duncan, one of the survivors of the Niger expedition,
made some additions to our geographical knowledge by
his journey to Adafoodia, in 1845-40. This enterprising
traveller met with an untimely death in a second attempt
in the same region for the purpose of reaching Timbuktu.
The preceding journeys were confined chiefly to the East-
northern and western portions of the continent A much A/ricac
gicator number of travellers explored the regions drained •»■*"""»
by the Nile, the salubrity of which, particularly of
Abyssinia, is so infinitely greater than that of Western
Africa, that among the many explorers of the former, a
very small proportion have died as compared with the im-
mense loss of life in Western Africa Among the most
distinguished of the earlier East African travellers are
Bruce (1768-73), Browne (1793), who reached Darfur,
Biirckhardt (1814), Cailliaud (1819), and more recently
Ruppel (1824-25), Russegger (1837), lyAbbadio (1838-
44), Beke (1840-44), D'Arnaud and Werna on the YfTiite
Nile (1840-42), and Brun RoUet (1845).
Though the Dutch settlement in South Africa was South-
founded as early as 1650, not much information of the ^'*<='"'
interior of that portion of the continent was gained till the '***'"'*
end of the 18th century, when a series of journeys was com-
menced by Sparrmann, and followed up by Vaillant, Barrow,
Trotter, SomerviUe, lichtenstein, Burchell (1812), Camp-
bell, Thomson, Smith, Alexander (1836-37), and Harris.
A station of the Church Missionary Society was estab- Uombu
lished near Mombas, in about 4° S. lat. on the east coast misaoa-
of Africa, in 1845, and the zealous missionaries in charge
of it began to make exploring journeys into the interior.
Thus, early in 1849, the Rev. Mr Rebmann discovered the
great snow-clad mountain of Kilima-njaro, rising on the
edge of the inland plateau ; and his companion, Dr Krapf,
taking a more northerly route, came in sight of a second
huge mountain named Kenia, also snow-clad, though directly
beneath the equator. Frequent reports reached these mis-
sionaries of vast lakes in the interior beyond the mountains
they had discovered, and their information awakened a
great interest in this region at home.
About this time an embassy, for the purpose of conclud-
ing commercial treaties with the chiefs of Northern Africa,
as far as Lake Chad, by which the legitimate trade of these
counfcriea should bo extended and the system of slavery .-,ich-nJ»
abolianod, was originated by Mr James Richardson, who so*
DISC0TEE1E8.]
AFRICA
247
Barib.
lilving-
Btone.
(L. Ngami).
GtBifa.
LivTDg-
slUfM (the
Zaoibeze).
Galton.
Biiva Porta
Living-
fetODO
( Victoria
Falls).
Moffat
Haha and
Rath.
Bastian.
UuChnillii
Burton nnd
Spcke.
left England for tbia purpose in 1849, accompanied by Drs
Barth and Overweg. The expedition had already almost
reached the scene of its labours when Richardson died;
Overweg also fell a victim to his exertions, but Dr Barth
•ontinued hia explorations tUl 1856. During this time he
raversed in many directions almost the whole of the
northern Soudan, completing a series of journeys which
must always remain most conspicuous in North African
travel, and upon which we are still dependent for the greater
part of our knowledge of the central negro states.
In the summer of 1849, 'Dr Livingstone, who, as an
agent of the London Missionary Society, had laboured and
travelled in the countries immediately north of the Cape
Colony since 1840, began those remarkable journeys in the
interior of Southern Africa, which have continued until the
present time, and have given to him the first place among
African discoverers. The finding of Lake Ngami, the
central point of the continental drainage of South Africa,
was the great discovery of the first year.
Two journeys from the west coast now claim attention.
In 1846 a Portuguese trader named Graoa succeeded in
again reaching the country of the South African potentate,
named the Muata Yanvo, from Angola ; he was followed
by a Hungarian named Ladislaus Magyar, who explored
the central country in various directions from 1847 to 1851.
Between 1851 and 1853 Livingstone made two journeys
northward from his station in the land of the Bechuanas,
and was the first European to embark upon the upper
course of the Zambeze. From the Makololo country, in
the central part of the river basin, he now led a party of
natives westwards up-stream to the water-parting of the
continent at the little Lake Dilolo, and thence to the western
slope, reaching the Portuguese coast at Loanda in 1854.
During 1851 Galton explored a part of the south-western
country inhabited by the Damaras and Ovampo, from Wal-
fisch Bay to a point in lat. 17° 58' S., and long. 21° E.,
determining accurately a number of positions in this region.
On the south-east, also, Gassiot made an interesting journey
from Port Natal north-westward tlirough the mountains to
the river Limpopo.
Two most remarkable journeys across the whola continent
now follow in order ; the one, made by Silva Porto, a Por-
tuguese trader, who leaving Benguela in 1853, took an
eastward route, parallel to but considerably northward of
the Zambeze, over perfectly unknown country. He then
rounded the southern end of the Lake Nyassa (afterwards
explored by Livingstone), and made his way across the east
coast-land to the mouth of the Eovuma river, having spent
a year and two months in his tedious march. The other
was executed by Livingstone, who in returning (1855-56)
by a somewhat more northerly route than that travelled over
in going westward to Loanda, descended the Zambeze to its
taouth at Quilimane, discovering the wonderful Victoria
'''alls of the river on his way.
In 1856 an important addition was made to the more
exact geography of Africa, in a survey of the greater part
of the course of the Orange river, by Mr Moffat, a son of
the veteran South African missionary.
The following year was one of great activity in African
exploration. Damara Land, in the south-west, was tra-
versed by Messrs Hahn and Rath as far as the southern
limit of the Portuguese territory at tlie Cunene river ; Dr
Bastian was exploring the interior of Congo and Angola,
and Du Chaillu bad begun his first journey in the forest
country of the Fan tribes on the equatorial west coast.
Under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society,
Cuptains Burton and Speke, already distinguished by their
periloiLs journey to Harar, a trading cent.-e in the Somali
and Galla country of the east African promontory, set out
IVuni Zanzibar, to ascertain the truth about the groat inland
lakes which had been reported by the Mombas missionaries.
Their mosi; successful journey (1857-59) resulted in the
discovery of Lake Tanganyika, in a deep basin, between
3° and 8° S. lat., and of the southern portion of a perliaps
greater lake northward, supposed by Speke, its discoverer,
to be the head reservoir of the Nile.
In a new journey in the Zambeze region in 1859, Dr
Livingstone, accompanied by Dr Kirk, traced the Shire
river, a northern tributary of the Zambeze, to its outflow
from the Nyassa, the most southerly of the great African
chain of fresh lakes.
About this time also several travellers (Petherick (1858),
Lejean, Miani, the Poncets, Antinori, Debono, Peney)
were adding much to the existing knowledge of the Upper
White Nile from the Egyptian side; and in the north the
Algerian Sahara was being explored by the French scien-
tific traveller Duveyrier.
In 1860 Captain Speke, anxious to extend knowledge
of the great inland reservoirs wliich had been discovered in
his former journey, and to connect them with the known
countries to northward, accompanied by Captain Grant,
again left Zanzibar. Reaching a point on the north-western
shores of the great lake which he had previously made
known, and which he now named the Victoria Nyanza, the
traveller thence traced the outflowing river to the White
Nile ct Gondokoro, thus completing a great link in the
chain of African discoveries, which binds the country known
from the east coast to that explored from the side of Egypt.
Meanwhile Dr Livingstone had endeavoured to fiud a
way to his newly -discovered Lakf Nyassa from the mouth
of the Rovuma, a large river which flows to the Indian
Ocean near Cape Delgado, and which was also reported to
take its rise in this lake, but the river proved to be un-
navigable beyond a point not far from the sea. He
returned then (in 1861) to the Shire river; and, carrying
a boat past its rapids, launched out to explore the whole
length of Lake Nyassa.
A. series of important journeys by Gerhard RoMfs had
now (1861) begun in Marocco and in the Maroccan Sahara;
and on the equatorial east coast region. Baron von der
Decken had extended Rebmann's information in the region
of the snowy mountain, Kilima-njaro.
In the south the artist Baines had crossed the Kalahari
Desert from Damara Land to the falls of the Zambeze.
In 1862 Petherick made an important journey of explora-
tion in 'the Nile region west of Gondokoro.
The year 1864 was marked by the discovery of a second
great reservoir lake of the Nde, near the latitu-le of the
Victoria Nyanza, by Baker, pushing southward from Gon-
dokoro. This lake the discoverer named the Albert Nyanza.
During this year also, Rohlfs extended his travels from
Marocco to the oasis of Tuat, thence making his way to
Ghadames and Tripoli; in Western Africa, the oSicers of
the French marine stationed at the Gaboon explored the
delta region of the great Ogowai river; and Du Chaillu,
in a second journey (1864—65), entered the gorilla country
of Ashango, south of this river ; whilst, on the east coast,
Baron von der Decken attempted tlie navigation of the
Juba, but was destined to fall a martyr to the jealousies of
the Galla and Somali tribes, whose territories the river
divides.
jUter a short stay at Tripoli, the traveller Rohlfa again
turned southward, and in a journey which lasted from
18C5 to 1867, crossed the whole northern continent — first
reaching Lake Chad by almost the same route as that for-
merly taken by Barth, and thence striking south-westward
by a new path to the Bight of Benin.
In 1866 some progress was made in discovery in the
west, by the navigation of the Ogowai river by Walker, foi
200 miles from it« mouth. Hahn and Rath also extended
Living-
stone and
Kirk (the
Shire).
Explorers
of the
White
Nile.
Duveyrier
Speke aiij
Grant
Living-
stone [It,
Nya^a).
Rohlfs
(Marocco),
Von
Decken.
Baines.
B.^ker
(Albert
Lake)*
DuChiillu.
Von
Decken.
Rohlfs
(acros-s N.
Africa).
248
A
RICA
[PBOOBBSSIVB
and r.'. w
Ahysstnion
expodi*
ttOQ.
Bchwt'i
furth.
Baker's
Kgyptic.n
expedi-
tion.
Living-
BtoDO.
(Lake
Lieinba).
<L.-.kc'.
Mooro and
BangWcolo).
(MsDJUO-
(The
Lualaba).
thoir exploration of Daamra LatkL On the oast«m Bide
Messrs Wakefield and New, the successors of Krapf and
llolimann in the Moml)as Mission, made numerous short
journeys in the Qalla country, and the former collected
very valuable native information respecting the countries
lying between this coast-land and the great lakes of the
Nile basin. In this year alao Dr Livingstone had again
entered the Rovuma river, beginning that greatest of all
his journeys from which he has not yet (1873) returned,
and the outline of which we shall notice further on.
Still farther south, in 18GG-C7, the discovery of gold in
the mountains between the Zambeze and Limpopo rivers,
by the pioneer Mauch, gave great impetus to exploration
in this part of the continent. The years 18G7-C8 brought
the memorable Abyaainlan campaign, and the accurate re-
cords kept of the line of march on the high land from
Mas.sowah to Mngdala formed a most valuable contribution
to African geography.
Most important in the following years (1809-71) were
ine researches of the botanist, Dr Schweinfurth, in the
region of the complicated network of tributaries received
by the White Nile west of Oondokoro, during which he
passed the water-parting of the Nile basin in this direction,
and came into a new area of drainage, possibly belonging
to the system of Lake Chad ; and the outsotting of a great
Egyptian military expedition (18G9) by Sir Samuel Baker,
for the purpose of exploration of the Upper Nile and of the
extermination of slave traffic on the river, and to plant
Egyptian military posts in the regions visited.
The letters received from time to time in this country
from Dr Livingstone enable us to trace roughly his move-
ments from 18G6 to the present time as follows : — Arriving
from Bomljiiy, on the East African coast, near the mouth
of the Rovuma, ho passed up the course of this river to the
confluence of its main tributary branches, one coming from
the north-west, the other from south-west Following Uie
latter arm, the traveller appears to Have gone round the
southern end of the Lake Nyassa, and, marching then in a
north-westerly direction, he crossed the head waters of
the Aruangoa tributary of the Zambeze, near the track
of Lacerda, ia the previous century ; ascending a high
land, he came upon a portion of the Chau\beze river,
belonging fo a different ba.sin, and- continuing in a north-
westerly direction, discovered Lake Liemba, a southern
extension of Lake Tanganyika, in April 18G7. Thence he
turned to the Cazembe's town, and in journeys northward
and southward from this point, made known the two great
lakes, Moero (Sept. 1867), ap(^ Bangweolo or Bemba (July
1868), which form part of a uevj system, connected by the
Chambozo (also named the Luapula and Lualaba) river in a
basin south and west of that of the Tanganyika. In 1869
Livingstone had made his way to Ujiji, Burton's halting-
place, on the eastern shore of the Tanganyika. Hence,
crossing the lake, he penetrat-ed the dense tropical forests
and swamps of Manyuoma country, in the heart of the
southern portion of the continent, and during 1870-71
traced the vast river (Lualaba) flowing out of the Lake
Moero, in its north and westerly course, to a second, and
then a third great expansion — Lake Kamalondo ^he one,
and the other a still tmvisited body of water lying in about
3° S. lat., and 25° or 26° E. long; also learning, by native
report, that the Lualaba (which is in all probability the
upper course of the mighty Congo river) received a great
tributary from south-westward. This south-western arm
also expands into a vast lake, which Livingstone has named,
in anticipation, Lake Lincoln.
Though the untruth of a report of Livingstone's death,
near the Nyassa, had been proved by an expedition sent
out on his track by the Geographical Society of London in
1867, yet, at the time of his Manjuema journey, the oro-
bable fate of the great traveller, from whom Jio news had
come out of Airica for more than two years, became a mat-
ter of the greatest anxiety among all classes in Europe and
America. This led to a special mission for Dr Livingstone's
aid, generously fitted out at the cost of the proprietor of an
American newspaper. Stanley, the leader of this expedi-
tion, made a bold march from Zanzibar to Ujiji, on Lake
Tanganyika, and was fortunate in meeting the great travel-
ler there, returning from Manyucma, broken down by the
severity of the task which he had accomplished, and in
need of everything. A boi^t voyage round the northern
end of Tanganyika, undertaken in the latter part of 1871
by Livingstone and Stanley together, proved that this great
lake has no apparent outlet in a northerly direction, and
leaves the question of its drainage in considerable doubt.
Recruited in health, and supplied with stores and fol-
lowers, Livingstone is believed to have started afresh from
Unyanyembe, a point midway in the route from Zanzibar to
Ujiji, where he parted with Stanley, in autumn of 1872, to
carry out a projected journey, in which ho will clear up
all doubts reapecting the ultimate direction of the great
Lualaba river.
Of the expeditions which have been progressing in Africa
contemporaneously with these later journeys of Dr Living-
stone, that of Sir Samuel Baker is perhaps the most im-
portant, though its story has until now been one of almost
continuous hardship and disaster. Up to the middle of the
year 1870, at which time the expedition, consisting of up-
wards of 1500 men, with numerous vessels, had safely Bakct.
reached a point on the Nile in 9° 26' N. lat, all appears to
have gone well ; but beyond this the passages of the river
had become choked with overgrowth of vegetation, and
each yard of advance had to bo cut through this living bar-
rier ; disease broke out among the troops, and the expedi-
tion was reduced to the greatest straits. In the end, how-
ever, it appears to have been completely successful, and
before Sir Samuel Baker's return to Egypt in 1873, tht
whole country, as far south as the equator, had been takei
possession of in the name of Egypt, and several garrisons
had been planted to maietain the hold.
Knowledge of the rich country between the Transvaal
BepubUo and the Zambeze has extended with wonderful
rapidity, through the exertions of the pioneers Mauch, Mohr,
Baines, Elton, and St Vincent Erskine, so that this region
has now almost passed out of the category of lands in which
geographical discoveries can be made. A point of groat
interest in the progress of th^ exploration of this country
was the discovery by Mauch, in 1871, of the ruins of an
ancient city or fortress, naqred Zjxabaoe, certainly not of
African construction, about 200 miles due west irom
Sofala, in lat 20° 15' S., long. 30° 45' E., through which it
has been sought to identify this region ^Nith the Ophir of
Scripture. The finding, in 1869, of rich diamond fields in
the upper valley of the Orange river, and in that of its
tributary the Vaal, caused a rush of emigration to these
districts, and tended still further to develop this portion of
Africa.
North African exploration is aiso vigorously progressing.
In the west, during 1869, Winwood Reade made a journey
from Sierra Leone to the head of the Niger, and from 1867
onwards M. Munzingor, consul at Maasowa, has greatly Monzinger.
extended our knowledge of Northern Abyssinia. A notable
journey of exploration in the Sahara remains to be men-
tioned. In 1869 Dr Nachtigal was appointed to calry
presents from the King of Prussia to the Sultan of Bomn,
on Lake Chad, in acknowledgment of that potentate's aid
to former traveUers. Besides accomplishing this mission
this explorer has added very considerably to our knowlodgeof
the Eastern Sahara by investigating the central m luntainoua
countrv of Tibesti, hitherto only known by report; and in
Kcceot
Booth
African
raAearchtM.
' Win wood
■ Eeade.
' Dr Nach-
, t'gal.
DlSCOVEKIES.J
AFRICA
249
The Koyal
Geographi-
Society's
Expedition
of 1872.
Origin of
the name
of Africa.
more recent Journeys, stJI being continued, he has proved
the' existence of an outflowing river from Lake Chad, which
haa hitherto been believed to be a terminal lake, the fresh-
ness of its waters having on this account appeared an
anomaly in physical geography.
With the double purpose of affording support to Dr
Livingstone, and of adding to the geography of Equatorial
Africa, two expeditions were fitted out by the Royal Geo-
graphical Society in 1872. One of these, led by Lieut.
Cameron, was planned to follow the footsteps of Living-
stone in his present journey from the eastern side, entering
the country by the ordinary trade route from Zanzibar to-
wards the Tanganyika. This expedition started from Zan-
zibar early in 1873, under the auspices of Sir Bartle Frere's
mission, and has now made considerable progress towards
the interior. The other, named the " Livingstone Congo
Expedition," under Lieuts. Grandy, is to pass from the
west coast to the interior, by foDowing the river Congo,
which is almost without doubt the lower course of the great
Ivualaba river, about to be further explored by Dr Living-
stone coming to it from the eastern side. The latest
accounts from this expedition are also in the highest
degree favourable, and an advance of upwards of 150 miles
has already been made from Loanda, A new expedition,
under the leadersliip of the indefatigable traveller Rohlfs, is
now in preparation, and is destined to explore the unknown
portions of the Libyan desert.
Thus the exploration of the great continent is slowly
advancing year by year, but with earnest and unceasing
progress. As yet the only portions of Africa of which we
possess any apjiroach to an accurate topographical know-
ledge are, the Cape Colony and Natal under British rule
in the south, the French colony of Algeria, the Portuguese
possession of Angola, and Egypt and Tunis, dependent on
the Turkish Empire, in the north.
Throughout the rest of the continent, a network of routes
accomplished by travellers gives in most parts the great out-
line of its features; where these lines interlace more closely,
as in the South African Republics, and in Abyssinia, the
general aspect of the land is now so well known as to pre-
clude the possibility of any important geographical dis-
covery there ; elsewhere, however, the gaps between the
tracks are wider. In the vast inhospitable region of the
Sahara there are great areas still unknown to civilised man,
and the equatorial region of dense forests in Central Africa
is still one of the greatest terrce hicognitce of the globe.
The origin and meaning of the name of this great con-
tinent has been a fertile subject for conjecture among
philologists and antiquaries. By the Greeks it was called
Libya, Aipvq, and by the Romans Africa. Varro believed
he had found the etymology of the former in Libs, the
Greek name of the south ■ivind ; and Servius, the scholiast
on Virgil, proposed to derive the other from the Latin word
aprica (sunny), or the Greek word a-phrike (without cold).
It is more probable that the name Libya was derived by
the Greeks from the name of the people whom they found
in possession of the country to the westward of Egypt, and
who are believed to have been those-that are called in the
Hebrew Scriptures Lehahim or Luhim. With respect to
the word Africa, Suidas tells us that it was the proper
name of that great city which the Romans called Carthago,
and the Greeks, Karckedon. It is certain, at least, that it
was applied originally to the country in the immediate
neighbourhood of Carthage, that part of the continent first
known to the Romaus, and that it was subsequently ex-
tended with their increasing knowledge, till it came at last
to include the whole continent. Of the meaning of the
name, the language of Carthage itself supplies a simple
and natural explanation ; the word Afrygah, signifying a
separate establishment, or in other words a colony, as
Carthage was of Tyre. . So that the Phoenicians of old,
at home, may have spoken of their Afrygah, just as we
speak of our colonies. Be that as it may, the Arabs oi
the present day stUl give the name of Afrygah or Afrikiyah
to the territory of Tunis. 'It may also be remarked, that
the name seems not to have been used by the Romans
tUl after the time of the first Punic war, when they became
first acquainted witJl 'What they afterwards called Africa
Propria.
Africa lies between the latitudes of 38° N. and 35° S.,
and is of all the continents the most truly tropicaL It Ls,
strictly speaking, an enormous peninsula attached to Asia
by the isthmus of Suez. The most northern point is the
Cape,, situated a little to the west of Cabo Blanco, and
opposite Sicily, which lies in lat. 37° 20' 40" N., long. 9°
41' E. Its southernmost point is Cabo d'Agulhas, in 34°
49' 15" S. ; the distance between these two points being
4330 geographical, or about 5000 English miles. The
westernmost point is Cabo Verde, in long. 17° 33' W., its
easternmost Cape Jerdaffun, in long. 51° 21' E., lat. 10° 25'
N., the distance between the two points being about the
same as its length. The western coasts are washed by the
Atlantic, the northern by the Mediterranean, and the
eastern by the Indian Ocean.
The form has been likened to a triangle, or to an oval,
but such a comparison is scarcely warranted, it being of an
irregular shape, the northern half rounding ofi", the southern
one contracting and terminating in a point.
The superficial C'ctent of Africa has never been accurately
determined, but may be taken at 9,858,000 geographical
square miles, exclusive of the islands. It is larger than
either Europe or Australia, but smaller than Asia and the
,New World.
The coast line of Africa is very re,gular and unbroken,
presenting few bays and peninsulas. The chief indentation
is formed by the Gulf of Guinea, with its two secondary
divisions, the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra. On
the northern coast, the Gulf of Sidra and the Gulf of Kabes
must be mentioned, and on the eastern coast the GuU of
Arabia.
The physical configuration may be considered under two
heads, the great lower-lands and plains of Northern Africa,
and the great table-lands, with their mountain ranges and
groups, of Central and Southern Africa. The great northern
lower-land comprises the Sahara, the Lake Chad region,
and the valley of the Lower Nile. The Sahara is by no
means a plain throughout, but for the greater part it rises
into table-lands, interspersed with mountain groups of
6000 feet elevation, and probably more, and the term
lower-lands can only be applied to it in a general way, to
distinguish it from the more elevated region to the south.
The Sahara has often been pictured as a monotonous
and immense expanse of sand ; but nothing could be more
erroneous, as the greatest variety exists in the physical
configuration of its surface, as well as in its geological
features. Our knowledge is as yet too scanty to enable us
to trace its features in every part. On the north, this great
desert is fringed with extensive table-lands, which in some
places rise abruptly from the Mediterranean, as the great
plateau of Barbary, extending through Marocco, Algeria,
and Tunis, and the table-land of Barca, elevated 1500 feet,
and gradually descending towards the Delta of the Nile,
This elevated ground is succeeded to the south by a
depressed region, which extends from the Great SjTtis oi
Gulf of Sidra, in a general direction as far as Middle
Egypt, and comprisos'tlie oases of Augila and Siwah. So
greatly depressed is this region, that tUfe level of the oasis
of Siwah is 100 feet, and in one place (Bahrein) even 167
feet below the level of the sea. The western portions of this
country, between the oases of Augila and Siwah, explored io
L — 32
Position
and extent
Form
Superficial
extent.
Coast lin«
and indea-
tationa.
Physical
contiguTa
tion.
The
northern
lower-land
of Africa.
250
AFRICA
TpHTBICAL
1869 by the traveller Rohlfs, were found to be evorywncre
from 100 to 150 feet beneath the level of the Moditorranean ;
and M. de Lessops, in conductii>g a Burvey from the
Bigyptian side, found the eastern part to be much beneath
the level of the Nile. Here then must be one of the
greatest areas of depression in the land of the globe, com-
parable with that which surrooDds the Caspian Sea. This
depressed region is again followed by a tablo-land of con-
siderable extent and width, oxtendinf; from the Gulf of
Kabes in a southerly direction, along the Tripoline shores,
and probably traversing, in the same direction, the Libyan
Desert, and reaching as far as the Nile, near the first
cataract. Its north-western part, as far as Sokna, consists
of the Hamadah, a stony, dreary, and extensive table-land,
of from 1500 to 2000 feet high, " which seems to be like
c broad bolt intercepting the progress of commerce, civili-
sation, and conquest, from the shores of the Mediterranean
to Central Africa." Near Sokna this plateau breaks up
and forms what are called the Jebel-es-Soda, or Black
Mountains, a most picturesque group of cliffs ; and again,
on the route from Murzuk to Egypt, it also breaks into
huge cliffs, and bears the name of El-Harouj. The whole
of the central portion of the Northern Sahara, as far south
as the plateau of Air or Asben, is occupied by similar bare
table-lands, with lower areas of sand dunes between.
Numerous wadys, the only inhabited parts of the country,
intersect the slopes of these plateaux. The country of
Ahaggar, between 23° and 29" N. lat., and 5° E. long.,
appears to form the central elevation from which the greater
of these dry water-courses radiate ; from it a series of long
wadys — one of them, the wady Rharis or Igharghar, being
about 600 miles in length — run northward towards a
depressed country which lies inland from the Gulf of
Cabes, and contains several salt lagoons, covered with a
few feet of water in winter, but dried up in summer, and
lying considerably below the Mediterranean level. Other
wadys radiate .west and south-west from Ahaggar to the
unknown region of the Sahara, which lies between this and
the northern bend of the Niger. The most truly desert
region of the Sahara is an irregular belt of shifting Band
dimes, the " Erg " or " Areg," which stretches from the
lagoons above referred to near the Mediterranean coast
south-westward to near the river Senegal and the Atlantic,
in an unbroken chain for upwards of 2000 miles, and hav-
ing an average width of perhaps 200 miles. In this sand
belt the wadys of the inward slope of the plateau of Barbary
terminate, excepting the Wady Saura, which crosses" the
Erg to the important oasis of Tuat, near the centre of its
southern border, and the Wady Draa, which turns to the
Atlantic coast. From Wady Draa a great plain extends
along the western shore as far as the river Senegal, and
probably continues as such to the east towards Timbuktu,
and thence to Lake Chad. Thus it appears that the
western half of the Sahara is surrounded by a broad belt
of plains and depressions, the central parts being formed
by extensive table-lands, with occasional mountain knots,
such as that which forms the fertile kingdom o( Air and
Asben, the culminating points of which are from 4000 tor
5000 feet high.
The eastern portion of the Sahara appears to nave nearly
the hame general elevation as the western half, and near
its centre several fertile mountain regions, comparable with
that of Asben, are known. Such is the mountainous country
of Borgu, north-east of the kingdoms which surround Lake
Chad, and Tibesti, north of it, in the centre of the Tibbu
district, recently explored by Dr Nachtigal, who found rich
vegetation and abundant animal life in the valleys of this
Thc^gnsit mountain group
Africin To the south and east of the region just described
plitetu'. Africa may be considered as one connected mass of elevated
land, com,jrising the most eitonsive table-lande, as well bb
high mountain groups and chains.
ITie great mass of the African plateau land is to south-
ward of the 10th parallel of N. latitude, but it is pro-
longed on the eastern side almost to the north coast
of the continent by the wedgo-shapcd table-land of Abys-
sinia, the highest surface in Africa, and by the moun-
tains which extend from it between the lower course of the
Nile and the Red Sea. fhe terminal point of the high
land in this direction may be said to bo Jebel Attaka,
which rises immediately west of Suez to a height of 2640
feet From this point to the southern extremity of the Eastern
continent the eastern, and generally higher edge, of the "^R" "' "■•.
great plateau runs in an almost unbroken line. Passing P'"'"""-
southwards along its margin, the most prominent heights
before the tableland of Abyssinia is reached are Mounts
Elba, 6900, and Soturba, 6009 feet in elevation, near the
middle of the African coast of the Ked Sea. There may,
however, be greater heights in the little known region of
Nubia, which lies between these mountains and the Nile.
The eastern slope of the Abyssinian plateau begins im-
mediately south of the port of Massowah, and is a uni-
form line of steep descent, unbroken by any river, falling
abruptly from an average height of 7000 feet to the
depressed plain which here skirts the coast of the Red
Sea. This edge, which extends southward for at least
800 miles, fo.-ms the water-parting of the rivers which have
furrowed deeply into the opposite slopes of the plateauj
and appears o be higher than the general surface of the
country; yet oeveral lofty groups of mountains rising from
the level of 'he high land attain a much greater elevation,
and Mount Abba Jared, the highest known point, is esti-
mated at 15,000 feet above the sea. Between the most
southern part of Abyssinia which is known and the
equator, where the edge of the plateau has again been
partly explored, a long space of unknown country inter-
venes; but there is every reason to believe that the slope
is continuous. Mount Kenia, 18,000 feet, and Kilima-
njaro, 18,715 feet, the highest points in all Africa, mark
the eastern edge under the equator; further south on the
inland route from Zanzibar to the Tanganyika, the edge is
known as the Rubeho Mountains, with a height of 6700
feet at the pass by which they are crossed on the caravan
route. Still further, the edge is again known where it
forms a rampart, called the Njesa, walling in the Nyassa Lake.
From this point Mount Zomba, 7000 feet high, near Lake
Stirwa, Mount Milanje, 8000 feet, and Mount Clarendon,
6000 feet, carry it south to where the Zambeze river makes
the first break in its uniform line. The narrows and rapids
of Lupata, below the town of Tete, mark the point at which
the river breaks through the plateau land to the coaat slope
beneath it. Passing the river, the eastern edge is again
followed in the Mashona and Matoppo Mountains (7200
feet) of Mosilikatse's kingdom, from which heights the
chief tributaries of the Limpopo river flow. At the head-
waters of that river the plateau edge forma the Hooge Veldt
of the Transvaal Republic which joins with the Kathlamba
or Drakenberg. The portion of the edge which bears this
name is specially prominent: it runs southward in a huge
wall of rocky crags which support the table-land behind
for 500 miles, almost parallel with the coast, and at a dis-
tance of 150 miles from it, having Zulu Land, Natal, and
Caffraria on the slopes of the spurs which it throws down
to the coast. In the Transvaal Republic, where the
Drakenberg joins the Hooge Veldt, the edge attains a
height of 8725 feet in the summit named after the explorer
Mauch, but it is highest where it forms the interior limit
of Natal, and where CathMn Peak rises to 10,357 feet
above the sea.
As in Abyssinia, so here, this part of the eastern plateau
FEATUEF.a.]
AFRICA
251
edge is the great water-parting of the continent, and
the streams which form the Orange river flow down its
invrard slope. There is no break in the continuance of the
edge where it passes round from the Drakenberg to form
the inmost and highest of the alternate ridges and terraces
of the Cape Colony. It is now named in successive paits
Sotttheni from east to west the Storm Berge, the Zuur Berg, Schnee
edge of the Berge, Nieuwe-veld, and Ecgge-veld, the last-named por-
blatcau. j jqjj qJ jjjg edge turning northward with the- bend of the
western coast. Its greatest height within the Cape
Colony is in Compass Berg, the summit of the Schnee
Berge, 8500 feet above the sea.
The outer terraces of the Cape Colony, in which two
chief ridges may be traced, lie closer together, and much
nearer the coast; between these and the inmost or chief
edge is the dry elevated region known as the Great Karroo.
Their elevation is also very considerable, though they are
broken through ty lines of drainage sloping from the chief
edge ; the part of the middle ridge, which is named the Little
Zwarte Berge, attains 7G28 feet, and several points in both
are upwards of 6000 feet above the sea. Table Idountain,
a well-known and flat-topped mass of granite overhanging
Cape Town, 3550 feet high, is the nucleus of the peninsula
which extends south to form the Cape of Good Hope, but is-
altogether separated from the mountain ridges of the colony.
Western The western edge of the great African plateau is generally
bdge of the lower than the eastern, since the whole slope of the continent
plateau ^^ more or less from the great heights on its eastern side,
towards the west, but it is also clearly traceable, and of great
height throughout. Bounding the western side of the Cape
Colony, the three ridges above - noticed run together, and
decrease somewhat in elevation as the mouth of the Orange
river is approached. Their elevation at the point of union
in Little Namaqua Land is still very considerable ; and here
Mount Welcome attains 5130 feet, and Vogelklip, to north
of it, 4343 feet above the sea. Beyond the Orange river in
Namaqua and Damara Lands, the western . edge continues in
one or more terraces parallel to the coast. Mount Omatako,
in the latter country, rises to 8800 feet. Northward,
through Benguela and Angola, a more broken series of ridges
and terraces mark the descent from the interior plateau, and
the great Congo river breaks through to the coast-land at
the place where it forms the cataracts of the narrow gorge
of Yellala. Sierra Complida is the name given by the
Portuguese to that part of the western edge which runs
between the Congo and the rapids of the lower Ogowai
river on the equator. On the plateau edge at the southern
side of this river, Du ChaiUu has made known a mountain
of 12,000 feet in elevation; and the furthest point which
has been reached on the Ogowai was in the vicinity of high
mountains. Passing the Ogowai, and following the coast
of the Bight of Biafra, the edge is now kno-wn as the Sierra
do Crystal. The Camaroon mountains, at the head of the
gulf, form a high peninsula of volcanic mountains, rising
to 13,700 feet; but are isolated from the plateau lands,
and belong rather to the remarkable line of volcanic heights
which shows itself in the islands of Fernando Po, Prince's
Island, St Thomas, and Annobon, stretching away into the
ocean in the direction of St Helena. From the Sierra do
Crystal the plateau edge inclines towards the lower course
of the river Niger to a point above its delta, and below the
confluence of the Benue, and then turns abruptly to the east.
The heights which skirt the northern coast-land of the
Gulf of Guinea, and which stretch as far as the head-waters
of the Senegal anc' Gambia, and in the inner slope of which
the Niger also has its sources, may be con.sidered as an
extension from the great jjlatciu. But they are of smaller
general elevation; and that best known part of the ridge,
which has the name of the Kong Mountains, is apparently
not higher than from 2000 to 3000 feet
The northern edge of the great African plateau is aunost Northern
unknown ; but there are e-vidences that it nms eastward '^'•s* °i ^*
between the 4 th and 8th parallels of N. kritude, to a point P'*'^^'
at which it is well known, and where the Nile falls over its
slope, forming the succession of rapids above Gondokoro.
The character of the upper Benue river is that of a motintain-
born river; and Mounts Alantika, 10,000 feet high, and
Mindif, 6000 feet, which rise to southward of Lake Chad,
seem to be the outliers of the plateau edge in which the
Benue has its sources. Beyond the Nile the margin of the
plateau curves northward, to form the inner slope of the
Abyssinian table-land.
The general elevation of the surface of the great African
plateau, the limits of which have now been traced, may
be taken at from 3000 to 4000 feet above the sea; bul
its surface presents very great undulations, from the
depressions which are occupied by some of the great lakes,
to the high mountains which rise above its average leveL
The most prominent of these interior masses yet kno-wn Heights
are the Blue Mountains, discovered by Baker, rising from i° the in-
the western shore of the Albert Lake to a height of per- '•°,^°J^'''^"'*
haps 1 0,000 feet, and which are believed to extend south- 1" * ^"^
ward to unite with the Balegga Mountains, made known
by Livingstone in his journey of 1871, north-west of Lake
Tanganyika; these again are believed to join with the
mountains which rise midway between the Victoria, the
Albert Nyanza, and the Tanganyika, dividing the drainage
to these vast lakes, and rising here in Mount M'fumbiro to
upwards of 10,000 feet. Another great central line of
heights which also had an important part in directing the
water-shed of the interior of South Africa, runs from the
north of the Nyassa Lake, where it is named the Lobisa
plateau, through the Muchinga Moimtains, which separate
the drainage of the Lualaba and its lakes from that of the
Zambeze basin, westward to the heights in the far interior
of Angola, known as the Mossamba Mountains, and from
which rivers flow in all directions.
The plateau of Barbary, in the north of the continent. Plateau of
beyond the lower land of the Sahara, is a distinct and Barbary.
separate high land, stretchmg from Cape Bon, on the Medi-
terranean coast opposite Sicily, in a south-westerly direction
to the Atlantic coast, through Tunis, Algeria, and Marocoo.
The eastern portion of it in Algeria and Tunis rises in a
broad plateau from 2000 to 3000 feet in general height,
with outer heights, enclosing an elevated steppe, at a
distance of about 100 miles apart. On the west, where it
enters Marocco, these outer ridges draw together and form
the high ranges of the Atlas Mountains, rising to a much
greater elevation, and attaining 11,400 feet in the summit
named Mount Miltsin.
The African continent, as far as it has yet been explored,
seems to be the portion of the globe least disturbed by
volcanic action. The known active volcanoes in the con-
tinent are those of the Camaroon Mountains, on the coast
of the Gulf of Guinea in the west, and the Artali volcano
in the depressed region of tho salt desert which lies be-
tween the Abyssinian plateau and the Bed Sea. This
latter volcano is probably a part of the system with which
tho volcanic island of Jebel Tur, in tho Red Sea, near the
same latitude, is connected One other active volcano only. Greater
is known by report., — the Njemsi volcano, in the country gcologicil
between Mount Kenia and the Victoria Lake. Shocks "^ ^^'
of earthquake appear to be almost unknown in any part
of tlie continent. It has been pointed out by the late
Sir Roderick Murchison that the older rocks which are
known to circle round the continent, unquestionably itt-
cluded an interior marshy or lacustrine country, and that
the present centre zone of waters, whether lakes, rivers,
or marshes, extending from Lake Chad to Lake Ngnnij,
are Ijut the great modern residual phenomena of those
252
A F R I C A
[physical
Uinerals
and metals,
General
nature of
the surface
of Africa.
Equatorial
forests.
of a me^ozoic age. The surface of tlie South African
continent has not been diversified in recent timea by the
outpouring of hiva streams, or broken up by the efforts
of subterranean heat to escape. Nor has it been sub-
jected to those great o.scillations by which the surfaces
of many other countries have been so placed under the
waters of the ocean as to hav^ been strewed over with
erratic Hocks and marine e.tuvise. The interior of South
Africa may therefore be viewed as a country of very
ancient conservative terrestrial character. Knowledge of
the special geology of Africa is yet confined to the few
parts of the continent in which Europeans have perma-
nently settled. lu thij respect the southern region of the
Cape Colony and Natal have advanced furthest, and their
geological features have been mapped out with some
accuracy. Elsewhere in the continent, excepting in Algeria
and Angola, light has only been thrown along the line
followed by the few explorers who have given attention to
this subject.
Among the minerals of Africa, salt is widely distributed,
though in some districts wholly wanting. Thus in the
Abyssinian high land the salt, which is brought up in small
blocks from the depressed salt plain on the Red Sea coast
beneath, is so valued as to be used as a money currency ;
and in the native kingdoms of South Central Africa, the
salt districts are royal possessions strictly guarded. Metals
seem nowhere very abundant. Gold is perhaps the most
generally distributed. The gold-fields of the Transvaal
Republic and of the country which extends thence to the
Zambeze, are numerous; but no jield has as yet been dis-
covered of sufficient quantity to overcome the difficulties
of working, and of transport to the di.stant sea-ports, to
which no navigable rivers lead from this region. Copper is
known to exist in large quantities in the mountains of
native kingdoms of the centre of South Africa ; and one of
the objects of Dr Livingstone's present journey is to visit
the famed copper country of Katanga south-west ef the
Tanganyika Lake. The diamond-fields in the districts of
the Vaal and Orange rivers north of the Caoe Colony are
now steadily worked, and give good returns,
Africa is the only one of the continents of the globe
v.-hich lies equally to north and south of the equator,
and the portions of it which extend beyond the tropics do
not advance far into the temperate zones. From this it
results that Africa, besides being the warmest of all the
continents, has also the most equal distribution of the
sun's heat during the seasons over the parts which lie north
and south of the central line. Winds and rain, depending on
the distribution of heat, are also correspondingly developed
in these two great divisions of the continent, and the broad
landscape zones, passing from humid forest to arid sandy
desert, also agree exactly with one another north andeoutk
of Equatorial Africa.
Between 10° N. and 10° S. of the equator, but especially
in that portion of it the outskirts of which have only as
yet been reached by travellers, Africa appears to be a land
of dense tropical forest. Wherever it has been penetrated,
travellers speak of an excessively rank vegetation ; passage
has to be forced through thick underwood and creeping
plants, between giant trees, whose foliage shuts out the
sun's rays; and the land teems with animal and insect life
of every form and colour. Describing the forests of
llanyuema country, west of the Tangaujoka Lake, Living-
stone says — " Into these [primseval forests] the sun, though
vertical, cannot penetrate, excepting by sending down at
midday thin pencils of rays into the gloom. The rain
water stands for months in stagnant pool? made by the
feet of elephants. The climbing plants, from the size of a
whipcord to that of a man-of-war's hawser, are so numerous,
that the ancient path is the only passage. When one
Korlhcrn
nnil
ttoutiiern
pastoral
belts.
1 Deserts.
of the giant trees falls across the road, it forms a wall
breast high to be climbed over, and the mass of tangled
ropes brought down makes cutting a path round it a work
of time which travellers never undertake." Here there is
a double rainy season, and the rainfall is excessive. To
north and south of this central belt, where the rainfall
diminishes, and a dry and wet season divides the year, the
forests gradually open into a park-like country, and then
merge into pastoral grass-lands. In North Africa this
pastoral belt is occupied by the native states of the
Soudan, from Abyssinia westward, in the parallel of Lake
Chad, to the Gambia on the Atlantic coast; and corre-
sponding to this in the south, are the grass-lands stretching
across the continent from the Zambeze to southern Angola
and Benguela. The pastoral belts again gradually pass
into the dry, almost rainless desert zones of the Sahara in
the north, and the Kalahari desert in the south, which
oresent many features of similarity.
The extremities of the continent, to which moisture is
carried from the neighbouring oceans, again pass into a
second belt of pastoral or agricultural land, in the north-
ward slopes of the plateaus of Barbary, JIarocco, Algeria,
and Tunis, corresponding with the seaward terraces of
cultivated land in the Cape Colony in the south.
Taking a broad view of the hydrography of Africa, there Rivers
are two great areas of continental drainage, one in the
north, the other in the south, from which no water escapes
directly to the ocean. These correspond almost exactly
with the two desert belts of the Sahara and the Kalahari
above described. The whole of the remaining portions of
the continent, its forests and pastoral districts, in which
the greater rainfall gives greater power to the rivers, are
drained by streams which find their way to the ocean on
one side or other, generally forcing a passage through some
natural or waterwoni gorge in the higher circle of mountains
which ran round tie outer edges of tlie great plateau.
By far the larger portion of the oceanic drainage of the
continent is to the Atlantic and its branch the Mediter-
ranean, to which the Nile, Niger, Ogowai, Congo, and
Orange rivers flow. The great rivers which drain on
the opposite side, to the Indian Ocean, are the Juba,
Zambeze, and Limpopo ; whilst the northern continental
basin, by far more extensive than the southern, has only
one great river, the Shari, which supphes Lake Chad.
It must be noticed that the capabilities of the African
rivers, as highways of approach to the interior of the con-
tinent, are exceedingly small in comparison with those of
the other great continents of the globe, most of them being
either barred at their mouths, or by rapids at no great
distance from the coast. It is owing to this physical cause
mainly that the African continent has remained for so
many centuries a sealed book to the ci%'ilised world. On
the other hand, it must be observed, that when these outer
barriers have been passed, the great interior of the land,
in its most productive regions, possesses a network of vast
rivers and lakes, unsurpassed in extent by those of any
country of the world, by means of which the resources of
Central Africa may in future be thoroughly developed.
The Nile is the oldest of historical rivers, and afforded
the only means of subsistence to the earliest civilised
people on earth, and yet the origin of this river remained
an enigma almost to the present day. Though it drains
a larger area than any other river of Africa, upwards of
1,000,000 square miles, and in this respect is one of the
largest rivers of the globe, the Nile, passing for a great
portion of its lower course through the desert belt of North
Africa, and receiving no tributaries there, loses much of
its volume by evaporation, and is far surpassed in the
quantity of water conveyed to the ocean by the Congo,
in the moist equatorial zone. The great labours of Dr
KUe.
FEATtTKliS.]
AFRICA
253
Slrfams
from lh(
plateau
Barbarj'
Livingstone, in the lake region of Central Africa, have 8o
narrowed the space within which the sources of the Nile
can exist, that, though no traveller has yet reached the
ultimate feeders of the great river, their position can now
be predicated almost with certainty. The limit of the
Nile basin on the south is formed by the high mountains
■which rise to westward of the Albert Lake, and which divide
between this greab reservoir and the Tanganyika, extend-
ing eastward to the plateau of Unyamuezi, on the northern
side of which the Victoria Nyanza lies. The ultimate
sources must then be the feeders of these great equatorial
lakes, the Victoria and Albert. The river issuing from
the former lake, at the Kipon Falls, 3300 feet above the
sea, to join the northern end of the Albert Nyanza, may
be considered as the first appearance of the Nile as a river.
At the Ripon Falls the overflow is from 400 to 500 feet in
breadth, and the descent of 12 feet is broken in three
places by rocks. Further down, where the river turns
westward to join the Albert Lake, it forms the Karuma
and MuTchison Falls, the latter being 120 feet in height.
From the Albert Lake, the Nile, called the Kir in this
part, begins its almost due northward course to the
Mediterranean, and has no further lake expansion. Be-
tween the Albert and Goudokoro, in 5° N. lat, which lies
at 2000 feet above the sea, the Nile descends at least 500
feet in a series of rapids and cataracts. Beyond Qondokoro,
up to which point it is navigable, it enters the northern
lower land of Africa, which is here a region of swamps
and forests, and several tributaries join it from the west.
The largest of these, named the Bahr-el-Ghazal, unites
with the main stream below the 10th parallel; and, not
much further on, a main tributary, the Sobat river, joins
the Nile from the unknown region which lies to the south-
east. Hence, onward, the Nile is known as the Eahr-el-
Abiad or White River. The two remaining great tribu-
tary rivers descend from the high land of Abyssinia on the
east. The first of these, the Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue River,
its waters being pure in comparison with those of the Nile,
has its source near Lake Dembea or Tzana, through which
it flows, in the western side of the Abyssinian plateau,
6000 feet above the sea ; forming a semicircular curve in
the plateau, the Blue Nile runs north-westward to the
confluence at Khartum, 1345 feet above the sea. Between
this point and the union of the next tributary, the Nile
forms the cataract wliich is known as the sixth from its
mouth. In about 18° N. it is joined by the Atbara or
Black River, the head stream of which is the Takkazze,
flowing in a deep cut valley of the high land. This tribu-
tary is named from the dark mud which it carries from the
high land, brought down to it by streams which swell into
rushing torrents in the rainy season. It is to these rivers
that the fertility of Lower Egypt is mainly due, for each
year a vast quantity of Abyssinian mud is borne do'wn to be
spread over the delta. Hence the Nile pursues its way
in a single line through the dry belt of desert to the
Mediterranean without a single tributary, descending by
five cataracts, at considerable distances apart. The delta
of the Nile, in which the river divides into two main
branches, from which a multitude of canals are drawn off,
is a wide low plain, occupying an area of about 9000 square
miles. The most remarkable circumstance connected with
the delta is the annual rise and overflow of the river, which
takes place with the greatest regularity in time and equality
in amount, beginning at the end of June, and subsiding
completely before the end of November, leaving over the
whole delta a layer of rich fertilising slime.
The Bheliff in Algeria, and the Muluya in Eastern
> Marocco, are the chief streams flow iug to the Mediterraacan
°' from the high land of Barbary.
Passing round to the Atlantic system, the Sebu, the
Ummer Rebia, and the Tensift, from the Atlas range, are
permanent rivers flowing across the fertile plain of Western
Marocco, which they serve to irrigate. Next is the Wady
Draa, a water-eourse which has its ri.se on the inner slope of
the high land in Marocco, and which bends round through
the Maroccan Sahara to the Atlantic, near the 2Sth parallel.
Its channel, of not less than 500 miles in length, forms a long
oasis in the partly desert country through which it flows,
and water remains in its bed nearly throughout the year.
A stretch of 1100 miles of waterless coast, where the
desert belt touches on the Atlantic, intervenes between
the Draa and the Senegal river, at the beginning of the
pastoral belt in lat. 15 N.
The Senegal rises in the northern portion of the belt of Senegril.
mountains which skirt the Guinea coast, and has a north-
westerly course to the sea. During the rainy season it is
navigable for 500 miles, from its mouth to the cataract of
Feloo, for vessels drawing 12 feet of water, but at other
times it is not passable for more than a third part of this
distance. The Gambia has its sources near those of the Garabix
Senegal, and flows westward in a tortuous bed over the
plain country, giving a navigable channel of 400 miles, up
to the Falls of Barra Kunda. The Rio Grande, from the
same heights, is also a considerable river.
The Niger is the third African river in point of area Niger
of drainage and volume ; it is formed by the union of
two great tributaries, the Quorra and Benue, — the former
from the west, the latter from the country in the east of
the river basin. The Quorra, called the Joliba in its upper
course, has its springs in the inner slope of the mountains
which give rise to the Senegal and Gambia, not far from
the Atlantic coast At first its course is north-eastward to
as far as the city of Timbuctu, on the border of the desert
zone ; then it turns due east, and afterwards south-east to
its confluence with the Benue, at a point 200 mOes north
from the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. The chief tributary
of the Quorra is the Sokoto river, coming from the elevated
country which forms the water-parting between the Niger
basin and that of Lake Chad on the east, and its confluence
is near the middle of the portion of the channel of the
Quorra which bends to south-east.
At a distance of about 100 miles from its sources, the
traveller Park, the first European who reached the Joliba,
found it flowing in a wide fertile valley, and navigated by
canoes which kept up a constant traffic. Above Timbuc-
tu' the commerce of the river is busily carried on in barges
of 60 to 80 tons burden; further on, where the river
touches upon the desert belt in the most northerly portion
of its course, its fertile banks form the most marked con-
trast to the arid desert lands beyond. From the confluence
of the Sokoto to the union with the Benue, the river course
is only navigable after the rainy season, since at other
times rocks and shoals interrupt the passage. The sources
of the Benue are unknown as yet, but it is believed to
have its rise in the northern edge of the great plateau of
Southern Africa, almost due south of Lake Chad; its known
course is westward, and at the furthest point to which it was
easily navigated by the traveller Baikie, nearly 400 miles
from its confluence with the Kawara or Quorra, it was still
half a mile in width and about 1 0 feet in average depth, flow-
ing through rich plains. From the confluence of the Quorra
and Benue the Niger has a duo south course to its delta,
and the united river has an average width of about a mile.
At a distance of 100 miles from the sea, minor branches
which enclose the delta separate from the main stream on
each side. The delta is much more extensive than that of
the Nile, and measures about 14,000 square miles of low
alluvial plain, covered with forest and jungle, and com-
pletely intersected by branches from the main river, the
outmost of which reach the sea not less than 200 miles
254
A J?' R 1 C A
[PHYSICAB
opart. Unlike the Kile, the Niger possesses one main
channel through the centre of the delta, called at its mouth
the JS'un river.
Onooon Old Calabdr river, the Camaroon river, and the Gaboon,
are the best known of a number of i.idc inlets or estuaries
of the sea, which occur on the west coast immediately
north of the equator; but these are merely the receptacles
of a number of minor streams, not the mouths of great
rivei-s, as at one time supposed.
Cfeow.ni. The Ogowai (pron. Ogowee) river, the delta of which
forms Cape Lopez, immedaitely S. of the equator, is a great
stream which is believed to drain a large area of the forest
zone between the Niger and the Congo ; as yet, its lower
coast is only known to a distance of 200 miles from the
sea. Above the delta the main stfuara of the river, named
the Okanda, breaks through the ,edge of the pkjteau, and
is joined by the Onango, a tributary from the coast I'ango
of the Sierra Complida. Below this conlluenco the river
is a mile and a half in average width, its depth varying from
15 to 50 feet. The delta is formed by the two main branches
into which the Ogowai divides at about 30 miles fiom the
coast, and is a swampy flat, covered with mangroves.
Congo. The Congo or Zaire must be considered the second river
of Africa in point of area of drainage, and it is the first in
respect cf the volume of water which it discharges to the
ocjan. There remains but little doubt that the head streams
of this vast river are those which supply the great lacustrine
sybtem discovered by Dr Livingstoue in his recent jouiueys
south and west of Lake Tanganyika. Through these lakes
the river, which rises in the upland north of Lake Nyassu/,
named in different parts of its course the Chambc/.e, Lua-
pula, or Lualaba, Hows in great bends to west and north-
ward, to where it passes into the unknown country still to
be explored in the heart of the continent. The Lualaba
has a great tributary named the Lufira, from the south;
and it is almost certain that the Kassabi river, which
springs in the Mossamba Mountains, in the interior borders
of Angola, is also one of the feeders of this great river.
The Quango river, rising in the same mountains, nearer
Angola, must also join the Congo lower down in its valley.
At the furthest point on the Lualaba reached by Living-
stone, in about lat. 6° S. and long. 25," E., the gi-eat
river had a breadth of from 2000 to GOOD yards, and could
not be forded at any season of the year. Every circum-
stance connected with this river — its direction, the time of
its annual rising, and the volume of its water which could
be discharged by the Congo mouth alone — point to its
identity with this river. The explorer Tuckey, who, in
181G, followed up the Congo from its mouth on the west
coast further than any one, found it, above the cataracts
which it forms in breaking through the coast range, to
have a width of from 2 to 4 English miles, and with a
current of from 2 to 3 miles an hour; and his statement
that at the lowest stage of its waters it discharges 2,000,000
of cubic feet of water per second, has been confirmed by
more recent surveys. Forty nules out from its mouth
its waters are only partially mingled \vith that of the sea,
and some nine miles from the coast they are still perfectly
fresh. The Congo is the only one of the large African
rivers which has any approach to an estuary, contrasting in
this respect with those which have delta mouths.
Cuiinza, The Coanza, the most important river of Angola, in
respect of- its affording a navigable channel for 140 miles
from its mouth, rises in a broad valley formed by the
Mossamba Mountains in the interior of Benguela, and
curves north-westward to the ocean. Its upper course is
rapid, and its navigation only begins after the last of its
cataracts has been passed ; the mouth is closed by a bar.
The Cunene river has its rise in the opposite watershed of
the mountains, its sp.-ings being close ta those of the
Coanza, and its course is south- •westward, formmg th»
southern limit of the territory of /llossamedes. It is the
most houtherly river of the central fertile zones of Africa oa
this side of the continent, and appears to be suitable for
navigation throughout the greater part of its length — rising
from 15 to 20 feet at times of flood, but having such a depth,
at its lowest stage, as to be only passable by canoes.
From the Cunene, in lat. 17" S., to the Orange river
in 29° S., the dry belt of the South African desert zone
intenenes, and there are no permanent rivers on the land
sloping to the sea. The coast lands from the edge of the
plateau are, however, furrowed by numerous water-courses,
which are filled only after the occasional rainfalls.
The Orange river also belongs for the grcat-;r part of its Orangft
lower course to the water-courses of the arid belt, but it
receives such a constant supply from its head streams,
which descend from the high lands near the east coast of
the continent, as to be able to maintain a perennial flow ia
its channel, which, however, is so shallow as to be of no
value for navigation. Its main head streams are theVaaJ
and Nu Oariep or Orange, which rise on the opposite slopes
of one of the summits of the Drakenbcrg range, called the
Mont aux Sources. After encircling the Orange River
Free State, these rivers unite near the centre of this part
of the continent to form the Orange, which conlmues west-
ward to the Atlantic, but without receiving any permanent
tributary. The chief water channels which periodically
carry supplies to it from the south are Brak and the Great
Hartebeeste; from the Kalahari region in the north come
the Molopo and Nosob channels. Midway between the
union of the head streams and the ocean the river forms
a great fall of 150 feet in height.
The rivers which flow down from the terraces of the Dramige
Cape Colony are numerous, but have little permanent depth t^ the
of water, shrinking almost to dryness excepting after rains, '"'"*"
when they become impetuous torrents; some have cut deep
channels, much beneath the level of the country, and the
banks of these caflons are choked with dense vegetation.
Passing round to Natal and Zulu Land, the coast countiy is
well watered by frequent streams which descend from the
base of the cliff-wall of the Drakenberg ; these have gene-
rally the character of mountain torrents, with rapid flow
between high banks and changing volume, and are almost
without exception closed at their mi^uths by sand bars, which
in most instances shut in considerable lagoons. One of these,
the lake of Santa Lucia, is more th.in 40 miles in length.
The first large river of the Indian Ocean system is the Urapopo
Limpopo or Crocodile river, so named from the great num-
ber of these animals found in its bed. Its basin lies
centrally in the southern tropic, also in the desert belt,
and on this account it barely maintains a shallow flow of
water throughout the year. Its sources are in that part of
the plateau edge in the Transvaal Republic which is knowu
as the Hooge Veldt and Magalies Berg ; from this it forms
a wide semicircular sweep to north-east and south, reaching
the ocean not far north of Dslagoa Bay, in 25° S. Its
chief tributar)', the Olifant or Lepalule, has its rise in a
part of the Hooge Veldt which is nearer the coast. JIany
of its minor tributaries in its lower course are periodical
streams known as sand rivers, only filled after heavy rains.
The Zambeze is the great river of the pastoral belt of Zai:ih"j!ei
South Africa, and the fourth in point of size in the con-
tinent, draining nearly 600,000 square miles. As far a.s
its basin has yet been explored, the Zambezu has three
head streams from the great water-parting ridge which
exten Is from the Mossamba Mountains of inner Angola
to the high lands north of Nyassa Lake, about the 12th
parallel of S. latitude. There are the Lungebungo rivep
from the Mossamba Mountains, the Leeba river from'
I/\ke Dilolo. on thp w.iter-parting which separates he4
PEA TUBES. J
A f R I C A
255
tween the Zambeze and the Kassabi river, ind the L«;e*
ambye or Jambaji, probably the Biain-source stream,
coming from the unknown lands south-west of the Cazembe's
territory. From the union of these streams the general
course of the Zambeze is in two wide curves eastward,
through the plateau and over its edge to the Indian
Ocean, in about 19° S. lat. From the north its main
tributaries are the Kafue and Loangwa or Aruangoa ri /ers,
and the Shire river, flowing out of I^ake Nyassa. A Dove
this point, on its middle course, where it forms the great
Victoria Falls, the Zambeze receives the Chobe from the
north-west; and from southward numerous minor tribu-
taries join its lower channel. The Zambeze forms a delta
with many mouths, the outmost of which are nearly 100
miles apart, and their entrances are generally barred by sand
banks; but if these be passed, the main river is continuously
navigable for 320 miles to the town of Tete, and its tribu-
tary the Shire may also be followed up for nearly IDQ
miles, to where its cataracts stop navigation. At the
Victoria Falls the great river contracts from its general
■width of nearly a mile, to 60 or 80 feet, and plunges over
a height of 100 feet, into a remarkable zig-zag gorge rent
in the hard basalt rocks.
Roniraa. The Rovuma, which has Its chief tributaries from the
plateau edge on the eastern side of Lake Nyassa, is the
next great river of the drainage to the Indian Ocean. It
has been navigated by Livingstone for 150 miles from the
coast, and formed part pi his route in entering the con-
tinent on the journey from-which he has not yet returned,
but its basin has not yet been explored.
Guflji. Still farther north the mouths of a great river named
the Rufiji are known, on the coast opposite the island of
Monfia, south of Zanzibar; but no part of its course has
yet been traced by any European.
The Kingani and the Vfami are tn-o streams from the
plateau edge, in the country of Usagara, and reach the sea
in the channel formed by Zanzibar island. " The Pangani
river, further north, rises in the snowy mountain Kilima-
Duaa njaro. The Sabaki and Dana, which embouch on the
opposite side of Formosa Bay, in 3° S. , flow over the same
coast plains, having their head springs in the spurs of
Mount Kenia. The latter river might.be navigated during
the rainy season for 100 miles from the coast.
'nbiv. The Juba river is the most considerable on the eastern
side north of the equator. It is believed to have its rise
in the high lands immediately south of Abyssinia, and its
general direction is south-eastward to the Indian Ocean ;
but nothing is known of its higher course except by report.
The ill-fated expedition under Baron von der Decken
explored this river for about 180 miles upwards from its
mouth, but as yet no traffic is carried on by its means.
The Webbe or Haines river flows down from the high
lands in a direction nearly parallel to the Juba, a little
farther north, but its outlet on the coast is completely
barred by sand dunes of from 400 to 500 feet in height,
behind which it forms a lagoon of varying extent. The
desert zone is now again reached, and the water supply
fails. No permanent rivers reach the Red Sea from the
Aby.ssinian highlands or from the heights of Nubia which
continue these northward; the largest water-course is that
of the Barca, which is periodically filled by its tributaries
ill the northern part of the Abyssinian plateau.
Areas ot Turmng now to the great areas of continental drainage,
contincn- jj ;, observed that in North Africa there is a vast space of
tga ' upwards of four millions of square miles, extending from
the Nile valley westward to the Atlantic coast, and from
tho plateau of Barbary in the north to the extremities of
tin: basin of Lake Chad in tho south, from which no single
river finds its way to the sea. The whole of this space,
liowever, appears to be furrowed by water channels in the
most varied directions. From the inner slopes of the
plateau of Barbary numerous wadys take a direction to-
wards the great sand-belt of the Erg, uj which they ter-
minate; a great series of channels appears to radiate from
the higher portion of the Sahara, which lies immediately
north of the tropic of Cancer and in about 5" E. of Green-
wich ;• another cluster radiates from the Mountains of
Tibesti, in the eastern Sahara.
Lake Chad, on the margin of the pastoral belt, is sup-
jjlied by a large river named the Shari, coming from the
moist forest coimtry which lies nearer the equator ; and the
lake, which tUI recently was believed to have no outlet,
overflows to north-eastward, fertOising a great wady, in
which the waters become lost by evaporation as they are
led towards the more arid country of the Sahara.
The southern area of continental drainage is of much
smaller extent, and occupies the space of the desert zone
which lies between the middle of the Zambeze basin and
Damara Land. It centres in Lake Ngami, to which the
Tioge river flows from the pastoral belt on the north-
west. Several water-courses from the high Damara Land
also take a . direction toward this lake. The river Zuga
carries off the overflow of Lake Ngami towards a series of
salt lagoons vUich lie eastward near the edge of the
plateau; but it becomes narrower and less in volume as it
approaches these, and in some seasons scarcely reaches
their bed.
Smaller spaces of continental drainage exist at various
points near the eastern side Of the continent. One of
these occupies the depressed area between the base of the
Abyssinian highland and the Red Sea, and is properly a
continuation of the Sahara desert belt beyond the inter-
vening plateau. In this space the Hawash river, descend-
ing from the plateau, terminates before reaching the»ea.
Another interior basin lies in the plateau between tho
edge on which mountains Kenia and Kilima-njaro rise and
the country east of the Victoria Lake, and includes several
salt lakes. It is probable that the great Tanganyika Lake
is the centre of a third basin of no outflow on this side of
the great plateau; and Lake Shirwa, south-east of the
Nyassa, constitutes a fourth.
The great lakes, which form such a prominent feature in Lakes.
African hydrography, are found chiefly in the southern and
eastern regions of the continent, but they are distributed
over all the systems of drainage. The Victoria and Albert
Lakes of the Nile basin are great fieas of fresh water ; and
if their extent should ultimately prove to be nearly that
which is at present believed, they rival the great Ame-
rican lakes for the place of the greatest expanse of fresh Nile lakej
water on the globe. The former, the Victoria Lake, is at
an elevation of about 3300 feet above the sea ; and its
outline, as at present sketched on our maps, occupies an
area of not less than 30,000 square miles. The Albert
Lake, 2500 feet above the sea, is believed to have an
extent not far short of this. Lake Baringo, north-east -of
the Victoria, is reported to be a great fresh lake, discharg-
ing towards the Nile by a river which is possibly the
Sobat tributary. Lake Tzana or Dembea, 60 miles in length,
at a level of COOO feet above the sea, on the Abyssinian
plateau, is the only remaining great lake of the Nile basin.
The great expansions of the Chambeze-Lualuba river, Congo
presumably belonging to tho river Congo, are the only lakes,
other considerable lakes of the Atlantic drainage. The
highest of them, Lake Bangweolo or Bemba, is described
as being 150 miles in length from east to west, and at an
elevation of 4000 feet; Lake Moero, the next, extends
through GO miles;, Lakes Kamalondo or Ulenge, and the
yet unvisited lakes of the same drainage, ore described as
of vast extent, and lie at an elevation of about 2000 feet
above the sea.
256
AFRICA
[physical
Zambeze
Lake-
Continen
tal lakes.
Belonging to the drainago system of the Indian Ocean
are, Lake Nyassa, 1500 feet above the sea, and stretching
lueridionally over an area of nearly 9000 square miles in
the basin of the Zambeze ; and Lake Samburu, a reported
lake of groat extent, lying in the plateau edge north of
Mount Kenia, and probably belonging to the basin of the
Juba river. The great Lake Tanganyika, upwards of 1 0,000
square miles in area, and united by a broad channel with
Lake Liemba in the south, occupies a deep longitudinal
baain, girt with mountains ; it is 2800 feet above the sea
leveL As yet no outlet has been discovered for this vast
lake, and the question whether it ha.' or ha-s not an over-
flowing river, is still undecided ; but its waters are not
perfectly fresh, the drainage to it is small, and the proba-
bility is that the Tanganyika is a continental lake. Lake
Shirwa, enclosed by mountains on the plateau edge south-
cast of Lake Nyassa, and 2000 feet above the sea, has
brackish water, and no outlet.
Lake Chad, the greatest lake of the continental system
of North Africa, is a shallow lagoon of very variable
extent, with numerous islands : it lies at about 1100 feet
above the sea ; its waters are fresh and clear, and its over-
flow is carried off to northeastward by the wady named
Bahrel-Ghazal.
Lake Ngami, the corresponding lake in the southern
continental system, at an elevation of about 2900 feet,
is also a shallow reedy lagoon, varying in extent according
to the season. The Zuga river carries off its surplus water to
Salt lakes, eastward Salt lakes are of frequent occurrence in the areas
of continental drainage; perhaps the most remarkable of
these is the Assal lake, which lies in a depression east of
Abyssinia comparable with t-hat of the Dead Sea, 600 feet
beneath the level of the Red Sea; the Sebka-el-Faroon
or Schott Kebir, south of Tunis, is a great salt lagoon, 100
miles in length, dried up in summer, when its bed is found
to bo thickly encrusted with salt, and in winter covered
with water to a depth of two or three feet. It lies several
feet beneath the level of the Mediterranean.
Africa lies almost entirely in the torrid zone, and is the
hottest continent of all. The greatest heat, however, is not
found under the equator, since the whole of the central belt
of the continent is protected by a dense covering of forest
vegetation, supported by the heavy rainfall, and has in
cu^seqtience a more equable climate, but in the dry, bare
exposed desert belts, which lie on the margins of the
tropics, the Sahara in the north and the Kalahari in the
south, where the cUmate is extreme. The highest tempera-
ture is found throughout the Sahara, particularly in its
eastern portions towards the Red Sea. In Upper Egypt
and Nubia eggs may be baked in the hot sands; and the
saymg of the Arabs is, " in Nubia the soil is like fire
and the wind like a flame." The regions along the
Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts are rendered more tem-
perate by the influence of the sea. To the south of the
Great Desert the temperature decreases, chiefly on account
of the increasing moisture and protection of the land sur-
face from extreme heating by its tree growth, but also
because of the greater elevation of the land as the great
southern plateau is approached. Both on account of its
elevation and its narrower form, which gives greater access
to the equalising influence of the suiTounding ocean, the
southern half of the African continent has a less high
temperature than the northern, though the same gradations
of climate outward from the centre belt are clearly marked
in each di\'ision. Regular snowfall does not occur even
in the most southern or northern regions; and this pheno-
menon is only known in the most elevated pointa of the
continent, as in the Atlas Mountains in the north, the
Bummits of which retain patches of snow even in summer,
in the Abyssinian peaks, in the highest pointa of the
Climate.
mountains of the Capo Colony, and most remarkably in
the lofty summits of Jlouuts Kenia and Kilima-njaro,
which rise on the plateau directly beneath the equator. The
intensity of radiation and its influence upon the temperd-
turo are very great in Northern Africa; while in the day
time the soil of the Sahara rapidly absorbs the solar rays,
during the night it cook so rapidly that the formation of
ice has often been known to occur.
The observed average temperatures of the extreme
months of the year at various points of Africa, from N. to
S., are given in the following tiible: —
Las ralmos. Can
ury Islands, .
Santa Cruz, Tcno
rilTc, . . .
Funuliol, Madeira,
Casa Blanco, Ma- )
rocco, ... J
La Calle, Algeria,
Algiere, ,, )
(37° N.) i
Oran,
Coiistantine, ,,
L'^ghouat, ,,
Tunis, . . .
Alexandria, Egj'pt,
Cairo, ,, i
(30' N.) 1
Kcnneh, „
Fiuetown, Sierra
Leone, . . .
Kuka, Bornu
(13- N.). . .
Jm.
July.
61-9
73-6
83-7
77-2
63 5
72-5
67-4
77-9
5ie
78-4
aa-B
76 3
56-2
441;
54-2
57-2
57-4
78-9
81 0
98-9
77-2
78-5
53-8
88 0
02 4
94 3
82-0
77-5
75-6
83-8
1
KobW, Darfur, .
AnkoUir, Abyssinia,
Elminu. GoUl Coast,
Clinstiansborg, ,,
Niger Mouth (5" |
»■ N.), . . . i
Gondokoro (5* K.),
>^anzilar, , , .
Ascension I. (7° |
30' S.), . . . i
St Helena,
Teto, on the Zam-
beze (18° S.), .
Port Louis, Mau-
ritius, . . .
St Denis, Bourbon,
Durban, Natal, .
Pielermaritzburg 1
(30° S.), . .(
Cape Town (34°S.),
St^lleubosch, .
Swellcudam, . .
Jftn. Jul/.
871
52 0
79-7
81 0
86 0
89-3
83-3
77-0
73-8
82 f
81-7
79-7
74-2
71-4
74-3
77 0
72-7
87-8
.18-1
78-7
76-5
80-2
78-5
7 7 1
75 0
65 8
72-4
71-8
71-8
62-4
55-2
67-6
67 0
69-9
Africa is not much under the influence of the regular Windtv
winds, except the monsoons of the Indian Ocean, the great
movement of the atmosphere depending chiefly on the
oscillation of the continent beneath the sun during the sea-
sons, as will be afterwards explained. The wind currents
over the whole continent have a prevailing direction from
the cast. There are the trade winds, modified by inter-
ruptiono of changing heat and elevation of the land sur-
face. In the northern part of the Indian Ocean the year
is divided between the south-west monsoon, blowing from
March till September, away from Africa, towards the then
heated continent of Asia ; and the north-east monsoon, or
rather the normal trade wind, blowing towards the African
coasts, from October till February. It will be seen in the
next paragraph, that the monsoons, although they extend
only to about a third portion of the East African shores,
have an extremely important bearing upon the physical
economy of the whole African continent From hunicancs
Africa is nearly exempt, except in its south-eastern extremity,
to which at times the Mauritius hurricanes extend. At
rare intervals these have visited the east coast as far as
Zanzibar. Northern Africa is much exposed to the hot
winds and storms from the Sahara, which are called in
Egypt Khamsin, in the Mediterranean Scirocco, Shume
or Asshume in Marocco, and Harmattan on the west coasts
of the Sahara and in the countries bordering on the Gulf
of Guinea. These always blow directly across the coast
from the interior, and seem to move round the compass
during the year, beginning in E.t'vpt in April, in Algeria
in July, in ilarocco in August, in Senegambia in November.
Similar dry electrical winds are e> penenced in the Kalahari
desert in the south. Whirlwinds, frequently carrying sand
up into the atmosphere, are of frequent occurrence in
these deserts, and are also known in the dry region of
Unyamuezi, between Zanzibar and the Tanganyika, and in
the Limpopo basin farther south. Extreme heat and dry-
ness are the characteristics of these winds, which, raising
the sand, filling the air with dust, and prodigiously favour-
PEATCEES,J
A F E 1 C A
257
ing the powers of evaporation, are often fatal to the vege-
table and animal creation in the regions visited by them.
Rains In Africa the dependence of the winds and rains upon
witbin the the movement of the land beneath the sun is more clearly
.tropica. marked than in any other intertropical region of the globe.
The high temperature caused by the vertical heat of the
sun over a particular area induces an indraught of air to
that place, an ascending current is proAced which carries
up with it the warm and moist air; condensed in the
higher regions of the atmosphere, the moisture falls as
raifl, and the condensation makes way for a further in-
draught. It is thus that in Africa the winds and rains
follow as a rule the pendulating movement of the continent
beneath the sun, and the rainy season of any space begins
almost immediately after the sun has reached its zenith.
Between t!ie tropics and the equator the sun comes twice
to the zenith of each belt during the year, at the tropical
lines the sun is only once in the zenith; thus it follows
that a double rainy season is observed in all places lying
yi the central belt of the tropics, and a single rainy season
ia those which are nearer the skirts of the zone. These
wet and dry seasons correspond to the cooler and hotter
periods of the year, and take the place of the summer and
vrinter of the temperate regions. Various circumstanceff"
tend to interfere with and modify the working of this
general rule of the rotation of seasons. In Southern
Africa that rainy season which follows the apparent move-
ment of the sun northward, is greater than that which
ensues after his passage south, since in the former case the
winds are drawn inwards from the ocean and carry greater
quantities of moisture, whereas in the latter the winds are
drawn from the land north of the equator, and their mois-
ture is already in great part spent. In the northern and
On tlio eastern regions of Africa the winds and rains are governed
wasts. as much by the heating and cooling of the Asiatic con-
tinent as by that of Africa itself, but in the central and
western portions of the continent the rule is well exem-
plified. Thus In Damara Land, bordering on the southern
tropic, there is one short rainy season from February till
April, beginning only with the northing sun ; at Loanda
in Angola the greater rains last from February till Mcy,
the lesser rainy season, when the sun has passed this place
going south, occurs in November only. At Annobon
island, surrounded by wide sea, April and May are the
rainy months of the northing sun, October and November
of the southing. The Guinea coa.st, facing the sea to
southward, has its greater rainy season from March to
June, when the northing sun draws the ocean winds on to
the coast; and its lesser rains occur in October and
November, when the sun has passed southward from the
land. Nearing the northern tropical line, the coast-land
from Sierra Leone to the Senegal river has a simple wet
and dry season during the year.
On the eastern coast-land the rains are more dependant on
the direction of the monsoon winds ; about the mouths of the
Zambeze and on the Mozambique coast the rains begin in
November, after the north-east monsoon wind has set in over
the northern part of the Indian Ocean, bringing mth it the
vapours drawn from the sea to condense on the coast slopes.
The rains continue here till March, when the south-west
monsoon begins to blow away from the land towards the
then heated surface of Asia. At Zanzibar there is a double
rainy season, a stronger in the months of March, April,
and May, with the northing sun, beginning immediately
after the south-west monsoon has set in, and a weaker in
September and October with the southing sun. Under
the equator on the east coast the rains begin in April with
the south-west monsoon, continuing till June, and during
lliis period the sky is obscured by heavy clouds. The
bucoiiU raiu V reason here ia only marked by a few showers
I— 10
in September and October. Whils the north-east mon-
soon is blowing the sky remains of a cloudless blue. In
the interior of the continent, between these tropical coasts,
the rainy seasons appear rather to precede than foUow the
advancing sun. In the region of the central Zambeze the
greater rains last through February, March, and April,
the lesser occurring in October and November. The worst
droughts are experienced in December and January.
Nearer the centre of the continent the two rainy seasons
become so lengthened as almost to merge into one period
of rains, extending over about eight months of the year.
In the newly-explored country south-west of the Tanganyika,
Dr Livingstone found that the rains began in October, and
that the last showers fell in May; but there is probably a
drier period between these limits. At the Tanganyika Lake
the rainy season begins in September, lasting tUl May, anil
the same rainy reason has been observed in the interiflr
country of the west coast immediately north of the
equator. Between these points, m Manuyema country,
Dr Livingstone found that the rains continued till July,
or almost through the year. Northward in the interior the
rainy seasons are again clearly divided into a greater and
lesser, and in the regions west of the Upper Nile between
5° and 10° N. lat., the stronger rains occur from August
tOl October, the weaker come with the northing sun in
April and May. The plateau of Abyssinia, rising high
above the general level of the north of Africa, and inter-
cepting and condensing the moist winds, has also a double
rainy season, — a greater from June to September, when tho
sun is passing southward; a lesser in February and April,
with the northing sun. The rainy seasons in Central Africa
are ushered in and accompanied by violent thunderstorms
and by occasional falls of haiL The quantity of the rain-
fall, which is excessive in the regions near the equator,
diminishes rapidly to north and south of this belt as tho
dry regions on the borders of the tropics are approiched.
The Sahara, and also the Kalahari of Southern Africa, aro
almost raiiJess regions, but wherever a stifficient elevation
occurs to intercept a cooler stratum of the atmosphere, raiu
is not wanting, even in the midst of the Great Desert A
striking instance of this ia related by Mr Richardson. That
traveller relates that when on the borders of the mountain
knot of " Air, in about latitude 19° N., on the 30th Sev*>
1850, there was a cry in the encampment, 'Tho wady ia
coming.' Going out to look, I saw a broad white sheet of
foam advancing from the south between the trees of the
valley. In ten minutes after a river of water carae pouring
along, and spread all around us, converting the place of our
encampment into an isle of the valley. The current in its
deepest part was very powerful, capable of carrying away
sheep and cattle, and of uprooting trees. This is one of
the mosf. interesting phenomena I have witnessed during
my present tour in Africa. The scene, indeed, was per-
fectly AfricaiL Rain had been obsei-ved falling in the
south ; black clouds and darkness covered that zone of tho
heavens, and an hour afterwards came pouring dowD this
river of water into the dry parched-up valley."
The causes of want of rainfpJl in the vast region of the
Sahara appear to be mainly these — that the winds advanc-
ing towards it come from a cooler and moister to a warmer
and drier region, indeed to tho hottest and driest of aU,
and BO are constantly losing in moisture and gaining in
temperature as they approach ; the high plateau of
Abyssinia forms an effective screen from the winds of tha
Indian Ocean, wringing out their moisture before the
Sahara is reached, and on the Atkntic side tho north-east
trade wind constantly blows away from the land ; a
barrier of mountains also deprives the Sahara of rain from
the 8f)uth-west. Another cause of dr}'nes8 is tho low level
of great areas of the Sahara. We have seen that wherever
In the
inti'..'iot
■ -ry ro-
.■vjm.
258
AFRICA
[dot ANY.
there ia a coiiaiderablo elevation, even in iu midst there is
a periodical rainfall The Kalaliiiri region is almoHt raiu-
■.c-ss, on occouut of the greAt heat to which it is Bubjectcd;
but specially becnuso the winds coming tuw(irdi"it from
the eastward, the prevailing winds, expend their moisture
on tijo high slopes of the plateau which face the Indian
Ocean. HLa\7 dews, consequent on the rapid changes of
day and night teinixjraturo in these bore regions, partly
compensate the deficiency of rain.
F.xtratropi- The portions of the continent which lie beyond the
xiil raiua. ^ tropics north and south, the outer elopes of the plateau of
Earbary and of the Capo Colony, have no marked rainy
floa.-ion, and the times of the occurrence of rain are altered,
the .summers of both boing dder, the showers more frequent
iji winter. In Xatal, and vn the slopes of the plateau in
its neighbourhoinl, rain may be expected in any month;
but the greatest falls occur from October to March. The
ttbrtoluto quantity of rain which falls in Afiica has as yet
been measured at so few points, that no definite conclusions
can be arrived at respecting it.
PlautH.- Although Africa belongs almost entirely to the torrid
and warm zones, its vegetable productions are essentially
dillurcut in different parts. Thus, in the extreme north,
groves of oranges and olives, plains covered with wheat
and barley, thick woods of evergreen oaks, cork-trees, and
aca-piiics, intermixed %yith cypresses, myrtles, arbutus, and
fragrant trce-lieaths, toiui the principal features of the
landscape. On this norlhern co.ist the date-palm is first
found ; but its fruit does not arrive at perfection, ^nd it is
chiefly valued as an ornamental object in gardens. Various
kinds of grain are cultivated. lieyond this region of the
coast and the Alias chain, with the borders of the Sahara,
commences a new scene. It is in this region, extending to
tbo borders of Soudan, that the date-tree forms the charac-
teristic (eature. l!eiiv,j peculiarly adapted to excessive dry-
ne.'is and high temperature, it llouri.-.l»c3 where few other
plants can maintain an existence. Were it not for the fruit
of the invahiable date-tree, the inhabitants of the desert
would almost cntiiely depend on the productsof other regions
for their subsistence. With the southern boundary of the
Sahara, the date-trco disappears, the baobab or monkey
bread-tree takes its place, and, under the influence of tlie
tropical rain.s, a new, rich, and highly-Jcvelo[)ed flora pre-
sents it.-clf. These trees, together with huge cotton-trees,
Dil-palms, sago-palms, and others of the same majestic tribe,
determine the aspect of the landscape. The laburnum ex-
pands its branches of golden llower, and replaces the senna
)f the northern regions, and the snanips are often covered
with immense quantities of the papyrus plant, In^tuld of
wanng fi(.-lds of corn, tho cassava, yam, iiigcon-peo, and the
ground-nut, form the farinaceous plants. The pajiaw, the
tamarind, the Senegal custard apple, and others, replace
the vine and the fig. In Southern Africa, again, the tro-
pical forms disappear, and in the iidand descrtlike plains,
tile Geshy, leaBe.ss, contorted, singular tribes of kapsias, of
niescmbryanthemuni.s, euphorbias, crossulas, aloe-s, and other
succulent plants, make their appearance. Endless species of
heaths arc there found in'great beauty, and the hills and rocks
are scattered over with a remarkable tribe of plants called
C'ycaJacece. Phints of the protea tribe also add to the extra-
ordinary variety in the vegetable physiognomyof that region.
Of the characteristic African plants, the date-tree is one Date-palm,
of the most important, as it is likewise among the nearly
one thousand different species of palms. It furnishes, as it
were, the bread of the desert, beyond which it occurs only
in Western Asia, wherever a similar dry and hot climate
prevails. This tree requires a sandy soil, and springs must
not be absent. The dates furnish food not only for man^
but for the camel and the horse. For the latter purjjoso
the stones are used in many parts, and are said to be more
nouri.shing than the fruit itself. The Arabs make a great
variety of dishes of which dates form the chief part Of
the sap of the tree palm-wine is prepared, and the young
leaves are eaten like cabbage.
In Southern Africa are the extensive miniature woods of Heaths
heaths, as characteristic as the groves of date-palms in the
north. No le-ss than five hundred species have already bceJi
discovered. These plants, of which some reach the height
of 12 to 15 feet (Erica urceolaris), are covered throughout
the greater part of the year with innumerable flowers of
beautiful colours, the red being prevalent
The papyrus is an aquatic plant, having a stem from 3 Popyrun.
to C feet high. It inhabits both stagnant waters and run-
ning streams, and is common in the countries of the Nile,
particularly Egypt and Abyssinia. Its soft, smooth flower-
stem afTorded the most ancient material from which paper
was prepared, and for this reason if is one of the noticeable
A/rican plants. It has, however, also been u.-^cd for other
purjiosas ; its flowering stems and leaves are twisted into
ropes ; and the roots, which are sweet, are used as food.'
The following table, compiled from the "synonymic lists .Viiimili.
of species of mammals" given by Mr Andrew Murray,'
affords a general view of the distribution of terrestri.al
mammals in the different parts of Africa, — the figures denot-
ing the nufubcrof si>eciesfoundin each of the divisions, those
in the last column being the number peculiar to Africa : —
Qiinilru-
uiaua.
Qu-idnimana, , , ,
Caruivora
UD^iKnta, ....
'Multungulata, ...
Kdentata, ....
lusectivora, . . ^ .
Rodcutia, ....
Alarsupialiaand Mouotre-
mala,
Total,
DUtrt-
bDlrd OTcr
Alclca.
N. Afrlfn,
Mtrocco,
• n.J tbe
Ss tiara.
Abyulnis
Knd the
Upper Nile
Difltricu
SeneBara-
bla to
Lake Chad
District.
2
10
8
5
17
2S
10
3
9
19
14
1
...
1
I
2
2
1
22
16
8
1
36
IS
10
11
88
89
63
F.Htt Africa.
Soroall Land,
Zaniit'ar.
Uutaiublqoe.
and
Zaiubcila.
10
IS
20
6
2
26
20
101
Uidaea*.
car.
32
9
1
63
S. Africa,
Nalal
to Damara
Land and
C. Colony.
30
32
4
2
29
46
W. Africa.
Bengoela
41
20
12
S
2
10
16
Total I Sjieclea
Spedca in , ptxuHar to
Africa. Africa
p?
94
91
7B
81
74
8
8
7
1
104
52
132
121
151
106
623 I 472
The order Quadrumana is well represented, more particu-
larly within the tropics, whence they decrease northwards and
southwards. The most important members of this family
are the (ftithropoid monkeys, the chimpanzee and gorilla, in
Tropical and Western Africa. Baboons and mandrils, with
tev exceptions, are peculiar to Africa. Only a few species
of the genus Macaau, which is East Indian, are found in
Africa. The only short-tailed eiwcies (J/a/ncua Innutu)
• ' Soo Flora 0/ Tropical AJrica, by Daniel Oliver, F.R.S., F.L.S.
London, 1863.
' The Geographical DittrHmtion ^ Mammals, bj Acdrev Murray,
London, 1866.
^.]
A T R I C A
259
Carnivora.
Jngulata.
(Hoofed
Mammalia,
Rnminan-
tia, and
Pachyder-
mata).
Mcntata.
Josoctivora.
is North African, and is also found wild on tte opposite
coast at the Rock of Gibraltar. In Madagascar the place
I >f the true monkeys is supplied by the peculiar tribe of the
^nie Lemurs or makis. Many species have close affinities
with those of Asia; thus the orang-outang of Borneo is
represented in Africa by the chimpanzee. The gibbons are
entirely wanting.
Of the larger Carnivora the bear is almost entirely wanting,
■and occurs only sparely in the Atlas Mountains in Barbary.
The trtie martens are unknown, but otters occur. Of the
Canis family the jackal is characteristic, and roams over
the whole of Africa; it differs from the Asiatic species in
■ ts paler skin, which approaches the colour of the prevailing
deserts. The wolf and fox do not extend beyond "the
northern margin of Africa. Hyaenas are true African
tenants ; the striped hyaena extending from Asia over North
Africa, the spotted hyaena over the remainder of the con-
tinent; in the southmost part of the continent the brown
hysena is also- found, and with it the aarciwolf,.or earth
wolf of the Cape colonists, allied to this genus. Africa is
the chief home of the lion, which there remains undisturbed
as king over the lower animal creation, though it has been
driven inwards from the more settled portions of the coast-
land; while in the extreme south-western parts of Asia, to
which it is now confined, its power is divided with that of
the tiger. The leopard, eerval, caracal, chaue, and civet
cat (the locality of the true civet being North Africa), are
the other principal representatives of the cat tribe. The
herpestes or ichneumons have the same distribution as
the civets; the species which destroys the eggs of the
crocodile is found in Egypt and the North of Africa.
Of wild horses the asinine group is chapacteristic of
Asia, and the hippotigrine of Africa. The quagga, exclu-
sivsly African, inhabits the most southern parts of the
continent, and is scarcely foun4 north of the Orange river,
but occurs in great herds, associated with the white-tailed
gnu; the zebra (Fjuus Burchellii), or zebra of the plains,
is widely di3tri^uted over Africa, from the limit of the
quagga to Abyssinia and the west coast; the zebra of the
mountains (Equus lebra), more completely striped than the
rest, ia only known in South Africa The true onager or
aboriginal w'iidi ass is indigenous to North-East Africa and
the island of Socotra. A species inhabiting the high land
of Abyssinia is distinct /renx these. The horse, domesti-
cated in other parts of Africa, excepting lii* T'vjion of forests,
is not found in the eastern intertropical regiotr/ iL'i, 5 -r
Bonie cause not yet clearly ascertained, it appears to be
impossible to acclimatise it there. The single humped
camel or dromedary is used over the whole of North
Africa, as far south and west as the river Niger and
Lake Chad. The Indian buffalo has spread by introduc-
tion to North Africa; the Cape buffalo, a species peculiar
to Africa, reaches as far north as a line from Guinea
to Abyssinia ; the Boa prachycerus is a species peculiar
to West Africa, from Senegal to the Gaboon. Of sheep,
the Ovis Tragelapkus is peculiar to North Africa; the
Ibex goat extends into Abyssinia. The family of the
antelopes is essentially African, five-sixths of the species
composing it being natives of that country, and chiefly of
the portion lying south of the Sahara, occurring in dense
herds. Lastly, the giraffe, one of the most celebrated
and characteristic of African quadrupeds, ranges from
the limits of the Cape Colony as far as the Sahara and
\ubia.
Of Edentata tke seven species known lo occur in Africa
are also peculiar to it. The aardwark (Oryr.tcrnjma capensis)
is essentially burrowing in its habits; and the burrows
formed by these anirtials are the source of frequent danger
to the waggons and horses of the Capo colonists.
A genus of inok'3 is met with in South Africa, but is
not found in the tropical regions. The Cape or gilded mole,
.chryso-chlore, is so called from its iridescent glossy fur;
two or three species of hedgehog occur in the continent,
and Madagascar has a peculiar family resembling these in
appearance, but without the power of rolling up into a ball
for defence. Bats are numerous in Africa, but few are
peculiar to it.
Of Rodents the burrowing kinds prevaU. The African Rooenti*
species of porcupine are known in the northern and western
coast-lands and in South-Eastem Africa. The hyrax ex-
tends over Eastern Africa and a portion of the west coast.
Hares are ordy known in the countries north of the Sahara
and in the Cape colony. Among squirrels, those with
bristles or spines in their fur are peculiar to the southern
regions of the continent. ■ •
The ornithology of Africa presents a close analogy in Birda.
many of its species to those of Europe and South Asia
Thus, on its northern coasts, there is scarcely a single
species to be found which does not also occur in the other
countries bordering on the Mediterranean. The ornitho-
logy of the region of the Nile and the northern coasts is
identified with that of Arabia, Persia, and Spain. The
deserts are inhabited by species adapted to its solitudes ;
while Southern Africa presents different species.
The ostrich, the hugest of birds, which has been describea
as the feathered camel, or the giraffe among birds, is found
in almost every part of Africa. But its chief home is the
desert and the open plains ; mountainous districts it avoids,
urdess pressed by hunger. The beautiful white feathers,
so highly prized by the ladies of Europe, are found in the
wings of the male bird. The chase is not without its
diiBculties, and it requires the greatest care to get within
musket-shot of the bird, owing to its constant vigilance
and the great distance to which it can see. The fleetest
horse, too, will not overtake it unless stratagem be adopted
to tire it out H followed up too eagerly, the chase of the
ostrich is not destitute of danger; for the huntsman has
sonjetimes had his thigh bone broken by a single stroke
from the leg of a wounded bird.
The large messenger or secretary-bird, which preys upon
serpents and other reptiles, is one of the most remarkable
African birds. It is common near the Cape, and is not
seldom domesticated. Of gallinaceous fowls, adapted to tb o
poultry -yard, Africa possesses but a single genus, the guinea-
hens, which, however, are found in no other part of the
^world. Tbese birds, of which there are three or four dis-
ticct speci!!;?, go' m ikrge flocks of 400 or 500, and are most
frequently found among underwood in the vicinity of ponds
and rivers. There are, besides, many species of partridges
and quails in differefit parts of Africa Water fowl of
various species are also abundant on the lakes, and rivers,
as are likewise various species of owls, falcons, and vul-
tures, the latter of which are highly useful in consuming
the offal and carrion, which might otherwise taint the air
and jiroduce disease.
Among the smaller birds of Africa are many species re-
markable for the gaudiness and brilliancy of their plumage,
or the singularity of their manners and economy. Of the
former kind may be mentioned the sunbirds, the lampro-
torius, the bee-eatora, the rollers, the plantaiu-eaters, the
parrots, the halcyons, and numerous smaller birds that
swarm in the forests. Of the latter kind it will be Buffi-
cicnt to mention the honey-cuckoo [Cucuhm indicator).
Though Africa is not exempt from the scourge of veno- Teptileo.
mous or dangerous reptiles, still it has comparatively fcv;er
than other tropical countries, owing to the dryness of the
climate. The reptiles harboured by the desert regions
consist chiefly of harmless lizards and Ecrjjeuts of a small
size, though often venomous. The frog and tortoise t ribes
are reoresented in but fow species and uunibers.
260
AFRICA
[ethnology.
The roost important among the reptiles ia the crocodile,
wliich inhabits nearly all the large rivers and lakes within
the tropics, and is still abundant is the Nile below the lirst
cataract.
The chameleon is common in Africa. Among the veno-
mous species of snakes are the purple naja, the cerastes or
homed viper, the ringed naja, and the darting viper.
FisBM Edible fish are found almost pveryTrhere in great variety
and quantity. The fresh waters of Egj'pt produce the
gigantic biahir, the coffres, and numerous species of the
pimelodos. ALany varieties of fish exist in the great inte-
rior lakes ; five large specie:; found in the Tanganyika are
described by Burton. The greater number of the fish of
the Red Sea resemble the saxatilcs of the warm seas of
Asia. On the west coasts are found the fish belonging to
equatorial latitudes, while the .shores of the Mediterranean
produce those of Franco and Spain. The seas of the
southern extremity possess the species common to the
latitudes of the antarctic, south of the three great capes.
The fish of the east coast are the same aa those of the
Indian Sea.
Insocts Of the insect tribes Africa also contains many thoucand
different kinds. The locust has been, frop? time 'mme-
morial, the proverbial scourge of the whole conxinent; scor-
pions, scarcely less to be dreaded *han noxious serpents,
are everywhere abundant; and th"! zebub, cr fly, one of
the instruments employed by the Almighty to punish the
Egyptians of o!d, is still the plague of the low and cfrttivated
districts. In the interior of Africa a venomous fly occurs
in certain regions of the south and east, which is fatal to
nearly all domestic animals. It is called tsetse {Glossina
morsitans), and its size is almost that of the common blue
fly which settles on meat; but the wings are larger. On
the absence of this insect greatly depended the success of
recent explorers in that quirter, as, where it appeared, their
cattle infallibly fell victims to its bite. There are large
tribes which cannot keep either cattle or sheep, because the
tsetse abounds in their country. Its bite is not, however,
dangerous to man ; wild animals likewise are undisturbed by
it. The termites or white ants are likewise a scourge to
the country where they occur in great numbers. This
destructive creature devours everything in the shape of
wood, leather, cloth, <tc., that falls in its way; and they
march together in such swarms, that the devastation they
commit is almost incredible.
^oophjtijs Of the class of zoophj-tes, the brilliant nolvpi p! everj^
variety, and madrepores, abound on ihe CoasV'j oi Africv
The shores of the Mediterranean produce the finest coral,
and those of the Red Sea bristle with extensive reefs of the
same moUusca.
Man. From the shores of the Mediterranean to about the lati-
tude of 20° N., the population of Africa consists largely
of tribes not originally native to the soil, but of Arabs and
Turks, planted by conquest, with a considerable number of
Jews, the children of dispersion: and the more recently
introduced French. The Berbers of the Atlas legion, the
Tuaricks and Tibbus of the Sahara, and the Copts of
Egypt, may be viewed aa the descendants of tb« primitive
stock, while those to whom the general name of Moors is
applied, are perhaps of mixed descent, native and foreign.
From the latitude stated to the Cape Colony, tribes com-
monly classed together under the title of the Ethiopic or
Negro family are found, though many depart very ividely
from the peculiar physiognomy of the Negro, which is
most apparent in the natives of the Guinea coast In the
Cape Colony, and on its borders, the Hottentots form a
listinct variety in the population of Africa, most closely
esembKng the Mongolian races of A.";ia.
The Copts, or as they are correctly pronounced, either
C'koobt or Ckibl, are considered lo be the descendants of
the ancient Egj'ptians. They do not now compose more
than one sLxteeuth part of the population of Egypt, tbeir
number not exceeding 145,000, about 10,000 of whom
reside at Cairo. Conversions to the Mohammedan faith, and
intermarriages with the MoslcniB, have occasioned this
decrease in their numbers ; to which may be added the
persecutions which they endured from their Arabic invaders
and subsequent rulers. They were forced to adopt distirio-
tions of dress, and they still wear a turban of a black c
blue, or a grayish or light brown colour, in contradistinction
to the red or white turban. In some parts of Upper Egypt
there are villages exclusively inhabited by the Copts.
Their complexion ia somewhat darker than that of the Arabs,
their foreheads flat, and their hair of a soft and wooU '
character; their noses short, but not flat; mouths wide, fd
n])s thick ; the eyes large, and bent upwards in an angle
like those of the Mongols; their cheek-bones high, and their
beards thin. They are not aii unmixed race, their ancestors
in the earlier ages of Christianity having intermarried with
Greeks, Nubiant, and Abyssinians. With the exception of
a small proportion, the Copts are Christians of the sect called
Jacobites, Eutychians, Monophysitea, and Monothelites,
whose creed was condemned by the Council of Chaicedon,
A.D. 451. They are extremely bigoted, and bear a bitter
hatred to all other Christians; they are of a sullen temper,
extremely avaricious, great dissemblers, ignorant, and faith-
less. They frequently indulge in excessive drinking; but in
their meals, their mode of ej.ting, and the manner in which
they pass their hours of leisure, which is chiefly in smoking
their pipes and drinking coffee, they resemble the other in-
habitants of the country. Most of the Copts in Cairo are
employed as secretaries and accountants, or tradesmen ; they
are chiefly engaged in the government ofBces ; and as
merchants, goldsmiths, silversmiths, jewellers, architects,
builders, and carpenters, Ljey are generally considered
more skilful than the Moslems. The Coptic language is
now understood by few person.s, and -the Arabic being
employed in its stead, it may be considered as a dead
language.
The countries above Egypt are inhabited by two tribes Nnhisi*
of people resembling each other in physical characters, but
of distinct language and origin. One is, perhaps, the
aboriginal or native, the other a foreign tribe. Dr Prichard
terms them Ea.stem Nubians, -or Nubians of the Red Sea,
and Nubians -of the Nile, or Berberines. All these tribes
.afe peoiJ.* of a red-brown complexion, their colour in some
instances approaching to black, but BtUl diflTerent from the
ebony hue of the Eastern negroea Their hair is i^ften
frizzled and thick, and is described as even woolly; yet
it is not precisely similar to the hair of the negroes of
Guinea. The Eastern Nubians are tribes of roving people
who inhabit the country between the Nile and the Red
Sea; the northern division of this race are the Ababdeh,
who reach northward in the eastern desert as far as Kosseir,
and, towards the parallel of Deir, border on the BisharL
The Bishari reach thence towards the confines of Abyssinia.
The latter are extremely savage and inhospitable ; they are
said to drink the warm blood of living animals ; they are
for the most part nomadic, and live on flesh and milk,
They are described as a handsome people, with beautiful
features, fine expressive eyes, of slender and elegant forms ;
their complexion is said to be a dark brown, or a dark
chocolate colour. The Bardbra or Berberines are a people
well known in Eg)-])t, whither they resort as labourers
from the higher country of the Nile. They inhabit the
vaUey of that name from the southern limit of Egj'pt to
Sennaar. They are a people distinct from the Arabs and
all the surrounding nationa They live on the banks ot
the Nile ; and wherever there is any soil, tiey plant date-
trees, set up wheels lor irrigation, and sow durra and some
[.ETHNOLOOr
AFRICA
261
leguminous plants. At Cairo, whither many of this race
resort, they are esteemed for their honesty. They profess
Islam. The BarAbra are divided into three sections by
their dialects, which are those of the Nuba, the Kenous,
and the Dongolawi According to Dr Prichard, it is pro-
bable that the Berberines may be an offset from the original
stock which first peopled Egypt and Nubia,
ribbn.i. The country of the Nubians is limited on the west by
that of the Tibbus, who are spread over the eastern por-
tions of the Sahara, as far as Fezzan and Lake Chad. Dr
Latham considers it probable that their language belongs
to the Nubian class. They inhabit the locality of the
ancient Libyans or Zibyes. Their colour is not uniform.
In some it is quite black, but many have copper-coloured
faces. They are slim and well made, have high cheek-
bones, the nose sometimes Hat like that of the negro, and
sometimes aquiline. Their mouth is in general large, but
their teeth fine. Their lips are frequently formed like
those of Europeans ; their eyes are expressive, and their
hair, though curled, not woolly. The females are especially
distinguished by a light and elegant form, and in their
walk and erect manner of carrying themselves are very
striking. Their feet and ankles are delicately formed, and
not loaded with a mass of brass or iron, as is the practice
in other countries of Northern Africa, but have merely a
light anklet of polished silver or copper, sufficient to show
their jetty skin to more advantage ; and they also wear
neat red slippers. The Tibbus are chiefly a pastoral people.
They keep horses, cattle, sheep, and goats, but camels
constitute their principal riches. The villages of the
Tibbus are very regularly built in a square, with a space
left on the north and south faces of the quadrangle for the
use of tha cattle. The huts are entirely of mats, which
exclude the sun, yet admit both the light and the air. The
interior of these habitations is singularly neat : cjean
wooden bowls for the prose.rvatiou of milk, each with a
cover of basket-work, are hung against their walls. They
are greatly exposed to predatory incursions into their
country by the enemies who surround theUL The Tibbus
of Tibesti are described by Dr Nachtigal as of medium
stature, well made, of elegant though muscular frame ; in
colour they vary between a clear bronze and black.: the
greater number are dark bronze-coloured, yet without the
dightest trace of what is generally recognised as the negro
physiognomy. They carry on a considerable traffic in
slaves between Sudan, Fezzan, and TripoU.
Berber '■ ^ ^i^t; jg not Arabic in the kingdom of Marocco,"
8™"P- Bays Dr Latham, " all that is not Arabic in the French
provinces of Algeria, and all that is not Arabic in Tunis,
Tripoli, and Fezzan, is Berber. The language, also, of the
ancient Cyranaica, indeed the whole country bordering the
Mediterranean, between Tripoli and Egypt, is Berber. The
extinct language of the Canary Isles was Berber ; and,
finally, the language of the Sahara is Berber. The Berber
languages, in their present geographical localities, are essen-
tially inland languages. As a general rule, the Arabic is
the language for the whole of the sea-coast from the Delta
of the Nile to the Straits of Gibraltar, and from the Straits
of Gibraltar to the mouth of the Senegal" The Berber
nation is one of great antiquity, and from the times of
the earliest history has been spread over the same extent
of country as at present ; the ancient Numidian and
Mauritanian names of Sallust, and other writers, have a
moaning in the modem Berber. It has affinities with the
Semitic languages In the northern parts of Atlas those
people are called Berbers ; in the southern tracts they are
the Shidnh or Shelhas. In the hilly country belonging
to Tunis, the Kabyles; in Mount Auross, the Showiah; and
in the Desert, the Tuarick, — all belong to the same group.
The mountaiua of Atlas are said to bo inhabited by more
located
at Ghat.
than twenty different tribes, carrying on perpetual warfare
against each (Jther. They are very poor, and make plun-
dering-excursions in quest of the means of supporting life.
They are described as an athletic, strong-featured people,
accustomed to hardships and fatigue. , Their only covering
is a woollen garment without sleeves, fastened round the
wai.st by a belt.
The Shuluh, who are the mountaineers of the Northern
Atlas, live in villages of houses made of stone and mud,
with slate roofs, occasionally in tents, and even in caves.
They are chiefly huntsmen, but cultivate the ground and
rear bees. They are described as lively, intelligent, well-
formed, athletic men, not tall, without marked features,
and with light complexions. The Kabyles, or Kabaily, of
the Algerian and Tunisian territories, are the most indus-
trious inhabitants of the Barbary States, and, besides till-
age, work the mines contained in their mountains, and
obtain lead, iron, and copper. They live in huts made of
the branches of trees and covered with clay, which resemble
the magalia of the old Numidians, spread in little groups
over the sides of the mountains, and preserve the grain,
the legumes, and other fruits, which are the produce of
their husbandry, in mattoures, or conical excavations in the
ground. They are of middle stature ; their complexion is
brown, and sometimes nearly black.
The Tuarick are a people spread in various tribes through
the greater portion of the Sahara. The expedition under
Richardson, Barth, and Overweg, who traversed and ex-
plored a great portion of the Tuarick territories, has greatly
added to our knowledge of these people. The follovs'ing
are the names and localities of the principal tribes : —
1. Tanelkum, located in Fezzan.
( Ouraghen, family of Shafou, I
2. Azghers, < Emanghasatan, „ of Hateetah,
( Amana, „ of Jabour,
3. Aheethanaran, the tribe of Janet.
4. Hagar (Ahagar), pure Hagars and Jfaghatah. They
occupy the tract between Ghat, Tuat, and Timbuktu.
5. Sagamaram, located on the route from Aisou to Tuat.
6. Kailouees, including the Kailouees proper, the
Kaltadak, and the Kalfadai.
7. Kilgris, including the Kilgris proper, the iteesan, and
the Ashraf. These and the tribes under the preceding
head inhabit the kingdom of Ahir.
8. Oulimad, tribes surrounding Timbuktu in great num-
bera This, probably identical with the Sorghou, us the
largest and most powerful tribe, while the Tanelkums are
the smallest and weakest.
The various tribes are very different in their characters,
but they are all fine men, taU, straight, and handsome.
They exact a tribute from all the caravans traversing their
country, which chiefly furnishes them with the means of
subsistence. They are most abstemious, their food consist-
ing principally of coarse brown bread, dates, olives, and
water. Even on the heated desert, where the thermometer
generally is from 90° to 120°, they are clothed from head
to foot, and cover the face up to the eyes with a black or
coloured handkerchief.
The Moors who inhabit large portions of the empire of llwrs
Marocco, and are spread all along the Mediterranean coast,
are a mixed race, graftod-^ upon the ancient *Iauritanian
stock; whence their name. After the conquest of Africa
by the Arabs they became mixed with Arabs ; and having
conquered Spain in their turn, they intermarried with the
natives of that country, whence, after a possession of seven
centuries, they were driven back to Mauritania. They
are a handsome race, having much more resemblance to
Europeans and western Asiatics than to Arabs or Berbers,
although their language is Arabic, that is, the Mogrebin
dialect, which ditiera considerably from tlie Arabic lo
262
A F E 1 C A
[ethnology.
Arabia, and even in Egypt. Tliey are an intellectual
people, and not altogether iinlettered; but they arc cruel,
revengeful, and . blood-thirsty, exhibiting but very few
traces of that nobility of mind and delicacy of feeling and
tasto which graced their ancestors in Spain. The history
of the throne of Marocco, of the dynastic rcvolution.s at
Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, is written with blood ; and
among the pirates who infested the Mediterranean they
were the worst. Their religion is the Mohammedan. They
are temperate in their diet (vnd simple in their dress, except
the richer clas.ses in the principal towns, where the ladies
literally cover tliemselvcs with silk, gold, and jewels, while
the men indulge to excess their love of fine horses and
splendid arms. They generally lead a settled life as raer-
chants, mechanics, or agriculturists, but there are also many
wandering tribe.s. They exhibit considerable skill and taste
in dyeing, and in the manufacture of swords, saddlery,
Icathernware, gold and silver ornaments. 'At the Great
E.xhibitiort in London in IS.")!, the Moorish depai;tment
contained several articles which were greatlj- admired. The
Moors along the coast of Marocco still carry on piracy by
means of armed boats.
At two different periods, separated from each other by
perhaps a thousand years, AJricn was invaded by Arabic
tribes, which took a lasting possession of the districts they
conquered, and whose descendants form no inconsiderable
portion of the population of North and Central Africa,
while their language has superseded all others as that of
civilisation and religion.' Of the first invasion more has
been said under the head "Abyssinians." The second was
that eTected by the first successors of Mahomet, who con-
quered Egypt, and subsequently the whole north of Africa
as far as the shores of the Atlantic, in the course of the
first century of the Hegira, or the seventh of the Christian
era. As regards language, Kgypt is now an entirely Arabic
country, although in many other respects the Fellahs are
totally different from the peasants in Arabia. But there
are also several tribes of true Arabic descent scattered
}ibout from the high lands of Abyssinia down over Nubia
and Egypt, and westward over the central provinces of
Kordofan, Darfur, Waday, and Bornu. Others wander in
the Libyan deserts and the Great Sahara, as well as in the
states of Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers, leading a similar life
with the Kabyles, but constituting a totally distinct race.
Others, again, dwell in the empire of Marocco, among whom
those along the shores of the Atlantic are notorious for
their predatory habits and ferocious character. In many
places Arabic adventurers have Succeeded in subduing
native tribes of every nationality, over which they rule as
sovereign lords ; and on the coast of Zanzibar resides an
Arabic royal djTiasty. Many of the smaller islands to the
north of Madagascar are inhabited by Arabs, and traces
of them have been discovered in Madagascar itself. The
African Arabs are not all alike in features and colour of
ekin, the differences being attributable to some of them
haWng intermarried with natives, while others preserved
the purity of their blood.
Jews, The early settlements of the Jews in Egypt are facts
universally known. ■ Under the Ptolemies, large numbers
of them settled at Alexandria and in Cyrenaica, and after
the destruction of Jerusalem they rapidly spread over the
whole of the Roman possessions in .iVirica; many also took
refuge in Abyssinia.^ King Philip IL having driven them
out of Spain, many thousands of families took refuge on
the opposite coast of Africa. ^ They are now numerous in
bU the larger towns in the north, where they carry on the
occupation of merchants, brokers, itc, the trade with
Europe being mostly in their hands. They live in a state
of groat degradation, except in Algiers, where the French.
restored them to freedom and independenca They have
acquired /nuch wealth, and although compelled to hide
their riches from the cupidity of their rulers, they lose no
opjiortunity of showing them whenever they can do so
without risk of being plundered, fear and vanity being
characteristic features of their character. The Jewesses in
Marocco and Algiers are of remarkable beauty.
Ever since the conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selim, and Turd*
the establishment of Turki-sh pashalics in Tripoli, Tunis,
and Algiers, Turks have settled in the north of Africa; and
as they were the rulers of the country, whose numberB were
always on the increase on account of the incessant arrivals
of Turkish soldiers and officials, the Turkish became, and stiU
Ls, the languageof the different governments. Properly speak-
ing, however, they are not settled, but only encamped in
Africa, and hardly deservea place among the African nations.
Not all the inhabitants of the country called Abyssinia Ab>B-
are Abyssinians; nor are the real Abyssinians all of the einiana,
same origin, being a mixed race, to the formation of which
several distinct nations have contributed. The primitive
stock is of Ethiopian origin, but, aa their language clearly
shows, was at an early period mixed with a tribe of the
Himyarites from the opposite coast of Arabia, who, in
their turn, were ethnologically much more closely con-
nected with the Hebrews than with the Joctanidee, or the
Arabs properly speaking. In the age of the Egj-plian
Ptolemies, and after the destruction of Jerusalem, Jews
settled in Abyssinia in such numbers, Uiat not only their
religion spread among the inhabitants, but the Hebrew
language became mixed with the Abyssinian- as it then
was. Hence the surjmsing analogy between the principal
Abyssinian languages, viz., the Gheez in Tigrc, and the
Amharic in Amhara, with the Hebrew. The uninterrupted
intercourse with Arabia, and the immigration of several
Arabic tribes, also contributed towards the apparently
Semitic aspect of the present Abyssinian language. A
large portion of Abyssinia having been occupied by Galla-
and other tribes, we shall here only dwell on the original
Abyssinians. They inhabit a large tract, extending from
the upper course of the Blue River, north as far as the Red
Sea, and some isolated districts in the south and south-east.
To the west of them are the Agau Abyssinians, a different
tribe, whose idiom, however, is the common language of
the lower classes in Tigre and Amhara also. Abyssinia
■was once a large and powerful kingdom, but the Galla
haiang conquered the whole south of it, it gradually declined
until the king or emperor became a mere shadow, in whose
name several vassal princes exercise an unlimited power
each in his own territory. Owing to their jealousy and
mutual fears, war seldom ceases among the inhabitants.
The Christian religion was introduced into Abyssinia in
the first centuries after Christ ; but whatever its condition
might have been in former times, it now presents a de-
graded mixture of Christian dogmas and rites, Jewish
observances, and heathenish superstition. Yet of Judaism,
which was once so powerful, but feeble traces are extant,
while the Mohammedan religion is visibly tin the increase.
European missionaries have been, and still are very active
among them, but their efforts have been crowned only
with partial success. The Abyssinians, the Gallas being
excluded from that denomination, are a fine strong race,
of a copper hue, more or less dark, and altogether dif-
ferent from the Negroes, withWhom, however, they have
frequently been confounded, because they were called a
black people. Their noses are nearly straight, their eyas
beautifully clear, yet languishing, and their hair is black
and crisp, but. not woolly. They are on the whole a bar-
barous people, addictedjto the grossest 0ensual pleasures;
and their priests, among whom marriage is customary, are
little better than the common herd of the people. They
live in huts, a large asscmblase ot which forms a so-called
iTENOLOGY.I
AFRICA
263
town; and although they possess some solid constructions
of stone, such as churches and bridges, it appears that these
Tere built by the Portuguese, the ruins at Axunj and other
places belonging to a much earlier period, when the country
undoubtedly enjoyed a Jiighor civilisation than at present.
Owing to the influence exercised upon them diiring the last
thirty years by European missionaries and travellers, their
conduct towards strangers is less rude than it used to bo
at the time of Bruce. It is a remarkable fact that, not-
withstanding the low state of their religion, the Christians in
Abyssinia are not allowed to keep slaves, although they may
purchase them for the purpose of selling them agaiiL
Etiiopic. This extensive race comprehends by far the greater num-
ber of African nations, extending over the whole of Middle
and South Africa, except its southernmo.-jt j,rojection to-
wards the Cape of Good Hope. A line drawn from the
mouth of the Senegal in the west to Cape Jerdaffun in the
east, forms its northern limits almost with geometrical
accuracy, few Ethiopic tribes being found to the north of
it. All the members of this race, however, are not Negroes.
The latter are only one of its numerous offshoots; but
between the receding forehead, the projecting cheek-bones,
the thick lips of the Negro of Guinea, and the more straight
configuration of the head of a Galla in Abyssinia, there are
still many striking analogies ; and modern philology hav-
ing traced still greater analogies, denoting a common origin,
among the only apparently disconnected languages ytf so
many thousands of tribes, whose colour presents all the
hues between the deepest black and the yellow brown, it is
no longer doubtful that the Negro, the Galla, the Somali,
and the Kaffre, all belong to the same ethnological stock.
The principal Negro nations, as we know them, are the
Mandingoes, who are numerous, powerful, and not uncivi-
lised, in Senegambia, and farther inland, around the head
waters of the Quorra, where they have established a great
number of kingdoms and smaller sovereignties. The inland
trade is chiefly in their hands. They are black, with a mix-
ture of yftllow, and their hair is completely woolly. The
Wolofs or Tolofs, wtiose language is totally different from
those of their neighbours, are the handsomest and blackest
of all Negroe.=i, although they live at a greater distance from
the equator than most of the other black tribes, their prin-
cipal dwelling-places being between the Senegal and the
Gambia, along the coast of the Atlantic. They are a mild
and social people. The Foulahs or Fellatahs occupy the
central parts of Soudan, situated in the crescent formed by
the course of the Quorra, and also large tracts to the south-
east, as far as the equator west to the Senegal, and east till
beyond Lake Chad. Theii" colour, as a rule, is black, inter-
mixed, however, with a striking copper hue, some of them
being hardly more dark than gipsies. They are one of the
most remarkable nations in Africa, very industrious, live in
commodious and clean habitations, and are mostly Moham-
medans. A distinction was formerly made between tlie
Foulahs of Senegambia and the Fellatahs of Central Africa,
but it has since been ascertained that they belong to the same
stock, and speak the same language. The hair of the Foulahs
is much less woolly than that of other Negroes, Of the prin-
cipal nations in Guinea, among whom the true Negro type is
particularly distinct, especially around the Bight of Benin,
are the Feloops, near the Casamanya, very black, yet hand-
some; and the A.^hanti, of the Amina race, who surpass
all their neighbours in civilisation, and the cast of whose
features differs so much from the Negro type that they are
said to bo more like Indians than Africans ; although this is
perhaps only true of the higher orders. -They are still in
possession of a powerful kingdom. The country behind the
Slave Coast is occupied by tribes akin to the Dahomeh on
the coast. In South Guinea wc meet three principal races,
namely, the Congo, the Abunda, and the Benguela Ne-
groes, who are divided into a variety of smaller tribes, with
whom we are much less acquainted than with the northern
Negroes, although the Portuguese have occupied this coast
for upwards of three centuries. The Wamasai and Wah- Wamisi
wavi, possibly of Abyssinian stock, are a remarkable race and W^i
of wild Bomad hunters, who occupy the high plateau which *^^''
rises between the coast-land and the Victoria Nyanza, extend-
ing from the equator southward to the route which leads
from Zanzibar to the Tanganyika Lake. They are the terror
of the more settled inhabitants of the surrounding countries,
and occasionally make raids down even to the coast-land
behind Mombas, The next great branch of the Ethiopic
race comprehends the GaUa, who occupy an immense tract GaUa.
in Eastern Africa, from Abyssinia as far as the fourth degree
of S. latitude, on the coast inward from Mombas. Our
knowledge of them is chiefly confined to those Gallas who
conquered Abyssinia. With regard to their physical con-
formation, they stand between the Negro of Guinea and the
Arab and Berber. Their countenances are rounder than
those of the Arabs, their noses are almost straight, and their
hair, though strongly frizzled, is not so woolly as that of the
Negro, nor are their lips quite so thick. Their eyes are small
(in which they again differ from the Abyssinians), deeply
set, but very lively. They are a strong, large, almost bulky
people, whose colour varies between black and brownish,
some of their women being remarkably fair, considering
the race they belong to. An interesting tribe of them has gonialL
lately been brought to the knowledge of Europeans, the
Somali, originally Arabs, who have advanced from the
southern shores of the Gulf of Aden since the 15th century,
and now occupy the greater portion of the East African pro- •
montory wedging into the Galla region, and almost dividing
that country into two distinct portions. For the most
part they purs\ie a wandering and pastoral life.
In the central regions of the continent the negroid Negroid'
tribes, which are classed under the general name of '"l'«s.
Wanyamwezi, occupjTng the plateau south of the Vic-
toria and east of the Tanganyika Lakes, have been made
known by Burton and subsequent travellers ; round the
west and north of the Victoria are several distinct king-
doms, the chief being those of Karague and Uganda,
traversed by Speke and Grant ; in the region west of the
Upper Nile the countries of the Jur, Dor, and Bongo
tribes have been explored by Dr Schweinfurth, and he has
passed beyond the watershed of the Nile into a new basin,
where he found the Niamniam and Monbuttu tribes.
Dr Livingstone, in his latest journey, has entered the
country of the Manyuema tribes, west of Tanganyika, in
the heart of the continent; these he describes as a fine, tall
handsome race, superior alike to the slaves seen at Zanzibar
and the typical negro of the west coast; exceedingly
numerous, and living in a primitive condition, utterly igno-
.rant of the outer world. The Balunda race of Negroes
occupy a great area of South Central Africa, and have two
ancient and powerful kingdoms of Muropua and Lunda, the
former ruled over by the hereditary "Muata" or chief
Ilianvo, who has his capital near the Cassabi tributary of the
Congo, and the latter by the Hianvo's vassal, the Cazembe,
whose palace is near the Luapula river, south-west of Lake-
Tanganyika. Kibakoe or Quiboque and Lobal, south-west.of
the kingdom of Ilianvo, are the chief states on the borde!-»
of Angola and Benguela ; towards the Nyassa lake, south-
east from the Cazembe's dominions, the Matavi tribe is per
haps the mast powerful, and beyond the Nyassa tliat of the
Wahiao is the chief. The Makololo tribe, occup}'ing the cen-
tral, portion of the Zambeze basin, is of southern origin, and
forms an intermediate stage between the Negro and Kaffre.
The Kaffres, who, together with the tribes most akin to Kaf6»t
them, occupy the greater portion ol South Africa, especiaUy
the eastern portions, have some analogy with Europeans ui
26-t
A F E I C A
Tethnoloov.
their featuren ;' but they are woolly haired, and while some
are almost black, others are comparatively fair, although
some of their tribes might have becu mixed with the limt-
crn Negroes. They have been very wrongly classed vrilh
the Negroes. They are a strong, muscular, active people,
iddicted to plunder and warfare. Tiie Eastern KaCTrLS,
among whom the AmakosaU aud Amazulah arc best known
to us, on account of their frequent invasions of the Capo
Colony, are much more savage than the western and north-
ern, or the Bechuana and Sichuana tribes. All Kaffrcs are
pastoral, keeping largo herds of cattle ; but the last-named
tribes inhabit' large towns, well-built houses, cultivate the
ground carefully, and exhibit every ajjpcaranco of being
capable of entire civilisation. The word Kaffre, or Kafir,
as it ought to bo written, is Arabic, and was first applied
by the Europeans to the inhabitants of the coast of Jlozam-
bique, because they were so called by the Mohammedans,
in whose eyes they were Kafirs, that is infidels.
Hottentots. We conclude this sketch with the Hottentot race, which
is entirely different from all the other races of Africa.
Where they originally came from, and how they happened
to be hemmed in and confined entirely to this remote corner
of the earth, is a problem not likely to be ever satisfactorily
solved. The only people to whom the Hottentot has been
thought to bear a resemblance, are the Chinese or Malays,
or their original stock the Mongols. Like these people
they have the broad forehead, the high cheek-bones, the
oblique eye, the thin beard, and the dull yellow tint of
complexion, resembling the colour of a dried tobacco leaf ;
but there is a difference with regard to the hair, which
* grows in small tuft.s, harsh, and ratlier wiry, covering the
scalp somewh;\t like the hard pellets of a shoe-brusL The
women, too, liave a peculiarity in their physical conforma-
tiou, which, though occasionally to bo met with in other
nations, is not universal, as among the Hottentots. Their
constitutional "bustles" sometimes grow to three times the
size of those artificial stuffings with which our fashionable
ladies have disfigured themselves. Even the females of the
diminutive Bosjesmen Hottentots, who frequently perish of
hunger in the barren mountains, and are reduced to skele-
tons, have the same protuberances as the Hottentots of the
plains. It is not known even whence the name of Hotten-
tot proceeds, as it is none of their own. It has been con-
jectured that Iwt and tot frequently occurring in their singu-
lar language, in which the monosyllables are enunciated
with a lal.itic clacking with the tongue, like that of a hen,
may have given rise to the name, and that the early Dutch
Bcttlers named them hot-en-tot. They call themselves qui-
qucc, pronounced with a clack. They are a lively, cheerful,
good-humoured people, and by no means wanting in intel-
lect ; but they have met with nothing but harsh treatment
since their first connection with Europeans. Neither Bar-
tholomew Diaz, who first discovered, nor Vasco de Gama,
who first doubled, the Cape of Good Hope, nor any of the
subsequent Portuguese navigators, down to 1509, had much
communication with the natives of this southern angle of
Africa; but in the year above mentioned, Francisco d'Al-
meyda, viceroy of India, having landed on his return at
Saldanha (now Table) Bay, was killed,, with abont twenty
of his people, in a scuffle with the natives. ». To avenge his
death, a Portuguese captain, about three years afterwards,
^ is said to have landed a piece of ordnance loaded with grape
shot, as a pretended present to the Hottentots. Two ropes
were attached to this fatal engine ; the Hottentots poured
down in swarms. Men, women, and children flocked round
the deadly machine, as the Trojans did round the wooden
horse, " fummque manu contingire gaudent." The brutal
Portuguese fired off the piece, and viewed with savage.
delight the mangled carcasses of the deluded people. The
Dutch effected their ruin by gratu'ying their propensity for
brandy and tobacco, at the expense of their herds of cattle,
on which they subsisted. Under the British hway they have
received protection, andshown themselves not unworthy of it.
They now possess property, and enjoy it in security. One of
the most beautiful villages, and theneatestand best-cultivated
gardens, belong to a large community of Hottentots, under
the instruction and guidance of a few Moravian missionaries.
These forlorn people are of Hottentot origin. Of them Biiiluii/r
also several tribes have been discovered much farther north,
and intelligence has lately reached Europe, that b»-twee
the Portugueseposses3ions,in the very ce"tre of South AJnct
there is a nation of dwarfish appearai.ce who posses* large
herds, and who seem to belong to the original Bushmen stock
The island of Madagascar is inhabited by a race of Mala'
origin, exhibiting traces of Negro and Arabic mixture.
The area and population of Africa aud its divisions are Pupuktloi.
thus estunated: — •
North Afi'.ic*
Marocco,
Algeria
Tunis, ......
Tripoli, with Barra and I
I'ezzan, .... J
Egyptian territory, . . .
San&ra,
Tho SIOHAMMED.VN STATES I
of Central Soudan, . j
Western Soudan, from ]
the Senegal to tlie Lower f
Niger, including Upjier t
Guinea, and . . . . )
French SeneganiLin, . .
Liberia,
Dahomeh
British possessions, . .
Portuguese possessions, .
East Africa
Abyssinia,
South Africa, ....
Portuguese I Kast coast,
territory, t West coast,
Cape Colony
Natal,
Orange R. Free State, .
Transvaal Kepublic, . .
Equatorial Kegions, . .
Islands in the Atlantic j
Ocean, ..... (
C. Verd Islands, . ...
St Thomas and Principe,
Fcmaudo Po k Annobon,
Ascension,
St Helena,
Tristan da Cunha, . .
IsLANDsinthelNDiAN Ocean,
Socotra,
Abd-el-Kuri, ....
Zanzibar,
Aladagascar, ....
Comoro lalanda (with |
Mayotta), ... J
The Arco Islands, Jio., .
Reunion,
Mauritius and its de- I
pendencies, ... J
Desert of Kalahari and
the Great Inland
Lakes
Africa, . .
Area In EncHfth
W)turc uiLlei. '
4,003,000
259,600
253,300
45,700
314,400
659,100
2,436,500
631,000
818,000
96,530
9,580
3,880
17,100
35,880
1,595,000
158,400
1,966,000
382,000
312,500
221,310
17,800
42,500
114,360
1,522,200
2 720
1,650
454
488
38
47
45
233,870
1,700
64
616
228.575
1,062
150
970
708
783,600
PonjIiUoo.
20.420,000
2,760,000
2,921,146
2,000,000
750,000
8,000,000
4.000.000
38,800,000
38 SOO.OOO
209,162
718,0110
180,000
577,313
8,500
29,700,000
3,000,000
16,000,000
300,000
9,000,000
682,600
269,302
37,000
120,000
43,000.000
99.145
67,347
19,295
5,590
400
6,860
53
6,000,000
3,000
100
380,000
B.COO.OOO
64,600
209,737
322,924
AvenK«
Dcnsliy.
""o.to
Ml. mile.
11,556,600 192,520,000
6
10
11
4.'i
12
1»
«1
47
a
72
47
34
0-2
18
19
8
0-8
29
3
15
0-8
1
29
37
42
42
11
10
45
1
25
2
2
616
22
64
216
456
16
• Compiled from the Tables in Behm aud Wagnet't £niUccjw.g u.r
Erdt. Gotlia. 1872.
STAaES.J
AFRICA
265
In the central forest regions of Africa, wherever com-
munications with the coast-land have been opened up,
hunting the elephant for its tuaka to barter with the traders
appears to be the characteristic occupation, if any, beyond
that of mere attention to the daily wants of life, is engaged
in; and here the population may be considered ei a Bottled
one, living in villages in the more open spaces of the woods.
A rudely agricultural state seems to mark the outer belt of
negro land on each side of the equatorial zone, where the
population is also more or less stationary. .The arid regions
of the Sahara and the Kalahari bej'ond have, on the other
hand, a thinly scattered nomadic population, though hero
also the fertile wadys form lines of more permanent habita-
tion, and contain permanent towns and villages. Except-
ing in the immediate neighbourhood of the. Mediterranean
in Abyssinia, on a narrow margin of the coasts of the
Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, and in those parts .which
have been colonised by Europeans, or which came directly
under their influence, society has remained in a barbarian
state, and there remain great areas the inhabitants of which
have as yet no knowledge of the outer world.
Agriculture is conducted with little art. The natural
fertility of the eofl in the well-watered districts supersedes
the need of skill, while the production of the simplest
manufactures is alone requisite, where the range of personal
wants embraces few objects, and those of the humblest class.
Wars, cruel and incessant, waged not for the sake of
territory, but for the capture of slaves, form one of the
most marked and deplorable features in the social condition
of the African races. This practice, though not of foreign
Introduction, has been largely promoted by the cupidity of
the Europeans and Transatlantic nations; and, unhappily,
the efforts of private philanthropy, and the political
arrangements of various governments, have not yet availed
to terminate the hideous traffic in mankind, or abate the
suffering entailed upon its victims.
fteligioD. In Religion, Christianity is professed in Aoyssima, and
in Egypt by the Copts, but its doctrines and precepts are
little understood and obeyed Mohammedanism prevails in
all Northern Africa, excepting Abyssinia, as far as a line
passing through the Soudan, from the Gambia on the west
to' the confluence of the Quorra and Benuc, and thence
eastward, generally following the 10th parallel of N. lat.
to the NOo below the junction of the Ghazal ; thence south-
east, leaving the coast-land in the ilohammedau region, to
Cape Delgado. In Marocco, Algeria, and Egypt, there
is an admixture of Jews. Heathen Negroes and Caffre
tribes extend southward over the continent from the line
described above to the colonics in the southern extremity
of the continent ; and over this vast area the native mind
is surrendered to superstitions of infinite number and
character. In the Capo Colony Protestantism again pre-
vails, but with a strong intermixture of heathenism. The
labours of Christian missionaries have, however, done much,
er;pecially in South Africa, towards turning the benighted
Africans from idols to the living God.
Political In describing the political divisions of Africa, we shall
■llvUions. proceed from north to south.
Barb.wy. The country included under the general name of Barbary
extends from the borders of Egypt on the east to the
Atlantic on the west, and is .bounded by the Mediterranean
on the north, and by the Sahara on the south. It com-
prises the states of Marocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli
Mniocco Marocco, the most westerly state of Barbary, is thus
named by the Europeans, but by the Arabs themselves
Mogr'-cb-el-Aksa, or "the extreme west." The eastern
boundary was de'tormined in the treaty with the French of
18th March 1845, by a line which, in the south, com-
mencea east of the oa*i3 Figueg, intersecting the desert of
*n;:ad, .-.nd reaching the Mediterranean at a point about
1—10*
30 miles west of the French port Nemours, xn the south
Marocco embraces the oasis of Tuat and the Wad.y Draa.
The power of the government of Marocco, which is despotic
and cruel, as well as the population of the country, appear
to have diminished greatly. Two-thirds of the country are
independent of the Sultan's authority, and are held by
mountain chiefs who defy his power. The trade o£ the coast
is maintained by European merchants. See Maeocco.
Algeria extends from Marocco in the west, to Turds in Aljsrii
the east, and closely answers in its limits to the ancient
kingdom of Numidia. The southern boundaries are not
very definite, falling,, as thoy do, within the botmdless
plains of the desert. See Ai.giek3.
Tunis is the smallest of the Barbary states. The con- Tunis.
figuration of the surface is similar to that of Algeria, in
thi'ae division.s, the " TeD," or fertile coast slopes, the
steppes on the high lands, and the low-lying Sahara beyond.
The highest peaks range between 4000 and 5000 feet.
The southern plains comprise the land of dates (Belad-
el-Jerid), and several extensive salt lakes. Tunis possesses
but few rivers and streams, and springs are plentiful only
in the mountainous regions.
The climate is, upon the whole, salubrious, and is not of
the same excessive character as that of Algeria; regular
sea-breezes exercise an ameliorating influence both in sum-
mer and winter; frost is almost unknown, and snow never
falls. During summer occasional winds from the south
render the atmosphere exceedingly dry and hot.
The natural productions of the country are somewhat
similar to those of the other Barbai-y states, but dates of
the finest quah'ty are more largely produced The horses
and dromedaries are of excellent breed, and the former are
eagerly sought for the French army in Algeria.. Bees are
reared in great quantity, and coral fisheries are carried on.
Of minerals lead, salt, and saltpetre are the most noticeable.
The population consists chiefly of Mohammedan Moors
and Arabs'; the number of Jews is estimated at 45,000,
and of Boman Catholics 25,000. The former have attained
a higher degree of industry and civilisation than their
brethren elsewhere; those of the latter who inhabit the
central mountainovis regions are nearly independent.
The government is vested in a hereditary bey, and has
been, conducted in peace and security for a number of
years. From the year 1575 onwards, Tunis has been imder
the rule of Turkey; but by a firman of October 1871 the
Sultan renounced the ancient tribute. The bey, who is
styled "Possessor of the kingdom of Tunis," is confirmed
in his' position at Constantinople, and may neither enter
into a war, nor conclude a treaty of peace, nor cede any part
of his territory without the sanction of the Sultan, The
Tunisian coinage bears the name of the Sultan, and the
troops (3900 infantry and artillery, and 100 cavalry, form
the regular army) are at the disposal of the Sublime Porte
in time of war. In the interior of the country the bey has
absolute power. The slave trade was abolished in 1842.
The commerce of Tunis is considerable, but agriculture
is in a backward state. The exports consist chiefl.y of
wool, olive-oil, wax, honey, hidfs, dates, grain, coral, iic.
The principal town is Turiis, situated on a shallow lake
on the north coast. It is the most important commercial
placa on the southern shores of the Mediterranean after
jVlexandria, and has a population of about 125,000. The
site of the ancient Carthage is 13 miles from Tunis in tile
direction of Cape Bon,
Tripoli, a regency of tfte Turkish empire, extends Irom Tripoli.
Tunis along the shores of the Mediterranean to the table-
land of Baroa, which forms a separate province. Politically,
it includes the pashalio of Fezzan, a coun*'^ which, in c
physical point cf view, belongs to the Sahara.
Tripoli is the least favoured by nature of thj BarDar
1- — 34
gfifi
AFRICA
[states.
E^ypt.
ftates, (I'lificsaing a great extent of sterile surface. Mr
Richardson graphically describes ' the physiognomy of the
country between the towns of Tripoli and Murzuk in eight
zones: — 1. The plain along the sea-shore, with the date-
palm plantations and the sandhills; 2. The Oharian moun-
tains, with their olive and fig plantationR, more favoured
with rains than the other regions; 3. The limestone hills
and broad valleys between the town of Kalubah and
Ghareeah, gradually assuming the aridity of the Sahara as
yo proceed southward ; 4. The Uamadah, an immense desert
plateau, separating Tripoli from Fczzan; 6. The sandy
valleys and limestone rocks between E4-Ho8si and Es-Shaty,
where herbage and trees are found; C. The sand between
Shiaty and El-Wady, piled in masses or heaps, and extend-
ing in undulating plains; 7. The sandy valleys of El-Wady,
covered with forests of date-palms; 8. The plateau of
Murzuk, conaisting of shallow valleys, ridges of low sand-
stone hills, and naked plains. These zones extend parallel
with tke Mediterranean shores througji the greater portion
of the ountry. A summit of the Jebel-es-Soda, or Black
Mountains, midway between Tripoli and Murzuk, almost
2800 feet high, is supposed to bo the culminating point of
the regency. Rivera exist only periodically, and springs
are exceedingly scarce.
The climate is somewhat more subject to extremes than
that of Tunis, especially in the interior, where burning heat
is followed by excessive cold. As far south as Sokna
snow occasionally falls. The climate of Murzuk is very
unhealthy, and frequently fatal to Europeans.
The natural products are very much like those of Tunis.
Oxen and horses are small, but of good quality; the mules
are of excellent breed. Locusts and scorpions are among
the most no-xious animals. Salt and sulphur are the chief
minerals.
The population is very thin. Arabs are the prominent
race, besides which are Turks, Berbers, Jews, Tibbus, and
Negroes. The country is governed by a pasha, subject to
the Ottoman empire. The military force by which the
Turks hold possession of this vast but thinly-peopled terri-
tory amounts to 4500 men.
The commerce is not inconsiderable, and the inhabitants
of Tripoli trade with almost every part of the Sahara, as
well as the Soudan. At Murzuk there is a large annual
market, which lasts from October to January. The ex-
ports of Tripoli are wheat, wax, ivory, ostrich feathers,
madder, esparto grass, cattle, salt, and dates.
Tripoli is the capital of the regency, and the largest
town; it lies on the Mediterranean, surrounded by a fertile
plain ; the number of inhabitants is about 30,000. Murzuk,
the capital of Fezzan, has a mixed population of about
11,000 souls. The town of Ghadamis has about 7000
inhabitants.
In 18G!) the maritime plateau of Barca and the depressed
region inland from it, which contains the oases of Aujila
and Jalo, was formed into a separate government, depend-
ent directly upon Constantinople. This country is the
seat of the ancient Greek Pentapolu, of Bernice, Arsince,
Barca, ApoUonia, and Cyreno. Bengazi, the only place of
importance, occupies the site of the first of these on the
Mediterranean, and has from 6000 to 7000 inhabitants.
Egj'pt occupies the north-eastern comer of Africa, and
03 remarkable for its ancient and sacred associations, and
its wonderful monumenta of human art
Egypt is a vast desert, the fertile portions susceptible of
cultivation being confined to the Delta of the Nile and its
narrow valley, a region celebrated in the most ancient historic
documents for its sii^gular fertility, and still pouring an
annual surplus of grain into the markets of Europe. By the
annual inundation of the Nile this region is laid under water,
and upon its retirement the grain crops are sown in the layer
of mud left behind it. Barren ranges of hills and elevated
tracts occupy the land on both sides of the Nile, which is
the only river of the country. The amount of its rise i& a
matter of extreme solicitude to the people, for should it pass
its customary bounds a few feet, cattle are drowned, hoMacs
are swept away, and immense injury ensues; a falling short
of the ordinary height, on the other hand, causes dearth
and famine, according to its extent. The water of tho
Nile is renowned for its agreeable taste and wholesome
quality. In connection with tho Nile is tho Birkct-el-
Kerun, a salt lake.
The climate is very hot and dry. Bain falls but seldom
along tho coasts, but the dews are very copious. The hot
and oppressive winds, called khamsin and simooms, are a
frequent scourge to the country; but the climate is, upon
the whole, more salubrious than that of manv other trooical
countries.
The natural products are not of great variety. Tlic v.-ild
plants are but few and scanty, while those cultivated include
all the more important kinds-adapted to tropical countries;
rice, wheat, sugar, cotton, indigo, are cultivated for export;
dates, figs, pomegranates, lemons, and olives, are likewise
grown. The doum-palm, which appears in Upper Egypt,
ia characteristic, as also tho papyrus. The fauna is cha-
racteiTsed by an immense number of waterfowl, flamingoes,
pelicans, itc. The hippopotamus and crocodile, the two
primeval inhabitants of the Nile, seem to be banished from
the Delta, the latter being still seen in Upper Egypt. The
cattle are of excellent breed. Largo beasts of prey are
wanting; but the ichneumon of the ancients still exists.
Boee, silkworms, and corals are noticeable. Minerals are
scarce, natron, salt, and sulphur being the principaL
The native Egyptians of Arab descent compose the great
bulk of the people, the peasant and labouring class, and
are termed Fellahs. -Next in number, though compara-
tively few (145,000), ara tho Copts, descended from the
old inhabitants of the country, tho ancient Egyptians, but
far from being an unmixed race. The Arabic Bedouiii
tribes, Negroes, European Christians (Greeks, Italians,
French, Austrian, English), the Jews, and the dominant
Turks, compose the remainder of the population.
Egypt is formally a Turkish pashalic, but tho hereditary
paaha, by whom' the government ia conducted, and whose
authority is absolute, is practically an independent prince.
The government of Nubia and Kordofan is also conducted
by the Pasha of Egypt, and recently the whole of the Nile
valley, as far south as the equator, has been annexed by
the Egyptian government. An army of about 14,000 men
is maintained.
The agriculture of Egypt has always been considerable,
there being three harvests in the year. The industry is
limited: ono peculiar branch is the artificial hatching of
eggs in ovens heated to the requisite temperature, a pro-
cess which has been handed down from antiquity, and is
now chiefly carried on by tho Copts. Floating bee-hives
are also peculiar to tho Nile. The commerce is extensive
and important: tho exports to Europe consist chiefly of
cotton, flax, indigo, gum-arabic, ostrich feathers, ivory,
senna, and gold. Tho country forms part of the great
highway of traffic between Europe and Southern Asia.
Railways, from the ports of Alexandria and Damietta in
th« Mediterranean, and from Suez on the Red Sea, unite
at Cairo; and a railway now extends thence up tho bank
of the Nile to no^- the first cataract of tho river at Assouan,
• in kt. 24° N.
The Suez canal, uniting tlie Ked Sea and the Medi- Saez ciiSL
I t«rpanean, was began in April 1859, and was opened for
traflic ten years later, in November 1869. The cutting
runs from the artificial harbour of Port Said on the Medi-
[ terranean, through the shallow laeoon of MenzaJeh, and
STATES.]
AFRICA
267
through two smaller lakes with low sandhills between;
nearer Suez a depressed area, in which several salt lakes
formerly existed, has been fiUed up by water let in by
the canal, and now forms a wide expanse of water. In
length the canal is nearly 100 mileS, and has a depth
throughout of 2G feet, with a general width of 200 to 300
feet at the top of the banks and 72 feet at the bottom.
Vessels are able to steam or bo towed through the canal in
sixteen hours from sea to soa. E.xtensive harbours and
docks have been constructed both on the ftfediterranean side
and at Suez. The number of vessels which entered Port
Said in 1871 was 1215. of 928,000 tons, exclusive of
87 war-ships.
Egypt proper is divided into three sub-pashalics — Bahari
or Lower Egypt, Vostani or Middle Egypt, and Said or Upper
Egypt. Cairo, on the east bank of the NUo, is the capital
of Egypt, and is the largest town of Africa, containing
354,000 inhabitants: it has 400 mosques, and upwards of
130 minarets, some of them of rich and graceful architec-
ture, presenting at a distance an appearance singularly
imposing. Alexandria, on the coast, is the emporium of
the commerce with Europe, and has 220,000 inhabitants,
among whom are 54,000 Europeans. Damiotta has a
population of 37,100; Eosetta of 18,300. Suez, on the
northern extremity of the Red Sea, is a small, Ul-built
town, but has assumed importance as a ^ood port since
the establishment of the overland route to India and the
completion of the maritime canal It has now nearly
14,000 inhabitants, of whom about 2500 are Europeans.
Port Said has 8800 inhabitants, of whom one-half are
foreigners.
KablB. Iv'ubia extends along the Red Sea, from Egypt to Abys-
sinia, comprising the middle course of fhe Nile.
The natural features of the country are varied; the
northern portion consisting of a burning sterile wilderness,
while the southern, lying within the range of the tropical
rains, and watered by the Abyssinian affluents of the Nile,
exhibits vegetation in its tropical glory, forests of arborescent
grasses, timber-trees, and parasitical plants largely clothing
the countf7. T^lus latter territory, which may bo called
Upper Nubia, includes &i» region of ancient Meroe, situated
in the peninsula formed by the Nile piopei, &e:?'-«o River,
and the Atbara, and comprises, further, south, the' recent/y
extinguished modern kingdom of Sennaar.
Nubia forms the link between the plain of Egypt and
the high table-lands of Abyssinia ; its general physical
(■haracter is that of a slightly ascending region. The
lowest parts in Upper Nubia scarcely exceed an altitude of
1300 feet; Kliartum, at the confluence of the Blue and
White Rivois, being 1345 feet above the level of the sea.
'A chain of mouutaiiis and elevated land rises abruptly
along the shores of the Red Sea, gradually sloping down
to the valley of the Nile; the intermediate region being
intersected by smaller ranges, groups of hills, and numerous
wadys filled with sand. The spurs of the Abyssinian
table-land, extending within the southern confines of
Nubia, reach a height of 3000 feet. Besides the Nile, the
country is watered by two other large rivers, its tributaries,
the Bhar-el-Azrok or Bine River, and the Atbara or
Takkazze, both being much alike in magnitude, and having
their head-streams in the Abyssinian table-land.
The climate of Nubia is tropical throughout, and the
heat in the deserts of its central portions is not exceeded
by that of any other part of the globe. The southern half
of the country is within the influence of tho tropical rains,
the northern partakes the character of the almost rainless
Sahara ; and while tlio latter is generally very 8alubrio\is,
the former is a land of dangerous fevers, particularly in tho
plains subject to inundations. Such is the KoUa, a marshy
and swampy region of great extent, situated along the foot
or the Abyssinian Mountains, between the Blue River and
the Takkazze.
The northern region is poor in natural productions, but
in the south the vegetation is most luxuriant ; palms form
a prominent feature, and the monkey bread-tree attains its
most colossal dimensions. Tho date -tree, dourra, cotton,
and indigo are cultivated. The date-palm does not ex-
tend beyond the south of Abou-Egli, in lat. 18° 36'.
Tlie elephant occasionally wanders as far as Sennaar;
che rhinxjceros, Hon, giraffe, and buffalo are more common.
The waters are inhabited by crocodiles more ferocious than
those of Egypt, and by huge hippopotami The young
hippopotamus brought to the Zoological Gardens of London
in 1850, was captured in Nubia, in an island of the NUo,
about 1800 miles above Cairo: no living specimen had
been seen in Europe since the period when they were
exhibited by the third Gordian in the Colosseum at Rome.
Monkeys and antelopes are found in great numbers. The
camel does not extend beyond the twelfth degree of latitude
to the south. Ostriches roam over tho deserts ; and among
the reptiles, besides the crocodile, are large serpents of the
python species, and tortoises. Of the numerous insects
the most remarkable is the scaraba3us of the ancient Egyp-
tians, still found in Sennaar. Of minerals Nubia possesses
gold, silver, copper, iron, salt.
In the inhabitants two principal varieties are recognised,
the pure original population, and their descendants, mixed
with other nations. The Borberines inhabit the northern
part, and the Bisharis the desert regions; the latter are th>
genuine Nubians, finely moulded and dark complexioned,
supposed by some to agree more closely with the ancient
Egyptians than the Copts, usually deemed their represen-
tatives. In the south-eastern part the true Negro element
appears.
Nubia, now a province unaer the pashalic of Egypt, con-
sisted formerly of a number of small and independent king-
doms. The Turkish conquest lasted from 1813 to 1822;
in the latter years it was invaded and mercilessly ravaged
by the army of Mahomet Ali, under his second son Ismayl,
whose dreadful atrocities entailed a fearful fate upon him-
soLf, having been surprised when attending a uoctumaj
banquet, at some distance from his camp, and burned to
The couulTf 's favourable for agriculture, which, how-
over, is only carried on to a limited extent, by the women.-
Cattle are abundant, and the camels of the Bisharin and
Ababde are famous for their enduring powers. Salt is
largely exported from the shores of the Red Sea to India,
and ivory, with other products of tropical Africa, forma ft
principal article of trade.
Khartum, the capital of Nubia, the headquarters of the
Egyptian government, and the chief seat of commerce, con-
tains a population variously estimated at from 20,000 to
50,000. It is a modern town, having been founded in 1821,
and lies in a dry, flat, and unhealthy country, near the
confluence of the two main branches of the NUe. It is in
telegraphic communication with Cairo.
Kordofan, on the western side of Nubia, lies Dotween the Kordofan,
parallels of 12° and 16°, and between the meridians 29°
and 32°, containing about 30,000 square miles. It is a flat
country, interspersed with a few hills, presenting in tho dry
season a desert with Lttle appearance of vegetation, and in
tho rainy season a prairie, covered with liLxuriant grass and
other plants. The general elevation of the country is 2000
feet, and some of the hills attain a height of 3000. The
altitude of El Obeid is 2150 feet There are no permanent
rivers in tho country, and the natural products are simily
to those of tho adjoining regions of Nubia.
The population consists of Negroes. This country was,
simultaneously with Nubia, made tributary to Egypt. The
26B
AFRICA
[bTATES.
Abvaalnia.
Sab-ran
o<»u>tries.
commorce consiBts of gum-arabic, ivury, and gold, and b not
inconsiderable. El Obeid, tlio ckitf town, is composed of
several villages of mud-built houses, thatched with straw,
containing about 12,000 inhabitants.
The boundaries of Abysuinia are somewhat uncertam ;
but confining it to the provinces actually under the govern-
ment of Christian or Xlohnniinedan princes, it may bo do-
scribed as extending from about 9° to 16° N. lat., and from
36° to 40° E. long. See Abyssima.
The Suharan countries extend from the Atlantic in the
west, to tho Nilotic countries in the cast, from. the Earbary
States in tho north, to the basins of tho Rivers Senegal and
Kawara, and Lake Chad in the south. The area of this
largo space amounts to at least 2,000,000 square Utiles, or
upwards of one-half of that of tho whole of Europe. It is
Tery scantily populated, but from our present defective
knowledge of that region, tho number of its inhabitants
can be but roughly estimated.
The physical configuration of the S.ihnra has already boon
indicated. Notwithstanding tho proverbial beat, which is
almost insupportable by day, there is often great cold ot
night, owing to tho excessive radiation, promoted by the
clearness of tho sky. Rain is nearly, though not entirely
absent, in this desolate region. It appears that when nature
has poured her bounty over tho adjoining regions in the
south, and has little more left to bestow, she sends a few
smart showers of rain to tho desert, parched by tho long
prevalence of the perpendicular rays of the sun. The prevail-
ing winds blow during three months from the west, and
nine months from the ea.st Wlicn the wind increases, into
a storm, it frequently raises tho loose sand in such quantities
that a layer of nearly equal portions of sand and air, and ris-
ing about 20 feet above tho surface of tho ground, divides
the purer atmosphere from tho solid earth. This sand, when
agitated by whirlwinds, sometimes overwhelms caravans
with destruction, and, even when not fatal, involvnq them
in tho greatest confusion and danger.
Tho natural products correspond with the physical fea-
tures of the country. Vegetation and animal life exist
only sparingly in tho oases or valleys where springs oScur,
and where the soil is not utterly unfit to nourish certain
plants. Amongst tho few trees the most important is the
date-palm, which is peculiarly suited to the dryness of '.ho
climate. This useful tree flourislies best in tho eastern
part of the desert, inhabited by the Tibbus. The doum-
palm is likewise a native of tho same part, and seems
entirely absent in the western Sahara ; its northernmost
limit is on tho southern borders of Fezzan and Tegerry, in
lat. 24° N. Acacias are found in the extreme west towards
Senegambia, furnishing the so-called gum-arabic. In many
parts of the desert a thorny evergreen plant occurs, about
18 inches high. It is eagerly eaten by the camels, and is
almost the only plant which supplier them vrith food while
thus traversing the desert The cultivation of grains to a
small extent is limited to ■ the western oases of Tuat and
others, a little barley, rice, and beans, being there grown.
In the kingdom of Air there are some fields of maize
and other grains ; but upon the whole, tho population
depend for these products on Soudan and other regions.
There ore but a few specimens of wild animals in these
wildernesses ; lions and panthers are found only on its bor-
ders. Gazelles and antelopes are abundant, hares and foxes
but scarce. Ostriches are very numerous, and vultures and
ravens are also met with. In approaching Soudan, animal
and vegetable life becomes more varied and abundant. Of
reptiles, only the smaller kinds are found, mostly harmless
lizards and a few species of snakea Of domestic animals,
the most important is the camel, but horses and goats are
not wanting, and in the country of the Tuaricks an excel-
lent breed of sheep is found, while in that of the Tibbus a
large and fine variety of the aj"> is valuable to tho inhabitants..
Of minerals, salt is the chief oroduction, which occurs chiefly
near iJilma.
Tho habitable portions of the Sahara are possessed by
three different nations. In tho extreme western portion
are Moors and AaibB. They live in tents, which they re-
move from one place to another ; and their residences con-
sist of similar encampments, formed of from twenty to a
hundred of such tents, where they are governed by a sheik
o£. their own body; each encampment constituting, as it
were, a particular tribe. They are a daring set of people,
and not restrained by any scruple in plundering, ill-treating,
and even killing persons who are not of their own faith ;
but to such as are, they are hospitable and benevolent,
Tho boldest of these children of the desert are tho Tuaricks,
who occupy the middle of the wilderness, where it is widest.
Tho form of their bodies, and their language, prove ttat
they belong to the aboriginal inhabitants of Northern Africa,
who are known by the name of Berbers. They are a fine
raco of men, tall, straight, and handsome, with an air of
independence which is very imposing. They live chiefly
upon the tribute they exact from all caravans traversing
their country. They render themselves formidable to all
their neighbours, with whom they aie nearly always in a
state of enmity, making predatoiy incursions into tho
neighbouring countries. The third division of Saharan
people are the Tibbus, who inhabit the' castem portion,
comprising one of the best parts of the desert. In some
of their features they resemble the Negroes. They are an
agricultural and pastoral nation, live mostly in fixed abodes,
and arc in this respect greatly different from their western
neighbours. Their country is as yet little explored by
Europeans. The Tibbus are in part Pagans, whilo the
other inhabitants of the Sahara are Mohammedans.
The commerce of the Sahara consists chiefly of gold,
ostrich feathers, slaves, ivory, iron, and salt, exchanged for
manufactured goods, and transported across tho desert by
great caravans, which follow lines uniting the gi-eater cities
and oases of tho southern and northern borders.
Western Africa comprehends tho west coast of A.frioa, Western
from the borders of the Sahara, in about kt. 17° N. to Africa.
Nourse Vviver, in a\>out the same latitude south, with a con-
siderable space of inland territory, varying in its extent
from the shores, and, in fact, completely undefined in it*
interior limits.
Senegambia, the country of the Senegal and Gambia, Scnegara-
extends from the Sahara in the north to lat. 10° in the '>i».
south, and may be considered as' extending inland to the
sources of the waters which flow through it to the Atlantic.
The western portion is very flat, and its contiguity to the
great desert ia frequently evidenced by dry hot winds, an
atmosphere loaded with fine sand, and clouds of locuGtii.
The eastern portion is occupied with hills and elevated
land. Under the 10th parallel the hills approach quite
close to the coast The country possesses a great number
of rivers, among which the Senegal, Gambia, and Rio Grande
are the most important Senegambia ranges, in point of
heat, with tho Sahara and Nubia. The atmosphere is most
oppressive in tho rainy season, which lasts from June to
November, when an enormous amount of rain drenches the
country. The prevailing winds in that period are south-west,
whereas in the dry season they are from the cast Tho
climate is, upon the whole, most unhealthy, and too gene-
rally proves fatal to Europeans.
The vegetation is most luxuriant and vigorous. The
baobab (monkey bread-tree), the most enormous tree on the
face of the globe, is eminently characteristic of Senegambia.
It attains to no great height, but the circumference of tho
trunk is frequently 60 to 75 feet, and has been found to
measure 112 feet ; ito fruit, the monkey bread, is a princi-
STATES.]
AFRICA
269
pal article of food with the native3. Eombaceaa (cotton-
trees) are likewise numerous, and they are among the loftiest
in the world. Acacias, which furnish the gum-arabic, are
most abundant, while the shores are lined with mangrove
trees. The flora and fauna are similar to those of Nubia.
Gold and iron are the chief metals.
The inhabitants consist of various Negro nations, the
chief of which are the Wolof.
The gum trade is the most important traffic on the Sene-
gal ; bees-wax, ivory, bark, and hides, forming the chief
exports from the Gambia.
Of European settlements are : The French possessions
on the Senegal ; the capital of which is St Louis, built
about the year 1626, on an island at the mouth of the
river. The total population of the settlement amounts to
about 210,000.
The British settlement on the Gambia has about 7000
inhabitants. Bathurst is the chief town.
The Portuguese settlement consists of small factories
louth of the Gambia, at the Bissagos Islands, Bissao,
Cacheo, and some other points.
r,:s G'oiiici. The west coast of Africa, from Senegambia to the Nourse
Coast. Biver, is commonly comprised by the general denomination
Guinea Coast, a term of Portuguese origin.
The coast is generally so very low, as to be visible to navi-
gators only within a very short distance, the trees being
their only sailing marks. North of the equator, in the
Bight of Benin, the coast forms an esception, being high
end bold, with the Cameroon Mountains behind ; as also
at Sierra Leone, which has received its name (Lion Moun-
tain) in consequence. The coast presents a dead level often
for thirty to fifty miles inland. It has numerous rivers,
some of which extend to the furthest recesses of Inner
Africa.
The climate, notoriously fatal to European life, is ren-
dered pestilential by the muddy creeks and inlets, the
putrid swamps, and the mangrove jungles that cover the
banks of the rivers. There are two seasons in the year,
the rainy and the dry season. The former commences in
the southern portion in March, but at Sierra Leone and
other northern parts, a month later.
Vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied. One of
the most imfiortant trees is the Elais gwineeksis, a species
of pakn,' from the covering of whose seed or nut is ex-
tracted the palm-oU, so well known to English commerce
and manufacture ; several thousand tons are annually
brought into the ports of Liverpool, London, and Bristol.
The palm-oil tree is indigenous and abundant from the river
Gambia to the Congo; but the oil is manufactured in largo
quantities chiefly in the country of the Gold and Slave
Coasts. The former comprises nearly all the more remark-
able of African animals : particularly abundant are elephants,
hippopotami, monkeys, lions, leopards, crocodiles, serpents,
parrots. The domestic animals are mostly of an inferior
quality. The principal minerals are gold and iron. The
poi)ulation consists, besides a few European colonists, of a
vast variety of Negro nations, similar in their physical
qualities and prevailing customs, but difi'ering considerably
in their dispositions and morals.
The chief articles of commerce are pabn-oil, ivory, gold,
wax, various kinds of timber, spices, gums, and rice.
The divisions of Northern or Upper Guinea are mosdy
founded on the productions characteristic of the different
parts, and are still popularly retained.
- inrra The British colony of Sierra Leone extends from Bokello
I., CE3. ri "cr in the north, to Kater river in the south, and about
twenty miles inland. The diiof portion of the settlement
is a nigged peninsula of mountains witli a barren .soil, but
surrounded by a belt of rich coast-land, with a nioi:;t an 1
pestilential cUmale. TLo colony v.aa founded in 17h7,
and has been maintained with a view to the suppression of
the West African slave trade. The population, consisting
chiefly of liberated slaves, amounted, in 1869, to 55,374,
of which number 129 were white men. Freetown, the
capital is, after St Louis, the most considerable European
town on the western coast of Africa.
The Malaghetta or Grain Coast extends from Sierra Grain
Leone to Cape Palmas. Malaghetta is a species of pepper Coast,
yielded by a parasitical plant of this region. It is some-
times styled the Windy or Windward Coast, from the fre-
quency of short but furiousjtomadoes throughout the year.
The republic of Liberia, a settlement of the American Liberia
ColonisatioD Society, founded in 1822, for the purpose of
removing free people of colour from the United- States,
occupies a considerable extent of the coast, and has for its
capital Monrovisj a town named after the president, Mr
Monro.
The Ivory Coast extends from Cape Palmas 3° W. long., Ivory
and obtained its name from the quantity of the article Const,
supplied by its numerous elephants. The French settle-
ments of Grand Bassam, Assinie, and Dabou were aban-
doned in 1871.
The Gold Coast stretches from west of Cape Three Points Gold
to the river Volta, and has long been frequented for gold- Co.-ist
dust and other products. By a treaty of February 1871,
the whole of the Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast were
made over to Britain, and the Danish settlements of Chris-
tiansburg and Friedensburg were ceded to the English in
1849; so that the British coast now extends from the
mouth of the Tenda river, in long 2° 40' W.,to that of the
Ewe, in long. 1° 10' E. of Greenwich. The protected
territory extends inland from this coast strip to an cverage
distance of 50 mUes. Cape Coast Castle and Fort James,
founded by the British, and Elmina (population about
10,000) the most important of the former Dutch .stations,
with Accra, are the chief settlements.
The Slave Coast tends from the river Volta to the He-')
Calabar river, and is, as its name implies, the chief scene Cosst
of the most disgraceful trafiic that blots the history of man-
kind. Eko or Lagos, one of the chief towns of the coast,
was destroyed by the British in 1852, and was proclaimed
a British possession in 1861. Pabna and Badagry are
also British settlements.
The kingdoms of Ashantee, Dahomey, Toraba, and others,
occupy the interior country of the Guinea coast. Ashairtee
the most powerful Negro state of Upper Guinea, is ai
exceedingly fertile and productive country. Its inhabitants,
though skilled in some manufactures and of a higher Intel-
ligence than .is usually found in this region, are of an
exceedingly sanguinary disposition, and have frequently
been involved in war with the British. The capital city,
Kumassi, is believed to have a population of about 100,000.
The coast from the Old Calabar river to the Portuguese
possessions is inhabited by various tribes. Duke Town,
on the former river, is a town of 4000 inhabitants, with
considerable trade in palm-oil, ivory, and timber.
On the Gaboon river, close to the equator, are a French
settlement (in 1871 the French retained only a coaling
station), and American missionary stations. At the equa-
tor Southern or Lower Guinea begins, where the only
European settlements are those of the Portuguese.
Loango is reckoned from the equator to the Zaire or Lr.ango.
Congo river. Its chief town is BoaUy, called Loango by
the Europeans.
Congo extends south of the Zaire, comprising a very C-''3°-
fertile region, with veins of copper and iron. Banza Congo
or St Salvador is the capital
Angola comprises the districts of Angola proper, Ben- Angola enJ
guola, and Mossamedos. In these regions the Portuguese <^"g"««'
aottlcmonts extend farlhcr inland tlian the two prctcding
270
AFRICA
[states.'
districts, namely, about 200 miles. The capital, St Paulo de
Loando, coutains 12,300 inhabitants, and has a fine har-
1 nr. St Felipe de Bcnguela is situated in a picturesque
but very marshy and most unhealthy spot.
The coast from Bcnguela to the Cape Colony may, in a
general arrangement like this, be included either within
^Vest Africa or South Africa. The whole coast is little
visited or known, being of a most barren and desolate
description, and possessing few harbours. Ichabo island
and Angra Peguena Bay are \'isited for their guano deposits,
and are claimed as British possessions.
Under South Africa the Cape Colony only is generally,
comprised. It takes it-s name from the Cape of Good Hope,
and e.ftends from thence to the Orange river in the north,
and to the Kai river in the east. A large proportion of
the territory included within these limits, especially in the
north, is eitlier unoccupied, or, excepting missionary stations,
eutirely in the hands of the aborigines.
Ajiart from the shores, the country consists of high lands,
forming parallel mountainous ridges, with elevated plains
or terraces of varying extent between. The loftiest range,
styled in different parts of its course Sneuw-bergen, Wiiiter-
bergen, Nieuvcld-bergen, and Koggenveld-bergen, names
originated by the Dutch, is the third and last encountered
on proceeding into the interior from the south coast. This
and the other chains are deeply cut by the transverse valleys
called kloofs, which serve as passes across them, and appear
as if produced by some sudden convulsion of nature, subse-
quently widened- by the action of the atmosphere and run-
ning water.
The high plains or terraces are remarkable for their
extraordinary change of aspect in the succession of the
seasons. During the summer heats they are perfect deserts,
answering to the term applied to them, karroos, signifying,
in the Hottentot language, "dry" or "arid." But the
sandy soil being pervaded with the roots and fibres of
various plants, is spontaneously clothed with the richest
verdure after the rains, and becomes transformed for a time
into a vast garden of gorgeous flowers, yielding the most
fragrant odours. Adapted thus to the support of gramini-
vorous animals, the karroos are the resort of antelopes.
Zebras, quaggae, and gnus in countless herds, and of the
carnivorous beasts th^t prey upon them, the lion, hy^na,
leopard, and panther. These .quadrupeds, however, with
the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, giraffe, buffalo, and
ostrich, have been largely banished from their old haunts
by the advancing footsteps of cii-ilised man, and are only
found in the more secluded parts of the interior. The
country has a singular and superb flora, but it comprises
few native plants useful to man : many such have been now
introduced. Heaths of varied species and great beauty
abound; and geraniums are treated as common weeds.
Many highly productive districts occur; corn, wines, and
fmit being the chief objects of cultivation in the neighbour-
hood of the Cape, while the more inland settlements are
grazing farms. Some fine natural forests clothe the sides
of the mountains; but in general the colony is deficient in
timber trees, as well a.s in navigable streams, perennial
springs, and regular rain. A great deposit of rich copper
ore occurs near the mouth of the Orange; and yJt is ob-
tained for consumption and sale from salt lakes.
The climate is exceedingly fine and salubrioua ^ There
are two seasons, characterised by the prevalence of certain
n-inds. Duiing the summer, which lasts from September to
April, the winds blow from south-east, cold and dry; during
the winter, namely from ilay to September, north-west winds
prevail. In the most elevated regions the wintora.are occa-
sionally severe, and snow and ice occur.
The chief native tribes within the British territory are
the Hottentots," Bechuanas, and Kaffres. .No manufacture
is conducted at the Cape except the making of wine, of
which from 10,000 to 40,000 gallons are annually exported
to England. Various articles of provision are supplied tc
ships sailing between Europe and the East Indies.
Cape Town is the capital of the colony, and containE
28,400 inhabitants, of whom 15,120 are Europeans. Its
commerce is considerable, and the nort is frequented by
500 to 600 vessels every year.
The Orange river sovereignty, added to the British terri'
tories in 1848, but subsequently given up and constituted
a free republic, extends north of the Orange river as far as
the Ky Gariep or Vaal river. In consequence of the dis-
covei-y of rich diamond fields on the lower Vaal river and
in the neighbouring territory of the Griqua chief Water-
boer, who also petitioned to have his lands subjected to
British rul^e, a wide country surrounding the oiamond-
fislds was incorporated with the Cape Colony in October
1871, under the name of Griqua Land West, divided into Griqu*
the districts of Pneil, Griqua Town, and Klipdrift. The ^"d West
population of this new territory was estimated at 50,000
in 1872, concentrated in camps round the chief diamond-
fields. In 1869, Ba-ssuto Land, a mountainous territory at Bassuto
the head waters of the Nu Gariep branch of the Orange river, La""'-
and on the inward slope of the Drakenberg range, was
incorporated as a British possession.
Natal or Victoria, a district on the east coast, and sepa- Natal
rated from the Capo Colony by Kafl"raria, is a recently
formed British settlement, which was created into a colony
in 1856. It is highly favoured in those respects in which
the Cape is most deficient, having abundance of wood and
water, -nith coal and various metallic ores, a fine alluvial
soil, and a climate adapt ,d to the cultivation of the product*
for which the home demand is large and constants— cotton,
silk, and indigo. Pietermaritzburg, the capital of the settle-
ment, Hes 50 miles from the coast. Port Natal, now D'Urbanj
seated on a fine lake-like bay, is the only harbour.
The Transvaal Republic is an inland state, between the
Vaal on the south and the Limpopo river on the -north,
having the Drakenberg edge on the east, and the Bechuana
tribes, which occupy the region bordering on the Kalahira
desert, on the west, founded by the Dutch boe~t emigrating
from the Cslpe Colony. Its surface is an elevated plateau
thinly wooded in some parts, but generally affording excel
lent pasture. The chief town is Potchefstroom, on a tribu-
tary of the Vaal ; but the seat of government is at Pretoria,
in the region of the head streams of the Limpopo.
East Africa extends from Natal northwards to the Red
Sea, comprising Sofala, Mozambique, Zanzibar, and thesolnii
Somali country. But little is known of that region beyond
the shores. The Sofala Coast, extending from Delagoa
Bay to the Zambeze river, is flat, sandy, and marshy
gradually ascending towards the interior. It abounds with
rivers, which are the source of yearly inundations. The sou
is very fertile, and produces chiefly rice. In the interior,
gold and other metals, aa well as precious stones, are found.
The Portuguese have settlements at Sofala, in an unhealthy
spot, abounding with salt marshes; it consists of only
huts, a church, and a fort in ruins. Inhambane. near the
tropic of Capricorn, has an excellent harbour.
Mozambique extends from the Zambeze to Cape Delgado, NTozan
and is similar, in its natural features, to the Sofala Coast 1''°"'
The greatest river is the Zambeze. The principal settle-
ment of the Portuguese is at Quillimane, which is situated
in a very unhealthy position on the northern arm of the
delta of the Zambeze, surrounded with mangrove trees.
The Zanzibar or Sawahdi Coast extends from Cape Del- Zaodbta
gado to the river Jub,'near the equator. The coast is
generally low, and has but few bays or harbours : ita northern
portion is rendered dangerous by a line of coral reefs ex-
tending along it. The region possesses a great nun^erof
.1
AFRICA
271
livers, but none of them attain a first-rate magnitude. The
principal are the Rovnma, the Lufiji, Ruvu, Pangani, and
Dana ; the two latter rising in the snowy mountains of
Kilima-njaro and Kenia. The climate is similar to that of
other tropical coasts of Africa, hot and unhealthy in gene-
ral : in some portions, however, the elevated ground, and
with it a more temperate and healthy climate, approaches
the shores to within a short distance. The vegetation is
luxuriant, and cocoa-nut, palms, maize, rice, and olives are
the chief articles of cultivation. The fauna comprises all
the more characteristic African species.
The chief inhabitants are the Sawahili, of mixed Arab
and Negro descent, but the coasts are under the Arab do-
niinion of the Imaum of Muscat, by whose efforts commerce
with the nations of the interior has greatly increased.
The island of Zanzibar (Unguja of the Sawahili) is the
residence of a Sultan, tributary to the Imaum of Muscat,
and the seat of extensive commerce. Mombas, on a small
island close to the main shore, possesses the finest harbour
on that coast, and has recently become famous as the seat
of an important missionary station.
Somali The Somali country comprises the eastern horn of Africa,
couLtry. from the equator northward to the Bay of Tadjurra, near
the entrance into the Red Sea. The coast is generally bold
and rocky, in some places covered with sand ; and the ex-
tensive region it encloses presents a slightly ascending plain,
traversed by large valleys of great fertility, among which
the Wady Nogal is prominent. This country is not so well
watered as the region to the south, and some of its rivers
are periodical.
The Somali country is famous for its aromatic produc-
tions and gums of various kinds ; and it is supposed that
the spices and incense consumed in such large quantities
by the ancient peoples of Egypt, Greece, Syria, and Rome,
were derived from this part of Africa, and not from Arabia.
Zeila and Berbera, on the northern coast, are the chief
trading ports : the permanent population of the former is
about 3000, while the-latter may be said to exist only dur-
ing the winter, when no less than 20,000 strangers, at an
average, arrive to pitch their tents, and thus create a great
market-place. Harrar, in the Galla country, is the chief
place in the interior, with 8000 inhabitants, who are
Mohammedans. One-third of the population is Somali,
one-third Arab.
Cenh-al Central Africa comprises the regions which extend from
Africa. tljg southern borders of the Sahara in the north to Cape
Colony in the south, and from Senegarabia in the west to
the territory of the Eg>'ptian pashahc on the east It com-
prehends the central basins of the great lakes from Lake
Chad to the Nyassa, and the greater part of the basins of
the Niger, Congo, Nile, and Zambeze. Even the Sahara
may well be included in thi-i general denomination. So
little is yet known of this vast region that the general fea-
tures of some portions only can be indicated. The greater
portion seems to be densely peopled with numerous tribes,
and to possess inexhaustible natural resources. The portion
north af the equator, under the name Soudan or Nigritia,
comprises a great number of states, among which the prin-
cipal are Bambarra, Timbuktu, and Iloussa, in the west ;
Bomu, Baghermi, and Waday, around Lake Chad ; Darfur
in the east ; and Adamaua in the south. The inhabitants
are of Negro race, with many Arabs, Moors, and Berbers,
iambarr.-v. Bambarra occupies part of the basin of the Joliba, or upper
■source of the Quorra. The dominant inhabitants are the
Mandingoes and Foulahs, who have embraced Islamism,
and arc much more advanced in civilisation than the other
Negro tribes. The country comprises extensive and excel-
lent pastures, with abundance of domestic animals, as homed
cattle, sheep, goats, and horses of a fine breed. Among the
vegetable products the most remarkable ia the butter-tree,
which furnishes an important article of agricultural industry
and trade.
Sego, the capital, is situated on the Joliba, and contains
30,000 inhabitants. It was ■ here that Mungo Park first
caught sight of the long-sought river.
Timbuktu, or Jennie, comprises the basin of the Joliba Timbuktr.,
below Bambarra, and lies partly within the Great Sahara.
Timbuktu, a few miles from the banks of the JoUba, and
situated amid sands and deserts, is a celebrated centre of
the North African caravan trade. It contains from 12,000
to 15,000 inhabitants.
Houssa is an extensive country extending to the Sahara Hoiusa.
in the north, to the JoHba or Kawara on the west, to Bomu-
on the east, and to about 10" N. lat. on the south. The
dominant race are the Foulahs, but the mass of the popu-
lation are Negroes. It is a very fertile and beautiful coun-
try, but the climate is insalubrious, and in many parts fatal
to Europeans. The inhabitants are engaged in pastoral, as
well as in agricultural and commercial pursuits.
The capital, Sakatu, is one of the largest cities in Negro-
land ; it is situated in a fertile but marshy plain. Kano,
another large town, containing 30,000 to 40,000 inhabitants,
is the great emporium of trade in Houssa; there the English
merchandise coming from the north through the Sahara,
meets with American goods coming from the Bight of Benin.
The manufactures of Kano consist chiefly of cloth, for the
dyeing of which that town is famed all over Central Africa.
Bornu is one of the most powerful states of Negroland; Bornu.
extending on the west to the 10th degree of long., on the
east to Lake Chad and the kingdom of Baghermi, and on
the south as far as Mandara and Adamaua, in about 11° N
lat. Kanem, on the rtorthern side of Lake Chad, has recently
been conquered and brought under Bornuese sovereignty.
The general character of Bornu is that of a plain, subject
to inundations, particularly near Lake Chad. It is very
fertile, and cotton and indigo attain a high degree of excel-
lence. The original Bornueae are an agricultural people.
Kuka, the capital and residence of the Sheik of Bornu,
had in 1866 about 60,000 inhabitants.
Baghermi, another powerful kingdom, is situated east of B'agliermi
Bornu. The .boundaries, according to Dr Earth, who first
visited this country and penetrated as far as Maseiia, the
capital, are on the west the river Loggeme, a tributaiy of
the Shary or Asu, by which it is divided from Bornu and
Adamaua; on the north its limits are in about 12^° N. lat,
and on the east 19^° E. long., both lines dividing it from
Waday; the southern boundary is in about 8J° N. lat
Baghermi is an extensive plain or valley formed by the
river Shary or Asu and its tributaries. The inhabitants are
very warlike, and frequently engage in slave marauding
expeditions into the neighbouring states to the south.
Masena, the capital, lies in 11° 40' N. lat. and 17° 2'0'
R long.
Waday, or Dar Saley, lies east of Baghermi, and reache- Wada>,
as far as Darfur. It comprises an extensive region, stretching
as far as the basin of the Nile. Lake Fittri, situated in the
western portion, forms a basin, unconnected with that of Lake
Chad, and by which the country as far as Darfur is drained.
It has never been explored by Europeans. The population
comprises » great variety of tribes and different lan-
guages.
Wara, tne capiiai. is placed by Dr Barth in 14° N. lat..
and 22° E. long.
Darfur, east of Waday, extends as far as Kordofan. The Darfuc
country rises towards the west into a range of hills called
Jebel Marrah. It is drained into the Nile. A great portion
of the country is Saharan in its character, while other parts
are fertile and diversified. Browne, in 1703, estimated tho
whole population at 200,000. It has an extensive trade will-
Egypt
272
AFRICA
Cobbelh, the capital, is a merchant tovm, and contains
about 6000 inhabitants.
Adamatia. Fumbina or Adamaua is tin cxtonsive country snutii of
Houssa and Bornu, under Foulah dominion. It ronsiste
of a Urge, fertile, and highly-cultivated valley, formed by
the River Bciiuo. Near Yola, the capital, the Eonve
receives the Faro, a largo tributary coming from the
south west. This country was first visited by Dr Barth
in 1851.
Yola, the capital, lies in 8° BO' N. ht., and 13' 30' E.
longitude.
South <5f the belt of Negro states of the Soudan lies the
great unknown region of Central Africa. On the east
the unexplored arci is bounded by the numerous states
of the lake region made known hy Burton, Speke, and
Livingstone. Of these the chief are Unyamwosi, occupying
the plateau south of the Victoria L.ake, and east of Lake
Taii^'anyika, with the capital town of Kaseh or Tabora,
frequented by Arab traders from Zanzibar ; Karague on
the western side of the Victoruv Nyanza ; and Uganda,
etrotching round its north-western shores. In the interior,
beyond Lake Tanganyika, Livingstone has recently made
k,no^vn the peoples of Manyuema land, whore " there is no
political cohesion ; not one king or kingdom. Each man is
independent of every other." To the south of the unknown
region are the powerful Negro kingdoms of the Muata
Yanvo and of the Cazembe, occupying the whole of the
interior between 6° and 1 2' S. lat. Kabebe, the capital of
the former state, is believed to be in about lat. 8° S., long.
23° 30' E. of Greenwich; and Lunda, the chief town of
the latter potentate, is in the Luapula valley, south-west of
the Tanganyika Lake, and was visited by Livingstone in
1867-68. The Makololo kingdom, occupying the central
basin of the Zambeze river, with the chief town of Linyanti,
west of the Victoria Falls ; and that of Llosilikatse in the
south-east, between the Zambeze and the Limpopo rivers,
are the great remaining divisions of Central Africa. Besides
these, however, innumerable petty kingdoms, chief ships,
and tribes subdivide the vast populations of Negroland.
Ukuda. To Africa belong a considerable number of islands. The
Madeiras, belonging to Portugal, lie off the north-west coast
of Africa, at a distance of about 360 miles. Madeira, the
chief island, is about 100 miles in circuit, and has long
been famed for its picturesque beauty, rich fruits, and fine
climate, which renders it a favourite resort of invalids.
Wine is the staple produce. Funchal, the chief town, with
18,000 inhabitants, is a regular station for the West India
mail steam-packets from Southamoton, and the BraziUail
sailing-packets from Falmouth.
The Canaries, belonging to Spain, the supposed Fortunate
Islands of the ancients, are situated about 300 miles couth
of Madeira. They are 13 in number, all of volcanic origin,
Teneriffo being the largest. The latter is remarkable for
its peak, which rises as a vast pyramidal mass to the height
of 12,173 feet.
The Cape Verde Islands, subject to Portugal, are a
numerous group about 80 miles from Cape Verde. They
obtained their name from the profu.sion of sea-weed found
by the discoverers in the neighbouring ocean, giving it the
appearance of a green meadow. They are also of volcanic
origin.
Fernando Po, a very mountainous forest.covered island,
is in the Bight of Biafra. The British settlement of
Clarence Tow;n was cstiblithed in 182", but afterwards
abandoned. The island now belongs to Spain.
St Thomas, immediately under th.; equator, is a Portu-
fniese settlement ; as is also Prince's Island, in 2° N. lat
Annobon in 2" S. lat., belongs to the Spaniards..
ascension, a small, arid, volcanic islet, was made a
British port on the arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte at St
Holono, and since retained as a station, at which ahips may
touch for stores. Green Hill, the summit of the island,
rises to the height of 2840 feet.
St Helena is a huge dark mass of rock, rising abruptly
from the ocean to the height of 2892 feet. James' Town
is the only town and port.
Madagascar, the largest island of Africa, and one of the M Ja-
largest in the world, is separated from the Mozambique S' -":"
coast by a channel of that name, about 250 miles wide.
The area exceeds that of France.
The high interior of the island is generally very fertile,
with magnificent forests and fine pastures watered by
numerous rivers, but a belt of hot swamp land with a
deadly climate surrounds th^ coast.
'The inhabitants are diverse races of Negro, Arab, and
Malay origin. The Ovahs, a people of the central provincss,
are now dominant. The principal town, Antananarivo,
has about 80,000 inhabitants.
The French poosess the islands of Santo Marie and Nob-
sibo on the coast of Madagascar, and Mayotta island in the
Comoro group.
The Comoro isles, four in number, are in the north part of
the Morambique Channel, and inhabited by Arab tribes.
Reunion or Bourbon, 400 miles east of Madagascar, is a
colony of Fraijge, producing for export, cofiTee, sugar, coo<>a,
spices, and timber.
Mauritius, ceded to the Brhish by the French in 1814,
is 90 mUes north-east of Bourbon. The sugar-cane is
chiefly cultivated. Port Louis, the capital, beautifully
situated, has 75,000 inhabitants. Within the jurisdiction
of the Governor of the Mauritius are tfie islands of Rodri-
guez, the Seychelles, and the Araarante islands.
Socotra, a large island, east of Capo Jerdaffun, with an
Arab and Negro population, has been known from early
times; it belongs to the Imaum of Muscat. This island
was long celebrated as producing the finest aloetic drug ; it
is found still to produce a fine kind of aloe, though much
of what passed as Socbtrine aloes really came from India
Gums, tobacco, and dates are also exported. (k. j.)
A^ote. — The above article was completed before it waa
known with certainty that the saddest event in the history
of African exploration had occurred. Dr Livingstone, to
whom the article justly assigns " the first place amcng
African discovei-ers," died of dysentery near Lake Bang-
weolo on the 4th of May 1873. The story of his latest
discoveries, and of the rare devotion with which his native
attendants carried his remains with them during an eight
months' march to the coast, belongs to a biographical
notice. It is more fitting in this place to note, as some
consolation for an almost irreparable loss, that Living-
stone's death seems to have given a powerful stimulus to
the prosecution of the task he had so nearly completed.
The expedirion of Lieutenant Cameron, above referred to,
is being carried out with a vigour and intelligence that
give ample promise of a further limitation of the region of
the unknown, if not of the complete solution of all out-
standing problems. In the spring of 1874 he had commenced
a thorough exploration of Lake Tanganyika, which, from
his professional experience as a hydrographical surveyor, is
expected to lead to very valuable results. And the complete
success of Stanley's first memorable mission in search of
Livingstone warrants confident hopes in regard to a second
expedition, also admirably organised and equipped, which
has started under his direction.
A F R — A G A
273
AFRICANUS, Julius, called also Sextus by Suidas,
a Christian nistorian of the 3d century, born, according
to some, in Africa, and, according to others, in Palestine,
of African parents. Little is known of his personal his-
tory, except that he lived at Emmaus, and that he went
on an embassy to the emperor Heliogabalus to ask the
restoration of that town, which had fallen into ruins. His
mission succeeded, and Emmaus was henceforward known
as Nicopolis. It is by no means certain that he was a
bishop or even a priest, though the latter is probable. He
wrote a history of the world {ncvTa/3i/3Atov XpovokoyiKov)
from the creation to the year 221 A.D., a period, according
to his computation, of 5723 years. He calculated the
period between the creation and the birth of Christ as 5499
years, and antedated the latter event by three years. This
method of reckoning became known as the Alexandrian
era, and was adopted by almost all the eastern churches.
The history is no longer extant, but copious extracts from
it are to be found in the Chronicorj. of Eusebius, besides
fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus, and the Paschale Chroni-
con. Eusebius has also given some extracts from his letter
to Aristides, reconciling the apparent discrepancy between
St Matthew and St Luke in the genealogy of Christ by a
reference to . the Jewish law, which compelled a man to
marry the widow of his deceased brother, if the latter
died without issue. His letter to Origen, impugning the
authority of the apocryphal book of Susanna, andOrigen's
answer, are both extant, the former having been printed
at Basle, 1674. The ascription to Africanus of a work
entitled Kcaroi, treating of agriculture, natural iistory,
military science, itc, has been disputed on account of the
inconsistency between it and the author's other writings.
Neander suggests that it was probably written by Afri-
canus before he had devoted himself to religious subjects.
AFZELIUS, Adam, an eminent Swedish naturalist,
bom at Larf, West Gothland, in 1750. Having studied
at Upsala under Linnasus, he became teacher of oriental
literature in that university in 1777, and demonstrator of
botany in 1785. For two years (1792-94) he resided on
the west coast of Africa as botanist to the Sierra Leone
Company. After acting for some time as secretary to tl^e
Swedish embassy in London, he returned home, became
again a teacher in the university of Upsala, and was ap-
pointed professor of materia medica in 1812. He edited
the autobiography of Linnaeus (Upsala, 1823), a German
translation of which appeared at Berlin in 1826. His
literary work included also a large number of botanical
papers contributed to the Linnasan Society of London and
the Royal Academy of Stockholm, as well as treatises on
certain plants of Guinea and Sweden. He died at Upsala
in 1836, having bequeathed his botanical collection to the
university. Several species of plants, known as Afzelia,
are named after this distinguished botanist.
AFZELIUS, Aewid August, the Swedish historian,
poet, and comparative mythologiat, was bom at Fjelldker
in 1785. For a while he was a schoolmaster in Stock-
holm, but afterwards entered the church, and became
parish priest of Enkoping, where he worked for just half-a-
century, till his death in 1871. His poetical career began
in 1811 and closed in 1848, when he wrote his Farewell to
the Swediah Harp. One great work of his life was to col-
lect and publish, in conjunction with the eminent Geijcr,
three volumes of Swedish Folk-songs ; but he will be Iwst
remembered by his History of the Swedish People, which
has won him a European reputation. He did not live to
bring this history lower down than 1709. (n. w. G.)
AOA, or Agha, a word, said to bo of Tatar origin,
signifying a dignitary or lord. Among the Turks it is ap-
plied to the chief of the jani.ssaries, to the commanders of
tJie artillci-y, cavalry, and infantry, and to the eunuchs in
charge of the seraglio. It is also employed generally as a
term of respect in addressing wealthy men of leisure^ land-
owners, (to. The word is found with a somewhat similar
usage in Tartary, Persia, and Algiers.
AGADES, the capital of the kingdom of Air, or Asben,
in Central Africa, situated in 17° 2' N. lat., 8° 5' E. long.
The town is built on the edge of a plateau, 2500 feet above
the level of the sea, and is supposed to have been founded
by the Berbers to serve as a secure magazine for their ex-
tensive trade with the Songhay empire. The language of
the people is a dialect of Songhay. In former times
Agades was a place of great traffic, and had a population
of .about 50,000. Its importance may be estimated by the
fact. that the king of Agades paid a tribute of 150,000
ducats to the king of Songhay. Since the beginning of
the 16th century the prosperity of the place -has gradually
declined. Extensive quarters of the town, which has a
circuit of 3J miles, are deserted and ruinous. The occu-
pied houses number only 600 or 700, and the population
does not exceed 7000. The houses, which are buili; of
clay, are low and flat-roofed ; and the only building oi im-
portance is the chief mosque, which is surmounted by a
tower 95 feet high. There is little traffic in the markets;
no money is used, and the usual medium of exchange is
millet. The chief trade is in grain. Agades derives its
main importance from its situation on the direct route
from the countries to the north-east to Sokoto and other
important towns in the Hansa states. The great salt
caravans pass through it, as well as pilgrims on their way
to Mecca. From its healthy climate and advantageous posi-
tion, the place might prove to be -a good station for a Euro-
pean agent. (See Earth's Travels in Central Africa, vol. i.)
AGAMEMNON. The stern obligations of a king and
the majesty of his office, as compared with his humane
desires and occasional frailty, give the keynote to the
character of Agamemnon. But the kingly office, like the
sceptre which was the symbol of it, had come to him
from Pelops (Iliad, ii. 100) through the stained hands
of Atreus and Thyestes, and had brought with it a certain
fatality, by which his misfortunes, and especially the catas-
trophe at the close of his hfe, were explained. As his title
of Atrides implies, Agamemnon was a son of Atreus, his
mother" being Aerope. In a later account he is a son of
Pleistfaenes. But, apart from this difference, it is agreed
that he succeeded to the sovereignty of Atreus over Argolis,
Corinth, Achaia, and many islands, his seat being at Mycenae,
not, as iEschylus for political reasons asserts, at Argos. The
succession had been usurped by Thyestes and jEgisthus.
During the usiu-pation Agamemnon and his brother Mene-
laus visited Tyndareus, the king of Sparta, and obtained
in marriage his two daughters — the former Clytaemnestra,
the latter Helena; with his help Agamemnon was re-
instated in his rights. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus.
The children born by Clytaemnestra were Chrysothemis,
Iphigenia, Electra, and one son, Orestes. Elsewhere are
mentioned also Iphianassa and Laodice; but the latter was
the original name of Electra, it appears, and it has been
suggested that Iphianassa stood in the same relation to
Iphigenia. Agamemnon was then the most powerful prince
in Greece; and to him of right, as well as naturally, his
brother Menelaus turned for aid to compel the Trojana
to give up his wife Helena, whom Paris had carried oS.
The various princes of Greece having been brought to
unite in an expedition for this purpose, Agamemnon waa
chosen leader, he himself furnishing 100 ships and lending
also 60 more to the Arcadians. It was not perhaps his fault
that the Greeks landed by mistake on the coast of Mysia,
from which, after plundering it, they took ship and were
scattered in a storm; but it was owing to him (and this is
the beginning of his ill-fate) that after again assembling in
I — 35
274
A G A — A G A
Anlis, whence they had set out, tie fleet wrj storm-bound.
He had slain a deer sacred to Artemis, and boasted himself
a better hunter than the goddess. Thb, as Calchas the
Beer read the divine will, could only be atoned for *by his
offering up hie daughter Iphigenia in sacrifice. Compelled
by his duty to the expedition, he allowed her to be sent
for, the pretext given to Clyta;mnestra being that she was
to ba married to Achilles. But when the moment of sacri-
fice came, the goddess substituted a stag, carried her off to
tlic Tauri, and made her immortal The fleet now sailed;
and except the quarrel between him and Achilles at Tenedus
or Lemnus, there was no incident in which Agamemnon
figured particularly, until, in one of the raids on the towns
round Troy, Briseis and Chrysels were brought captives,
and assigned, the former to Achilles, the latter to. Aga-
memnon,— who, having to yield up his captive to appease
Apollo, claimed and took the other. Upon this Achilles
withdrew from the war, and Agamemnou endeavoured at
first to maintain it without him. In the face of disaster
ho repented, and offered reparation — sending costly presents
by the hands of Phoenix, Ajax, and Ulysses. His offer
rejected, ho took tlie field himself, and did marvels of
br,ivery, but was wounded and defeated. When Troy was
finally taken and the captives distributed, he obtained
Cassandra, and with her returned home; but before sailing
the shade of Achilles appeared to him, foretold what would
happen, and sought to restrain him. In his absence
Clytajmnestra had yielded to the temptations of jEgisthus,
and, to cover her shame, planned with him the death of
her husband. The approach of Agamemnon being an-
nounced by a spy, a feast and an affected welcome were
prepared for him and his followers. At the feast they
were fallen upon by hired murderers, assisted by .^gisthus
and Clj-t.-emnestra, the latter herself slaying Cassandra
{Odyssey, iv. 512-537; xi 385-461). According to
jEschylus, Agamemnon was slain in his bath, his wife first
throwing a piece of cloth over him to prevent resistance.
For his death vengeance was taken by his son Orestes.
In the legends of the Peloponnesus, Agamemnon was re-
garded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in
Sparta he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamem-
non. His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of
Mycenae (Pausanias ii. 16. 5). (a. 8. M.)
AGAPE, plur. AGAr.E, the love-feast, or feast of charity,
which among the primitive Christians usually accompanied
the Eucharist. The word [ayaTrr), love) is first employed
in this sense in the Epistle of Jude, verse 12. The sug-
gestion of a connection between Christian love-feasts and
the ipavol and eraipicu of Greece and Rome is both im-
probable and unnecessary. The feelings of love and
brotherhood fostered by the new faith, strer.gthened aa
these must have been by the complete isolation of the
little Christian community, are quite sufficient to account
for the existence of the Agapae, without referring them to
other more or less similar institutions. According to
Chrj'sostom, the Agape was a common feast, symbolising
the community of goods when it no longer really existed,
to which the rich brought provisions, and the poor, who
brought nothing, were invited. At first it was observed
probably every evening in immediate connection with the
celebration of the Lord's Supper, though whether before
or after is a point that has been much disputed. It closed
with the holy kiss (<^iXi;/io ayiov, <f>!Xr]fia oyanTs). The
Corinthian church was the first to pervert the Agape by
destroying the community between rich and poor (1 Cor.
xi. 21). Partly perhaps on account of such irregularities
extending, and partly to escape the notice of persecutors,
it became usual about the middle of the 2d century to
separate the Lord's Supper from the Agape by celebrating
the former at the close of morning service on Sunday,
and the latter by itself after a considerable interval.
Abuses becoming more frequent, love-feasts were gradoolly
put under greater restrictions. The rich began habitually
to absent themselves from the Agapae, which came thus to
be regarded as a provision for the poor alone ; and the
Council of Gangra (3 CO), to correct the abuse, pronounced
an anathema upon any who should despise the Agapae. A
number of synods and councils in Buccession condemned
the holding of these feasts in churches, as well as the par-
ticipation of the clergy in them, and at length the obscrv-
ance altogether died out In modem times it has been
revived in one form or other by the Moravian Brethren,
the Wesleyan Methodists, and. in Scotland, bv the followers
of Robert Sandeman.
AGAPETUS, deacon of the St Sophia Church at Con-
stantinople, presented to the Emperor Justinian a work
entitled Ckaria Jter/ia, composed in 527, which con-
tained advice on the duties of a Christian prince. It is
highly valued, and has been several times reprinted. The
best edition is that contained in Bandauri's Imperium
OrientaU (Tiria, 1711). There is an English translation
by Thomas Paynell (1550); and a French translation,
executed from a Latin version by Louis XIIL, with the
assistance of his tutor, David Rivault.
AGARDE, Abthur, a learned English antiquary, bom
at Foston, in Derbyshire, about 1540. He was trained a
lawyer; but entering the exchequer as a clerk, he became
deputy-chamberlain in 1570. Ihis office, which he held
for forty-five years, gave him imrivalled opportunities for
cariying on his ftivourite study. Along with his intimate
friends. Sir Robert Cotton and Camden, he was one of the
original members of the Sr/ciety of ATiiiquaries. He made
a special study of the Domesday Boole, and prepared an
explanation of its more obscure terms, which is of little
worth. Heame, in his Collection, of Curious. Discounts
xcritten by Eminent Antiquaries (Oxford, 1720), includes
six by Agarde on such subjects as the origin of parliament,
the antiquity of shires, the authority and privileges of
heralds, ic. Agarde died in 1615, and was buried in the
cloister of Westminster Abbey. He bequeathed to the
exchequer all his papers relating to that court, and to his
friend Sir Robert Cotton his other manuscripts, amounting
to twenty volumes.
AGASIAS, son of Dositheus, a famous sculptor of
Ephcsus, who is supposed to have lived atx)ut the 4th
century. His celebrated work, known erroneously as the
Borghese Gladiator, was discovered at the commencement
of the 13th century in the rains of an imperial palace at
Antiunl, where the Apollo Belvidere -was also found. It
represents a figure in action, with the head uplifted- as if
to meet the attack of a horseman. According to Winckel-
mann, the representation of the figure is' intensely real,'
without a touch of imagination. The statue forms part of
the Louvre collection.
AGASSIZ, Lotns Jonif Rttdolph, was the son of a
Swiss Protestant clergj-man. His father was the pastor of
the parish of Motiers, a small town situated near the north-
eastern angle of the Little Murtensee, and not far from the
eastern extremity of the Lake of NeuchateL Agassiz was
born at this retired place on May 28, 1807. Educated first
at home, then spending four years at the gj-mnasium of
Bienne, he completed his elementary studies at the academy
of Lausanne. Whilst at this latter place he already be-
came conspicuous amongst his fellow-students, not only for
his love of the natural sciences, but for the manifest talent
he displayed in pursuing them. The cloJe alliance between
these subjects and the science of medicine led him to adopt
the latter as his profession, for which he studied successively
at the universities of Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich; at
the same time availing him.«elf of the adv,inta.:;es afford'^d
A G A S S 1 Z
275
Oy theaa universities for extending his knowledge of natural
history, especially of botany. Having completed his academi-
cal conrse,he took his degree of doctof of medicine at Munich.
Up to this time he had no particular inclination for fhe
study of ichthyology, which soon afterwards became the
great occupation of his Ufe. Agassiz always declared that
he was led into ichthyological pursuits through the follow-
ing circumstances: — In 1819-20, Spix and Martius were
engaged in their celebrated Brazilian tour, and on their
return to Europe, amongst other collections of natural
objects, they brought home an important one of the fresh-
water fishes of BrazO, and especially of the Amazon river.
Unfortunately Spix did not live long enough to work out
the history of/theae fishes ; hence it became necessary that
some other naturalist should undertake the task of describ-
ing them. It is no insignificant proof of the reputation
which Agassiz had already won, that, thoiigh little more
than a youth just liberated from his academic studies, he
was selected for this purpose. His attention being thus
directed to the special subject of ichthyology, he at once
threw himself into the work with that earnestness of spirit
which characterised him to the end of his busy life. Thus,
in 182S we find hira, after describing a new species of
Oynocephalus, publishing a description of a new cyprinoid
fish. This was followed by a yet more elaborate research
into the history of the cyprinoid and other fishes found in
the lake of Neuchatel. Rapidly enlarging his plans, the
publication of the last-named work was succeeded by the
issue, in 1830, of a prospectus of a History of the Fresh-
water Fishes of Central Europe, It was only in 1839,
however, that the first part of this important publication
appeared. The task of describing and figuring the Brazilian
fishes of Spix and Martius was completed and the work
published in 1829.
Acquiring fresh confidence through these labours, he
now contemplated a yet greater task. Having become a pro-
fessed ichthyologist, it was impossible that the fossil fishes
with which the stratified rocks of his native mountains
abound should fail to attract his attention. The rich
stores furnished by the slates of Glarus and the limestones
of Monte Bolca were already well known ; but very little had
been accomplished in the way of the scientific study of tliem.
Agassiz at once threw himself into this new field of labour
with his wonted enthusiasm, and began the publication of
the work which, more than any other, made him known to
foreign naturalists, and laid the foundation of his world-
wide fama Five volumes of his Recherches sur les Puissons
Fossiles appeared at intervals between the years 1833 and
1844. They were magnificently illustrated, chiefly through
the labours of Dinkel, an artist of remarkable power in
delineating natural objects.
j Agassiz soon found that his palsontological labours
rendered a new basis of ichthyological classification ab-
solutely necessary. The fossils rarely exhibited any traces
of the soft tissues of fishes. They chiefly consisted of the
teeth, scales, and fins, even the bones being perfectly
preserved in but comparatively few instances. Hence
the classifications of Cuvier and other naturalists were of
little use to him in deteniuning the mutual relations of
the fossil forms. He therefore adopted his weU-known
classification, which divided fishes into four groups — viz..
Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids, and Ctenoids. The first of
these groups was chiefly represented amongst living fishes
by the Lepidosteus or bony pike of the great American
rivers; by the Polypterus or Bischir of the Nile; and by
the sturgeon. The last fish has a wide geographical
range; but the other two, which best display the characters
on which Agassiz based his Ganoid class, are limited to the
fresh-water > ivers of local geographical areas. But in the
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic ages it was strikingly otherwise.
The Ganoids were the most remarkable as wi^li as the most
widely diffused of primeval fishes; we find them equally
in the fresh-water deposits of the weald, in the marine
deposits of the* oolites, the chalk, and the magnesian lime-
stone, and in the more mixed and dubious deposits of tho
cqal measures. Agassiz, therefore, was fully justified in
attaching very great importance to this hitherto unrecog-
nised class. Indeed, later ichthyologists — e.g., J. Miiller
and Professor Owen — have found it necessary to retain the
class in their recent classifications, though in a modified
form. The remaining portions of Agassiz' S}-stem have
not been adopted by them ; but though they do not accept
the terms Placoids, Cycloids, and Ctenoids as representing
classes, aU zoologists employ them as new and convenient
adjectives, of the utmost value to students of _Eystematic
ichthyology. One reason for the rejection of Agassiz*
system by modern ichthyologists ia the obvious one that
he draws the characteristics of his classes from a single
organ — the skin — and that not the. most important. At
the same time, it must be admitted that the Placoids, like
the Ganoids, also constituted a natural group closely corre-
sponding with the Pisces cartilaginei of Cuvier and others.
The distinction between Cycloids and Ctenoids was a much
more trivial one, and needlessly separated closely-allied
forms. It is only those who are familiar with the
magnitude and difficulties of the task thus undeitaken
that can appreciate the daring courage of the youth who
grappled with it. Under twenty-five years of age, and,
as already observed, with limited financial resources, he
nevertheless seems to have known no fear. He soon
announced to geologists several important generalisations,
the correctness of which has been confirmed by all sub-
sequent researcL In particular, he pointed out that no
examples of Cycloids and Ctenoids, comprehending the bulk
of the fishes now seen iu our markets, were to be found in
rocks of older date than the cretaceous age.
As the work proceeded it became obvious that it would
over-tax the resources of the intrepid young zoologist, un-
less some additional assistance could be afforded to him.
The British Association for the Advancement of Science
wisely came to his aid, and the late Earl of Ellesmere —
better known in his jjouth as Lord Francis Egerton — gave
him yet more eflicient help. The original drawings made
for the work, chiefly by Dinkel, amounted to 1290 in
number. These were purchased by the earl; but, with
princely liberality, he left all that were necessary for the
further prosecution of his labours in the hands of Agassiz.
Ifwas whilst he was thus engaged that Agassiz paid his
first visit to England, for the purpose of studying the rich
stores of fossil fishes with which this country abounds.
He was then in his youthful prime — a model of manly
vigour and scientific enthusiasm; but amongst his many
qualities none were more remarkable than the quickness
with which he detected the peculiarities of any new fossil,
and the retentiveness of his memory, which enabled him
to make ready use of his newly-acquired knowledge. The
consciousness that he possessed these powers led him occa-
sionally— though, it must be allowed, but rarely— to trust
unduly to them, and made him sometimes hasty and off-
hand in his conclusions.
But fossil ichthyology, though a very large subject, was
insuflicient to occupy his energetic mini In 1837 we
find him issuing the " Prodrome " of a nionograiih on the
recent and fossil Echinodermata, the first part of which
appeared ij5 1838; and in 1839-40 he published, in addi-
tion, two quarto volumes on the fossU Echinoderms of
Switzerland. This division of the invertebrate animals
was evidently a favourite one with him, since we find
it the subject of numerous memoirs which appeared fronj
time to time during his later life.
276
A G A S S 1 Z
It was by these great undertakings that he cluefly won
bis distinguished position as one of the greatest leaders in
scientific research; but his observant faculties were by no
means concentrated upon them exclusively. His intellec-
tual tentacuta expanded in every direction. The history of
the Belemnites, the muscular system of recent and fossil
shells, the principles of classification of the animal king-
dom, the embryology of the salmon, and critical studies
of special genera of fossil Jlollusca — all engaged his
attention. During his travels in England in 183t he was
ever on the alert for new specimens for the museum at
Neuchatel. One characteristic incident of this kind may be
referred to here. A fine porpoise had been caught by the
Scarborough fishernien. Agassiz was weary with travel,
and had but a few hours to remain in the town, but the
chance could not bo allowed to escape ; the creature was
purchased, and midnight saw Agassiz and the writer of
this sketch working by the dim light of two tiUow candles
dissecting the animal, and shipping off its half-cleaned
bohes to Neuchatel, before he venture' to take the much-
needed rest.
Subsequently to his first visit to England the labours
of Hugh Miller, Dr Malcolmson, and other geologists
brought to light the marvellous ichthyal fauna of the
Devonian beds of the north-east of Scotland. Jfurchison
and Sedgwick had some time previously directed attention
to the existence of fishes of this geological age, especially
amongst the bituminous shales of Caithness; but the more
recent discoveries were of far greater interest than the
earlier ones, because of the strange forms of the Pterich-
thys, the Coccosteus, and other species then made known
to geologists for the first time. The supposition of Hugh
Miller, that some of these fishes had vertical instead of
horizontal mouths, suggestive of a transition from the
crustacean to the ichthyal type, added fresh interest to
the subject in the eyes of a philosophic inquirer like
Agassiz. These fossils were reported upon by him more
than once, and were finally made the subjects of a special
monograph, which was published in 1844. Miller's inter-
pretation of the structure of the mouth Agassiz soon
demonstrated to be erroneous.
The year 1840 witnessed the inauguration of a new
movement, which has proved to be of the utmost import-
ance to geological science. Previously to this date De
Saussure, Venetz, Charpentier, and others had made the
glaciers of the Alps the subjects of special study, and
Charpentier had even arrived at the important conclusion
that the well-known erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered
80 abundantly over the slopes and summits of the Jura
mountains, had been conveyed thither by glaciers. The
question having attracted the attection uf Agassiz, he at
once grappled with it in his wontedly enthusiastic manner.
He not only made successive journeys to the alpine glaciers
in company with Charpentier, but he had a rude hut con-
structed upon one of the Aar glaciers, which for a time he
made his comfortless home, in order that he might the
more thoroughly investigate the structure and movements
of the ice. These labours resulted in the publication of
his magnificent illustrated folio entitled Etudes sur les
Glaciers. In this important work the movements of the
glaciers, their moraines, their influence in grooving and
rounding off the rocks over which they travelled, producing
the striations and roches moutonnis with which we are now
so familiar, were treated with a comprehensiveness which
threw into the shade all the writings of previous labourers
in this field. He not only accepted Charpentier's idea that
some of the alpine glaciers had extended across the wide
plains and valleys drained by the Aar and the Rhone, and
thus landed parts of their remains upon the uplands of the
Jura, but he went still further in the same direction. He
concluded that, at a period geologically recent, Switzerland
had been another Greenland; that instead of a few glaciers
stretching their restricted lines across the areas referred to,
one vast sheet of ice, originating in the higher Alps, had
extended over the entire valley of north-western Switzer-
land until it reached the southern slopes of the Jura, which,
though they checked and deflected its further extension, did
not prevent the ice from reaching in many places the
summit of the range. At a later period we shall find him
holding a similar view in the case of the vast plains spread
out between the Andes and the eastern coast of South
America. The publication of this work gave a fresh impetus
to the stud}' of glacial phenomena in all parts of the world.
In 1841 Agassiz spent many weeks in his hut on the
Lower Aar glacier, where he received as his guest the late
Professor James Forbes, who was also engaged upon the
study of glacial phenomena. The latter philosopher, in
his work on A'orway and its Glaciers, recognised in the
fullest manner his indebtedness to .Agassiz for much new
light respecting the details of glacial action.
Thus familiarised with the phenomena attendant on the
movements of recent glaciers, Agassiz was prepared for a
new and most unexpected discovery which he made in
1846, in conjunction with the late Professor Buckland.
These two savants visited the mountains of Scotland
together, and found in six different localities clear evi-
dence of some ancient glacial action. The discovery. was
announced to the Geological Society of London in a joint
communication from the two distinguished observers.
Similar discoveries were subsequently made by Buckland,
Lyell, Ramsay, and others in various parts of ScotLind,
Westmoreland, Cumberland, and North Wales. The for-
mer existence of glaciers in each of these mountainous
districts is a fact that no one now prcsum"^ to doubt any
more than that these glaciers, either directly, or indirectly
in the shape of icebergs, have at least contributed largely to
the accumulation of those wide-spread deposits with which
geologists are familiar under the name of dj-ift and boulder
formations.
But we must now follow Agassiz to a new spncre of
labour. In 1838 he was appointed to the professorship of
natural history at Neuchatel, with a very limited income.
In the autumn of 1846 he crossed the AtlaA;>;, with the
two-fold design of investigating the natural history and
geology of the United States, and delivering a course of
lectures on .zoology at the Lowell Institute; -^id the
tempting advantages, pecuniary and? scientific, presented
to him in the New W^orld, induced him to settle in the
United States, where he remained to the end of his life.
He was appointed professor of zoology and geology in the
university of Cambridge, U.S., in 1847- He left that post
in 1851 for a medical professorship of (Sjmparative anatomy
at Charlestown, but returned in 1853 to Cambridge.
This transfer to a new field, and the association with
fresh objects of high interest to him, gave his energies a
new stimulus. Volume after volume now proceeded
from his pen : some of his writings were popular, and ad-
dressed to the multitude, but most of them dealt with the
higher departments of scientific research. His work on
Lake Superior, and his four volumes rf Contrilrxtioiis to
the Natural Uistort/ of the United States, were of this latter
character. But whilst thus working earnestly at American
zoology, he still kept in view more generalised inquiries,
the fruits of which appeared in 1854, with the title of
Zoologie Ginerale et Esquisses Ginerales de Zoologie con-
tenant la Structure, le Developpement, la Classification, <tc.,
de tous Us Types d'Animaux vivants et detrudts. Before
leaving these literary labours, we must not overlook the
valuable service he rendered to science by the fvrmation,
for his own use. of a catalogue of scientific memoiro — an
A G A — A G A
277
•xtroordir.ary work lor a man whose hands were abeadjr so
full This catalogue, edited and materially enlarged by
the late Hugh Strickland, was published by the Ray
Society under the title of Bibliographia Zoologice et Geo-
logi<i:. Nor must we forget that he was building up
another magnificent monument of his industry in the
Museum of Natural History, which rose under his foster-
ing care, at Cambridge. But at length the great strain
on his physical powers began to tell. He then sought
to restore his waning health by a southern voyage. His
early labours among the fishes of Brazil had often caused
>iim to cast a longing glance towards that coiintry; and he
now resolved to combine the pursuit of health with the
gratification of his long-cherished desires. In April 1865
he started for Brazil, along with his admirable wife and an
excellent class of assistants. Even on shipboard he could
not be idle. In his outward voyage he delivered a course
of lectures, open to all his fellow-passengers, but especially
addressed to his assistants, and intended to instruct
them in the nattire and bearings of the great problems
upon which they might hope to throw light during their
stay in Brazil. An interesting account of this journey, to
the success of which the emperor of Brazil contributed in
every' possible way, was published by Mrs Agassiz when
they returned home, laden with the natural treasures of the
BraziUan rivers.
In 1871 he made a second excursion, visiting the
southern shores of the. North American continent, both on
its Atlantic -and its Pacific seaboards. He had for many
years yearned after the establishment of some permanent
school where zoological science could be studied, not in
class-rooms or museums of dead specimens, but amidst the
living haunts of the subjects of study. Like all truly
great teachers, he had little faith in any school but that of
natufe. The last, and possibly the most permanently in-
fluential, of the labours of his long and successful life was
the establishment of such an institution, which he was
enabled to effect through the HberaUty of Mr John Anderson,
a citizen of New York. That gentleman not only handed
over to Agassiz the island of Penikese, on the east coast,
but also presented him with $50,000 'wherewith per-
manently to endow H as" a practical school of natural
science, especially devoted to the study of marine zoology.
Another American friend gave him a fine yacht, of 80 tons
burden, to be employed in marine dredging in the sur-
rounding seas. Had Agassiz lived long enough to bring
all this machinery into working order, it is difficult to ex-
aggerate the practical advantages which American science
would have reaped froln it when guided by such experi-
enced hands. But it was otherwise ordained. The disease ,
with which he had struggled for some years proved fatal
on. Dec. U, 1873.
A letter to his old friend, Sir Philip M. de Grey Eger-
ton, Bart., written but a few days before his death, and
doubtless one of the last that he penned, showed that his
spuit was still as indomitable and his designs as large as
ever; and one of his latest expressed wishes was that he
might be spared for four more years in order that the work
he had contemplated might be completed.
Our available space will not allow' us to give a de-
tailed sketch of the opinions of this remarkable man on'
even the more important of the great subjects which he
studied so long. From first to last he steadily rejected
the doctrine of evolution, and affirmed his belief in inde-
pendent creations. In like manner he retained his confi-
dence in the former existence and agency of vast continental
ice-sheets, rather than in the combined action of more
limited glaciers and icebergs, which nearly all modern
geologists recognise as the producers of the drifts and
boulder-clays. When studying the superficial deposits of
the Brazilian plains in 1865, his vivid imagination covered
even that wide tropical area, as it had covered Switzerland
before, with one vast glacier, extending from the Andes to
the sea. His daring conceptions were only equalled by the
unwearied industry and genuine enthusiasm with which he
worked them out; and if in details his labours were some-
what defective, it was only because he had the courage to
attempt what was too much for any one man to accom-
plish, (w. c. w.)
AGATE (from Aclvates, a river in Sicily, on the banl^ of
which it is said to have been found), a name applied by
mineralogists to a stone of the quartz family, generally
occurring in rounded nodules or in veins in trap rocks.
The number of agate balls in the rock often give it the
character of amygdaloid; and when such a rock is decom-
posed by the elements, the agates drop out, and are found
in the beds of streams that descend from it; or they may
be obtained in quarrying. Great quantities are obtained
from Oberstein and Idar, in Germany, where there are large
manufactories for colouring and polishing the stones; and
many are brought from India and BrazD. Agate occurs
in considerable quantity in Scotland, whence the stone is
familiarly known to lapidaries as Scotch pebble; and very
large masses of calcedony, a variety of it, are brought from
Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and Brazil. Agate chiefly con-
sists of calcedony, with mixtures of common quartz and
occasional patches of jasper and opal. The colour markings
are often in concentric rings of varying forms and inten-
sity, or in straight parallel layers or bands. The colours
are chiefly gray, v/hite, yellow, or brownish-red. The com-
position of agate is not uniform; but it usually contains
from 70 to 96 per cent, of silica, with varying proportions
of alumina, coloured by oxide of iron or manganese. The
principal varieties are —
1. Calcedony. In this the colours are in parallel bands.
The porosity of this stone, and the presence of iron in it,
have given rise to a beautiful artificial process for height-
ening its natural colours, which has been long practised at
Oberstein, and probably long known in India. The stones
best suited for this purpose are such as when recently frac-
tured imbibe moisture most readily. The stones are first
dried without heat, then immersed in a mixture of honey
and water, and afterwards placed in a heated oven, where
they remain for two or three weeks, constantly covered with
the liquid. They are then washed, dried, and put into an
earthenware vessel containing sufficient sulphuric acid to
cover them ; this vessel is closed and placed in the oven for
a space varying from one to twelve hours, according to the
hardness of the stone. The agates are nowremoved, washed,
and thoroughly dried ; and after being kept in oil for twenty-
four hours, are cleaned, cut, and polished. In the best
specimens the gray streaks are increased in intensity ; some
exhibit brown s'veaks approaching to black, while white
impenetrable parts assume "a brighter hue by the contrast.
This is the process employed to convert the veined calce-
dony or agate into onyx, especially for the production of
cameos and intaglios, in imitation of the antique sculptured
gems, of which admirable specimens are found in the cabinets
of the curious, and especially in the Florentine Museum. In
those minute but exquisite works the ancient Greeks espe-
cially excelled; and remarkable specimens of the art have
been found in the tombs of Egypt, Assyria, and Etruria. In
such works the figures, whether in relief or Lntaglio, appear
of a different colour from the ground.
2. Carnelian, or red calcedony, when found, is almost
always brownish or muddy. The foUowirig process is
employed at Oberstein to convert both this sort and the
yellowish-brown varieties into a rich red, so as to rival
the Indian carnelian, which probably also has its colour
heightened artificiaUy : — After being tV-oroughly dricc', tLe
278
A G A — A G E
Bton IB arc dipped iu sulphuric acid, and immediately exposed
m a covered earthenware crucible to a red heat : the whole
ia allowed to cool slowly, and when cold the stones are
removed and washed.
3. Mocha stones, originally brought from the East, are
clear grayish calcedonics, with clouds and dashes of rich
brown of various shades. They probably owe their colour
chiefly to art.
4. jlfoss agates are such as contain arborisations or den-
drites of oxide of iron, some of which seem to be petrifac-
tions of real vegetable forms.
5. Jlloodstone is a darlc-green agate containing bright
red spots like blood-drops.
6. Plasma, a grass-green stone, found engraved in ruins
at Rome, on the Schwartzwald, and on Mount Olympus,
appears to be ealcedony coloured by chlorite.
7. Chrysnprase, found in Silesia, is an agate coloured
apple-grccn by oxide of nickel.
The agate can be cut or sawed easily, and is used for
making cups, rings, seals, handles for knives and forks,
sword-hilts, rosary beads, and a great variety of trinkets.
Many stones of this kind are marked with representations
of men, animals, or inanimate natural objects; but there
can be no question that a very largo proportion of these are
to bo regarded as productions of art.
AGATHARCHIDES, a celebrated Greek grammarian
and geographer who flourished about 140 years B.C., was
bom at Cnidos. His works are lost, except those passages
quoted by Diodorus Siculus and other authors, in which
he describes the gold mines of Upper Egypt, and gives the
first philosophical explanation of the inundations of the
Nile, which he ascribed to the rains on the mountains of
Ethiopia. (Hudson's Greek Geographers.)
AGATHARCHUS, a Greek painter, commemorated by
Vitruvius for having first applied the laws of perspective to
architectural painting, which he used successfully in prepar-
ing scenery for the plays of ./Eschylus. He flourished about
480 years B.C.
AGATHIAS, a Greek historian and poet, boni at Myrina
in Asia Minor, about 533 a.d. He was educated at Alex-
andria, and in 554 went to Constantinople, where, after
studying Roman law for some years, he practised as an advo-
cate. The title "Scholasticus," generally given to Agathias,
was that by which advocates were known in Constanti-
nople. Of the poetry by Agathias but little remains; his
Daphniaca (AaijiviaKa.), a collection of erotic poems, being
entirely lost, and only the introduction to his Ku'kAos, or
anthology from earlier and contemporary writers, being
extant. A number of his epigrams may be found in the
Anthologia Grceca. His principal work is his history,
which bcginSj where Procopius ends, with the 2Gth year of
the reign of Justinian (553), and carries on the narrative
of evonta until 558. It is valuable as a chronicle, but the
style is turgid, and great ignorance is shown of the history
and geography of western Europe. It was printed in
Greek, with a Latin translation by Bonaventura Vulcanius,
at Ley den in 1594. The best edition is that of Niebuhr
(Bonn, 1828). A French translation is included in the
second volume of Louis Consiu's Uistor!/ of Constantinople.
AGATHO, an Athenian tragic poet, the disciple of Pro-
dicus and Socrates, celebrated by Plato iu his Protagoras
for his virtue and his beauty. A tragedy of his obtained
the prize in the fourth year of the 90th Olympiad, and
he was crowned, in the presence of upwards of 30,000
persons, when a little over thirty years of age. There are no
remains of his works, except a few quotations- in Aristotle,
Atlienajus, and others.
AGATHOCLES, a famous tyrant of Sicily, was the
son of a potter at Rhegium. By his singular vigour and
abilities he raised himself through various gradations of
rank till ho finally made himself tyrant of SjTaciise, on«3
then of nearly- all Sicily. He defeated the armies of the
Carthaginians several times, both in Sicily and Africa;
but at length ho met with a reverse, and his soldiers' pay
being in arrears, they mutinied, forced him to fly his
camp, and murdered his sons. Recovering hii>.self, he
relieved Corcyra, which was besieged by Cassaiider; burnt
the Macedonian fleet; and revenged the death of his chil-
dren by putting the murderers, with their wives and fami-
lies, to the sword. After ravagijig the sea-coast of Italy
he took the city of Hipponiuni. Tlie last years of his life
were greatly harassed with ill-health and the turbulence of
his grandson Archagathus. He died in the seventy-second
year of his age, B.C. 2"J0, after a reign of twenty -eight
years.
AGDE, a town of France, in the department of H^rault,
on the left bank of the river of that name, 30 mOes S.W.
of Montpellier. It is a place of great antiquity, and ia said
to have been founded, under the name of Agat/ie, by the
Greeks. In the neighbourhood there Ls an extinct volcano,
and the town is built of black volcanic basalt, which gives
it a grim and forbidding aspect. It has a fine old Gothic
cathedral, a college, and a school of na'vigatioii. The
Canal du Midi, or Languedoc canal, uniting the Garonne
with the Mediterranean Sea, passes under the walls of the
town, and the mouth of the Hfirault forms a convenient
harbour, which is protected by a fort. Thus advantageou-sly
situated, the place commands an extensive coasting trade,
more than 400 vessels annually entering the port. Soap
and verdigris are manufactured, and the staple productions
of southern France are largely exported. Population,
9747.
AGE, a term denoting' generally any fixed period of
time, is used more definitely in a variety of senses. Classi-
cal mythology divided the whole history of the earth into
a number of periods. Hesiod, for example, in his poem
Works and Days, describes minutely five successive ages,
during each of 'which the earth was peopled by an entirely
distinct race. The first or golden race lived in perfect
happiness on the fruits of the untilled earth, suffered fronr
no bodily infirmity, passed away in a gentle sleep, and
became after death guardian daemons of this world. The
second or silver race was degenerate, and refusing tc
worship the immortal gods, was buried by Jove iu the
eartL The third or brazen race, still more degraded, was
warlike and cruel, and perished at last by internal violence.
The fourth or heroie race was a marked advance upon the
preceding, its members being the heroes or demi-gods who
fought at Troy and Thebes, and who were rewarded after
death by being permitted to reap thrice a-year the free
produce of the earth. The fifth or iron race, to which the
poet supposes himself to belong, is the most degenerate of
all, sunk so low in e^'ery vice that any new change must be
for the better. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, follows Hesiod
exactly as to nomenclature and very closely as to substance.
He makes the degeneracy continuous, however, by omitting
the heroic race or age, which, as Grote points out, was
probably introduced by Hesiod, not as part of his didactic
plan, but from a desire to conciliate popular feeling by
including in his poem the chief myths that were already
current among the Greeks.
A definite period in history distinguished by some
special characteristic, such as great literary activity, is
generally styled, with some appropriate epithet, an age.
It is usual, for example, to speak of the age of Pericles, the
Augustan age, the Elizabethan age; of the age of the
crusades, the dark ages, the middle ages, the age of steam.
Such isolated periods, 'with no continuity or necessary con-
nection of any kind, are obviously quite distinct from the
ages or organically-related periods into which . certain
A G E — A G E
279
•eminent modurn pliUosophers have dividea the whole
course of human history. According to Fichte's scheme
there are five ages, distinguished by the relative predomi-
nance which instinct, external authority, and reason have
in them respectively, instinct being supreme in the first
and reason in the last. Comte's scheme distinguishes
three ages according to the state of knowledge in each, and
he supposes that we are now entering upon the third of
these. In the first age of his scheme knowledge \s super-
natural or fictitious; in the second it is vietaphysical or.
abstract; in the third it ia positive or scientific. Schemes
somewhat similar have been proposed by other philosophers,
chiefly of France and Germany, and seem to he regarded
by them as essential to any complete science of history.
In relation to individual as well as to social Ufe, age is
-used with a considerable variety of application. It frequently
denotes the total duration of life in man, animals, or plants,
and in this sense belongs to the subject of Longevity {q.v.)
It also denotes in man the vaiious periods into which his life
may be divided, either from a physiological or from a legal
point of view. In the former aspect perhaps the most
common division is into the four ages of infancy, youth,
manhood, and old age. These again have been increased
to six or seven by some physiologists — ilifancy, childhood,
boyhood or girlhood, adolescence, manhood or womanhood,
age, and old age or second childhood. While both schemes
have a sufBcicnt basis of scientific accuracy, they have also
each attracted the fancy of the poet. Ovid in hia Metamor-
fihoses (xv. 198-213) makes a beautiful comparison between
the four ages of a man's life and the four seasons of the
year, in a passage which has been frequently imitated; and
the sevenfold division has been exquisitely cast into poetic
form by Shakespeare in As You Like It, act ii. scene 7.
The division of human life into periods for legal purposes
is naturally more sharp and definite than the foregoing. It
would be unscientific in the physiologist to name any pre-
cise year for the transition from one of his stages to another,
inasmuch as that differs very considerably among different
nations, and eveh to some extent among different indi-
■viduals of the same nation. But the law must necessarily
be fixed and uniforni, and even where it professes to pro-
ceed according to nature, must be more precise than nature.
The Roman law divided human Ufe for its purposes into
four chief periods, which had their subdivisions — (1.)
Jnfantia, lasting till the close of the seventh year; (2.)
The period between infantia and pubertas, males becoming
^6«rei at fourteen and females at twelve; (3.) Adolesceniia,
the period between puberty and majority ; and (4. ) The period
after the twenty-fifth year, when males become majores. The
first period was one of total legal incapacity; in the second
period a person could lawfully do certain specified acts, but
only with the sanction of his tutor or guardian; in the
third the restrictions were fewer, males being permitted to
manage their own property, contract marriage, and make a
will; but majority was not reached until the age of twenty-
five. By English law there are two great periods into
which life is divided — infancy, which lasts in both sexes
until the twenty-first year, and manhood or womanhood.
The period of infancy, again, is divided into several stages,
marked by the growing development both of rights and
obligations. Thus at twelve years of age a male may take
the oath of allegiance; at fourteen both sexes are held to
have arrived at years of discretion, and may therefore
choose guard'ans, give evidence, and consent or disagree to
a marriage. A female has the last privilege from the
twelfth year, but the marriage cannot be celebrated until
the majority of the parties without the consent of parents
or guardians. At fourteen, too, both sexes are fully re-
sponsible to the criminal law. 'Between seven and fourteen
there is responsibility only if the accused be proved doli
capax, capaoie of discerning between right and wrona, the
principle in that case being that malitia suppUt iSatem.
At twenty-one both males asd females obtain their, full
legal rights, and become liable to all legal obligations. A
seat in the British Parliament may be taken at twenty-one.
Certain professions, however, demand as a qualification in
entrants a more advanced age than that of legal. manhood.
In the church a candidate for deacon's orders must be
twenty-three, and for priest's orders twenty-four years of
age; and no clergyman is eligible for a bishopric under
thirty. In Scotland infancy is riot a legal term. The
time previous to majority, which, as in England^'is reached
by both sexes at .twenty-one, is divided iiito two stages:
pupilage lasts until the attainment of puberty, which the
law fixes at fourteen in males and twelve in females;
minority lasts from these ages respectively untU twenty-one.
Minority obviously corresponds in some degree to the
English years of discretion, but a Scotch minor has more
personal rights' than an English infant in the last stage uf
his infancy, e.g., he may dispose by will of moveable
property, make contracts, carry on trade, and, as a neces-
sary consequence, is Uabia to be declared a bankrupt.
Among foreign nations the law on this matter is somewbat
varied. In France the year of majority is twenty-one, and
the nubile age, according to the 6We A^a/^o^co?), eighteen
for males and fifteen for females, with a restriction as to
the consent of gpiardians." In Germany majority is usually
reached at twenty -four, though in soihe states? (Bavaria,
Saxony, Wiirtemburg, and Baden) the age is twenty-one.
In the United States the age qualificatio'n for a president
ia thirty-five, for a senator thirty, and' for a representative
twenty-five.
AGELADAS, an eminent ■rtatuary of Argos, and the
instructor of the three great sculptors, Phidias, Myron,
and Polycletus. There ia considerable difference in the state-
ments of the date when he flourished. Thiersch meets the
difficulty by sunnosine that there was another artist of the
same name.
AQELNOTH ^Ethelnoth, or Ethelnoth-, known
also as Achelnotus, son of Egelmaer the Earl, Archbishop
of Canterbury in the reign of Canute, was trained in
the monastery at Glastonbury, for which he afterwards
obtained new privileges from the king. According to
WiUiam of Malraesbury, he exercised a great and salutary
influence over Canute in the way both of encouragement
and restraint. He was appointed dean of Canterbury and
chaplain to the king, and was raised to the archbishopric
on the death of Living in 1020. He wisely counselled
Canute to that course of policy which ultimately led to
the fusion of Danes and Saxons, and their united resistance
to the invasion of the Normans; and similar pacific counsels
itrthe church brought about a temporary cessation of the
mutual persecution on the part of the Benedictine and
secular clergy. It being necessary that the archbishop
should visit Rome in person to receive the pall, he repaired
thither in 1022, and was received by Pope Benedictine
VIIL with every mark of honour. At Pavia, on his way
home, he purchased a relic, which was said to be the right
arm of St Augustine of Hippo, at the cost of 100 talents
of silver and 1 of gold. This he sent as a present to
Leofric, the young Earl of Mercia. With his own wealth
and liberal grants from Canute he restored and adorned
his cathedral When Canute died, he made the archbishop
promise to be faithful to his sons by Emma, and the pro-
mise was so truly kept that Harold, the usurper, remained
unconsecrated until after the death of Agelnoth (1038).
AGEN, the chief town of the department of Lot-it-
Garonne in France, is situated on the right bank of the
Garonne, 73 miles S.K of Bordeaux. Through its ex-
cellent water communicatiou it affords an outlet for the
280
A G E — A G E
agricultural produce of tho district, and forms an entrepot
of trade between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Ita chief manu-
factures are sail-cloth, cotton, linen, leather, and starjh.
It has a college and several literary institutions, and Ls
the seat of a bishop and a high court of justice. There is
a fine bridge of eleven arches over the Garonne. In 1372
tlie popuhtion vas 18,8b7.
AGENT, in Diplomacy, Commerce, and JurisprucUnce,
is a name applied generally to any person who acts for
another. It haa probably been adopted from Franco, as
ita function in modeai civil law was otherwise expressed
in Roman jurisprudence. Ducango (3.V. Ac/entes) tells ua
that in tho later Roman emjiire tho officers who (Tollected
tho grain in tho provinces for the troops and tho household,
and afterwards extended their functions so as to include
those of government postmasters or spies, came to be called
agenU's in rebus, their earlier name having hcen frumeniarii.
In Diptomacij, a class of semi-ambassadors termed agents
have been employed generally between states of unequal
power. Tho small community might send an agent to
propitiate some powerful government, and secure its protec-
tion. A great power would, on the other hand, distribute
its agents among tho petty states which it kept in clientage,
to .see that no counteracting influenco was at work among
them. In this shape our Indian government keep agencies
in the protected and other neighbouring states. Similarly,
though this class does not fall within tho scope of public
international law, the self-governing British colonies now
employ agents to attend to their interests and represent
them in the mother court try. Tho status of diplomatic
agents, not of the classes of ambassadors, envoys, ministers,
or charjjes (TajFaires, is extremely ill-defined and uncer-
tain. ( PhUlimore's International Law, iL 246 ; Heffter
Europdisches Yblkerrecht, § 222.) See Ambassador;
Diplomacy.
The law of Principal and Agent Las its origin in tha
law of mandate among the Romans, and fortunately even
in England the spirit of that system of jurisprudence
pervades this branch of the law. Tho law of agency i^
thus almost alike throughout tho whole British empire,
and a branch of tho British commercial code, in which it
is of .great importance that different nations should under-
stand each other's system, differs only slightly from the
law of the rest of Europe.
In a general view of the law of agency it is necessary
to have regard to the rights and duties of tho principal,
the agent, and tho public. The agent should not do what
he has np authority for; yet if ho be seen to have authority,
those with whom he deals should not be injured by secret
and unusual conditions. The employer is bound by what
his agent does in his name, but the public are not entitled
to take advantage of obligations which are known to
bo unauthorised and unusual The agent is entitled to
demand performance by tho principal of the obligations
undertaken by him within tho bounds of his commission,
but he is not entitled to pledge him with a recklessness
which he would certainly avoid in the management of his
own affairs. It is in the regulation of these powers and
corresponding checks in such a manr.er that the legal
principle shall apply to daily practice, that the niceties of
this branch of the law consist.
Agents are of different kindri, according to their stipu
lated r consuetudinary powers. The main restraint in the
possible powers of an agent is in the old maxim, delegatus
non potest delegare, designed to check the complexity that
might be created by inquiries into repeatedly-deputed
responsibility. The agent cannot delegate his commission
or put another in his place ; but in practice this principle
is sometimes modified, fpr it so may arise from the nature
of his office that he is to employ other persons for the
accomplishment of certain objects. Thus, there is nothing
to prevent a commercial agent from sending a portion of
tho goods entrusted by him to his own agent for disposal
In the general case agency is constituted by the
acceptance of tho mandate ■ or authority to act for the
principal, and the evidence of this may be cither verbal
or in writing. Tho English statute of frauds requires an
agent to have authority in writing for the purposes of its
1st, 2d, and 3d clauses relating to leases. " And it is
a general rule, that an agent who has to execute a deed,
or to take or give livery or seisin, must be appointed by
deed for that purpose. Moreover, as a corporation aggro-
gate can in general act only by deed, its agent must be
so appointed, though it would seem that some trifling
agencies, even for corporations, may be appointed without
one." (Smith's Mercantile Law, B. I. chap, iv.) It is a
general rule that those obligations which can only be
undertaken by solemn formalities cannot be entered on by
a dekgate who has not received his authority in writing.
But it is often constituted, at the same time that its extent
is defined, by mere appointment to some known and recog-
nised function — as where one is appointed agent for a
banking establishment, factor for a merchant, broker,
supercargo, traveller, or attorney. In these cases, usage
defines the powers granted to the agent ; and the employer
will not readily be subjected to obligations going beyond
the usual functions of the office; nor will the public dealing
with tho agent be bound by private instructions inconsist-
ent with its usual character. 'WTiile, however, the public,
ignorant of such secret limitations, are not bound to respect
them, the agent himself is liable for the consequences of
transgressing them. Agency may also be either created
or enlarged by implication, ^^^lat the agent has done with
his principal's consent the public are justified in believing
him authorised to continue doing. Thus, as a familiar
instance, tho sen'ant who has continued to purchase gooda
for his master at a particular shop on credit is presumed
to retain authority and trust, and pledges Lis master's
credit in farther purchases, though he should, without the
knowledge of the shopkeeper, apply the articles to his
own uses. Tho law is ever jealous in admitting as acces-
sories of a general appointment to any particular agency
the power to borrow money in the principal's name, to
give his name to bill transactions, and to pledge him
to guaranties ; but all these acts may be authorised by
implication, or by being the continuation of a series of
transactions, of the same kind and in the same line of
business, to which the principal has given his sanction.
Thus an employer may, by the previous sanction of such
operations, bo liable for the bills or notes drawn, indorsed,
and accepted by his clerk or other mandatary ; nay, may
be responsible for the obligations thus incurred after the
mandatary's dismissal, if the party dealing vrith' him knew
that he was countenanced in such transactions, and had
no reason to suppose that he was dismissed. In ques-
tions of this kind the distinction between a general and
a special agent is important. A general agent is employed
to transact all his principal's business of a particular kind,
at a certain place, — as a factor to buy and sell; a broker
to negotiate contracts of a particular kind; an attorney to
transact his legal business; a shipmaster to do all things
relating to the employment of a ship. Such an agent's
power to do everything usual in the line of business in
which he is employed is not limited by any private restric-
tion or order unknown to the party with whom he is deal-
ing. On the contrary, it is incumbent on the party dealing
with a particular agent, i.e., one specially employed in
a single transaction, to ascertain the extent of his autho-
rity. The law applicable to a mercantile agent's power to
pledge or otherwise dispose of the goods entrusted to hiir
A G E — A G E
281
tf-ing in an unsatisfactory state, a statutory remedy was
applied to it by an Act of 1825 (G Geo. IV. c. 94), wUch
required amendment in 1842 (5 and 6 Vict. c. 39).
The general object of these measures, which appear
to extend to Scotland, is to make transactions with an
agent in possession of goods as safe as dealing with the
owner, to all who treat with him, as purchasers or other-
wise, in good faith, and in ignorance of his want of owner-
ship. Thus, when an agent ships goods in his own name,
the consignee is entitled to a lien on them for any advances
to the agent, or liabilities on bills or notes, if he has not
Tiofice by the bill of lading or otherwise at or before the
time of the advance or receipt that such person is not the
actual and bond fide owner The presumption in such
cases is ownership; afld the burden of disproving it, as
well as of showing that the consignee was aware of the
mere agency, falls on the person questioning the validity.
By the statutes, the person entrusted with and in possession
of a biU of lading, dock warrant, warehouse-keeper's certi-
ficate, wharfinger's certificate, or other delivery warrant, is
held the owner of the goods it represents, so as to render
Talid any transaction for their sale or disposition of the
goods, or the deposit or pledge thereof, or of any part
thereof, to parties ignorant of the limited ownership. Be-
sides their effect in rendering valid, in this more compre-
hensive manner, operations conducted under the appearance
and supposition of absolute ownership, the acts have
separate provisions for the security of those who deal
with agents, knowing them to be such. The acts, how-
ever, must be studied in their very words, which are not
remarkable for clearness. The following brief descrip-
tion of their general effect, taken from Chitty's Collec-
tion of Statutes, may be useful :^-" First, where goods or
documents for the delivery of goods are pledged as a
security for present or future advances, with the knowledge
that they are not the property of the factor, but without
notice that he is acting without authority, in such a case
the pledgee acquires an absolute Hen. Secondly, where
goods are pledged by a factor without notice to the pledgee
that they are the property of another, as a security for
a pre-existing debt, in that case the pledgee acquires the
same right as the factor had. Thirdly, where a contract
to pledge is made in consideration of the delivery of other
goods or documents of title, upon which the person deliver-
ing them up had a lien for a previous advance (which is
deemed to be a contract for a present advance), in that
case the pledgee acquires an absolute lien to the extent
of the value of the goods given up." The statutes are
applicable only to proper mercantile transactions, and not,
for example, to advances upon the security of furniture in
a furnished house to the apparent owner. (See Smith's
Leading Cases, vol. i. p. 759 sqq., 6th ed.)
The obligations of the principal are — to pay tne agent s
remuneration, or, as it is often called, commission, the
amount of which is fixed by contract or the usage of
trade ; to pay all advances made by the agent in the
regular course of his employment ; and to honour the
obligations lawfully undertaken for him. The agent is
responsible for the possession of the proper skill and means
for carrying out the functions which he undertakes. He
must devote to the interests of his employer such care and
attention as a man of ordinary prudence bestows on his
own — a duty capable of no more certain definition, the
application of it as a fixed mle being the function of a
jury. He is bound to observe the strictest good faith; and
in some instances the law interposes to remove him from
temptation to sacrifice his employer's interests to his own:
thus, when he is employed to buy, he must not be the seller;
and when employed to sell, he must not be the purchaser.
He ought only to deal with persona in good crc<iit, but he
is not responsible for their absolute solvency unless he
guarantee them. A mercantile agent guaranteeing the pay-
ments he treats for is said to hold a del credere commission.
In Scotland the procurators or solicitors who act in
the preparation of cases in the various law-courts, and all
who take out the attorney licence, are called agents. See
Attorney.
In France, the Agents de Change were formerly the class
generally licensed for conducting all negotiations, as they
were termed, whether in commerce or the money market.
Of late the term has been practically limited to those wh«
conduct, like our stockbrokers, transactions in public stock ;
and it is understood that it is rather as speculators than aa
agents that the majority of them adopt the profession.
The laws and regulations as to courtiers, or those whoso
functions were more distinctly confined to transactions iu
merchandise, have been mixed up witi those applicable to
agents de change. Down to the year 1572 both functions
were free; but at that period, partly for financial reasons,
a system of licensing was adopted at the suggestion of
the Chancellor I'Hopital. Among the other revolutionary
measures of the year 1791, the professions of agent and
courtier were again opened to the public. Many of the
financial convulsions of the ensuing years, which were due
to more serious causes, were attributed to this indiscrimi-
nate removal of restrictions, and they were reimposed in
1801. From that period regulations have been made
from time to time as to the qualifications of agents, the
security to be found by them, and the like. They are now
regarded as public officers, appointed, with certain privileges
and duties, by the government, to act as intermediaries
in negotiating transfers of public funds and commercial
stocks, and for dealing in metallic currency.
AGESILAUS, king of the Lacedaimonians, the second
of the name, son of Archidamus II., was, through the
influence of Lysander, raised to the throne in 398 B.C.,
in opposition to the superior claim of his nephew Leoty-
chides. Immediately on his accession he advised the
LacedEemonians to anticipate the king of Persia, who was
making great preparations for war, and attack him in his
own dominions. He was himself chosen for this expedition,
and gained so many advantages over the enemy that, if
the league which the Athenians and the Thebans formed
against the Lacedaemonians had not obliged him to return
home, it seems probable that he would have carried his
victorious arms into the very heart of the Persian empire.
But he readily gave up all these triumphs to come to the
succour of his country, which he happily relieved by his
victory over the allies at Chseronea, in Boeotia, 394 B.C.
He obtained another near Corinth; but, to his great mor-
tification, the Thebans afterwards gained several victories
over the Lacedaemonians. This at first raised a clamour
against him. He had been ill when the course of victory
turned in favour of the enemy; but as soon as he was able
to act in person his valour and prudence prevented the
Thebans from reaping the advantages of their successes ;
so that it was generally believed that, had he been in
health at the beginning, the Lacedaemonians would have
sustained no losses, and that without him all would have
been lost It cannot bo denied, however, that his fond-
ness for war occasioned many losses to his countr)'men,
and led them into enterprises which in the end con-
tributed much to weaken their power. He died in the
third year of the 103d Olympiad, being the 84th year of
his age and 38tb of his reign, and was succeeded by hi?
son Archidamus. Agesilaus, though a vigorous ruler and
great general, was of small stature, and lame from hif
birth. His accession to the throne was, indeed, opposed
on this ground, an oracle ha\-ing foretold evils to Sparta
under a lame sovereiijnty. As we have seen, the oracle wa*
L - 36
282
A. G G — A G I
BO far fulfilled that mttny troubles befell tlie state during
hia reign. Few of these, however, are traceable to the
policy of the king, whoae public life was illustrated by a
series of brilliant victories over the enemies of his country.
In character, Agesilaus seems to have possessed the Si)arlim
virtues of courage, temperance, and fortitude, without the
Spartan vices of hardness, cupidity, and injustice. His
life and merits have been.commemorivted by Xenophon,
Plutarch, Diodoms Siculus, and Cornsliua Nopos.
AGGKEQATION, States of, tho three etates—solid,
liquid, and gaseous — in which matter occurs, depending ou
tho degree of cohesion that subsists between tho molecules
or atoms of material bodies. In tho solid state, tho mole-
cules cohere so firmly that their relative positions cannot
be changed without tho ajjplication of force, and tho body
retains a defiiiilo fonn ; in tho liquid state, they move
freely and readily on each other, tho cohesion that exists
being so slight that tho body ha3 itself no form ; in the
gaseous state, they are affected by an ehustic force that
amounts to repulsion, tending to sc[)arato them, and so
diffuse them through an increa.'ted space. The metals,
glass, wood, i^c, are solids ; water and atmospheric air are
tho mo.st familiar types of liquid and g;useoU3 bodies. The
name fluid is sometimes used to denote both gases and
litpiids, which are designated elastic and non-tlasiic fluids
respectively. These states of aggregation are not in every
case — many now believe they are not in any case — per-
manent and unchangeable. Metals can bo melted and
vaporised ; the liquid water is convertible into ice and into
steam ; and a number of what were formerly reckoned fixed
or pennanent gases have been liquified and solidified. Solids
are reduced to liquid, and liquids to giiseous forms, princi-
pally by heat ; pressure effects changes of the opposite kind.
AGHRIM, or Augiirim, a small village in Galway, 4
miles W. of Ballinasloe, is rendered memorable by the de-
cisive victory gained there, on 12th July 1691, by tho
forces of William III., under General Ginkell, over those
of James II., under the French general St Ruth. . The Irish,
numbering 2.5,000, and strongly posted behind marshy
ground, at first maintained a vigorous resistance ; but
Ginkell; having penetrated their line of defence, and their
general being struck down by a cannon-ball at this critical
moment, they were at length overcome and routed with ter-
rible slaughter. The loss of the Engli.sh did not exceed 700
killed and 1000 wounded ; while the Iri.sh, in their disastrous
flight, lost about 7000 men, besides the whole material of
the army. This defeat rendered tho adherents of James in
Ireland incapable of farther efforts, and was speedily fol-
lowed by the complete submission of the country.
AGINCOURT, or Azincourt, a French village, in tho
department of Pas de Calais, situated in 50'' 35' N. lat.,
2° 10' E. long., famous on account of the victory obtained
there by Henry V. of England over the French. Follow-
ing the example of several of his predecessors, the young
king crossed over to France in the third year of his reign
on a military expedition. Having landed at the mouth of
the Seine, he took and sacked Harfleur after a siege of
thirty-sis days, but the army was so much reduced in
strength, especially by disea.se, that some of Henry's ad-
visers counselled a return home without following up the
advantage. The proud spirit of the young king, however,
would not submit to this, and he resolved on a march
through the country to what was then the English forti-
fied town of Calais, though he knew that a force vastly
superior to his own was in the field to oppose him. On
the morning of Friday, the 25th of October, 1415 A.D.,
St Crispin's day, the English and French armies were
ranged in order of battle, each in three lines, with bodies
of cavalry on both wings. The Constable d'Albert, who
sonmmnded tho French army, fell into the snare that was
laid for hun, by drawing up his army in a narrow plain
betwccQ two woods. This deprived him in a great mea-
sure of tho advantage he should have derived from tho
prodigious superiority of his numbers, by obhging him to
make his lines unnecessarily deep, and to crowd his troojis,
particularly his cavalry, bo close together that they could
hardly move or use their arms. The numbers of tho
French are differently estimated at from 50,000 to 150,000
men, but tho latter number is a gross exaggeration. The
first line was commanded by the Constable d'Albert, the
dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and many other nobles ;
the dukes of Alenfon, Brabant, and Barro conducted the
second lino ; and the carls of Marie, Damartine, Faucon-
berg, (tc, were at the head of the third line. The king of
England placed 200 of his best archers in ambu:;h in a
low meadow on the flank of the first' line of the French.
His own first lino consisted wholly of archers,. each of
whom, besides his bow and arrows, had a battle-axe, a
Bword, and a stake pointed with iron at both ends, which ho
fixed before him in the ground, the point inclining outwards,
to protect him from cavalry. This was a new invention,
and had a happy effect. That he might not bo encum-
bered, Henry dismissed all his i)risoner8 on their word
of honour to surrender themselves at Calais if he obtained
the victory, and lodged all his baggage near tho village of
Maisoncelles, in his rear, under a slender guard. The
main body of the English army, consisting of men-at-arms,
was cominiiiided by Henry in person ; the vanguard, com-
mitted to Edward Duke of York at his particular request,
was posted as a wing to the right ; and tho rearguard,
commanded by Lord Camois, iis a wing on the left. The
archers were placed between the wings, in the form of a
wedge. Tho lines being formed, tho king, in shining
armour, mounted on a fine white horse, rode along them,
and addressed each corps with a cheerful countenance and
in encouraging language. To inflame their resentment
against their enemies, he spoke of the cruelty practised by
tho French against their prisoners ; and to rouse their love
of honour, he declared that every soldier in the army who
behaved well should thenceforth be doomed a gentleman, and
entitled to bear coat armour. The two armies, drawn up
in this manner, stood a considerable time gazing at ono
another in silence. But the English king, dreading that
the French woidd discover the danger of their situation
and decUne a battle, commanded the charge to be sounded,
about ten o'clock itf the forenoon. At that instant the
first line of tho English kneeled down and ki.ssed the
ground ; and then starting up, discharged a flight of
arrows, which did great execution among the crowded
ranks of the French. Immediately after, upon a signal
being given, tho archers in ambush arose, and, discharg-
ing their arrows on the flank of the French, line, threw it
into some disorder. The battle now became general, and
raged with great fury. Tho English archers, having
expended all their arrows, threw away their bnw.s, and
rushing forward, made dreadful havoc with their swords
and battle-axes. Tho first line of the enemy was by thcscf
means defeated, its leaders being cither killed or taken
prisoners. The second line, commanded by the Duke
d'Alen9on (who had made a vow either to kill or take the
king of England, or to perish in the attempt), now ad-
vanced, and was met by the second Uno of the English,
led by the king. The duke forced hia way to the king,
and assaulted him with great fury ; but Henry brought him.
to the ground, where he was instantly despatched by the
surrounding soldiers, receiving innumerable wounds. Dis-
couraged by this disaster, the second line made no more
resistance, and the third fled without striking a blow ;
yielding a complete and glorious victory to the EngUsh,
after a violent struggle of three hours' duration. In the
A G I — A G N
283
circumstances, the victory could not be followed up. Henry
and his army returned at once by Calais to England, and
entered Londrin with a pageant of unprecedented splendour.
The number slain in the battle is variously stated. The
loss to the conquerors is generaDy reckoned at 1600 men,
and the French are said to have left 10,000 slain on the
field, including the constable, three dukes, five counts, and
ninety barons. (See the Histories of Britain ; and Battle
of Agincourt, by Sir Harris Nicolas.)
AGIO (Ital. aggio, exchange, discount), a term used in
commerce to denote the difference between the real and
the nominal value of money. In some states the coinage
is so debased, owing to the wear of circulation, that the
real is greatly reduced below the nominal value. Where
this reduction amounts, e.g., to 5 per cent., if 100 sove-
reigns were offered as payment of a debt in England while
such sovereigns were current there at their nominal value,
they would he received as just payment ; but if they were
offered as payment of the same amount of debt in a foreign
state, they would be received only at their intrinsic value
of X95, the additiorfal i£5 constituting the agio. Where
the state keeps its coinage up to a standard value, no agio
is required. The same principle is applied to the paper
currency of a country when reduced below the bullion
value which it professes to represent. According as there
is more demand for gold or for paper money for the pur-
poses of commerce, it often becomes Necessary, in order to
procure the one of the higher current value, to pay a
premium for it, which is called the agio. In countries
where silver coinage is the legal tender, agio is sometimes
allowed for payment in the more convenient form of gold.
AQIS. Four kings of this name reigned at different
l-eriods in Sparta. The first of the name was the son of
Eurysthenes, and is supposed to have reigned about 1032
B.C. The designation of Helots is said to have had its rise
in his time, from the unsuccessful revolt of the inhabitants
of Helos, and their final enthralment by the Spartans.
Agis II. succeeded his father Archidamus, and reigned
from 427 to 399 B.o. He distinguished himself during
the Peloponnesian war as an able and successful general,
and headed the Spartans at the great and decisive battle
of Mantinea.
Asia III. succeeded his father Archidamus III., 338 B.C.
He took an active part in the league of the Grecian states
against Alexander the Great, and at the head of their forces
defeated a Macedonian army under Corragus. He was
slain, about 331 B.C., in a battle with Antipater, under the
walls of Megalopolis.
Aoia IV., son of Eudamidas II., and lineally descended
from Agesilaus IL, succeeded his father 2-14 B.C., and
reigned four years. He was more distingxijshed for the
social reforms he attempted to introduce at Sparta than
for his success as a generaL The degenerate state of the
Spartan commonwealth led him to attempt a reformation
by restoring the institutions of Lycurgus, and, in the spirit
of a true reformer, ho set the example in his own person
and household. His excellent intentions were seconded
by all the younger and poorer portion of the community ;
but the rich and luxurious were vehemently opposed to
measures which threatened to interfere so seriously with
their influence and pleasures. His colleague, Leonidas,
headed the opposition, and busily propagated the suspicion
that Agis aspired to tyranny, by oblitcratingj the distinc-
tions of society and increasing the power of the multi-
tude. Agis was supported by the influence of his uncle
Agcsilaiis, who, being deeply in debt, was highly favour-
able to the proposed changes. Lysander and Mandroc-
lides, two of the ephon, were also strenuous promoters of
the reform. Wlien the time came for Agia to propose in
the senate a general discharge of debts and a new division
of lands, the measure was lost by a minority of one. The
triumph of Leonidas, however, was short. Being accused
by Lysander of having violated the laws, he took refuge in
the temple of Minerva, and refusing to appear in his own
defence, was degraded from his dignity and banished to
Tegaea. His son-in-law, Cleombrotus, was elected in his
stead. The next election of ephori proved unfavourable to
the party of Agis. Lysander and Mandroclides were tried
for innovation, but succeeded in persuading the two kings
to eject the new magistrates from oflSce, which was effected
in the midst of much tumult. The reformation might
now have been established but for the intrigues of Agesi-
laus, whose selfish schemes counteracted the good inten-
tions of the two kings. At this time the Achaeans sent
to Sparta for assistance in the war with the .(Etolians,
which was granted. Agis received the command of the
troops, and though he gained no advantage over the cau-
tious Aratus, the Achfean general, he conducted the
campaign with considerable credit from the good discipline
he maintained in his army. On his return he found that
the misconduct of Argesilaus had resulted in a revolution
and the recall of Leonidas. He took refuge in the temple
of Minerva, Cleombrotus in that of Neptune. Leonidas
contented himself with banishing his son-in-law, but re-
solved on the ruin of Agis. The unfortunate king was
accordingly seized and cast into prison, where, after a
mock trial, he was sentenced to be strangled. His mother
and grandmother in vain entreated to gain him a public
hearing : they were insidiously permitted to visit him in
prison, where they shared his fate.
AGISTMENT (from the old French gesir or gir, to lie ;
see Edin. Rev., vol. cxxviii. p. 79), the profit arising from
taking in cattle to lie and pasture in one's lands, apphed
more particvilarly, in the first instance, to the proceeds of
pasturage in the king's forests. The tithe of agistment,
or " tithe of cattle and other produce of grass lands," was
formally abolished by the Act of Union, on a motion sub-
mitted with a view to defeat that measure. (See Edin.
Rev., voL xxxiv. p. 73.)
AGNANO, Lago d', a small circular lake near Naples,
about two miles in circumference, and evidently situated
in the crater of an extinct volcano. On its banks are the
slufe, or natural vapour-baths of San Germane, beneficial
in cases of rheumatic disease; and on its opposite shore is
the famous Grotta del Cane, from the floor of which car-
bonic acid is continually evolved, rising to a height of
about 18 inches, in such quantity as to kill dogs that
enter it, while a man, on account of his erect posture,
wholly escapes the effects of the gas. (See Spallanzani's
Travels.) The grotto is a small artificial excavation, 12
feet long by 4 or 5 wide and 6 feet high, seemingly made
for obtaining puzzolano, or earthy volcanic tufa.
AGNATES [Agiiati), in Roman Law, are persons related
through males ordy, as opposed to cognates. Relationship
by agnation was founded on the idea of- ths family held
together by the patria potestas; cognalio involves simply
the modem idea of kindred.
AGNESI, Maria Gaetana, an Italian lady pre-
eminently distinguished for her scientific attainments, was
born at Milan on the 16th of May 1718, her father being
professor of mathematics in the university of Bologna.
When only nine years old, she had such command of
Latin as to be able to publish an elaborate address in that
language, maintaining that the pursuit of liberal studies
was not improper for her sex. By her thirteenth year
she had acquired Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, Ger-
man, and other languages. She was in consequence gene-
rally known as " the Walking Polyglot." Two years later
her father began to assemble in his house at stated in-
tervals a circle of the most learned men in Rologna. before
284
A G N — A G O
^bom she read and maintained a series of theses on the
most abstruse philosophical quostionB. President De
Brosses has given an interesting account of one of those
meetings, at which he was present, in his Lettret »ur
Vltalie (torn, i p. 243); and a permanent record of
Agnesi's share in them has been preserved in the Propoai-
tioncs Philmophicce, ■which her father caused to bo published
in 1738. These displays, being probably not altogether
congenial to Maria, who was of a retiring disposition,
ceased in her twentieth year, and it is even said that
she had at that ago a strong desire to enter a convent.
Though the wish was not gratified, she lived from that time
in a retirement almost conventual, avoiding all society, and
devoting herself entirely to the study of mathematics.
The most valuable result of her labours was the Instituzioni
Analitiche ad Ueo delta Giovenlu Ilaliana, which was pub-
lished at Milan in 1748. The first volume treats of the
analysis of finite quantities, and the second of the analysis
of infinitesimals. A French translation of the second
volume, by D'Antolmy, with additions by Bossut, appeared
at Paris in 1775; and an English translation of the whole
work by Colson, the Luca.sian professor of mathematics at
Cambridge, was published after his death at the expense
of Baron Maseres. The great merit of the work was
universally recognised at the time of its publication ; and
though in the long interval that elapsed before the English
translation appeared the methods of analysis had been
greatly improved, it was recognised by a writer in the
£dinhurgh Review (1803) as still the best introduction to
the works of Euler and other mathematicians of the con-
tinent. Madame Agnesi also wrote a commentary on the
Cjnk Sections of the Marquis de rH6pital, which, though
highly praised by those who saw it in manuscript, was
never published. In 1730, on the illness of her father,
she was appointed by Pope Benedict XIV. to occupy the
chair of mathematics and natural philosophy at Bologna.
After the death of her father, in 1752, she carried out a
long-cherished purpose by giving herself to the study of
theology, and especially of the fathers. Another purpose,
which seems also to have been long cherished, was now
also fulfilled. After holding for some years the office of
directress of the Hospice TrivuUio for Blue Nuns at Milan,
she herself joined the sisterhood, and in this austere order
ended her daj-s (1799).
AGNESI, MARrA Teresa, sister of the above (died
1780), was well known as a musician, having composed a
number of cantatas, besides three operas — Sophonisbe, Giro
in Armenia, and Nitocri.
AGNOETyE (from d-yvocM, to be ignorant of), in Church
Uislory, a sect of ancient heretics who maintained that
Christ's human nature did not become omniscient by its
union with His divinity. Its founder was Themistius, a
deacon of the Monophysites in Alexandria in the 6th cen-
tury. The sect was anathematised by Gregory the Great.
AGNOLO, Baccio d', wood-carver, sculptor, and archi-
tect, was born at Florence in 1460. The first was his
original calling, and he attained considerable distinction in
it before he turned his attention to architecture, which he
went to Rome to study in 1530. He still carried on
wood-carving, and his studio was the resort of the most
celebrated artists of the day — Michael Angelo, Sanso-iius,
the brothers Sangallo, and others. On his return to
Florence he devoted himself chiefly to architecture, and
planned many of the fipest palaces and villas of that city,
such as the Villa Borghese and the Palais Bartolini The
latter was the first dwelling-house which had-what had
previously been confined to churches — frontispieces of
columns to the doors and windows. For introducing this
fashion Agnolo incurred the ridicule of the Florentines;
but it nevertheless established itself finr.l^- AnotJ^er
much -admired work of this srchitcct is the camparils
or bell-tower of the church Di Sanio SpirUo in Florence.
He was also engaged to complete tha drum of the cupohi
in the metropolitan church Di Santa Maria delFiore; but
Michael Angelo found fault with his plana, and the work
remains unexecuted to this day. He .died in 1543, leaving
three sons, archite ts, one of whom, Giuliano, completed
bis father's unfinished works.
AGNONE, a town of South Italy, at the foot of Monta
Capraro, 20 miles N.W. of Campobasso. It Jias 10,230 in-
habitants, chiefly employed in the manufacture of copper
wares, for the excellence of which it \a celebrated.
AGNUS DEI, the figure of a lamb bearing a cross,
symbolical of the Saviour as the "Lamb of God." The
device occurs in mediseval sculptures, but the name is
especially given in the Church of Rome to a small cake
made of the wax of the Easier candles, and impressed
with this figure. Since the 9th century it has been custo-
mary for the popes to bless these cakes, and distribute
them, on the Sunday after Easter, among the faithful, by
whom they are highly prized as having the power to avert
evil In modem times the distribution has been limited
to persons of distinction, and is made by the pope on bis
accession, and every seven years thereafter.
AoNCs Dei is also the popular name for the anthem
beginning with these words, which is said to have been
introduced into the missal by Pope Sergiua L (687-701).
Based upon John L 29, the Latin form is Agnus Dei, qui
tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis. In the celebration "^
the mass it is repeated three times before the communion,
and it is also appended to many of the litanies.
AGOBARD, a Frank, bom in 779, became coadjutor to
Leidrad, archbishop of Lyons, in 813, and on the death of
the latter succeeded him in th^see (816). He was one of
the chief supporters of Lothaire and Pepin in their con-
spiracy against their father, Louis le Debonnaire, and was
in consequence deposed by the council of Thionville (835).
On making an apology for his conduct, and beccming
reconciled to the emperor, he was reinstated in 837.
Agobard's works, which were edited by Balu^e in 1665
(2 vols. 8vo), show him to have been a man of clear
intellect, strongly opposed to the superstitious notions of
the time. He wrote against image-worship, the belief in
witchcraft, the ascription of tempests to the influence of
sorcerers, and trial by the ordeal of fire and water. In
the adoptionist controversy Agobard took a prominent part
on the orthodox side. He died at Saintonge in 840.
AGONALIA, in Roman Antiquity, festivals celebrated
on the 9th January, 21st May, and 11th December in each
year, in honour of Janus, whom the Romans invoked before
undertaking any affair of importance. Ovid, in his Fasti,
L 319-332, mentions various etymologies of the word.
AGONIC LINES (from d privative, and ywvia, an
angle), the imaginary lines on the earth's surface where
the magnetic needle indicates no declination or deviation
from the terrestrial meridian — that is, points to the true
north and south. There are two great primary agonic
lines, varying from time to time, the courses of which for
the epochs 1787 (from Hansteen's Magnetismus der Erde)
and 1840 (by General Sir E. Sabine) •are figured in Keith
Johnston's Physical Atlas.
AGONOTHETA, or Agonothetes (oyui' and rWrjfu),
in Grecian Antiquity, was the president or superintendent
of the sacred games. At first the person who instituted
the games and defrayed the expenses was the Agonothetes ;
but in the great public games, such as the Olympic, Pythian,
(tc, these presidents were the representatives of different
states, or were chosen from the people in whose country
the games were celebrated. They received the several
tit'ss of altrcjJLvqrai^ PpaJ3€Vt.a(y aywydp^aif dydiVcSuiCUf
A G O — A G R
285
idXaSirai. They were also called pa/JSoCp^oi or pa/SSok-o'/ioi,
from the rod or sceptre emblematic of their authority.
AGORA (aydpa, to congregate), the place used among
the ancient Greeks as a public market, and corresponding in
general with the Roman forum. From its convenience as
a meeting-place, it became in most of the cities of Greece
the general resort for social and political purposes. In
Thessaly, however, the market-place was kept apart from
"the field of freedom," where the commons met; and at
Sparta a similar provision was made by the institutions of
Lycurgus, that nothing might distract the attention of 'the
auditors. At Athens, with the increase of commerce and
political interest, it was found advisable to call public
meetings at the Pnyx or the temple of Bacchus; but, the
important assemblies there, such as meetings for ostracism,
were held in the agora. In the best days of Greece the
agora was the place where nearly all public traffic was con-
ducted. To frequent it, therefore, was equivalent to being
actively engaged in business; and "he has forsaken the
agora," indicated that a man was a suspicious character.
The agora was most frequented in the forenoon, and then
only by men. Slaves did the greater part of the purchasing,
though even the noblest citizens of Athens did not scruple
to buy and sell there. The name ayopd was also given
(and this is perhaps the primary use of the word) to the
assemblies of the people in the Grecian states. These
assemblies were convened by proclamation by order of the
sovereign power, a herald inviting all concerned to the agora.
The right of speech and of vote in these assemblies appears
to have been restricted to the nobles, all that was allowed
to the populace being the indication of their sentiments
on the topics brought before them by signs of applause or
disapproval At Athens the old agora lay to the west of
the citadel. It was adorned with trees planted by Gimon
the conqueror of the Persians; and around it numerous
public buildings were erected, such as the senate hall and
the law courts. The new agora lay to the north of the
Acropolis, in the Eretrian quarter. Pausanias is the great
architectural authority on the agorje of Megalopolis, Corinth,
Elia, Messina, Sparta, &c. Palladius and Vitruvius also
give details. The remains of different agorae are described
m the works of Texier, Newton, Earth, and other travellers.
AGORANOMOI, magistrates in the republics of Greece,
whose position and duties v/ere similar to those of the
sediles of Rome. In Athens there were ten, chosen annu-
ally by lot, five of whom took charge of the city, and five
of the harbour. The former saw to the maintenance of
order and decency in the markets, took cognisance of the
purity of the articles exposed for sale and of all weights
and measures, and collected the dues; the latter received
the harbour dues and enforced the shipping regulations.
AGORDO, a town in North Italy, 12 miles N.W. of
Belluno. The vaUey of Imperina, in its vicinity, contains
the richest copper mines in Italy. Population, 3000.
AGOSTA, or Auousta, a city of Sicily, li miles N. of
Syracuse, and in the province of that name. It is built on
a peninsula, and is united to the mainland by a narrow
causeway. By some writers it is supposed to occupy the
site of ancient Mayara Hyhlwa. The modern city, which
was founded by the emperor Frederick 11. in 1229-33, suf-
fered severely during the wars of succeeding centuries, and
was several times sacked. It had, however, attained consider-
able opulence when, in 1693, it was overthrown by an earth-
quake, the effects of which were aggravated by the explosion
of the powder magazine of the citadel. One-third of the
inhabitants perished in this disaster. When the city was
rebuilt, the streets were laid out in parallel lines, and the
houses were constructed with low roofs, so as to mitigate the
results of any recurrence of the calamity. Agosta is forti-
fied towards both sea and land; and the harbour, though
rather difficult of access, is commodious and well sheltered.
The chief trade of the town is in salt; and the other exports
include wine, cheese, oO, honey, and sardines. Near Agosta
the Dutch were defeated by the French in a naval engage-
ment in 1676, and their famous admiral, De Ruyter, was
mortally wounded. Population (1865), 9735.
AGOSTINI, Leonardo, an eminent antiquary of the
17th century, born at Siena. After being employed foi
some time by Cardinal Barberini to collect works of art for
the Barberini palace, he was appointed by Pope Alexander
VII. superintendent of antiquities in the Roman states.
He issued a new edition of Paruta's Sicilian iUdals, with
engravings of 400 additional specimens; but a promised
volume of letterpress explanation never appeared. In con-
junction with Bellori he also published a work on antique
sculptured gems, which was translated into Latin by Gro-
novius (Amsterdam, 1685).
AGOSTINO and AGNOLO (or Angelo) DA SJENA,
two brothers, architects and sculptors, who flourished in the
first half of the 14th century. Delia Valle and other com-
mentators deny that they were brothers. They certainly
studied together under Giovanni Pisano, and in 1317 were
jointly appointed architects of their native town, for which
they designed the Porta Romana, the church and convent
of St Francis, and other buildings. On the recommenda-
tion of the celebrated Giotto, who styled them the best
sculptors of the time, they were chosen to execute the tomb
of Guido, bishop bf Arezzo, which that artist had designed.
It was esteemed one of the finest artistic works of the 1 4th
century, but unfortunately was destroyed by the French
under the Duke of Anjou.
AGOSTINO, Paolo, an enuneni; Italian musician, bort
at Valerano in 1593. He studied under Nanini, and suc-
ceeded Ugolini as conductor of the Pope's orchestra in St
Peter's. His musical compositions are numerous and of
great merit, an Agnus Dei for eight voices being specially
admired. He died in 1629.
AGOUTI, a genus of mammals (the Dasyprocta) found
in South America and in some of the West Indian islands,
belonging to the same family as the guinea-pig, viz., that
of Cavidce in the order Eodentia. The largest and com-
monest species is the D. Aguti, somewhat resembling a
rabbit, but about the size of a hare, whence it Is sometimes
called the rabbit or hare of South America The feet have
large and strong claws, but the animal does not burrow;
the hind legs are very long, and when eating it squats on
them, feeding itself with its fore-paws; and the taO is,
except in one species, a very short naked stump. The
agoutis are gregarious, live chiefly in woods, and feed on
vegetables exclusively, especially on roots and nuts. They
commit great havoc in sugar plantations by gnawing the
roots of the canes, and in sugar-growing localities are there-
fore destroyed as vermin. The flesh, which is tender and
well-flavoured, is a common article of diet in Guiana and
Brazil. When the Antilles and Bahamas were discovered
they are said to ha'-e been overrun with these animals,
which were the largest quadrupeds then found in the islands.
AGRA, a division, district, and city of British India'
under tlie jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the
North-Western Provinces. The Agra Division comprises
the six districts of Agra, EtAwah, Mainpurf, Farraklidbiid,
Etah, and Mathuri. It is bounded on the N. by the
Aligarh district; on the W. by the Bhartpur, Dholpur,
and Gwalior states; on the S. by the Jalaun and Cawn-
pur districts; and on the E. by the Ganges. Agra dii-ision
contains, according to the census of 1872, a [jopulation of
5,038,136 Bonis; of whom 4,607,946 are Hindus. 427.834-
Mahometans, and 2356 Christians and others.
Agra District lies between 26° 43' 45'' and 27" 24'
15" N. lat., and between 77° 28' and 78" 53' E. long.
286
A G K A
It is bounded on the N. by tho district of ^^athur.1; on
the£. by tho Mainpud and Et&wah districts; on the K. by
the Gwalior territory and the Dholpur state; and on tho W.
by tho Bhartpur territory. Its area in 1872 was returned
at 1873 square miles, and its population at 1,094,184
souls. The general appearance of tho district is that com-
mon to tho Doab, a level plain intersected by watercourses
(nilis) and ravines. The only hills are the sandstone eleva-
tions in tho west and south-west of the district. The prin-
cipal rivers are the Jamni, Chambal, Uttangan, and Khari.
The Jamni intersects the district, cutting off tho sub-
divisions of Itmadpur and FirozAbdd ; and a branch of tho
Allgarh division of the Ganges Canal passes through its
northern parts. Tho general elevation of the district is
estimated at from 650 to 700 feet above the level of the
sea. Tho soil is sandy; many of the wclb are brackish,
and tho local water supply is scanty. Tho failure of tho
periodical rains during the monsoon suffices to produce
great scarcity, sometimes reaching the famine point Only
five towns are returned by tho census as containing up-
wards of nOOO inhabitants, viz., Agra city .(the capital of
the district), population 149,008; Fathipur Sikrf, tho site
of Akbar's famous mosque and palace, 6878; Firozdbdd,
14,255; Pin.ih4t, 6571; and Saimri, 5704. There arc
three municipalities, viz., Agra city, FirozAbiid, and Fathi-
pur Sikri. These muncipalities derive their local revenue
from octroi and from property within the municipal limits.
Tho total municipal income and its incidence per head of
the population are as follows :— Agra city, municipal income,
£15,441, incidence per head, 23. Ojd. ; FirozAbid, £724 —
Is. per head; Fathipur Sikri, £366 — Is. per head. The
land revenue of tho whole district was, stated in 1871 at
£162,882, and the gross revenue at £660,626. A scheme
of rural instruction by means of indigenous schools was
introduced in 1848. In 1871-72 there were 431 schools'
in the district, attended by 10,823 pupils, of whom 8820
were Hindus, 1293 Mahometans, and 710 of other deno-
minations. The educational establishments within the city
%vill bo described below. The police force consisted of
1358 regular poUco in 1871, equal to one man to every
1'37 square miles of area, or one to every 805 inhabitants;
and a village watch or rural constabulary of 1921 men,
being one man to every 0 97 square miles of area, or one
to every 570 inh.-\bitants. The chief crimes of the district,
in common with tho rest of the Doab, are burglary and theft.
Agra City, situated on the banks of the JamnA river,
in 27° 10' N. lat, and 78° 6' E. long., is the. head-quarters
of the division and capital of the district. Formerly it was
tho provincial capital also, but since the mutiny the seat
of government has been removed from Agra to AIlahAbAd.
The city, which is about 4 miles in length by 3 in breadth,
sweeps along the banks of the river in a semicircle. The
principal thoroughfares are a fine broad street intersecting
the town from north to south ; and the Strand, which runs
along tho banks of the river for a distance of 2 miles.
This road measures 80 feet in width, and is said to have
been constructed by the destitute poor during tho famine
of 1838. In 1846 the population of tho city was esti-
mated at 66,000; In 1872 it was ascertained to be 149,000.
The conservancy and improvement of tho town are in the
hands of a municipal conimittee, which derives its funds
principally from octroi duties. In 1871-72, the municipal
income was returned as follows: — Octroi duties, £13,587;
miscellaneous receipts, such as rent from land belonging to
the municipality, &c., £1854 — total, £15,441. The details
of municipal expenditure were as follow: — Establishment
and cost of coUection, £1667, 12s.; police, £4041, 128.;
conservancy, £1749, 128.; lighting, £672, 14s.; watering,
£255,108.; original work3,£3561, 16s.; repairs,£1429,2s.;
education, £120; Taccination, £36, 6s.; dispensary, £360;
fharitics, £240; grants to cantonments, museum, &c.,
£1465, 28. — total, £16,599, 6s. The principal educational
establishment in Agra is the Government College, a hand-
Bomo building, situated in the civil lines a short distance
from tho town. It was established in 1820; in 1872 it
contained 386 pupils. The other chief schools are the St
John's College, established by the Church Missionarj
Society in 1854; tho Victoria College, established in 1862;
and St Peter's Catholic College. These three colleges in
1872 had 643 pupils on their roll."!. There is also a medical
college, founded in 1853. The total number of students
admitted into it during the sixteen years from 1855 to
1870 inclusive, was 1168, of whom 235 passed tho pro-
scribed examination and received ap[>ointmeuts in the
government medical scrvico. The Agra fort has a very
imposing appearance, but is of no great strength. It occu-
pies a large space of ground on tho banks of the river,
enclosed by high walls and towers of red stone. Tho fortress
was constructed by the Emperor Akbar in the latter part
of the ICth century, and exceeds a mile in circuit. In
1803 the place was held by the MarhattAs; but being
invested byXord Lake's army, it surrendered after a day's
bombardment. During the mutiny of 1857 it formed a
place of refuge for the European and Christian community
of Agra, and was threatened by the insurgent sepoys. The
buildings of most note within the walls of the fort are the
palace and hall of audience of ShAh JahAn, and the Mot(
Masjid, or " Pearl Mosque."
"In the centre of tlie palace," says Mr Fergnsson in liia JTistory
of Architecture, vol. ii., pp. 699-700, " is a ereat court 600 feet by
370, surrounded by arcatiefl, and approachea at the oppoait« enda
through a succession of beautiful coorta opening into one another
by gateways of great magniiicence. On one side of this court ifl
the groat hall of the palace, the Dfwini-Khia, 208 feet by 76,
supported by three ranges of arcades of exquisite beauty. It ia open
on three sides, and with a niche for the throne at the back. Thia
hall is flow used as an arsenal. Behind it are two amallcr courts,
the one containing the DiwAni-Am or hall of private audience,
the other the harem. Tde hall in the former ia one of the moat
elegant of Shah JahAn's bnildinga, being whollv of white morbie
inlaid with precious stone-s, and the design of the whole being in
the best style of his reign."
The Motf Maajid or Pearl Mosque is the most elegant
mosquo of Indian-Mahometan architecture. Mr Fergus-
eon describes it as follows : —
" Its dimensions are considerable, being externally 235 feet east
and west, by 190 feet north and south, and the courtyard 155 feet
square. The mass is also considerable, as the whole la raised on a
terrace of artificial construction, by the aid of which it stands well
out from the Burrounding buildings of the fort. Its chief beauty
consists in its courtyard, which is wholly of white marble from the
pavement to the summit of ita domes. In design it somewhat
res':mbles the great Dehli mosque, except that the minarets are
omitted, and the aide gateways are only recesses. The western part,
or mosquo properly so called, is of white marble inside and out ;
and, except an inscription from ths EurAn inlaid n'ith black marble
as a frieze, has no ornament whatever beyond the lines of its own
graceful architecture."
Agra, however, is even more famous lor the TAj-jIahal,
a splendid mausoleum built by the Emperor ShAh JahAn
for the remains of his favourite wife, MumtAzA Mahal, and
where he himself is also buried. The building is of white
marble, with four tall minarets of the same material, one
at each comer. The whole rises from an elevated marble
teijace. The following account is extracted from Mr
Fergusson's EUtory of Architectvre, pp. 692-694: —
"The enclosure, including the gardens and outer court, ia a
parallelogram of 1860 feet by more than 1000 feet. The outer court,
surrounded by arcades and adorned by four gatewaya, forma an
oblong, occupying in length the whole breadth of the inclosure, by
about 450 feet in depth. The principal gateway, measuring 110
feet by HO, leads from the court to the gardens, which, with thei/
marble canals and fountains and cypress troea, ire elmorL C3 beauti-
ful as the tomb itself. The tomb ptaiids on a raissd plutform 18
feet hi^h, faced with white marble, and is exactly 818 leet sguAre.
A G R — A G R
287
At each corner of this terrace stands a minaret 1 33 feet in height,
end of the moat exquisite proportions — more beautiful, perhaps,
than any other in India. In the centre of the marble platform
stands the mausoleum, a square of 186 feet, with the comers cut oiT
to the extent of 33 feet 9 inches. The centre of this is occupied by
the principal dome, 58 feet in diameter and 80 feet in height, under
which is an inclosure formed by a screen of trellis-work of white
marble, a ch^f-d (euvtc of elegance in Indian art. Within this stand
the two tombs. These, however, as is usual in Indian sepulchres,
are not the true tombs ; the bodies rest in a vault level with the
surface of the ground, beneath plainer tombstones placed exactly
underneath those in the hall above. In each an^le of the building
is a smaller doine of two storeys in height, /6 feet 8 inches in
diameter, and connected by various passages and halls. The light
to the central apartment is admitted only through double screens of
white marble trellis-work of the most exquisite design, one on the
outer and one on the inner face of tlie walls. In our climate this
would produce nearly complete darkness ; but in India, and in a
building wholly composed of white marble, this was required to
temper the glare, which otherwise would have been intolerable. As
it is, no words can express the chastened beauty of that central
chamber, seen in the soft gloom of the subdued light which reaches
it through the distant and half-closed openings that surround it.
When used as a pleasure palace, it must have been the coolest and
the loveliest of garden retreats ; and now that it is sacred to the
dead, it is the most graceful and most impressive of the sepulchres
of the world. This building is an early example of that system of
inlaying with precious stones which became the great characteristic
of the style of the Mughuls after the death of Akbar. All the span-
drils of the Taj, all the angles and more important architectural
details, are heightened by being inlaid with precious stones, such
8.T agates, bloodstones, jaspers, and the like. These are combined
in wreaths, scrolls, and frets, as exquisite in design as they are
beautiful in colour; and, relieved by the pure white marble in
which they are inlaid, they form the most beautiful and precious style
of ornament ever adopted in arcliitecture. It is lavishly bestowed on
the tombs themselves and the screens that surround them, but rjore
sparingly introduced on the mosque that forms one wing of the Taj,
and on the fountains and surrounding buildings. The judgment, in-
deed, with which this style of ornament is apportioned to the various
parts ia almost as remarkable as the omanient itself, and conveys a
nigh idea of the taste and skill of the Indian architects of this age."
Tavernier, in his Travels (voL iiL, p. 94), mentions that
20,000 workmen were incessantly employed on this work
during a period of twenty-two years. The tomb of the
Emperor Akbar is contained in a splendid maasoleum at
SikandrA, a suburb of Agra city.
AGRAM, or Zagrab, the capital of the Austnan pro-
vince of Croatia, is finely situated on a hill near the banks
of the Save, in 45° 49' N. lat. and 16° 1' E. long., 160
miles south of Vienna. It ia the seat of the governor of
Slavoma and Croatia, of a bishop, of the courts of justice,
and of the meetings of the provincial diet. Agram is
divided into three parts, called the upper and lower towns,
and the town of the bishop. It has a lyceum, Hbrary,
museum, gymnasium, an ancient cathedral, and a large
library. Some silk and porcelain are manufactured, and a
brisk trade is carried on in grain, potash, tobacco, and
honey. Popuktion in 1869, 19,857.
AGRAKIAN LAWS {Legez Agrarice), when used in the
most extended signification of the term, are laws for the
distribution and regulation of property in land. The his-
tory of these enactments is not only important as explana-
tory of the constitution of the ancient republics, but is
rendered highly interesting by the conflicting opinions which
have been entertained respecting their object and operation.
It seems to have been a notion generally entertained in the
ancient world that every citizen of a country should be a
landholder ; and that the territory of a state, so far as it
was not left uninclosed or reserved for public purposes,
should be divided in equal portions among the citizens.
Such a distribution of public land seems to have been acted
upon as a recognised principle from the earliest period to
which existing historical records extend. Hence we find
the Almighty giving express instructions to Moses as to the
manner in which the land of Canaan was to be portioned
out among the Hebrews (Num. xxxiii 54), and naming the
persons to whom the division was to be entrusted (Num. I
xsxiv. 16-18). A division of the land was accordingly
made, and the portion assigned to each man became his
inalienable property, and descended in perpetuity to "his
heirs and successors. By the law of Jubilee, all lands were
restored free of encumbrances on the recurrence of the
" year of release ;" so that, though a man's estate might, in
the interval, have been repeatedly sold or alienated, yet on
the return of the fiftieth year it reverted to the heirs of the
onginal possessor (Levit. xxv. 10). In the republics of
ancient Greece, and also in the Grecian colonies, a similar
principle of division of land prevaOed (Thuc. v. 4, Herod,
iv. 159). Lycurgus is represented by Plutarch [Lycur.)
as redividing the whole territory of Laconia into 39,000
parcels, of which 9000 were assigned in equal lots to as
many Spartan families, and 30,000, also in equal lots, to
their free subjects; and although this statement is not borne
out by any of the early Greek historians, and is even incon-
sistent with the assertion of Aristotle (Polit. ii. 4), yet it is
valuable as recognising the principle of the division of the
pubUo lands. (See Thirl wall's Hist, of Greece, chap, viii.,
and Grote's Ilist. of Greece, part iL chap, vi., with the
authorities there quoted.)
It was long a prevalent and undisputed opinion that tha
territories of the Hebrews, arui of the republics of ancient
Greece, were divided into equal portions, and that the
object of such a distribution was to maintain a state of
equality among all the members of the community. This,
however, does not appear to be consistent with the dis-
tinctions of rank which we find admitted in Scripture (Josh.
ix. 15; xxii. 14; 1 Sam. ix. 21, <kc., <tc.); and from a
remark of Thucydides (L 6), taken in connection with tha
statement of Aristotle (Polit. n. 9), it may be legitimately
inferred that property did not continue to be equally dis-
tributed at Lacedsemon. Distinctions of rank are clearly
recognised in the legislation of Solon. Aristotle, in tha
Second Book of his Politics (chap, vi., Ac), explains the
constitutions of several of the ancient republics, and endea-
vours to show how the population is to be accommodated
to this equal division of land; but it would be foreign to
our object to review his arguments. It may be sufficient
to remark that such an attempt to arrest the progress of
enterprise is altogether inconsistent with the spirit of Hberty
which gave life and energy to the ancient republics; and
that, though it might have been carried into effect under
the despotism of Persia or the predominant rule of the
kipgs of Macedonia, it was entirely at variance with the
freedom of opinion which prevailed in Greece, and the
stubborn resistance to control which animated the Romans
after the expulsion of the kings. But granting that such
a policy had been practicable, it would have been highly
inexpedient. The ignorant Hindu might remain satisfied
with the caste which nature had transmitted to him through
successive generations, because his progenitors had been
prevented from emerging from their obscurity; but the
citizens of Greece and Italy, being themselves constituent
members of the body politic, and not ignorant of the powei
thereby conferred on them, could not have been kept in
check by the same principle of fear. Such an attempt,
moreover, to prevent the acquisition of property would
have obstructed the advancement of the arts of civilised
life, would have extinguished those feelings of patriotism
which led the Greeks so often to hazard their lives in
defence of their country, and, by engendering discontent
and exciting internal commotions, would have made them
an easy, prey to their enemies.
The expression Agrarian Laws, however, is more com-
monly applied to the enactments among the Romans for
the management of the public domains (agerpuhlicm); and
to an account of these the remainder of our space must be
devoted. It is a singular fact that, while almost every other
288
AGRARIAN LAWS
subject connected with the Roman constitution had been
Buccessfully investigated and explained, the object and in-
tention of the agrarian laws wero entirely misunderstood
by scholars for many centuries after the revival of letters.
They were invariably represented as intended to prohibit
Roman citizens from holding property in land above a
certain fixed amount; and as authorising the division
among the poorer citizens of the estates of private indi-
viduals when these exceeded the prescribed limit; thus
legalising a system of plunder which would have been
subversive of all social order. No such doctrine had,
indeed, been admitted in any well-regulated state, ancient
or modem; nor did anj'thing analogous tu it appear in the
principles or practice of the Roman constitution ; yet the
expressions used by the ancient authors in reference to these
enactments, and the disturbances to which they invariably
gave rise, seemed to justify an unfavourable interpretation ;
and the opinion, when onco propounded, was uncondition-
ally received by successive generations of learned men^
notwithstanding the many embarrassments and contradic-
tions to which it led.
Romulus is represented as dividing his small territory
among the members of his infant community at the rate of
two jugera (each extending to two-thirds of an English
acre) a-piece, as inheritable property. The whole district,
however, was not thus assigned ; one portion was set apart
for the service of the gods and for the royal domains; and
another was reserved as common land for pasture. The
stock kept on the common land served to eke out a main-
tenance which tvrojugera could not otherwise have furnished
to a family, and an agistment was paid to the common-
wealth for the pasturage. It is probable that the same
principl') prevailed under the regal government, and that
successive adjustments of the territory were made. Such
a law existed among those of Servius Tullius. The equality
of property thus established seems to have been considered
as a fundamental principle of the Roman constitution ; and
the agrarian laws were regarded as the necessiry means of
wresting from the large proprietors the possessions which
they had illegally acquired. Machiavelli and Mon'.esquieu
both participate in this mistake, and are far from condemn-
ing the agrarian laws, even when taken in the common
meaning. The former alleges that the interest of every
republic requires that the state should be rich and the
citizens poor, and thus justifies the assumed spoliation;
while Montesquieu receives it as an historicJ fact that
Romulus adopted the principle of equality in his original
distribution of the territory of Rome as the future ground
of her strength, and that the tribunitian contests were but
attempts to restore the original constitution. Adam Smith
(Wealth of Nations, b. iv. chap. vii. part i.) assents to the
same interpretation, without, however, any expression of
approval
The correct interpretation of the agrarian laws must thus
be considered as of modem date. Amidst the violence of
the French Revolution a scheme for the equal division of
the national property was advocated, with great popular
favour, by some of the frantic leaders, who sought a saco-
tion for their extravagances in fSrecedents drawn from ths
ancient republics, and particularly from the agrarian laws
of the Romans. The subject was thus iave.sted with a new
interest, and engaged the attention of Professor Heyne of
Gottingen, who in 1793 (Opus. Acad. iv. 350-373) ad-
dressed to the members of his university a paper in which
he successfully combated the opinions which, up rill that
time, had been entertained respecting them, and showed
that their object had been entirely misunderstood. Other
^ters, as fleeren and Hegewisch, embraced and illustrated
his views ; but it was reserved for the acuteness and leam-
v>Z of Niebuhr fully to develop the theory which had been
suggested, and to demonstrate the fact " that the agrarian
laws of the Romans wero in no case intended to interfere
with or affect private property in land, but related exclu-
sively to the public domain." The theory of Niebuhr was
too startling to meet with universal approval. It his
accordingly been assailed by Rudorff, Bureau de la Malle
(Econ. J'olit. des I'omaino), Puchta, and others, who have
ingeniously and plausibly supported the opinions formerly
maintained ; but their arguments fail to produce conviction.
(Clots. Mus., vol. ii.) The language of Livy passim, when
referring to the agrarian laws, is ineiplicabhj unless the
interpretation of Niebuhr be adopted: —
" If," nays Dr Arnold, " vnongst Niebuhr's countless services to
Roman history, any single one may claim our gratitude beyond the
rest, it is his explanation of the true nature and character of the
agrarian laws. '1 wenty-four years have not yet elapsed since be first
published it, but it has already overthrown the deeply-rooted false
imprt'stiions which prevailed univefBally on the subject; and its
truth, like Kewton's discoveries ia natural science, is not now to bo
proved, but to be taken as the very corner-stone of aU our re-
searches into the internal state of the Koman people " {Hist, of
Row. voL ii.)
In almost all countries the legal property of the land has
been originally vested in the sovereign, whether wo are to
understand under that came a single chief, a particular
portion of the nation, or the people at large. In the same
manner, the property of all the land in a conquered country
was held to be transferred to the sovereign power in the
conquering state, and was assumed with more or less rigour
as circumstances seemed to require. From the earliest times
a portion of the Roman territory was thus regarded as the
property of the state, and the profits arising from it wero
applied to the public service. The public domain (ager
publieus) was at first small, but was gradually extended by
the right of conquest till it embraced a large portion of the
whole peninsula. In this process of extension the sub-
jugated communities were frequently mulcted of a propor-
tion of their lands, varying according to the alleged offence
or the resistance which they had offered to the arms of the
conquerors. Thus the Boii were deprived of one-half of
their territory ; the Hernici forfeited two-thirds ; and the
whole of the ageT Campanus, the richest district in Italy,
was taken from the inhabitants of Capua on the capture of
their city after its revolt to HannibaL
The lands thus acquired were disposed of in various ways.
A portion of them was frequently sold by auction to meet
the immediate necessities of the state, and was thus con-
veyed in perpetuity to the purchasers. The disposal of the
remainder depended on the nature and condition of the
land, and its position in reference to the bulk of the com-
munity- If in good condition and at no great distance
from the city, it was frequently assigned, in small allot-
ments of seven jugera (between i and 5 acres), to those of
the poorer citizens, whose services in war gave them a claim
upon the state ; while in hostile districts 'and on exposed
frontiers military colonies were planted, each colonist
receiving a fiied quantity of land. In both these cases
the land so assigned ceased to form part of the public
domain, and became the property of the recipients. In
some cases the land, after having been assumed as public
property, was allowed to remain in the hands of the former
owners, who became the tenants of the state for a fixed
period, and paid a certain rent to the Roman exchequer.
The preceding remarks refer only to arable or meadow
land, vineyards, or olive-gardens, which could be turned te
immediate advantage. It is obvious, however, that in a
country the greater part of which was acquired by conquest,
large districts must have been laid waste, the inhabitants
with their houses destroyed, and neither cultivators nor
the means of cultivation left. Arrangements of a differ-
ent description were therefore necessary for lands in this
A G R — A G R
289
position. Wide ranges of country, fit only for pasture, had
to be disposed of, and were available to those alone who were
able to stock them with flocks and herds, and to provide
slaves to attend to and protect their property. Hence it
wad usual for the state to invite persona possessed of the
necessary means to enter upon the occupation of such lands
on advantageous terms; an invitation with which the
patricians, as being the wealthy class, could alone comply.
The ordinary conditions were, that after the land was again
brought into cultivation, the occupants should pay as rent
one-tenth of the produce of the corn-lands, and one-fifth of
the vines and fruit-trees, with a moderate rate per head for
sheep and cattle grazing on the public pastures. The lands
were not assigned for any definite period; the occupants
were merely tenants at will, liable to extrusion whenever
the state found it necessary to employ the land for any
other purpose. It was a fundamental principle of Roman
law that prescription could not be pleaded against the
state; and consequently, though the right of occupancy
might not only be transmitted from heir to heir, but might
also be sold, no length of time could alter the precarious
nature of the tenure by which the lands were held. The
state always reserved to itself the power of resuming pos-
session when it thought fit; and though such resumption
might in many cases be attended by individual hardship,
;t was nevertheless justified by the original contract.
Much of the obscurity connected with the Roman agrarian
laws has arisen from a misapprehension of the meaning of
the words possidere, possessor, and possess). These terms,
when used in a strictly legal sense, denote merely occupancy
by a tenant, and never imply an absolute right of property.
The act of occupancy was termed usus, and the benefit
derived by the sto.t0 fructus.
"The agcr publicus," says Professor Kamsay, ** having been ac-
quired and occupied as explained above, nximerous abuses arose in
process of time, especially among the tenants belonging to the
second class. These being, as we have said, in the earUer agej, ex-
clusively patricians, who at the same time monopolised the admin-
istration of pubUc affairs, they were in the habit of defrauding the
state, either by neglecting altogether to pay the stipulated propor-
tion of the produce, or by paying less than was due ; or, finally,
by claiming, what was in reality ager publicus, as their own private
property ; it being easy, of course, in the absence of all strict super-
intendence and of scientific surveys, to shift the land-marks which
separated pubUc from private property. Meanwhile the deficiencies
in the public treasury were made up by heavier taxes ; and the
plebeians complained that they were impoverished by new imposts,
while the lands belonging to the community, which they had ac-
*quired by their blood, if fairly managed, would yiejd a sufficient
return to meet all demands upon the exchequer ; or, if portioned
out in allotments among themselves, afford them the means of sup-
porting the increased burdens. These complaints, unquestionably
founded in justice, were soon vehemently expressed^ and were
revived from time to fane more or less loudly, and enforced more
or less earnestly, according to the state of pubhc feeling and the
energy of the popular champions. It is true that the wealthier
plebeians soon becaine tenants of the ager publicus as well as the
patricians ; hut although this circumstance materially strengthened
the hands of the occupiers, it did not improve the condition of the
poor, or make them less keenly alive to the injustice of the system
against which they protested.' {Manual (^ Ram. ArUiq. p. 228.)
Assuming, then, that the agrarihn laws had for their
sole object the distributior and management of the public
lands [ager publicus), their effect must have been felt in
two ways;— (1.) In enforcing the regular payment of rent
from the occupants, preventing them from exceeding the
limits assigned to them, and compelling the surrender of
portions for division among the poorer citizens; and (2.)
In insisting upon the immediate application of newly-
acquired territories to the establishment of colonies, or its-
assignment to individuals. It ia obvious that the laws
first referred to, as involving longiestablishcd interests,
would necessarily lead to violent contests.
The first agrarian law, properly so called, was proposed and
passed by Sp. Cassius Viscellinus, when consul, 486 B.c. (Liv. ii
'..— 1'
41, Dionys. viii. 76), hut respecting the provisions of this we have no.'
precise information. Cassitis was himself a patrician, and we mav
therefore infer that the law did not encroach upon the just ri -liii
of the dominant class to which he belonged. It is not the object o!>
this article to trace in detail the various measures which were pro
posed, and the agitations with v/hich they were severally attended.
Three such are recorded during the 4th century B.c. (Liv. iv. 36
47, 43) \ but by far the most important measure of this class, am.
that wmch served as the model of nearly all eubsequent agrariai,
laws, was that carried by C. Licinius Stolo, when tribune of thr;_
people, in 367 B.C. (Liv. vi. 42). The provisions of this law were ;
(1.) That no one should occupy more than 500 jngcra (about 33S
acres) of the pnbUo land ; (2.) That none should ha.y& more than
100 large and 600 small cattle grazing on the public pastures ; and
(3.) That every occupant of the public lands should employ a-
certain proportion of free labourers in cultivating it. Kiebuhi
(vol. iii. p. 11, &c. Eng. transl.) has endeavoured to supply the
other details ; but these can be received merely as ingenious, and
it inay be sucoessful, conjectures. For an able controversy as tc
this law see Class. Museum, vol. ii.
After the excitement occasioned by the passing of the Licinian
law had subsided, two centuries were allowed to pass with only a
single interference (Valer. Max. v. 4, 6 ; Polyb. ii. 21) with the
occupants of the public lands ; and during that time large additions
had been made to the possessions of the state by the confiscations
consequent upon the second Punic war. In the meantime the
wealthier families had extended their possessions greatly beyond the
limits prescribed by the Licinian law ; while the small proprietors-
had disappeared, and the poor continued to increase. In 133 B.C.,
Tiberius Gracchus proposed and carried a modification of the
Licinian law (Liv. Epit. Iviii. ; Appian. i. 9), which his premature
death prevented from being carried into effect ; and a similar result
attended the enactment of his brother (Liv. Epit. Ix.) Both were
set aside or eluded after the death of Cains. During the period
which preceded the subversion of the republic various other laws
were passed for the distribution of the public lands ; but tiese it is
not necessary to enumerate. It may be mentioned, in conclusion,
as a significant fact, that the prominent advocates of tho agrarian
laws, Cassius, Licinius, and the Gracchi, all belonged to the class
which would have been injured by their operation had they led tc
an undue interference with private property. (o. F.)
AGREDA, a town of Spain, in the province of OloL
Castile, 23 miles N.E. of Soria. It is the chief town of'
the mountainous district of the same name, and is built
on the skirts of the Sierra Moncayo. At Agreda the river-
QueUes is crossed by a fine stone bridge of one arcb
Population, 3120.
AGRICOLA, Cn^us julitjs, was bom at Forum Julii.
now Frejus, in Provence, 37 A.D., and was in Vespasian's
time made lieutenant to Vettius Bolanus in Britain. Upon,
his return he was ranked by that emperor among the patri-
cians, and made governor of Aquitania. This post he-
held for three years ; he then was recalled to Rome, and
chosen consul, Britain being assigned to him as his pro-
vince (78 A.D.) Here he reformed many abuses created
by his predecessors, put a stop to extortion, and caused
justice to be impartially administered. In the spring of
79 he marched towards the north, where he made new
conquests, and ordered forts to be built for the Romans to
winter in. He spent the foUowing winter in concerting,
schemes to bring the Britons to conform to the Roman
customs. He thought the best way of diverting them
from their warlike propensities was to soften their rough
manners by proposing to them new kinds of pleasure, and
inspiring them with a desire of imitating the Roman man-
ners. He encouraged the erection of magnificent temples,
porticoes, baths, and other fine buildings. The British,
nobles at length had their sons educated ; and they who-
before had the utmost aversion to the Roman language-,
now began to study it with great assiduity. They likewise-
adopted the Romaa._ dress ; and, as Tacitus observes, they
were brought to consider those things as marks of polite-
ness which were only so many badges of slavery. Agri-
cola, in his third campaign, advanced as far as the Solway r
and in his fourth he subdued the nations betwixt the Sol-
way and tho friths of Forth and Clyde, into -nhich the
rivers Bodotria and Olotta discharged themselves; and
here he built a chain of fortresses to check the nations yet
•2dO
AUKICOLA
■uacoiiquercd. In bis fifth ho fixed g.rrmons (ucng tho
-western coasts, over against Ireland. In his sixth cam-
paign he passed tho river Bodotria ; ordering his fleet, the
first which the Komans ever had in those parts, to row
.•along the coasts and take a view of tho northern parts.
The fleet sailed round by the northern and western coasts,
«nd first proved Britain to bo an island. In tho foUondng
spring, tho Britons raised an army of 30,000 men, under
Itho command of Qalgacus, to oppose the invaders. In tho
engagement that ensued at tho foot of tho Grampians tho
Eomans gained tho victory, and 10,000 of tho Britons are
said to have been killed. This happened in the reign of
tho emperor Domitian, who, growing jealous of tho gU'ry
of Agricola, rocallad him, under pretenco of making him
governor of S)Tia. Agricola was in Britain fully eevsn
years, from 78 to 85 a.d. ; and ho died on the 23d August,
!)3 A.D., when ho had attained the age of r>t>. Agricola
was a man of great integrity ; he possessed high military
talents, together with administrative abilities of tho first
rank. The Life of Agricola, written by his son-in-law,
the historian Tacitus,, is a model of eimplo and dignified
biography.
AGRICOLA, CHEiaicpn Lcdwio, landscape-painter,
was bora at Regensburg on the 5th Nov. 16G7, and died
at tho same place in 1719. He spent a great pai;t of bis
life in travel, visiting England, Holland, and France, and
residing for a considerable period at Naples. His numer-
oai landscapes, chieQy cabinet pictures, are remarkable
for fidelity to natiu-e, and especially for their skilful repre-
sentation of varied phases of climate. In composition
liis stylo shows the inilucuce of Caspar Poussin, while
in light and colour he imitates Claude Lorraine. His
pictures are to be found in Broaden, Brunswick, Vienna,
Florence, Naples, and many other towns of both Germany
and Ttuly.
AGRICOLA (originally LAJfDMAjrs), Geobo, a famous
mineralogist, born at Glauchau in Saxony, on tho 24th
March 1494. After studying at Leipsic and in Italy, ho
practised for some time as a physician at Joachimsthal in
Bohemia. In 1531 he was enabled to gratify his natural
•inclination towards the study of geology and mineralogy
by removing to tho raining district of Chemnitz in Saxony,
•>,vlK-re he had been appointed professor of chemistry. The
results of his laborious investigations are chiefly to bs found
in his great work De Re Metallica (Easlo, 154G), which
•describes minutely tho various -methods of mining, of i-ais-
-ing and dressing tha ore, and of smelting, and contains a
■fflumber of curious woodcuts. It has been several times
reprinted, and a German translation by Lehmann appeared
-at Freyberg in 1806-10. Ho also wrote De Ortu et
Causit Subterraneorum, De Animantibus Subterraneorum,
De Nalura Fossilium, besides other works. Agricola was
the first to raise mineralogy to the dignity of a science,
:and he developed it to such an extent that no substantial
aadvance was made npon his results until the middle of
ithe 18th century. He died at Chemnitz on the 21st Npvem-
iber 1555.
AGRICOLA, JoHAN:f Feiedrich, musician, was bom
■at Dobitschen in Saxo-Altenburg, on the 4th Jan. 1720,
.and died in 1774. While a student of law at Leipsic ho
.-studied music under John Sebastian Bach. In 1741 ho
■went to Berlin, where he placed himself under Quanz for
instruction in musical composition. Ha was soon gene-
rally recognised as one of the most skilful oiiganists of his
timo. la 1759, on tho death of Graun, he was appointed
kapellmeister to Frederick IL He composed several
■ operas of great merit, as well as instrumental pieces
^and church music His reputation chiefly rests, how-
wsver, on his theoretical and critical writings on musical
rsnbjects.
.AGRICOLA (originaDy Sci'.ximM or ScnnziDBa)^
Joba^'nes, one of the foremost of tho German refonuen,
was bom on the 20th April 1102, at Eislebcn, whence he
is sometimes called Mayister Iclebiut. He studied at
Wittenberg, whoro he soon gained tho friendship of Luther.
In 1519 ho accompinied Luther to the great assembly of
Gcmun divines at Leipsic, and acted as recording secre-
tary. After teaching for some time in Wittenberg, ha went
to Frankfort in 1525 to establish the worship according
to tho reCormed religioti. Ho had resided there only a
month when ho was induced to go to Eisleben, where he
renjained till 1526 as teacher in the school of St Andrew,
and preacher in the NicoUi church, enjoying great popu-
larity in the latter capacity. In 1536 ho was recalled to
Wittenberg to fill a professorial chair, and was welcomed
by Luther. Almost Lnmodiately afterwards, however, a
controversy, which had been begun ten years before and
been temporarily silenced, broke out afresh with greater
violence. AgricoU was the first to teach the views which
Luther was the first to stigmatise by tho now well-known
name Antinomian. He held that while tha unrcgenerate
■ftcro still under the law, Christians were entirely free from
it, being under tho gospel alone. He denied that Chris-
tians owe.d subjection to any part of tho law, even the
Decalogue, as a mle of Life. Luther conducted tho argu
ment •with his usual vehemence, and there was in tho heal
of controversy probably a good deal of misrepresentation
on i-oth "ides. In 1540 Agricola left Wittenberg secretly
for Berlin, where he published 8 letter addressed to the
elector of Saxony, which was gencally mtcrpreted as a re'
canlation of his obnoxious views. Luther, however, seems
not to have so accepted it, and Agricola remained at Ber-
lin. The elector Joachim IL of Brandenburg having
taken him into his favour, appointed him court preacher
and general superintendent. He held both offices untL'
his daath in 15G6, and his career in Brandenburg was one
of great actiirity and great influence. Along with the
Catholic bishops Von Bflng and Michael Halding ho pre-
pared tho Aug3burg Interim of 1548. Agricola •wrote s
number of theological works which oro now of little in-
terest. He was the first to make a collection of German
proverbs, which ho ill-jstratcd with an appropriate com-
mentary. The most complete edition is that published at
Wittenberg in 1592.
AGEICOLA, RoEOLPHtJS (originaUy Roelof Htrva-
ilANx), a diating-iiished scholar, born at Bafflo, near Groif
ingen, in 1443. Ha was educated at Louvain, where he
graduated as mester of arts. After residing for some time
in Paris, he went in 1 •* 7 6 to Ferrara in Italy, and attended
the lectures of tho celebrated Theodore Gaza on the Greek
language. Having visited Pavia and Rome, he returned
to'his native country about 1479, and was soon afterwards
appointed syndic of Grbningen. In 1482, on the in^vita-
tion of Dalberg, bishop of Worms, whose friendship he
had gained in Italy, ho accepted a professorship at Heidel-
berg, and for three years delivered lectures in that univer-
sity and at Worms on the literature of Greece and Rome.
By his personal influence much more than by his writings
ho did a great deal for the promotion of learning in Ger-
many. HaUam says that "no German wrote so pure R
style, or possessed so large a portion of classical learning ;"
and the praises of Erasmus and other critics of the generar
tion immediately succeeding Agricola's are unstinted. In
his opposition to the scholastic philosophy he seems to have
in some degree anticipated the coming of that great revolt
tion in which many of his pupils were conspicuous actors.
Ho died at Heidelberg in 1485. His principal work is
the De Inventione Dialectiea, in which he attempts to chanee
the scholastic philosophy or the day. (See Tita et Merita
Rudolphi A^colce, by T. F. Tresling, Groningen, 1830).
291
AGEICULTUEE
CHAPTER T.
Historical
.-summary.
Egypt.
IT would be interesting to know how tlie nations of
antiquity tilled, and sowed, and reaped ; v/bat crops
thej cultivated, and hy what methods they converted thsm
into food and raiment. But it is to be regretted, that the
records which have come down to us are all but silent upon
these homely topics.
la Mr Hoskyn's admirable treatise' we have an ezcellent
BDScimen of wfec may yet be done to recove? and construct
an authentic history of the Agriculture of the ancients,
from the casual allusions and accidental notices of rural
affairs which He thinly scattered through the body of
general litere,tuie ; and, more especially, from those myste-
- rimis recqfds of the past, which are now being rescued
from their lonj burial under the ruins of some of the most
famous cities oi" antiquity. Although comparatively little
has been fouad in such records bearing dir3ct!y upon the
subject, wa must not despair of the le?.rned industry and
mrsterly skii] of an advancing and searching criticism,
gaJiering together these gleams of light, and making them
h^Dpily converge upon the darkness which has hitherto
inierposcd between us and a circumstantial knowledge of
the methods and details of ancient husbandry. •
Every reader of the Bible is familiar with its frequent
references to Egypt as a laud so rich in corn, that it not
oiiiy produced abundance for its own dense population,
bcc yielded supplies for exportation to neighbouring coun-
triii Profane history corroborates these statements.
Biodonis SieuJus bears explicit testimony to the skill of
the fanners of ancient Egypt. Ha informs us that they
wera acquainted with tha benefits of a rotation of crops,
and were skiliol in adapting these to the soil and to the
ecasona. Tha ordinary annual supply of corn furnished to
Rcma has hem estimated at 20,000,000 bushels. From
th- same anther we also learn that they fed their cattle
■with hay during the annual inundation, and at other times
tethered them in the meadows on green clover. Their
fioeks were shorn twice annually (a practice common in
several Asiatie countries), and their ewes yeaned twice
a year. For religious as well a.3 economical reasons, they
were great rearers of poultry, and practised artificial
latehing, as at the present day. The abundance or scarcity
of the harveBts in Egypt depended chiefly upon the height
cl the annual inundation. If too low, much of the land
•conid not be sown, and scarcity or famine ensued. On
tiie other hand, great calamities befell the country when
the Nile rose much abova the average leveh Cattle were
drowned, villages destroyed, and the crops necessarily
much diiiiiniahed, as in such cases many of fha fields
T'ere Btiii under water at the proper seed time. In
1318 a calamity of this kind took place, when the
river rapidly attained a height of 3J feet abova tha proper
level.
It is from the paintings and inscriptions with which the
ancient Egyptians decorated their tombs that we get the
fullest insight into the state of agriculture amongst this
remarkable people. Many of these paintings, after the
lapse of two or three thousand years, retain the distinctness
of outline and brilliancy of colour of recent productions.
The acquaintance which these give us with their occupations,
attainments, and habits is truly marvellous, and fills the
' Shtrl Inquvry into On Hiitory qf Agrieulturt, by Chaiido« Wren
UosVtti, Esq.
I reader of such works as Wilkinson's Sgypt with perfect
amazement. Every fresh detail seems to give confirmation
to that ancient saying, " There is nothing new under the
sun." The pictures referring to rur&l affairs disclose a
state of advancement at that early date which may
well lead us to speak modestly of our own attainments
An Egyptian villa comprised all the conveniences of a
European one of the present day. Besides a mansion with
numerous apartments, there were gardens, orchards, fish-
ponds, and preserves for game. Attached to it was a
farm-yard, with sheds for cattle and stables for carriage
horses. A steward directed the tillage operations, super-
intended the labourers, and kept account of the produce
and expenditure. The grain was stored in vaulted chambers
furnished with an opening at the top, reached by steps,
into which it was emptied from sacks, and with an aperture
below for remoying it when required. Hand-querns,
similar to our own, were used for grinding com ; but they
had also a larger kiud worked by oxen. In one painting,
in which the sowing of the grain is represented, a plough
drawn by a pair of oxen goes first ; next comes the sower
scattering the seed from a basket; he is followed by another
plough; whilst a roller, drawn by two horses yoked abreast,
completes the operation. The steward stands by super-
intending the whole. Nothing, however, conveys to us so
full an impression of the advanced state of ci-vilisation
a.mongst the a.ncient Egyptians as the value which they
attached to land, and the formalities which they observed
in the transfer of it. In the time of the Ptolemies, their
written deeds of conveyance began with the mention of the
reign in which they were executed, the name of the
president of the court, and of the clerk who drew them.
The name of the seller, with a description of his personal
appearance, his parentage, profession, and residence, wae
engrossed. The nature of the land, its extent, situation,
and boundaries ; the name and appearance of the purchaser
were also included. A clause of warrandice and an explicit
acceptance by the purchaser followed, and SnaDy the deed
was attested by numerous witnesses (so many as sixteen
occur to a trifling bargain), and by the president of the
court.
The nomades of the patriarchal ages, like the Tartar, Jadea :
dnd perhaps some of the Moorish tribes of our own, whilst Patriarchil
mainly dependent upon their flocks and herds, practised ^°"
also agriculture proper. The vast tracts over which they
roamed were in ordinary circumstances common to all
shepherds alike. During the summer they frequented the
mountainous districts and retired to tha valleys to winter.
Vast flocks of sheep and of goats constituted the chief
wealth of the nomades, although they also possessed
animals of the ox kind. When these last were possessed
in abundance, it seems to be an indication that tillage
was practised. We learn that Job, besides immense
possessions in flocks and herds, had 500 yoke of oxen,
which he employed in ploughing, and a " very great
husbandry." Isaac, too, conjoined tillage with pastoral
husbandry, and that with success, for we read that he
sowed in the land Gerar, and reaped an hundred-fold
— a return which, it would appear, in some favoured
regions, occasionally rewarded the labour of the husband-
man. In the parable of the sower, our Lord (grafting his
instructions upon tha habits, scenery, and productions of
• Palestine), mentions an increase of thirty, eiity, and an
292
AGRICULTURE
[mSTOEICAX.
hundred fold. Such increaae, although far above Uio average
rate, was aometimoa even greatly exceeded, if wo take the
authority of HerodotuB, Strabo, and Pliny.
Along with the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Romans,
the Israelites are classed as one of the great agricultural
nations of antiquity. The sojourn of the Israelites in
Egyj)t trained them for the more purely agricultural
life that awaited them on their return to take posses-
sion of Canaan. Nearly the whole population were
virtually husbandmen, and personally engaged in its pur-
suits. Upon their entrance into Canaan, they found
the country occupied by a dense population poasesiied of
walled cities and innumerable villages, masters of great
accamulatcd wealth, and subsisting on the produce of their
highly cultivated soil, which abounded with vineyards and
olivejards. It was so rich in grain, that the invading
army, numbering 601,730 able-bodied men, with their wives
and children, and a mixed multitude of camp-followers,
found " old com " in the land sufficient to maintain them
from the day that they passed the Jordan. The Mosaic
Institute contained an agrarian law, based upon an equal
division of the soil amongst the adult males, a census of
whom was taken just before their entrance into Canaan.
Provision was thus made for 600,000 yeomen, assign-
ing (according to different calculations) from sixteen
to twenty-five acres of land to each. This land, held in
direct tenure from Jehovah, their sovereign, was strictly
inalienable. The accumulation of debt upon it waa pro-
vented by the prohibition of interest, the release of debts
every seventh year, and the reversion of the land to the
proprietor, or his heirs, at each return of the year of jubilee.
The owners of these small farms cultivated them with much
^re, and rendered them highly productive. They were
favoured with a soil extremely fertile, and one which their
skill and diligence kept in good condition. The stones were
carefully cleared from the fields, which were also watered
from canals and conduits. Communicating with the brooks
and streams with which the country " waa well watered
everywhere," and enriched by the application of manures.
The seventh year's fallow prevented the exhaustion of the
soil, which was further enriched by the burning of the
weeds and spontaneous growth of the Sabbatical year.
The crops chiefly cultivated wore wheat, millet, barley,
beans, and lentiles ; to which it is supposed, on grounds
not improbable, may be added rice and cotton. The ox
and the ass were used for labour. The word " oxen,"
which occurs in our version of the Scriptures, as well as in
the Septuagint and Vulgate, denotes the species, rather
than the sex. As the Hebrews did not mutilate any of
their animals, bulls were in common use. The quantity
of land ploughed by a yoke of oxen in one day was called
a yoke or acre. Towards the end of October, with which
month the rainy season begins, seedtime commenced, and
of course does so still. The seedtime, begun in October,
extends, for wheat and some other white crops, through
November and December ; and barley continues to be sown
until about the middle of February. The seed appears to
have been sometimes ploughed in, and at other times to
have been covered by harrowing. The cold winds which
prevail in January and February frequently injured ths
crops in the more exposed and higher districts. The rainy
season extends from October to April, during which time
refreshing showers fall, chiefly during the night, and gene-
rally at intervals of a few days. The harvest was earlier
or later as the rains towards the end of the season were
more or leas copious. It, however, generally commenced
in April, and continued through May for the different crops
in succession. In the south, and in the plains, the harvest,
as might be expected, commenced some weeks earlier than
in the northern and mountainous districts. The slopes of
the hills were carefully torraoed and irrigated wherever
practicable, and on these slopes the vine and qlive were
cultivated with great success. At the same time the hill
districts and neighbouring deserts afforded pasturage for
numerous flocks and herds, and thus admitted of the
benefits of a mixed husbandry. With such political and
social arrangements, and under the peculiarly fehcitona
climate of Judca, the country as a whole, and at the more
prosperous periods of the commonwealth, muct have ex-
hibited such an example of high cultivation, rich and varied
produce, and widespread plenty and contentment, as the
world has never yet elsewhere produced ou an equally
extensive scale. Not by a figure of speech but literally,
every Israelite sat under the shadow of his own vine and
fig-tree ; whilst the country as a whole is described (3
Kings iviii. 32) as " a land of com and wine, a land of
bread and vineyards, a land of oil-olive and of honey."
An interesting illustration of the advanced state of agri-
culture in these ancient times is afforded by the fact, tLat,
making allowance for climatic differences, the numerous
allusions to it with which the Scriptures abound seem
natural and appropriate to the British farmer of the present
day.
The unrivalled literature of Qreeci^ affords us little infor Nrtoco.
mation regarding the practical details of her husbandry.
The people who by what remains to us of their poetry,
philosojihy, history, and fine arts, still exert such an in-
fluence in guiding our intellectual efforts, in regulating
taste, and in moulding our institutions, were originally thi
invaders and conquerors of the territory which they have
rendered so famous. Having reduced the aboriginal tribes
to bondage, they imposed upon them the labour of cultivat-
ing the soil, and hence both the occupation, and those
engaged in it, were regarded contemptuously by the domi-
nant race, who addicted themselves to what they regarded
as nobler pursuits. With the exception of certain districts,
such as Boeotia, the country was naturally unfavourable to
agriculture. When we find, however, that valleys wer©
freed from lakes, and morasses by drainage, that rocky
surfaces were sometimes covered with transported soO, and
that they possessed excellent breeds of the domesticated
animals, which were rewed in vast numbers, we infer that
agriculture was better understood, and more carefully
practised, than the allusions to it in their literature would
seem to warrant.
Amongst the ancient Romans agriculture was highly omo.
esteemed, and pursued with earnest love and devoted atten-
tion. " In all their foreign enterprises, even in earliest
times," as Schlegel remarks,"they were exceedingly covetous
of gain, or rather of land ; for it was in land, and in the
produce of the soil, that their principal and almost only
wealth consisted. They were a thoroughly agricultural
people, and it was only at a later period that commerce,
trades, and arts, were introduced among them, and even
then they occupied but a subordinate place." ^ Their
passion for agriculture survived very long ; and when at
length their boundless conquests introduced an unheard-of
luxury and corruption of morals, the noblest minds
amongst them were strongly attracted towards the ancient
virtue of the purer and simpler agricultural times. Several
facts in Roman history afford convincing proof, if it were
reqiiired, of the devotion of this ancient people to agricul-
ture, in their best and happiest times. Whilst their arts
and sciences, and general literature, were borrowed from
the Greeks, they created an original literature of their own,
of which rural affaire formed the substance and inspiration.
Schlegel and Mr Hoakyn notice also the striking fact, that
> The PhiloKphy qf History, by Frederick Von BoUegcL Lcsdgn,
1846, p. 263.
SUMMARY.
AGRICULTURE
29o
whilst among the Greeks the names of their illustrious
families are borrowed from the heroes and gods of their
mythology, the most famous houses amongst the ancient
Romans, such as the Pisones, Fabii, LentuU, (fee, have
taken their names from their favourite crops and vegetables.
Perhaps it is not too much to assert, that many of those
qualities which fitted them for conquering the world, and
perfecting their so celebrated jurisprudence, were acquired, '
or at all events nourished and matured, by the skill, fore-
sight, and persevering industry, so needful for the intelUgeut
and successful cultivation of the soil The words which
Cicero puts into the mouth of Cato give a fine picture of the
ancient Roman enthusiasm in agriculture. " I come now
to the pleasures of husbandry, in which I vastly delight.
They are not interrupted by old age, and they seem to me
to be pursuits in which a wise man's life should be spent.
The earth does not rebel against authority ; it never gives
V.ack but with usury what it receives. The gains of hus-
bandry are not what exclusively commend it. I am charmed
ivith the nature and productive virtues of the soiL Can
those old men be called unhappy who delight in the ciJti-
Tition of the soil ? In my opinion there can be no happier
life, not only because the tillage of the earth is salutary to
aU, but from the pleasure it yields. The whole establish-
ment of a good and assiduous husbandman is stored with
wealth ; it abounds in pigs, in kids, in lambs, in poultry,
in mUk, in cheese, in honey. Nothing can be more
profitable, nothing more beautiful, than a well-cultivated
farm."
In ancient Rom6 each citizen received, at first, an allot-
ment of about two English acres. After the expulsion of
the kings this allotment was increased to about six acres.
These small inheritances must, of course, have been culti-
vated by hard labour. On the increase ' of the Roman
tefritory the allotment was increased to fifty, and afterwards
«ven to five hundred acres. Many glimpses into their
methods of cultivation are found in those works pt Roman
authors which have survived the ravages of time. Cato
speaks of iirigation, frequent tillage, and manuring, as
means of fertilising the soil Mr Hoskyn, from whose
valuable contribution to the History of Agriculture we have
drawn freely in this historic summary, quotes the following
interesting passage from Pliny, commenting on VitgU ■} —
" Our poet is of opinion that alternate fallows should be
nlade, and that the land should rest entirely every second
year. And this is, indeed, both true and profitable, pro-
vided a man have land enough to give the soil this repose.
Rut how, if his extent be not sufficient ? Let him, in that
ease, help himself thus. Let him sow next year's wheat-crop
on the field where he has just gathered his beans, vetches,
or lupines, or such other crop as enriches the ground. For,
indeed, it is worth notice that some crops are sown for no
other purpose but as food for others, a poor practice in my
estimation." In another place he tells us, " Wheat, the
later it is reaped, the better it casts; but the sooner it is
reaped,, the fairer the sample. The best rule is to cut it
down before the grain is got hard, when the ear begins to
have a reddish-brown appearance. 'Better two days too
fioon than as many too late,' is a good old maxim, and might
pass for an oracle." The following quotation from the
same author is excellent: — "Cato would have this point
especially to be considered, that the soil of a farm be good
^nd fertile ; also, that near it there be plenty of labourers,
and that it be not far from a large town : moreover, that it
have sufficient means for transporting its produce, either by
water or land. Also, that the houae be well built, and the
land about it aa well managed. But I observe a great
' Short Inqu-rg into the Riitorn qf AgrieuUvn, gf. 4iMil, by
dundoa Wr«D HosIcth, Ek).
error and self-deception which many men commit, who hold
opinion that the negligence and iU-husbandry of the former
owner is good for his successor or after-purchaser. Now,
I say, there is nothing more dangerous and disadvantageous
to the buyer than land so left waste and out of heart ; and
therefore Cato counsels well to purchase land of one who
has managed it well, and not rashly and hand-over-head to
despise and make light of the skill and knowledge of-
another. He says, too, that as weU land as men, which
are of great charge and expense, how gainful soever they
may seem to be, yield little profit in the end, when all
reckonings are made. The same Cato being asked, what
was the most assured profit rising out of land % made this
answer, — • To feed stock well.' Being asked again, ' What
was the next!' he answered, 'To ie&d with moderation.'
By which answer he would seem to conclude that the most
certain and sure revenue was a low cost of production. To
tlie same point is to be referred another speech of his,
' That a good husbandman ought to be a seller rather than
a buyer , also, ' that a man should stock his ground early
and well, but take long time and leisure before he be a
builder ;' for it is the best thing in the world, according to
the proverb, ' to make use, and derive profit, from other
men's follies.' Still when there is a good and convenient
house on the farm, the master will be the closer occupier,
and take the more pleasure in it ; and truly it is a good
saying, that ' the master's eye is better than his heeL' "
" It is curious," says Mr Hoskyn, " to read such passages
as these, and to find the very same subjects still handled,
week after week, in fresh and eager controversy in the
agricultural writings and periodicals of the present day,
eighteen centuries after those opinions were written."
In the later ages of the empire agriculture was neglected,
and those engaged in it regarded with contempt. Many
fair regions once carefully cultivated, and highly productive,
were abandoned to nature, and became a scene of desolation,
the supplies of overgrown Rome being drawn from Egypt,
Sicily, and other provinces, which became notable as the
granaries of the empire.
Under the Goths, Vandals, and other barbarian con- Middle
querors, agriculture in Europe, during the middle ages, ^es.
seems to have sunk into the lowest condition of neglect and
contempt. We owe its revival, like that of other arts and
sciences, to the Saracens of Spain, who devoted themselves Spain
to the cultivation of that conquered territory, with heredi-
tary love for the occupation, and with the skilful application
of the experience which they had gathered in other lands
in which they had established their power. By them, and
theif successors, the Moors, agriculture was carried in Spain
to a height which perhaps has not yet been surpassed in
Europe. It is said, that so early as the tenth century the
revenue of Saracenic Spain alone amounted to £6,000,000
sterling, — probably as much as that of all the rest of
Europe at that time. The ruins of their noble works for
the irrigation of the soil still attest their skill and industry,
and put to shame the. ignorance and indolence of their
successors. The same remark applies to the Spanish
dominions in South America. In the ancient empire of
Peru agriculture seems to have reached a high degree of
perfection. The ruins of basins and canals, frequently
carried through tunnels, prove their industry and skill in
irrigation. One of their aqueducts is said by Mr Prescott*
to have been traced by its ruins for nearly 500 miles.
They cultivated the sides of mountains, by means of
terraces, which retained forced soil, and were skilled in the
application of manure. That on which they chiefly de-
pended was guano, and their Incas protected the penguins,
by which it was deposited, by strict laws, which made it
* Hiitoiy nf Ou Ooiupittt <if Maiico,
294
A G K 1 C'U L T U R E
[UISTOEICAL
Middlo highly penal to kill one of these birds, or to set foot on the
ages. islands at breeding time. >Tbo Spaniards thus obtained
possession of two good patrimonies, and have wasted them
both.
The influence of the crusades upon the agriculture uf
this period is not to be overlooked. The dreadful oppression
of the feudal system received at that time a shock most
favourable to the liberties of man, and, with increasing
liberty, more enlightened idoa.i began to be entertained,
and greater attention to be paid to the cultivation of the
soil.
oDilition Uut during this long interval, the population of Europe
riabcur. y,^ divided into two great classes, of which by far the
larger one was composed of bondmen, ■n-ithout property, or
the power of acquiring it, and small tenants, very little
superior to bondmen ; and the other class, consisting chiefly
of the great barons aud their retainers, was more frequently
employed in laying waste the fields of their rivals than in
improving their own. The superstition of the times, which
destined a large portion of the land to the support of
the church, and which, in some measure, secured it from
predatory incursions, was the principal source of what little
skill and industry were then displayed in the cultivation
of the soil. " If we consider the ancient stito of Europe,"
.says Mr Hume,' " we shall find that the far greater part
of society were everywhere bereaved of their personal liberty,
and lived entirely at the will of their masters. Every one
that was not noble was a slave ; the peasants were not in
a better condition ; even the gentry themselves were sub-
jected to a long train of subordination under the greater
barons, or chief vassals of the crown, who, though seemingly
placed in a high state of splendour, yet, having but a
slender protection from law, were exposed to every tempest
of the state, and by the precarious condition on which they
lived, [jaid dearly for the power of oppressing and tyrannis-
ing over their inferiors." — " The villains were entirely
occupied in the cultivation of their master's land, and paid
their rents either in corn or cattle, and other produce of
the farm, or in servUe offices, which they performed about
the baron's family, and upon farms which he retained in
his own possession. In proportion as agriculture improved
a'iid money increased, it was found that these services,
thoiigh extremely burdensome to the villain, were of little
advantage to the master ; and that the produce of a large
eatete could be much more conveniently disposed of by the
pea-sants themselves who raised it, than by the landlord or
his bailifT, who were formerly accustomed to receive it. A
commutation was therefore made of rents for services, and
of money-rents for those in kind ; and as men in a subse-
quent age discovered that farms were better cultivated where
the farmer enjoyed security in his possession, the practice
of granting leases to the peasant began to prevail, which
entirely broke the bonds of servitude, already much relaxed
from the former practices. The latest laws which wa find
in England for enforcing or regulating this species of
servitude were enacted in the reign of Henry VII. And
though the ancient statutes on this subject remain still
unrepealed by Parliament, it appears that before the end
of Elizabeth the distinction between villain and freeman
was totally, though insensibly, abolished, and that no
person remained in the state to whom the former laws
could be applied."
Early But long before the 15th century, it is certain that
Leases. there was a class of tenants holding on leases for lives, or
for a term of years, and paying a rent in land produce, in
services, or in money. Whether they gradually sprung up
from the class of bondmen, according to Lord Kames,^ or
* History of EngUind, cbap. zziii.
• Kamea's X*iw TracU.
existed from the earliest period of the feudal constitution, Midd|d
according to other writers,' thcirnumber cannot be supposed »Kf ' '
to have been considerable during the middle ages. The
stock which these tenants employed in cultivation com-
monly belonged to the proprietor, who received a proportion
of the produce as rent, — a system which still exists in
France and in other parts of the Continent, where such
tenants are called metayert, and some vestiges of which
may yet be traced in the slett-boio of the law of Scotland.
Leases of the 13th century still remain,* and both the
laws and chartularies' clearly prove the existence in
Scotland of a class of cultivators distinct from the trr/t or
bondmen. Yet the condition of these tenants seems to
have been very different from that of the tenants of the
present day; and the lease approached nearer in its forn
to a feu-charter than to the mutual agreement now in use.
It was of the nature of a beneficiary grant by the proprietor,
under certain conditions, and for a limited period ; the
consent of the tenant seems never to have been doubted.
In the common expression "granting a lease," we have
retained an idea of the original character of the deed, even
to the present time.
The corn crops cultivated during this penoa seem to hav.- Crojis.
been of the same species, though all of them probably much
inferior in quality to what they are in the present day.
Wheat, the most valuable grain, must have borne a small
proportion, at least in Britain, to that of other crops ; the
remarkable fluctuation of price, its extreme scarcity, indi-
cated by the extravagant rate at which it was sometimes
sold, as well as the preparatory cultivation required, may
convince us that its consumption was confinsd to the higher
orders, and that its growth was by no means extensive.
Eye and oats furnished the bread and drink of the grea
body of the people of Europe. Cultivated herbage ana
roots were then unknown in the agriculture of Britain. It
was not till the end ol the reign of Henry VIII. that any
salads, carrots, or other edible roots were produced in
England. The Little of these vegetables that was used
was formerly imported from Holland and Flanders. Queen
Catherine, when she wanted a salad, was obliged to despatch
a messenger thither on purpose."
The ignorance and insecurity of those ages, wmch neces-
sarily confined the cultivation of corn to a comparatively
small portion of country, left all the rest of it in a state of
nature, to be depastured by the inferior animals, then" only
occasionally subjected to the care and control of man.
Cultivators were crowded together in miserable hamlets ;
the ground contiguous was kept continually under tillage ;
and beyond this, wastes and woodlands of a much greater
extent were appropriated to the maintenance of their flocks
and' herds, which pastured indiscriminately, with littlf
attention from their owners.
The low price of butcher-meat, though it was then tnt
food of the common people, when compared with the price
of corn, has been justly noticed by several writers as a
decisive proof of the small progress of civilisation and
industry.
One of the earliest and greatest agncuitural grievances Purvey
was the levying of Purveyance. This originally comprs- =""^*-
bended the necessary provisions, carriages, ifec, which the
nearest farmers were obhged to furnish at the current
prices to the king's armies, houses, and castles, in time of
war. It was called the ffreat purveyance, and the officers
who collected those necessaries were called purveyors. The
smaller purveyance included the necessary provisions for
the household of the king when travelling through the
• Bell's Treatise on Leases.
' Sir John CuUam's History and Antiquities of Uamltd {Suffolki-
' Chalmers" CaleJoi-.ia, bc;V iv. c. 6.
* Hume's BistoTy of England , chap, xr'ii.
SUMMARY.]
AGRICULTURE
29o
kingdom, and these tie tenants on the king's demesne lands
were obliged to furnish gratis, a practice that came to be
adopted by the barons and great men in every toiir. which
they thought proper to make in the country. These
exactions were so grievous, and levied in so high-handed a
manner, that the farmers, when they heard of the court's
approach, often deserted their houses, as if the country
had been invaded by an enemy. " Purvsyance," says
Dirom,' "was perhaps for many centuries the chief obstruc-
tion to the agriculture and improvement of Great Britain.
Many laws were made for the reformation and regulation of
puri'eyance, but \vithout effect ; and the practice continued
down to so late a period as the reign of Janies the First."
By statute 1419, the tenant was for the first time
secured in possession, during the term of his lease, against
a purchaser of the land ; and in 1469 he was protected
from having his property carried off for the landlord's
debts, beyond the amount of rent actually due ; an enact-
ment which proves his miserable condition before that time.
Soon after the beginning of the 16th century agriculture
partook of the general improvement which followed the
invention of printing, the revival of learning, and the more
settled authority of government ; and instead of the occa-
sional notices of historians, we can now refer to regular
treatises, written by men who engaged eagerly in this
neglected and hitherto degraded occupation. We shall
therefore give a short account of the principal works, as
well as of the laws and general policy of Britain, in regard
to agriculture, from the early part of the 16th century to
the Revolution in 1GS8, when a new era commenced in
the legislation of corn, and soon after in the practice of the
cultivator.^
Early Works on Agriculture.
Book of The first and by far the best of our early works is the
Husbaudry Booh of Husbandry, printed in 1534, commonly ascribed
to Fitzherbert, a judge of the Common Pleas in the reign
of Henry VIIL This was followed, in 1539, by the Booh
of Surveying and Improvements, by the same author. In
the former treatise we have a clear and minute description
of the rural practices of that period, and from the latter
may be learned a good deal of the economy of the feudal
system in its decline. The Booh of Husbandry has scarcely
been excelled by any later production, in as far as concerns
the subjects of which it treats ; for at that time cultivated
herbage and edible roots were still unknown in England.
The author writes from his own experience of more than
forty years ; and, with the exception of passages denoting
his belief in the superstition of the Roman writers, there
is very little of this valuable work, in so far as regards the
culture of corn, that should be omitted, and not a great deal
that need be added, even in a manual of husbandry adapted
to the present time. Fitzherbert touches on almost every
department of the art, and in about a hundred octavo pages
has contrived to condense more practical information than
will be found scattered through as many volumes of later
times ; and yet he is minute even to the extreme on points
of real utility. There is no reason to say, with Mr Harte,
that he had revived the husbandry of the Romans ; ha
merely describes the practices of the age in which he lived ;
and from his commentary on the old statute extenta manerii,
in his Booh of Surveying, in which he does not allude to
any recent improvements, it is probable that the manage-
ment which he details had been long established. But it
may surprise some of the agriculturists of the present day
to be told, that, after the lapse of almost three centuries,
Fitzherbert's practice, in some material particulars, has not
* Inquiry into the Com Lavs, Ac, p. 9.
' "Hie QccouDt of the Wiiters on Agricultare taken from Mr Cleg-
toru's Troatise in the former edition of the Encytopadia BriUiHniai.
)534.
been improved upon ; and that in several districts abuse*
until recently existed, which were as clearly pointed out by
him at that early period as by any writer of the present age.
The Booh of Husbandry begins with the plough and.
other instruments, which are concisely and yet minutely
described; and then about a third part of it m occupied-
with the several operations as they succeed one another
throughout the year. Among other things in this part of
the work, the following deserve notice : — •
• ' Somme (ploughs) vryW toum the sheld bredith at every landsende^
and plowe all one way ;" the same kind of plough that is now
found BO useful on hilly grounds. Of wheel ploughs he observes,
that "they be good on even grounde that lyetl lyghte;" and on-
such landa they are still most commonly employed. Cart-wheels
were sometimes bound with iron, of which he greatly approves.
On the much agitated question about the employment of horsea or
oxen in labour, the most important arguments are distinctly stated.
"In some places," he says, "a horse plough is better, ' and ia
others an oxen plough, to v.-hich, upon the whole, he gives the pre-
ference, and to this, considering the practices of that period, they
were probably entitled. Beans and peas seem to have been commoa
crops. He mentions the different kinds of wheat, barley, and oats ;
and after describing the method of harrowing " all maner of
comnes," we find the roller employed. "They used to role their'
barley grounde after a showT of rayne, to make the groundo even to
mowe.' Under the article "To falowe," he observes, "the greater
clottes (clods) the better wheate, for the clottes kepo the wheat
warme all wynter ; and at March they v;ul melte and breake and
fal in manye smaU peces, the whiche is a new dongyngo and
refreshynge of the come." This ia agreeable to the present practicei,
founded on the very same reasons, " In May, the shepe folde is to
be set out ;" but Fitzherbert does not much approve of foldiDg,
and points out its disadvantages iu a very judicious manner. " In
the latter end of ilay and the begynnynge of June, is tyme to wede
the come ;" and then we have an accurate description of the
different weeds, and the instruments and mode of weeding. Nert"
comes a second ploughing of the fallow ; and afterwards, in the
latter end of June, the mowing of the meadows begins. Of this
operation, and of the forks and rakes, and the haymaking, there Is
a very good account The com harvest naturally follows : rye and
wheat were usually shorn, and barley and oats cut -with the scythe.
This intelligent writer does not approve of the practice, which still
prevails in some places, of cutting wheat high, and then mowing
the stubbles. ** In Somersetshire, " he says, " they do shere theyr
wheat very lowe ; and the wheato atrawe that they purpose to make
Ihacke of, they do not threshe it, but cut off the ears, and bynd it iE
shevea, and call it rede, and therewith they thacke theyr houses.'"
He recommends the practice of setting up corn in shocks, with two
sheaves to cover eight, instead of ten sheaves as at present ;
probably owing to the straw being then shorter. The com was
commonly housed ; but if there be a want of room, he advises that
the ricks be built on a scaffold, and not uikju the ground. Corn-
stacks are now beginning to be built on pillars and frames. The
fallow received a third ploughing in September, and was sown
about Michaelmas. " Wheat is moost commonlye sowne under the
forowe, that is to say, cast it uppon the falowe, and then plowe it
under ;" and this branch of his subject is concluded with directions
about threshing, wiimowing, and other kinds of barn-work.
Fitzherbert nert proceeds to live stock, "An housbande," he
says, " can not well thryue by his come without he have otlier
cattell, nor by his cattell without come. And bycause that ehepe,
in myne op)*nyon, is the mooste profj-tablest cattell that any mau
can haue, therefore I pourpose to speake fyrst of shepe.' His
remarks on this subject are so accurate, that one might unag;iD6
they came from a storemaster of the present day ; and the minnti^
which he details are exactly what the writer of this article b',s seen
practised in the hilly parts of this country. In some placea ai
present, "they nener eeuer their lambes from their flanunes;"
"and the pootB of the peeko (high) countreye, and rjch other
places, where, as they vse to mylke theyr ewes, they Tse to waync-
thejT lambes at 12 weekes olde, and to mylko their ewes fiue or
syxo weekes ;" but that, he observes, " is greate hurlo to the ewes,
and wyll cause them that they wyll not take the rammo at tlie
tjTae of the yere for pouertye, but goo barreyne." " In June ia
tyme to shere shepe ; and ere they be shome, they must be verve
Weil washen, tho which shall be to the owner grcato profyio in the
sale of his wool, and also to the clothe-maker." It appear? that
haTid leashing was then a common practice ; and yet in Ine west and
north of Scotland its introduction ifl of comparatively rccjnt date.
His remarks on hontes, cattle, &c., aro not less interesting ; and
there is a very good account of the diseases of each species, and
some just observations on the advantage of mixing difierent kinds
on the same pestuiv. Swine and beoa conclude this branch ol thA>
work.
^m
AGRICULTURE
[HlgTOKlC
Book of
The author then pointa out the great aavant^i^^c^ of mclosuro ;
reconuuonds "quycKaettyugo, dychyngc, and hfjgoyng ;" and
gives particular aircctiouj about srlta, and tJio method oi training
a hedge, a3 -woU as concerning tho plauting and management o\
trees. Wo huvo then a short luformiition "for a yongo gentylmon
that intendeth to thrj'uc," arid **a prolougo for tlio wiucs occu-
pation," in some iustunees rather too homely for tho iireiiont time.
Among other things, sho is to "mako her husband and herself
■ Bomme clothes ;" and *' aho mayo hauo tho lockea of the flhepe eyther
Aa maho blaukettcs and courlctlcs, or bothe." This is not bo much
iamisB ; but what follows will bring tlio learned judge into disrepute
■ even with our most industrious housewiVes. *' It is a wyues occu-
pation," he says, "to wynowo all manor of comes, to mako malte,
to washo and WTyngo, to make heye, shore come, and, in time oif
ncde, to helpa her husbando to fyll tho mucko wavno or dounge
•carte, dryuo the ploughc, to loode heye, corne, and suche other ;
:and to go or ride to tho market to sel butter, chose, mylke, egges,
chekyns, capons, hennes, pyggcs, gesc, and all manor of coriie.s."
'Tho rest of the book contains sonio useful advices about diligence
und econi my ; and concludes, after tUu manner of tho age, with
many pio ts exhortations.
Such 13 Fitzhcrbert's Book of Jlusbandnj, and sucU was
ihe state of agriculture in England in tlie early part of the
JGth century, and probably for a long time before; for ho
nowhere siicak.s of the practices which he describes or
recommends as of recent introduction.
The Book of Surveying adds considerably to our knowledge
■ of the rural economy of that age. " Four maner of com-
inctis" are described; several kinds of mills for corn and
■other purposes, and also " quernes that goo with hand ;"
different orders of tenants, down to the " boundmen," who
^' in some places coutynue as yet ;" " and many tymes, by
■colour thereof, there be many freemen taken as boundmen,
and their lands and goods is taken from them." Lime and
■marl are mentioned as common manures; and the former
■was sometimes spread on the surface to destroy heath. Both
draining and irrigation are noticed, though the latter but
slightly. And the work concludes with an inquiry " how to
make a township that is worth XX. marke a yere, worth
XX. li. a year;" from which we shall give a specimen of the
author's manner, as well as of the economy of the age.
"It is nndoubtcd, that to every to\vnshvppe that standeth in
lyllage in tho playno countrcy, there be errable landea to plowe and
aowe, and leyse to tye or tedilor thcyr horses and mares upon, and
common pasture to kepe and pasture their catell, bcestes, "and
ahepe upon ; aud also they have medowo groundo to get theyr hey
npon. Than to lot it be known how many acres of errable lande
■euery man hath in tyllage, aud of the same acres in entry felde to
chauugo with his neychboui-s, and to leye them toguyther, and to
make h}'m one seuerall close in euery felde for his errable lands ;
■and his leyso in euory foMo to leve them togyther in one felde, and
to make one seuerall close for them all. And also another seuerall
close for his portion of his common pasture, aud also his porciou of
his medowo in a seuerall close by itselfe, and al kept in seuerall
both in wynter and somer ; and euery cottage shall haue his
-liortion assigned hym accordyngo to his rent, and than shall nat
the rycho man ouorpresse tno poore man with his cattell ; and
■■euery man may ealo his oiui close at his pleasure. And vndoubted,
that hay and straw© that will find one beest in tho house "wyll finde
"two becstes in the close, and better they shall lyke. For those
Tjecstis in the hou8<» have short hearo and thynne, and towards
Jlarch they will py'le and be bare ; and therefore they may nat
■abydo in the fylde before tho hcerdmen in winter tyme for colde.
And those that lye in a close under a hedge haue longe heare and
thyck, and they will neuer pylle nor bo bare ; aud by this reason
Ihe husbando maye kepe twyse so many catell as he did before.
* This is the cause of this apnrowmont. Nowo euery husbando
tiath sixe seuerall closes, whercot iii. be for come, the fourthe for
Ids leyse, tho fyfto for his common pastures, and tho sixte for his
haye ; and in wynter time there is but ono occupied with come,
and than hath tlia husb;mde other fyuo to occupy tj'll lento come,
-and that he hath his falowe felde, his ley felde, and his pasture
felde al sommer. And when ha hath mowen hia medowo, then he
hath his medowo grounde, soo that if he hath any weyko catell
that wold be ameuoed, or dyvers maner of catell, he may put them
in any dose ho wyll, the which is a great advantage ; and if all
.shulde lye common, than wolde tho odyche of the come feldes and
the aftermath of all tho medowos be eaten in X. or XII. dayes.
And the rych men that hath mocho catell wold have the advantage,
~:uid the poore man can have no helpe nor relefe in wynter when ne
'hath moste node ; and if an acre of lande be worthe si.ie reus, or it
be encloBod, it will bo worth Vlll. p«na, ,when it is enclosed ly
reason of tho eon.postying and dongyng of the catoU thr-t ehsji
go and lye npon it both dav and uigble ; and if any of his
thr< dosoa tliat he hath for Lis come bo worne or ware bare,
than ho may broke and plowo up his close that ho hadde for hia
layse, or tho close that he hadde for his common pasture, or bothe.
and Bowe thorn with come, and let tho other lye lor a time, and so
shall ho havo alway reist grounde, the which will boar mocho corju
with lytel dongo ; end also ho shall have a groat profyto of tho wod
in tho hedges whan it is growcn ; and not only tnese profytes and
advantages beforcsaid, but he shall save moche more than al
these, for by reason of these closes he shall save meate, drinke,
and wages of a shcpberde, tho Hag.?8 of the hcerdmen, and the
wages -of the swine herde, the which may fortune to be as charg^ble
OS all his hoUe rent ; and also his come shall be better savca from
eatinge or destroyong with cateL For dout ye nat but heerdemen
with their catell, shepchordos with their shepe, and tleng of honte*
and mares, destroyetn moch come, the which the hedges wold save.
Paraducnturo some men would say, that this shuld bo against the
common weale, bicauso tho shepehcrJes, hcerdmen, and swy^o-
henlos, shuld than be put out of wages. To that it may be
answered, though those occupations be not used, there be as m&ny
newo occupations that wore not used before ; es getting of quicke*
settes, dicuing, hedging, and nlashing, tho which the same men
may use and occupye,"
The next author who writes professedly on agriculture Tu»ser,
is Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of Husbandry, 1502.
published in 1562, was formerly in such high repute as to
be recommended by Lord Molesworth to be taught in
schools.* The edition of 1 CO^t is the one we make vise of here.
In it tho book of husbandry consists of 118 pages, and
then foUows the Points of Housewifrie, occupying 42 pages
more. It is written in verse. Amidst a vast heap of
rubbish, there are some useful notices concerning the state
of agriculture at tho time in diiTerent parts of England.
Hops, which had been introduced in the early part of
tho ICth century, and on the culture of which a treatise
was published in 1574 by Reynoldo Scott, are mentioned
as a well-known crop. Buckwheat was sown after barley.
Hemp and flai are mentioned as common crops. Inclosures
must have been numerous in several counties ; aud there
is a very good comparison between "champion (open fields)
country, and several," which Blythe afterwards transcribed
into his Improver Improved. Carrots, cabbages, turnips,
and rape, are mentioned among the herbs and roots for the
kitchen. There is nothing to be found in Tusser about
serfs or bondmen, as in Fitzhcrbert's works. This author's
division of the crop is rather curious, though probably quite
inaccurate, if he means that the whole rent might be paid
by a tenth of the corn.
" One part cast forth for rent due out of hand.
One other part for seed to sow thy land.
Another part leave parson for his tith.
Another jiart for harvest, sickle and sith.
One part for plouchwrite, cai*twrite, knacker, and smith.
One part to uphold thy teemes that draw therewith.
Another part for servant and workman's wages laie.
One part likewise for hlbellie daie by dale.
One part thy wife for needful things doth crave.
Thyself and thy child the last part would have,"
I'he next writer is Barnaby Googe, whose WlioU Art of Googe,
Husbandry v.as printed in 1578, and again by Markham 15"8.
in 1G14. Tho first edition is merely a translation of a
German work ; and very little is said of English husbandry
in the second, though Markham made some trifling inter-
polations, in order, as it is alleged, to adapt the German
husbandry to the English climate. It is for the most part
made up of gleanings from the ancient -writers of ' Greece
and Rome, whose errors are faithfully retained, with here
and there some description of the practices of the age, in
which there is little of novelty or importance. Googe
mentions a number of English writers who lived about the
time of Fitzherbert, whose works have not been preserved.
' 5ooie Considerations /or ih< promoting qf Agricultttn and tfnplojf-
Ing the Pjor, DubUn. 1723
SUMMAEY.]
AGRICULTURE
297
For more than fifty years after tlus, or till near the
Bjiddle of the 17th century, there are no aystematio
works on husbandry, though several treatises on particular
departments of it. From these it is evident that all the
different operations of the farmer were performed with more
care and correctness than formerly ; that the fallows were
better worked, the fields kept freer from weeds, and much
more attention paid to msnxires of every kind. A few of
the writers of this period deserve to be shortly noticed.
Plat, 1694. Sii' Hugh Plat, in his Jewel Rouse of Art and Nature,
printed in 1594 (which Weston in his catalogue erroneously
ascribes to Gabriel Plattes), makes some useful observations
on manures, but chiefly collected from other writers. His
censure ol the practice of leaving farm dung lying scattered
about is among the most valuable.
.Vorden Sir John Norden's Surveyo/a Dialogiu;, pnnted in 1607,
161& and reprinted with additions in 1618, is a work of con-
siderable merit. The first three books of it relate to the
rights of the lord of the manor and the various tenures by
which landed property was then held, with the obligations
which they imposed. Among others, we find the singular
custom, so humorously described in the Spectator, of the
incontinent widow riding upon a ram. In the fifth book
there are a good many judicioiw observations on the
" different natures of grounds, how they may be employed,
how they may be bettered, reformed, and amended." The
famous meadows n6ar Salisbury are mentioned ; and when,
cattle have fed their fill, hogs, it is pretended, " are made
fat with the remnant — namely, with the knots and sappe
of the grasse." " Clouer grasse, or the grasse honey suckle"
(white clover), is directed to be sown with other hay seeds.
" Carrot motes" were then raised in several parts of England,
and sometimes by farmers. London street and stable dung
was carried to a distance by water, though it appears from
later writers to have been got for the trouble of removing.
And leases of 21 years are recommended for persons of
small capital, as better than employing it in purchasing
land, — an opinion that prevails very generally among our
present farmers.
Bntler on Bees seem to have been great favourites with these early
bees, 1609. writers; and among others, there is £ treatise by Butler,
a" gentleman of Oxford, called the Feminine Monarchic, or
the Uiilory of Bees, printed in 1609, full of all maimer of
quaintness and pedantry.
We shall pass over Markham-, Mascall, Gabriel Plattes,
and several other authors of this period, the best part of
their writings being preserved by Blj-the and HartUb, of
Westjo, whom we shall say a little immediately. In Sir Eichard
1615. Weston's Diicourse on the Husbandry of Brabant and
Flanders, published by Haitlib in 1645, we may mark the
dawn of the vast improvements which have since been
effected in Britain. This gentleman was ambassador from
England to the elector palatine and king of Bohemia in
1619, and had the merit of being the first who introduced
the great clover, as it was then called, into English
agriculture, about 1645, and probably turnips also. His
directions for the cultivation of clover are better than was
to be expected. It thrives best, he says, when you sow H
on the worst and barrenest ground, ,such as our worst
heath ground is in England. The ground is to be pared
and burnt, and unslaoked lime must be added to the ashes.
It is next to be well ploughed and harrowed ; and about
ten pounds of clover seed must be sown on an acre in
April or the end of March. If you intend to preserve seed,
then the second crop must be let stand till it come to a full
and dead ripeness, and you shall have at the least five
bushels jier acre. Being once sown, it will last five years ;
and then being ploughed, it will yield, three or four years
together, rich crops of wheat, and after that a crop of oats,
with which clover seed is to be sown again. It is in itself
iin excellent manure. Sir Richard adds ; and so it should Early
be, to enable land to bear this treatment. In less than ten "orfcs.
years after its introduction, that is, before 1655, the cul-
ture of clover, exactly according to the present method,
seems to have been well known in England, and it had
also made its way to Ireland.
^ A great many works on agriculture appeared during the BIyth%
time of the Commonwealth, of which Blythe's /mproeer ''6*9-
Improved and HartUb's Legacy are the most valuable.
The first edition of the former was published in 1649, and
of the latter in 1650; and both of them were enlarged ia
subsequent editions. In the first edition of the Im,prover
Improved, no mention is made of clover, nor in the second
of turnips, but in the third, published in 1662, clover ie
treated of at some length, and turnips are recoiamendei
as an excellent cattle crop, the culture of which shoulf
be extended from the kitchen garden to the field. Sii.
Eichard Weston must have cultivated turnips before thia ;
for Blythe says, that Sir Eichard affirmed to himself he
did feed his swine with them. They were first given boOed,
but afterwards the svyiue came to eat them raw, and would
run after the carts, and pull them forth as they gathered,
them, — an expression which i-onveys an idea of their being;.
cultivated in the fields.
Blythe's book is tho first systematic Wiirk m which there
are some traces of the alternate husbandry so beneficially
established since, by interposing clover and turnip between,
culmiferous crops. Ho is a great enemy to commons and
common fields, and to itjtaining land in old pasture, unless-.
it be of the best quality. His description of the different-
kinds of ploughs is interesting ; and he justly recommenda-.
such as were drawn by two horses (some even by one
horse), in preference to the weighty and clumsy machines,
which required four or more horses or oxen. Almost all
the manures now us-d seem to have been then well
known, and he brougU'; Hme himself from a distance of
20 miles. He speaks . f an instrument which ploughed,
sowed, and harrowed at the same time ; and the setting of
com was then a subject of much discussion. " It was>.
not many years," says Blythe, " since the famous city ol
London petitioned the Parliament of England against twc
anusancies or offensive commodities, which were likely tc
come into great use and esteem ; and that was Newcastle
coal, in regard of their stench, kc, and hops, in regard they
would spoyle the taste of drink, and endanger the people.'"
HartUb's Legacy is a very heterogeneous performance,
containing, among some very judicious directions, a great
deal of rash speculation. Several of the deficiencies
which the writer complains of in English agriculture
must be placed to the account of our climate, and never
have been or can be supplied. Some of hia recommen-
dations are quite unsuitable to the state of the country,,
and display more of general knowledge and good inten-
tion than of either the theory or practice of agriculture..
Among the subjects deserving notice may be mentioned,
the practice of steeping and liming seed com as a preven-
tive of smut ; changing eveiy year the species of grain, and.
bringing seed com from a distance ; ploughing down greeit
crops as manure ; and feeding horses with broken oats ani_
chaff. This writer seenas to differ a good deal from Blythe-
about the advantage of interchanging tUlage and pasture.
" It were no losse to this island," he says, " if that we
should not plough at all, if so be that we could certainly
have com at a reasonable rate, and likewise vent for all our
manufactures of wool ;" and one reason for this is, that
pasture employeth more hands than tillage, instead of de-
populating the country, as was commonly imagined. The
grout, which he mentions " as coming over to UB in Hol-
land ships," about which he desires information, was prcf-
batly the same with our present shelled barlev : and j^LIbi
298
AGRICULTURE
[hI3T0EICaL
for manufactviriug it were introduced into Scotland from
Holland towards the beginning of the last century.
Todhe third edition, published in 1005, are subjoined
X>r Heatie'B AmtotatioTu with the writer of the Legaci/i
answers, both of them ingenious, and sometimes inatruc-
tive. But this cannot be said of Gabriel Plattos's Mereu-
Trius Lcetijicans, also added to this edition, which is a most
extravagant production. There are alib several communi-
■cations from Hartlib's different correfipondonts, of which
the most interesting are those on the early cultivation and
great value of clover. Hartlib himself does not appear
much in this collection ; but ho seems to have been a very
useful person in editing the works of others, and as a
collector of miscellaneous information on rural subjects.
It is strange that neither Blythe nor Hartlib, nor any of
Hartlib's correspondents, seem ever to have heard of
Fitzherbert's works.
lUy »nd Among the other writers previous to the Revolution, we
ETtSjn. snail only mention Ray the botanist, and Evelyn, both men
«f great talent and* research, whoso works are still in
high estimation. A new edition of Evelyn's' Siha and
Terra was published in 1777 by Dr Hunter, with largo
notes and elegant engravings, and reprinted in 1812.
The preceding review commences with a period of feudal
' anarchy and despotism, and comes down to the time when
the exertions of individual interest were protected and en-
couraged by the firm administration of equal laws ; when the
prosperity of Gretit Britain was no longer retarded by in-
ternal commotions, nor endangered by hostile invtfeion.
i L.iwa.
The laws of this period, in so far as they relate to agri-
culture and rural economy, display a similar progress in
improvement.
ttUIage, From the beginning of the reign oi nenry Vll. to the
li81 end of Elizabeth's, a number of statutes were made for
the encouragement of tillage, though probably to little
porpose. The great grievance of those days was the
practice of laying arable land to pasture, and suffering the
farm-houses to fall to ruin. " Where in some towns," says
the statute 4th Henry VII. (14S8), "two hundred persons
■were occupied and lived of their lawful libours, now there
are occupied two or three herdsmen, and the residue fall
into idleness ;" therefore it is ordained, that houses which
within three years have been let foj: farms, with twenty
acres of land lying in tillage or husbandry, shall be upheld,
under the penalty of half the profits, to be forfeited to the
king or the lord of the fee. Almost half a century after-
-wards, the practice had become still more alarming ; and
in lost a new Act was tried, apparently n-ith as little suc-
cess. " Some have 24,000 sheep, some 20,000 sheep,
rsome 10,000, some 6000, some 4000, and some more and
some less ;" and yet it is alleged the price of wool had
nearly doubled, " sheep being come to a few persons'
'lands." A penalty was therefore imposed on all who
kept above 2000 sheep; and no person was to take in
farm more than two. tenements of husbandry. By the
39th Elizabeth (1597), arable land made pasture since the
ist Eliiabeth shall be aga^ converted into tillage, and
what is arable shall not be converted into pasture.
!S8abo:rls. SLany laws were enacted during this period against va-
gabonds, as they were called ; and persons who could not
iind employment seem to have been somettmes confounded
•with those who really preferred idleness and plunder.
Tae dissolution of the feudal system, and the suppression
of tbe monasteries, deprived a great p.irt of the rural
population of the means of support. They could not be
■employed in cultivating the soil, for there was no middle
-■lias of farmers possessed of capital to be vested in
iiiprovements ; and what little disposable capital was in the
hands of great propnetors could not, in those rudo times,
bo so advantageously embarked in the expensive and pre-
carious labours of growing com, as in pasturage, which
r&quircd much less skill and superintendence. Besides,
there was a constant demand for wool on the Continent ;
while the com market w;i8 not only confined by laws
against exportation, but fettered by restrictions on the
internal trade. The laws rejarding the wages of labour and
the price of provisions are a further proof of the ignorance
(A the age in regard to the proper subject of legislation.
By the statute 1552 it is declared, that any person that For»»tA-
shaU buy merchandise, victual, ic, coming to market, ling, 1632.
or make any bargain for buying tbe same; before they shall
bo in the market ready to be sold, or shall make auy
motion for enhancing the price, or dissuade any persou
from coming to market, or forbear to bring any of the
things to market, <fec., shall be deemed a. forestaller. Any
person who buys and sells again in the same market, or
within four miles thereof, shall be reputed a rcgraler. Any
person buying com growing in the fields, or any othei
com, with intent to sell again, shall be reputed an unlaw
ful ingrouer. It was also declared, that no person shall
sell cattle witliin five weeks after he had bought them.
Licenses, indeed, were to bo granted in certain cases, and
particularly when the price of wheat was at or under 68. 8d.
a quarter, and other kinds of grain in that proportion.
The laws regarding the exportation and importation of Corn trade,
com during this period could have had little effect in
encouraging agriculture, though towards the latter part of
it they gradually approached that system which was finally
established at and soon after the Revolution. From the
time of the above-mentioned statute against forestallers,
which effectually prevented exportation, as well as the
freedom of. the home trade, when com was above *he
price therein specified, down to 1688, there are at least
twelve statutes on this subject ; and some of them are so
nearly the same, that it is probable they were not very
carefully observed. The price at which wheat was allowed
to be exported was raised from 6s. 8d. a quarter, the price
fixed by the 1st and 2d of Philip and Mary (1553), to 10s.
in 1502; to 203. in 1503; to 26s. Sd. in 1604; to 32s. in
1623; to 403. in 1660; to 48s. in 1C63; and at last, in
1670, exportation was virtually permitted without limita-
tion. Certain duties, however, were payable, which iii
some cases seem to have amounted to a prohibition ; and
until 1660 importation was not restrained even in years
of plenty and cheapness. In permitting exportation, the
object appears to have been revenue rather than the
encouragement of production.
The first statute for levying tolls at turnpikes, to make Toll3,1662.
or repair roads in England, passed in 1602.
Of the state of agriculture m Scotland in the 16tn ana Scotland,
the greater part of the 17th century very little is known ; 1^'h »■>*
no professed treatise on the subject appeared till after the ""*
Revolution. The south-eastern counties were the earliest
improved, and yet in 1600 their condition seems to have
been very wretched. Ray, who made a tour along the
eastern coast in that year, says, " We observed little or no
fallow ground in Scotland ; some ley ground we saw, which
they manured with sea wreck. 'The men seemed to be
very lazj-, and may be frequently observed to plough in
their cloaks. It is the fashion of them to wear cloaks
when they go abroad, but especially on Sundays. They
have neither good bread, cheese, nor drink. They cannot
make them, nor will they learn. Their butter is very
indifferent, and one would wonder how they could contrive
to make it so bad. They use much pottage made of coal-
wort, which they call kail, sometimes broth of decorticatec'
barley. The ordinary country-houses are pitiful cots, built
I of stone and covered with tuns, having in them but one
SUMMARY.]
A G R I C U L-T U K E
299
•room, many of them no chimneys, the windows very small
iioles, and not glazed. The ground in the valleys and
plains bears very good com, but especially bears barley or
bigge, and oats, but rarely wheat and rye."'
li is probable that no great change had taken place in
JScotland from the end of the 15th century, except that
tenants gradually became possessed of a, little stock of
their own, instead of having their farm stocked by the
landlord. " The minority of James V., the reign of Mary
Stuart, the infancy of her son, and the civil wars of her
grandson Charles I., were all periods of lasting waste.
■The very laws which were made during successive reigns
for protecting the tillers of the soU from spoil, are the
. best proofs of the deplorable state of the husbandman." -
Yet in the 17th century were those laws made which
paved the way for the present improved system of agri-
culture in Scotland. By statute 1G33, landholders were
enabled to have their tithes valued, and to buy them either
it nine or six years' purchase, according to the nature of
the property.' The statute 1685, conferring on landlords
.u power to entail their estates, was indeed of a very dif-
ferent tendency in regard to its effects on agriculture.
But the two Acts in 1695, for the division of commons,
and separation of intermixed properties, have facilitated
in an eminent degree the progress of improvement.
PeOGKKSS op ^GRICffLTtTRK PEOM 1688 TO 1760.
From the Revolution to the accession of George IIL the
progress of agriculture was by no means so considerable as
we should be led to imagine from the great exportation of
com. It is the opinion of well-informed writers,' that
very little improvement had taken place, cither in the
cultivation of the soil or in the management of live stock,
from the Restoration down to the middle of last century.
Even clover and turnips, the great support of the present
improved system of agriculture, were confined to a few
districts, and at the latter period were scarcely cultivated
at all by common farmers in the northern part of the
island. Of the writers of this period, therefore, we shall
notice only such as describe some improvement in the
modes of culture, or some extension of the practices that
were formerly little known,
Houghton. In Houghton's Collections on Husbandry and Trade, a
£t)81. periodical work begun in 1631, wBihave the first notice
of turnips being eaten by sheep: — "Some in Essex have
their fallow after turnips, which feed their sheep in winter,
by which means the turnips are scooped, and so made
capable to hold dews and rain water, which, by corrupting,
imbibes the nitre of the air, and when the shell breaks it
runs about and fertilises. By feeding the sheep, the land
is dunged as if it had been folded ; and those turnips,
though few or none be carried off for human use, are a
very excellent improvement, nay, some reckon it so though
they only plough the turnips in without feeding."* Thia
was written in February 1694 ; but ten years before, Wor-
lidge. One of his correspondents, observes, "Sheep fatten
very well on turnips, which prove an excellent nourish-
ment for them in hard winters when fodder is scarce ; for
they vrill not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots in
the ground, and scoop them hoUow even to the very skin.
Ten acres (he adds) sown with cli^er, turnips, 4c., will
feed as many sheep as one hundred acres thereof would
l>efere have done."'
* Sdecl PcmaiKS of John Ray* Lond. 1760. ,
* Chalmers's Caledonia, vol. it. p. 732.
* Annals of Agriculturt, No. 270. Hdrto's B»ayt, ~ Combar on
National Subsistencii, p. 161,
* Houghton's Collciiiona on Hushnvdry aitd Tradt, vol. L p. 213,
•eilit. 1728.
* Ibid, vol.lv. pp. 112-1 44.
At this time potatoes were beginning to attract notica.
"The potato," saya Houghton, "is a lacoiferous herb, with
esculent roots, bearing wingea leaves and a bell flower. •
"This, I tiave been informed, waa. brought first out of "Virginia
by Sir Walter Raleigh ; and he stopping at Ireland, some was
planted there, where it thrived very well, and to good purpose :
for in their succeeding wars, when all the com above the ground
waa destroyed, this supported them ; for the soldiers, unless they
had dug up all the ground where they grew, and almost sifted it,
could not extirpate them ; from whence they were brought to
Lancashire, where they are very nmneroua, and now they begin ta
spread all the kingdom over. They are a pleasant food boiled or
roasted, and eaten with butter and sugar. There is a sort brought
from Spain, that aro of a longer form, and are more luscious than
ours ; they are much set by, and sold for sixpence or eightpenco
the pound."*
The next writer is Mortimer, whose Whole Art of litis- Mortiiner,
handry was published in 170G, and has since run through 1'"^'
several editions. It is a regular, systematic work, of con-
siderable merit ; and will even now repay perusal by the
practical agriculturist. From the third edition of Hartlib'a
Lerjacy, we learn that clover was cut green, and given to
cattle ; and it appears that this practice of soiling, as it is
now called, had become very common about the beginning
of last century, wherever clover was cultivated. Rye-grass
was now sown along with it. . Turnips were hand-hoed, and
extensively employed in feeding sheep and cattle, in the same
manner as at present.
The first considerable improvement in the practice of that Tull, l/jj
period was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berk-
shire, who began to diiU wheat and other crops about the year
1701, and whose Ilorse-hoeing Husbandry, published in
1731, exhibits the first decided stepin advance upon the prin-
ciples and practices of his predecessors. Not contented with
a careful attention to details, Tull set himself, vrith admirable
skQl and perseverance, to investigate the growth of plants,
and thus to arrive at a knowledge of the principles by which •
the cultivation of field-crops should be regulated. Having
arrived at the conclusion that the food of plants consists of
minute particles of earth taken up by their rootlets, it fol-
lowed, that the more thoroughly the soil in which they
grew was disintegrated, the more abundant would be
the " pasture" (as he called it), to which their fibres would
have access. He was thus led to adopt that system of
sowing his crops in rows or drUls, so wide apart as to
admit of tillage of the intervals, both by ploughing and
hoeing, being continued untU thev had well-nigh arrived
at maturity.
As the distance between his rows appeared much greater
than was. necessary for the range of the roots of the plants,
he begins by showing that these roots extend much far-
ther than is commonly believed, and then proceeds to inquire
into the nature of theirfood. After examining several hypo-
theses, he decides this to be fine particles of earth. The
chief, and almost the only use of dung, he thinks, is to
divide the earth, to dissolve " this terrestria,! matter, which
affords nutriment to the mouths of vegetable roots;" and this
can be done more completely by tillage. It is therefore ne-
cessary not only to pulverise the soU by repeated ploughings
before it be seeded, but, as it becomes gradually more and
more compressed aftenvards, recourse must be had to tillago
while the plants are growing ; and this is hoeing, which also
destroys the weeds that would deprive the plants of their'
nourishment.
The leading features of TuU'a husbandry are his practice
of laying the land into narrow ridges of five or six feet, and
upon the middle of these drilling one, two, or tiree rows,
distant from one another about seven inches when thero
were three, and ten when only two. The distance of tL j
' Houu'uton'i Colkctiana on Buabandry and T-xuU, voL U. p. 401.
300
AGRICULTURE
[aiSTOBICAI.
TQlI,~con- plants on one ridge from those on the contiguous one ne
•inued. QiUcd an interval ; the distance between the rows on the
eune ridge, a fjMce or partition ; the former was stirred
repeatedly by tlio horse-hoe, the latter by the hand-hoe.
The extraordinary attention this ingenious person gave
to his mode of culture is perhaps ^^■ithout a parallel : —
** I formerly wa3 at much p.iins," ho Rays, "and at somo charge
in improving my drills for plan ting tlio rows at very near distances,
and had broujjiit them to anch perfection, that one hor^o would
draw a drill with clovcu shares, making, tho rows at thrco inches
and a half distance from ono another ; and at the same timo sow in
them three very difTcrcnt sorts of seeds, which did not mix ; and
these, too, at dilTorcnt depths. As the barley-rows were Bcveo inches
asunder, the barley lay four inches deep. A little more than three
inches above that, in the same channels, was clover ; betwixt every
two of these rows was a row of St Fijin, covered half an inch deep.
"1 bad a good crop of barley the first year ; the next year two
crops of broad clover, wliero that was sown ; and whcro hop-clover
was sown, a mixed crop of that and St Foin ; but 1 am since, by
experience, so fully convinced of the folly of these, or any other
mixed crops, and more especially of narrow spaces, that I have
dcmolishecl these instruments, in their full pcrfeetion, as a vain
cariosity, the drift and use of them being contrary to the true
principles and practice of horse-hoeing."^
In the culture of wheat, ho began with ridges six feet
broad, or eleven on a breadth of 66 feet ; but on this he
afterwards had fourteen ridges. After trying different num-
bers of rows on a ridge, he at last preferred two, with an
intervening space of about 10 inches. He allowed only
three pecks of seed for an acre. The first hoeing was per-
formed by turning a furrow from the row, as soon as the
plant had put forth four or five leaves ; so that it was
done before or at the beginning of winter. The next hoeing
was in spring, by which the earth was returned to the
plants. The subsequent operations depended upon the
circumstances and condition of the land and the state of
the weather. The next year's crop of wheat was sown
upon the intervals which had been unoccupied the former
year ; but this he doe« not seem to think was a matter of
much consequence.
"My field," he observes, "whereon is now the thirteenth crop
of wheat, has shown that the rows may successfully stand upon
any part of the ground. The ridges of this field were, for the
twelfth crop, changed from six feet to four feet six inches. In
order for this alteration the ridges were ploughed down, and then
the next ridges were laid out the same way as the former, but one
foot six inclies narrower, and the double rows diilled on their
tops ; whereby, of consequence, there must bo some rows standing
on every paH of the ground, both on the former partitions and on
every part of the intervals. Notwitlistanding this, there was no
manner of difference in tho goodness of the rows ; and the whole
field was in every part of it equal, and the best, I believe, that
ever grew on it It is now the thirteenth crop, likely to be good,
though the land was not ploughed crossways.' ^
It follows, from this singular management, that Tull
thought a succession of crops of different species altogether
unnecessary; and he labours hard to prove against Dr
Woodward, that the advantages of such a change under his
plan of tillage were quite chimerical, though he seems to
admit the benefit of a change of the seed itself.
In cultivating turnips he made the ridges of the same
breadth as for wheat, but only one row was drilled on each.
His management, while the crop was growing, differs very
little from the present practice, ^\^len drilled on the level, it
is impossible, he observes, to hoe-plough them go well as when
they are planted upon ridges. But the seed was deposited
at different depths, the half about four inches deep, and
the other half exactly over that, at the depth of half an inch.
"Thus planted, let the weather bo never so dry, the deepest
eeed will come up, but if it rainoth immediately after planUng,
the shallow will come up first. "We also make it come up at four
times, by mixing our seed half new and half old, the new coming
np a day quicker than the old. These four comings np give it 80
» norse-hcein;; JTtisbandry, p. 62. Lond. 1762. * Hid. -p. ili
many chances r>r eycapiug the fly ; it being often seen that thy> sood
sown over night will bo destroyed by the fly, when that sown th»
next morning will escape, and vice versa : or you may hoe-i)lough
them when the fly is like to devour them ; this will bury tlie greatest
port of these enciiiics : or else you may di-ill in another row without
new-ploughing tlie land."
Drilling and horse and hand hoeing seem to have been in
use before the publication of Tull's book. "Hoeing," he says,
" may be divided into deep, which is our horse-hoeing ; and
shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing ; and also tho
shallow horse-hoeing used in some places betwixt rows,
where the intervals are very narrow, as 16 or 18 inches.
This is but an imitation of the hand-hoe, or a succedaneum
to it, and can neither supply the use of dung nor fallow,
and may be properly called scratch-hoeing." But in his
mode of forming ridges his practice seems to have been
original ; his implements display much ingenuity ; and his
claim to the title of father of the present horse-hoeing
husbandry of Great Britain seems indisputable. A trans-
lation of Tull's book was undertaken at one and the Sam's
time in France, by three different persons of consideration,
without the privity of each other. Two of them afterwards
pat their papers into the hands of the third, M. du Hamei
du Monccau, of the Ttoyal Academy of' Sciences at Paris,
who published a treatise. on husbandry, on the principle"
of Mr Tull, a few years after. But Tull seems to have had
very few followers in England .for more than thirty years.
The present method of drilling and horse-hoeing turnips
was not introduced into Northumberland till about the
year 1780;' and it was then borrowed from Scotland, the
farmers of which had the merit of first adopting Tull's
management in the culture of this root about ] 760. From
Scotland it made its way, but slowly, into the southern
parts of the island.
Tull's doctrines and practices being quite in advance of
his own times, were, as is usual in such cases, vehemently
opposed by his contemporaries. He was, in consequence,
involved in frequent controversy, in conducting which he
occasionally showed an asperity of temper which excites
our regret, but which is not to be wondered at, when we
consider the trials of patience which he encountered from
the unreasonable opposition of the agricultural community
to his improvemeuts ; the thwarting of his experiments by
his own labourers, who, in their ignoiant zeal against inno-
vations, wilfully broke his machines, and disregarded his
orders; and from acute and protracted bodily disease.
The soundness of his views and practice, as regards turnip
culture, came by-and-by to be acknowledged, and have
since been generally adopted, But it was only some
twenty-five years ago that his full merit began to be under
stood. The Rev. Jlr Smith, Ln his Word in Season, about
that time recalled attention to Tull's peculiar system of
wheat culture in a way that startled the whole community ;
while Professor Way, in a series of eloquent lectures
delivered before the Royal Agricultural Society, showed
that his science was true in the main, and even more strik-
ingly ahead of his times than his practice.
Among the English writers of this period may be men-
tioned Bradley, Lawrence, Hales, Miller, Elhs, Smith,
Hill, Hitt, Lisle, and Home. Most of their works went
through several editions in a few years, — at once a proof
of the estimation in which they were held, and of the
direction of the public mind towards investigating the
principles and practice of agriculture.
Of the progress of the art in Scotland, till towards the Scotland :
end of the 17th century, we are almost entirely ignor2nt. progress.
The first work, written by Ejonaldson, was printed in 1697,
onder the title of Husbandry Anatomized ; or, an Inquiry
into Uu Present Manner of Teiling and Manuring t/te
' A'ortiumbcTland Survey, p. 100.
SUMJIA.KY.]
AGRICULTURE
301
Crnund in SroChtnd. It appears from tliis treatise,' that
(he state of the art was not more advanced at that time in
North Britain than it had been in England in the time of
Fitzherbert. Farms were divided into iniield and outfield ;
■corn crops followed one another without the intervention
of fallow, cultivated herbage, or turnips, though something
13 said about fallowing the outfield ; inclosures were very
rare ; the tenantry had not begun to emerge from a state
of great poverty and depression ; and the wages of labour,
compared with the price of corn, were much lower than at
present ; though that price, at least in ordinary years, must
appear extremely moderate in our times. Leases for a term
of years, however, were not uncommon ; but the want of
capital rendered it impossible for the tenantry to attempt
any spirited improvements.
■ OonaWaou, Donaldson first points out the common management of
'697. that period, which he shows to have been very unproduc-
tive, and afterwards recommends what he thinks would
be a more profitable course.
"Of the dale ground," he says, "that is, such lands as are partly
hills and partly valleys, of which sorts may be comprehcndL-d the
greatest part of arable ground in this kingdom, 1 shall suppose a
tanner to have a lease or tack of three score acres, at three hundred
merl<3 of rent per annum (.^16, 139. 4d. sterling^. Perhaps some
who are not acquainted with rural afiairs may think this cheap ;
but those who are the possessors thereof think otherwise, and find
difficulty enough to get the same paid, according to their present
way of manuring thereof. But that 1 may proceed to the comparison,
I shall show how commonly this farm-room is managed. It is com-
monly divided into two parts, viz., one-third croft, and two- thirds
outfield, as it is termed. The croft is usually divided into three
parts: to wit, one-third barley, which is always dunged that year
barley is sown thereon; another third oats; and the last third
peas. The outside field is divided into two parts, to %vit, the one
Imlf oata, and the other half grass, two years successively. The
jiroduct which may be supposed to be on each acre of croft, four
bolls (three Winchester quarters), and that of the outfield, tliree (2|
^^uarters) ; the quota is seven score bolls, which we shall also
reckon at five pounds (83. 4d. ) per boll, cheap year and dear year
one with another. This, in all, is worth £700 (£68, 8s. 8d.
sterling),
"Then let ns see what profit he can maice of his cattle. Accord-
ing to the division of his lands there is 20 acres of grass, which
cannot bo expected to be very good, because it gets not leave to
lie above two years, an4 therefore cannot be -well swarded. How-
ever, usually, besides four horses, which are kept for ploughing
the said land, ten or twelve nolt are also kept upon a farm-room
of the above-mentioned bounds; but, in respect of the badness of
the grass, as said is, little profit is had of them. Perhaps two or
three stone of butter is the most that can be made of tho railk of
his kine the whole summer, and not above two heifers brought up
each year. As to what profit may be made by bringing up young
horses, I shall say nothing, supposing he keeps his stock good, by
those of his own upbringing. The whole product, then, of his
cattle cannot he reckoned above fifty merks (£2, 1.53. 6d.) For, in
rcsjicct his beasts are in a manner half-starved, they are generally
email; so that scarce may a heifer be sold at above twelve pounds
<£1 sterling). The whole product of his farm-room, therefore,
exceeds not the value of £733 (£G1, Is. 8d. sterling), or thereabout. "
The labourers employed on this farm were two men and
one woman, besides a herd ia suimher, and other servants
in harvest.
Donaldson then proceeds to point out a difTerent mode
of management, which he calculates to bo more profit-
able ; but no notice is taken of either clover or turnips
as crops to be raised in his new course, though they are
incidentally noticed in other parts of the work.
"I also recommend potatoes as a very profitable root for hnsband-
incn ami others that have numerous families. And because there
ifl a peculiar way of planting this root, not commonly known in this
oounti-y, I ehall here show what way it is ordinary planted or set.
Tho ground must bo dry ; and so much the better it is if it have a
good 6o.anl of gross. Tho beds or rigga aro made al)out eight foot
road, good store of dung being laid upon your ground ; horso or
«hcep dung is the proper manure for them. Throw each potatoo or
'8tt (for they were sometimes cut into setta) into a knot of dung.
«nd afterwards dig earth out of tho furrows, and cover , them all
over, abonf some three or foor inches deep ; tho furrow left between
four riggs must bo abont two foot broad, and ''Itlo loss will thoy
be in depth before your potatoes be covered. You need not plant
this root in your garden ; they are commonly set in tho fields, and
wildest of ground, for enriching of it." As to their coasumption,
they were sometimes "boiled and broken, and stirred with butter
and new milk ; also roasted, and eaten with butter ; yea, some make
bread of thera, by mix.'ng them with oat or barley meal ; others
parboil them and bake with them apples, after the manner of
tarts."
There is a good deal in this little treatise about sheep,
and other branches of husbandry ; and, if the writer waa
well informed, as in most instances he appears to have
been, his account of prices, of wages, and generally of tin
practices of that period, is very interesting.
The next work on the husbandry of Scotland is, The Belhavev
Countryman's Rudiments, or an advice to the Farmers 1723.
in Sail Lothian, how to labour and improve their grounds,
said to have been written by Lord Belhavcn about the
time of the Union, and reprinted in 1723. In this we
have a deplorable picture of the state of agriculture in
what is now the most highly improved county in Scot-
land. His lordship begins with a very high encomium
on his own performance. " I dare be bold to say,
there was never such a good easy method of husbandry
as this, so succinct, extensive, and methodical in aU its
parts, published before." And he bespeaks the favour
of those to whom he addresses himself, by adding, "neither
shall I affright you with hedging, ditching, marling,
chalking, paring, and burning, draining, watering, and
such like, which are all very good improvements indeed,
and very agreeable with the soil and situation of East
Lothian ; but I know ye cannot bear as yet a crowd of
improvements, this being only intended to initiate you in
the true method and principles of husbandry." The farm-
rooms in East Lothian, as in other districts, were divided
into infield and outfield.
"The infield (where wheat is sown) ia generally divided hy the
tenant into four divisions or breaks, as they caU them, viz, one
of wheat, one of barley, one of pease, and one of oats, so that the
wheat is sowd after the pease, the barley after the wheat, and the
oata after the barley. The outfield land is ordinarily made use ol
promiscuously for feeding of their cows, horse, sheep, and oxen ;
tis also dunged by their sheep who lay in earthen folds ; and some-
tiines, when they have much of it, they fauch or fallow a part of it
yearly."
Under this management the produce seems to have been
three times the seed ; and yet, says his lordship, " if in
East Lothian they did not leave a higher stubble than in
other places of the kingdom, their grounds would be in a
much worse condition than at present they are, though bad
enough." — " A good crop of corn makes a good stubble,
and a good stubble is the equalest mucking that is."
Among the advantages of inclosvires, he observes, "you
will gain much more labour from your servants, a great
part of whose time was taken up in gathering thistles and
other garbage for their horses to feed upon in their stables ;
and thereby the great trampling and pulling up, and other
destHTction of the corns, while they are yet tender, will be
prevented." Potatoes and turnips are recommended to be
so,wn in the yard (kitchen-garden). Clover does not seem
to have been in use. Rents were paid in corn ; and, for
the largest farm, which he thinks should employ no more
than two ploughs, the rent was about six chalders of victual
" when the ground is very good, and four in that which 13
not so good. But I am most fully convinced they should
take long leases or tacks, that they may not be straitened
with tune in the improvement of their rooms ; and this i«
profitable both for master and tenant"
Such was the state of the husbandry of Scotland in the Society of
earl^ part of last century. The first attempts at improvement Improvers
cannot be traced farther back than 1723, when a number of
landholders formed themselves into a society, under the title
of the Society of Improver! in the Knowledge of AffrictAtytre
302
AGRICULTURE
[recent
MmwoII,
17J3.
First
iVreshing-
r.,ichine.
in Scotland. Tlie Earl of Stair, oiio of their most active
members, ig said to have been the first who cultivated
tvirnipa in that countrj-. The Sttfci Tranmcliont of this
Eociety were collected and published in 1743 by Mr Maxwell,
who took a large part in its proceedings. It is evident
from this book that the society had exerted itself in a very
laudable manner, and apparently with considerable success,
in introducing cultivated herbage and turnips, as well as
iu improving the former methods of culture. But there is
reason to believe that the influence of the example of its
numerous members did not extend to the common tenantry,
who are always unwilling to adopt the practices of those
who are paced in a higher rank, and suppose^ to cultivate
land for pleasure rather than profit. Though this society,
the earliest probably in the United Kingdom, soon counted
upwards of 300 members, it existed little more than 20
years. Maxwell delivered lectures on agriculture for one
or two sessions at Edinburgh, which, from the specimen
. ho has left, ought to have been encouraged.
In the introductory paper in ilaxwell's collection, we
are told, that —
"Tbo practice of dmininff, inclosing, suinmor fallowing, sowing
n.ix, hcin)i, rape, turnip ana gnuts seeds, plaming cabbages after,
and poUtui'S with, the plougli, iu Gelds of great exteut, is introduced ;
and tiiat, according to the general opinion, more corn grows now
yearly where it was never known to grow before, these twenty years
liuit past, than porbaps a sixth of all that tho kuigdom was in use
to produce at any timo bcforo."
In this work wo find tho first notice of a threshing-
machine : it was invented by Mr Michael Mcnzies, advo-
cate, who obtained a patent for it. Upon a representation
made to tho society that it was to be seen working in
several places, they appointed two of their number to in-
Rptct it ; and in their report they say, that one man would
bo sufficient to manage a machine which would do the work
of sji. One of the machines was "moved by a great
water-wheel and triddles," and another " by a little wheel
of three feet diameter, moved by a small quantity of water."
This machine the society recommended to all gentlemen
and fanners.
Tho next work is by tho same >Ir Maxwell, printed in
1757, and entitled the Practical Husbandvian ; leing a
collection of miscellancotis papers on Husbandly, ita In
this book the greater part of the Select Transactions is re-
published, with a number of new papers, among which, an
Essay on tlie Husbandry of Scotland, with a proposal for
the improvement of it, is the most valuable. In this he
lays it dowTi as a rule, that it is bad husbandry to take
two crops of grain successively, which marks a consider-
able progress in the knowledge of modern husbaudi-y ;
though ho adds, that in Scotland the best husbandmen
after a fallow take a crop of wheat ; after the wheat, peas ;
then barley, and then oats; and after that they fallow
again. The want of inclosures was still,, a matter of
complaint. Tho ground continued to be cropped so
long as it produced two seeds; the best farmers were
contented with four seeds, which was more than the
general produce.
The first Act of Parliament for collecting tolls on the
highway in Scotland was passed in 1750, for repairing
the road from Dunglass bridge to Haddington. In ten
years after, several Acts followed for the counties of Edin-
burgh and Lanark, and for making tho roads between
Edinburgh and Glasgow. The benefit whicij agriculture
has derived from good roads it would not be easy to esti-
mate. The want of them was one great cause of the slow
progress of the art in former times.
The Revolution in 16S8 was the epoch of that system of
corn laws to which very great influence has been ascribed,
both on the practice of agriculture and the general pro-
sperity of the couutiy. But for an account of those and.
later statutes ou the subject, we must refer to the article-
Cork Laws.
The exportation of wool was prohibited iu 16-17, in
ICCO, and in 1688; and the prohibition strictly enforced
by subsequent statutes. The effect of this on its price,
and tho state of the wool trade, from tho earliest period
to the middle of last century, are distinctly exhibited by
the learned and laborious author of Miinoirt on, IIW,-
printed in 1747.
CHAPTER IL
EECENT BEITISH AGEICtJLTUBE.
Section, 1. — Progress during the Eighteenth Century.
Before entering upon a description of the agriculture of
Great Britain at the present day, it may help to set matter*
in a clearer light if we take just so much of a retrospect,
as will serve as a back -ground to our picture.
At the beginning of the 18th century the agnculturo
of our country was still of the rudest kind. With th»
exception of certain parts of England, the land was still
for the most part unenclosed, the live stock of eacJr
to^vnship grazing together, and the arable land beij ./;
occupied in common field or run-rig. The practice of
fallowing annually a portion of the arable land, and of
interposing a crop of peas betwixt the cereal crops, was-
becoming a common practice, and was a great improvement-
upon the previous and yet common usage of growing
successive corps of white-corn until tho land was utterly
exhausted, when it was left to recruit itself by resting in a-
state of nature, while other portions were undergoing tic
samo process. Clover and turnips had been introduced,
before this date, and were coming gradually into cultivatioa
as field crops in tho more advanced parts of England.
Potatoes were commonly grown in gardens, but had not
yet found their way to tho fields.
The gradual advance in the price of farm produce boob
after the year 1 760, occasioned by the increase of populatioa
and of wealth derived from manufactures and commerca,^
gave a powerful stimulus to rural industry, augmented
agricultural capital, and called forth a more skilful and
enterprising race of farmers. The arable lands of th&
country, which, under the operation of the feudal system,
had been split up into minute portions, cultivated by the
tenants and their families without hired labour, began now
to bo consolidated into larger holdings, and let to those
tenants who possessed most energy and substance. Tiiis
enlargement of farms, and in Scotland the letting of them
under leases for a considerable term of years, continued to
be a marked feature in the agricultural progress of tho
country untO the end of tho century, and is to be regarded
both as a cause and a consequence of that progress. Tho
passing of more than 3000 inclosuro bills during the reign,
of Geo. III., before which the whole number was but 244,
shows how rapidly the cultivation of new land now
proceeded. The disastrous American war for a time
interfered with the national prosperity; but -with the return
of peace in 1783, the cultivation of tho countrj- made more
rapid progress. The quarter of a century immediately
following 1760, is memorable iu our agricultural annals for
the introduction of various important improvements. It
was during this period that the genius of BakeweU produced Bakewell
such an extraordinary change in the character of our mora
important breeds of live stock ; but especially by the
perfecting of a new race of sheep— the well-known Leiccsters
— which have ever since proved such a boon to the country,
and have added so much to its wealth. BakeweU's fame
as a breeder was for a rime enhanced by the improvement
which he effected on the long-homed catde, then the
s.]
AGRICULTURE
SO:i
Cullcj
[ircvailiiig breed of the midland counties of England.
These, however, were ere long rivalled, and have now been
entirely superseded by the shorthorn or Durham breed,
which the brothers Colling obtained from the useful race
of cattle that had long existed in the valley of the Tees, by
applying to them the principle of breeding which Bakewell
had already established. A more rational system of
cropping now began very generally to supersede the thriftless
and barbarous practice just referred to of sowing successive
crops of corn until the land was utterly exhausted, and
then leaving it foul with weeds, to recover its power by
an indefinite period of rest. Green crops, such as turnips,
clover, and ryegrass, began to be alternated with grain
crops, and hence the name alternate htishandr-y^ by which
this improved system is generally known. The land v.as
now also generally rendered clean and mellow by a summer
fallow before being sown with clover or grasses.
Hitherto the husbandly of England had been very
superior in every respect to that of Scotland. Improvements
now, however, made rapid progress in the latter. Mr
Dawson, at Frogden, in Roxburghshire, is believed to have
been the fii'st who grevv turnips as a field crop to any
extent This enterprising farmer having heard of the
success with which this crop was cultivated in certain parts
of England, took the precaution of seeing for himself the
most approved mode of doing so before attempting to
introduce it on his own farm. He accordingly went to
Leicestershire, and presenting himself to the celebrated
Bakewell in the garb of a Scotch ploughman, hired himself
to him for six months in that capacity. HaWng in this
thoroughly practical way acquired the knowledge he was
in quest of, he told his employer (who would fain have
retained him longer) that it was full tune for him to be
home to his o\vn large farm. The season was too advanced
to admit of his doing more that year than sow a few
experimental drills, but the very Jiext year he is said to
have sown 70 acres. We have been unable to ascertain
the exact date of this occurrence, but it is on record that
as early as 17G4 Mr Dawson had 100 acres of drilled
turnips on his farm in one yeat?
A few years after this the Messrs Culley — one of them
also a pupil of Bakewell — left their paternal property on
the banks of the Tees, and settled on the Northumbrian
side of the Tweed, bringing with them the valuable breeds
of live stock and unproved husbandry of their native
district The improvements introduced by these energetic
and skilful farmers spread rapidly, and eJcerted a most
, beneficial influence upon the border counties. An Act
passed in 1770, which relaxed the rigour of strict entails,
and afforded power to landlords to grant leases and other-
\^se improve their estates, had a beneficial effect on Scottish
agriculture. From 1784 to 1795 improvements advanced
with steady stejis. This period was distinguished for the
general adoption and industrious working out of ascertained
improvements. Small's swing plough, and Meiklo's thrash-
ing-machine, although invented some years before this,
^vere now perfected and brought into general use, to the
great furtherance of agriculture. Two important additions
were about this time made to the field crops, viz., the
Swedish turnip and potato oat. The latter was accidentally
discovered in 178S, and both soon came into general
cultivation. In the eame year Merino sheep were intro-
duced by his Majesty, George III., who was a zealous
farmer. For a time this breed attracted much attention,
and Banguino expectations were enterta'med that it would
prove of national importanca Its unfitness for the pro-
duction of mutton, and increasing supplies of fine clothing
Tool from other countries, boou led to its total rejection.
In Scotland, the opening up of the country by the
'Constniction of practicable roids, and the ondoHing and
subdividing of farms by hedge and ditch, was now in active
progress. The former admitted of the general use of
wheel-carriages, of the ready conveyance of produce to •
markets, and in particular, of the extended use of Hine,
the application of which was immediately followed by a
great increase of produce. The latter, besides its more
obvious advantages, speedily freed large tracts of country
from stagnant water, and their inhabitants from ague,
and prepared the way for the under-ground draining whicb-
soon after began to be practised.
Section 2. — Remarkable progress from 1795 to 1815.
The agriculture of the country was thus steadily imjjrov
ing, when suddenly the whole of Europe became involved
in the wars of the French Revolution. In 1795, under
the joint operation of a deficient harvest, and the cutting-
off of foreign supplies of grain by the policy of Napoleon^,
the pnce of wheat, which, for the twenty preceding year:-',
had been under 503. a quarter, suddenly rose to 81.S. Gd.,
and in the following year reached to 9Gs. In 1797 the
fear of foreign invasion led to a panic and nin upon the
banks, in which emergency the Bank Restriction Act,
suspending cash payment, was passed, and- ushered in a
system of unlimited credit transactions. Under the un
natural stimulus of these extraordinary events, everj'
branch of industry extended with unexampled rapidity.
But in nothing was this so apparent as in agriculture ; the
high prices of produce holding out a great inducement to
improve lands then arable, to reclaim others that had.
previously lain waste, and to bring much pasture-land
under the plough. Nor did this increased tillage interfere
with the increase of live stock, as the green crops of the
alternate husbandry more than compensated for the dimi-
nished pasturage. This extraordinary state of matters,
lasted , from 1795 to 1814; the prices of produce even
increasing towards the close of that period. The average
price of wheat for the whole period was 89s. 7d. per-
quarter; but for the- last five years it was 107s., and in
1812 it reached to I2C3. 6d. The agriculture of Grea^
Britain, as a whole, advanced -n-ith rapid strides during
this period; but nowhere was the change so great as in:
Scotland Indeed, its progress there, during these twenty
years, is probably without parallel in the history of any-
other country. This is accounted for by a concurrenco of
circumstances. Previous to this period, the husbandry of
Scotland waa stiU in a backward state as compared with.
the best districts of England, where many practices, only
of recent introduction in the north, had been in general use
for generations. This disparity made the subsequent
contrast the more striking. The land in Scotland was
now, with trifling exceptions, let on leases for terms varying
from twenty to thirty years, and in farms of sufficient size
to employ at the least two or three ploughs. The unlimited
issues of Government paper, and the security afforded by
these leases, induced the Scotch backs to afford evei-y
facility to landlords and tenants to embark capital in the
improvement of the , land. The substantial education
supplied by the parish schools, of which nearly the whole
population could then avail themselves. Lad diffused through
all ranks such a measure of intelligence as enabled them
promptly to discern, and skilfully and energetically to take
advantage of this spring-tide of prosperity, and to profit
by the agricultural information now plentifully furnished
by means of the Bath and West of England Society,
established in 1777, the Highland Society, instituted in
1784, and the National Board of Agriculture, in 1793 —
of whidi, hiiwcver, more anon. As one proof of the
astonishing progress of Scottish husbandry during thi»
period, we may mention that the rental of land, which in
1795 amounted to £3.000,000, had in 1815 ri.sen to,
304
A li K i U U L T TJ R E
^5,278,685, or causidirably more tli^n aouole in twenty
But of the causes which have iflflucnced the agriculture
of the period under review, none have been bo powerful as
the extraordinary increase of our population, which, in
round numbers, has twice doubled during the past seventy
years. Not only are there four times as many people
requiring to be fed and clad now as there were then, but
from the increased wealth and altered habits of the people,
the individual rate of consumption is greater now than
formerly. This is particularlyapparcnt in the caseof butcher-
meat, the consumption of which has iucrea.scd out of all
proportion to that of bread-corn. To meet this demand,
there behoved to bo more green crops and more live stock ;
and from that has resulted more wool, more manure, and
moro corn. While this over-growing demand for farra-
pruduco has stimulated agricultural improvement, it has
also operated in another way. The productiveness of the
soil has beep greatly increased, and will no doubt bo- still
inoro so in future ; but the area of the country cannot bo
increased. Land — the raw material from which food is
produced — being thus limited in amount and in increasing
demand, has necessarily risen in price. So much b this
the case, that whereas the average price of wheat for the
five years preceding 1872 was £2, 15s. per quarter, or
£2, 78. 6d. less than during the five years preceding
1815, the rent of land is much higher now than it was
then. The raw material of the food-grower having thus
risen in price, his only resource has been to fall upon plans
for lowering the cost of producing his crops and for
increasing their amount. To such an extent has he
succeeded, that the produce market has been kept full
and prices have decreased. The business of farming has
in the main been a less prosperous one than most other
branches of national industry, and yet agriculture, as an
-art and as a science, has made steady progress. We
believe it is only in this way that the contemporaneous
•existence of two things apparently so incompatible as a
-steady rise in the rent of land, and a steady decrease in the
price of Its produce, can be satisfactorily accounted for.
PBOGRESS SINCE 1815.
Section 3. — Laws affecting Agriculture.
The abundant crop of 1 81 3, and restored communication
■with the continent of Europe in the same year, gave the
first check to these unnaturaUy exorbitant prices and rents.
Jhe restoration of peace to Europe, and the re-enactment
ot the Corn Laws in 1815, mark the commencement of
•another era in the history of our national agriculture It
was ushered in with a time of severe depression and
suffering to the agricultural community. The immense
faU in the price of farm-produce which then took place
»va3 aggravated, first, by the unpropitious weather and
deficient harvest of the years 1816, 1817 ; and stiU more
by the passmg m 181 9 of the BiU restoring cash payments
which, coming into operation in 1821, caused serioui
embarrassment to all persons who had entered into en-age-
ments at a depreciated currency, which had now to be°met
with the lower prices of an enhanced one. The much-
debated Corn Laws, after undergoing various modifications
.and proving the fruitful source of business uncertainty
uocvil discontent and angry partizanship, were finally
.abolished in 1846 although the Act was not consummated
untU three years kter. Several other Acts of the Le<Ts-
lature, passed during this period, have exerted an important
iinfiuence on agricultura Of these, the first in date and
^importance is the Tithe Commutation Act of 1836 All
■writers on agriculture had long concurred in pointing out
lUie^jurious eflfects on agriculture of the tithe sysUm as
fet than stood. The results of the change have amply
[eecent
verified the ftJitieipations of those who were instrumental
in procuring it. Since the removal of thin formidable
hindrance, improvement has been stimulated by those Acta
under which the Government has been empowered to
advance money on certain conditions for the draining of
estates. An important feature in these advances is, that
the 6 J per cent, of interest charged upon them provides a
sinking fund by which the.debt is extinguished in twenty-
two years. Additional facilities have also been gTant«.l
by the Act passed in 1848 for disentailing estates, and for
burdening such as are entailed with a share of the cost of
certain specified improvements.
Section 4. — Cattle Murrain and Potato Disease.
Another class of outward events, which has had an
important influence upon agriculture, requires our notice.
Wo refer to tho>;e mysterious diseases affecting both the
animal and vegetable kingdoms, the causes and remedies
for ivhich have alike baflled discovery. The murrain, or
" vesicular epizootic," appeared first in 1841, having been
introduced, as is supposed, by foreign cattle. It spread
rapidly over the country, affecting aU our domesticated
animals, except horses, and causing everywhere great alarm
and loss, although seldom attended by fatal results. It
has prevailed ever since, in a greater or less degree, and
has been moro widely diffused as well as more virulent in
1871 and 1872 than ever befora It was soon followed
by the more terrible lungniisease, or pleuro-pneumonia,
which continues to cause serious mortality among our
herds. In 1865 the rinderpest, or steppe murrain, origi-
nating amongst the vast herds of the Eussian steppes,
where it would appear to be never altogether wanting,
had spread westward over Europe, until it was brought to
London by foreign cattle. Several weeks elapsed before
the true character of the disease was known, and in this
brief .space it had already been carried by animals purchased
in SmithCeld market to all parts of the country. After
causing the most frightful losses, it was at last stamped
out by the resolute slaughter of all affected animals and of
all that had been in contact ■with them. In the autumn
of 1872 this cattle plague was again detected in several
cargoes of foreign cattle brought to our ports. Happily the
stringent provisions of the Contagious Diseases (Animals)
Act had the effect of preventing its entrance, except in the
case of one cargo brought to HuU, from which the plague
■was conveyed to several herds in the adjacent parts of
Yorkshire, and caused considerable losses before it was
again stamped out Severe as have been the losses in our
flocks and herds from these imported diseases, they have
been as nothing in comparison with the effects of the
mysterious potato blight, which, first appearing in 184^
has since pervaded the whole of Europe, and in Ireland
especially proved the sad precursor of famine and pestilence.
This seemingly insignificant blight for a time well-nigh
withdrew from cultivation one of our most esteemed field
crops ; it influences the business of farming in a way that
bailies the shrewdest calculators, and is producing social
changes of which no man can predict the issue.
Section 5. — Leading Improveme^''
We can here do little more than enumerate some of the
more prominent improvements in practical agriculture which
have taken place during the period under review. Before
the close of the past century, and during the first quarter
of the present one, a good deal had been done in the wjy
of draining the land, either by open ditches, or by Elking-
ton's system of deep covered drains. This system has now
been superseded by one altogether superior to it both in
principk and practice. In 1835, James Smith of Deanston
(honour to his memory !) promulgated his now well-known
i-EOGKESS.]
AGRICULTURE
305
.system, of tnorougli draining and deep ploughing. It
las been carried out already to sucli an extent as to
,:alter the very appearance and character of whole districts
of our country, and has prepared the way for all other
improvements. The words "Portable Manures" indicate
at once another prominent feature ta the agriculture of the
times. Early in the present century, ground bones began
to be used as a manure for turnips in the eastern counties
of England, whence the practice spread, at first slowly, and
then very rapidly, over the whole counti-y. It was about
1825 that bones began to be generally used in Scotland. In
1841 the stUl more potent guano was introduced into Great
Britain ; and about the same time, bones, under the new
form of supei^hosphate of lime. By means of these
invaluable fertilisers, a stimidus has been given to agri-
culture which can scarcely be over-rated.
The labour of agriculture has been greatly lightened,
and its cost curtailed, by means of improved implements
and machines. The steam-engine has taken the place of
the jaded horses as a thrashing power. This was first
done in East Lothian by Mr Aitchison of Drumore, who
about 1803 had his thrashing-machinery, at his distUlery
and farm of Clement's Wells, attached to a steam-engine,
which was erected for him a few years previously by Bolton
and Watt, for the works of the distillery. About 1818-20
several steam-engines on the condensing principle were
erected in East Lothian, solely for the propelling of
thrashing-machinery. One of these, put up by Mr Reid
of Drem, at a cost of £600, is still doing its work there,
and, strange to say, after the lapse of iifty-five years, looks
as well and is as efficient as when first erected. It would
be tedious to particularise other instances in this department,
as it wUl be treated of fully in its proper place. It i£
especially in this department that the influence of the ever-
memorable Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations in
1851 has told upon agriculture. Reaping by machinery
may virtually be regarded as one of the fruits of that great
gathering.
The railways, by which the country is now intersected
in all directions, have proved of great service to farmers,
by conveying their bulky produce to distant markets
cheaply and quickly, and by making Lime and other manures
available to the occupiers of many inland and remote
districts. In nothing has this benefit been more apparent
than in the case of fatted live stock, which is now invariably
transported by this means with manifest economy to aU
concerned.
During the whole of this period there has been going on
Teat improvement in all our breeds of domesticated animals.
This has been manifested not so much in the production of
individual specimens of high merit — in which respect the
Leicesters of Bakewell, or the short-horns of Colling, have
perhaps not yet been excelled — as in the diffusion of these
and other good breeds over the country, and in the improved
quality of our live stock as a whole. The fattening of
animals is now conducted on more scientific principles.
Increased attention has also been successfully bestowed on
the improvement of our field crops. Improved varieties,
obtained by cross-impregnation, either naturally or arti-
ficially brought about, have been carefuUy propagated, and
generally adopted. Increased attention is now bestowed
on the cultivation of the natural grasses. The most
important additions to our list of field crops during this
period have been Italian rye-grass, winter beans, white
Belgian carrbt, sugar beet, and alsiko clover.
Section 6. — Increase and Difusion of ArjricuUurai
Krwwlcdye.
IjCt us look now at the means by which, during this
period, agricultural knowledge has at once been increased
and difFused. Notice has already been taken of the
institution of the Highland Society and the National Board
of Agriculture. These patriotic societies were the means of
collecting a vast amount of statistical and general informa-
tion connected with agriculture, and by their publications
and premiums made known the practices of the best-farmed
districts of the country, and encouraged their adoption
elsewhere. These national associations were soon aided
in their important labours by numerous local societies
which sprang up in all parts of the kingdom. After
a highly useful career, under the zealous presidency of
Sir John Sinclair, the Board of Agriculture was dissolved,
but has left in its Statistical Account, county surveys, and
other documents, much interesting and valuable information
regarding the 'agriculture of that period. In 1800 the
original Farmers' Magazine entered upon its useful career
under the editorship of Robert Brown of Markle, the
author of the well-known treatise on Rm-al Affairs. The
Highland Society having early extended its operations tu
the whole of Scotland, by-and-by made a corresponding
addition to its title, and as the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland continues to occupy its important
sphere with a steadily increasing membership, popularity,
and usefulness. As its revenue and experience increased,
it gradually extended its op.?ration3. In 1828, shortly
after the discontinuance of the Farmers' Magazine, its
Prize Essays and Transactions began to be issued statedly
in connection with the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, a
periodical which until recently occupied a prominent place
iu our professional literature. This society early began to
hold a great annual show of live stock, implements, i-c,
the popularity of which continues unabated. In 1842, Mr
John Finnie at Swanstone, near Edinburgh, having sug-
gested to some of his neighbours the desirableness of
obtaining the aid of chemistry to guide farmers in many
departments of their business, the hint was promptly acted
upon, and these Mid-Lothian tenant-farmers had the merit
of originating an Agricultural Chemistry Association (the
first of its kind), by which funds were raised, and an
eminent chemist engaged, for the express purpose of con-
ducting such investigations as the title of the society implies.
After a successful trial of a few years this association was
dissolved, transferring its functions to the Highland and
Agricultural Society, which has ever since devoted much
of its attention to this subject. The nature and impor-
tance of the services which labourers in this department
of science have rendered to agriculture may be gathered
from the society's Transactions, and numerous other pub-
lications of a similar kind. The Highland Society has of
late years established itself on a broader basis, and imparted
new energy to its operations by lowering its admission-
fee in behalf of tenant-farmers, who have in consequence
joined it in great numbers, and now take an important
part in the conduct of its business. The practice adopted
by it, aljout the same time, of holding periodical meetings
for the discussion of important practical questions, by means
of essays, prepared by carefully selected writers, did good
service, too, to the cause of agricultural progress.
The adoption by Government of a proposal made Dy
this society, to collect the agricultural statistics of Scotland,
showed at once how thoroughly it enjoyed the confidence
of the tenantry, and how easily, and by what simple and
inexpensive machinery, this most important and interesting
inquiry could be conducted. Through an unfortunate
misunderstanding between the Government and the society
on a mere technical point, this most useful inquiry came
to an abrupt termination, after having been conducted for
five years. This brief experiment had, however, proved so
conclusively the value of such statistics, and the case with
which they could be collected, that the Government soon
306
AGRICULTURE
PEACriCE^
after look the matter in hand, and has ever since, through
tlio agency of the ofBcers of luland Revenue, obtained
annual returns of cropping and live stock for the whole of
CJreat Britain.
The obvious success of this National Scottish Society has
icd to the formation of similar ones in England and in
Ireland. The former, instituted in 1838, and shortly
afterwards incorporated by royal charter, at once entered
upon a career of usefulness, the extent of which cannot
well be overrated. Its membership— comprising the most
influcntiai persons in the kingdom — and its revenues are
now 60 large as to enable it to conduct its proceedings on
a scale befitting its position and objects. These are of a
varied cliaracter, but its cCTorts are concentrated upon its
journal and annual show. The former, published twice
a-j'car, is chiclly composed of the essays and reports to
which the liberal prizes of the society have been awarded,
and undoubtedly stands at the head of our present agri-
cultural periodicals. At the annual shows of the society,
a proraiocut place is assigned to implements and machines.
Such as admit of it, are subjected to comparative trials,
which are conducted with such skill and pains that the
awards command the entire cnnfidenco of exhibitors and
their customers. Tlie extent and rapidity of the im-
provement in agricultural machinery which the society
lias been mainly instrumental in effecting are altogether
extraordinary.
There are few market towns of any importance that have
not their organised club or occasional gathering of the
farmers in their neighbourhood, for the discussion of
professional topics. We have now also a goodly list of
agricultural periodicals, both weekly and monthly, most of
thera ably conducted, which are extensively read, and are
the means of collecting and diffusing much valuable know-
ledge, which, but for them, would often, as in former times,
perish with its authors, or be confined to corners. The
facilities now afforded by railways for cheap and expeditious
travelling, induce most farmers to take an occasional peep
at what is going on beyond their own- ncighbourhooi
This, more than anything, deals death-blows to prejudices,
and extends good husbandry.
Literature The literature of agriculture has been enriched by the
contributions of many able wTiters. Some deserve to be
particularly mentioned. The volumes of the late David
Low, Esq., on Practical Agriculture, Landed Propert!/ and
Economy of Landed Estates, and Domesticated Animals,
must ever be of standard &-athority on their respective
_ subjects. Mr Henry Stephens' £ook of the Farm, and Mr
J. C. Morton's Cyclopccdia of Agnculture, are invaluable
to the agricultural student for their fulness, and for the
minuteness of their details. Mr Caird's English Agriculture
supplies the means for a most interesting comparison with
the descriptions left to us by ^Ulhur Young. Mr Hoskyn's
History of Agriculture and Chronicles of a Clay Farm are
the very gems of our professional literature. In a series
of essays on our Farm Crops by Professor John Wilson
of Edinburgh, the scientific and the practical are most
happily combined. Among the more recent publications
of value may bo mentioned Loudon's Encycl'>pa:dia ; How
Crops Grout, by Mr Johnson; M'Combie's Cattle and
Caille-BreeJers ; iiiechi'a How to Farm Profitably ; Hosier's
Practical PcmarK's on Agricultural Drainage; Todd's
American WJieat Cullurist, iic. Johnston, Anderson, Way,
and Voelcker, have done admirable service in expound-
ing the chemistry of agriculture; Youatt, Spooner, and
Vasey, its zoology; and Smith, Parkcs, Webster, Bailey,
Denton, Scott Burn, and Starforth, ita engineering,
mechanicii, and architecture.
In re\-iewing the history of our national agriculture for
the pa:.t sixty years, it is pleasing to note the growing
intelligence aisplayed by our africultnrists in the proso
cution of their calling. It is curious, also, to observe the
analogy between the order of that progress, and that which
is usually observcvi in individual minds. For a long time
we see agricultural societies and writers occupying them-
selves chiefly about the practical details and statistics ol
husbandry.and attaching much importance toempirical rulesi
Gradually, "however, we observe, along with a zealous
collecting of facts, a grov/ing disposition to investigate
the causes of things, and desire to know the reason why one
practice is preferable to another. When, therefore, tho
Royal Agricultural Society adopted as its mctto, " Practice
with Science," it expressed not more the objects to be aimed
at in its own proceedings, than the characteristic feature oi
our present stage of agricultural progress.
CHAPTER in.
PEACTICE OF BIUTISn AGRICULTtTRB.
We shall now endeavour to present a picture of British
agriculture in its present state. In doing this, we shall
take much the same course which we should pursue, if we
were asked to conduct a visitor over our own farm, and to
give him a detailed account of its cultivation and manage-
ment In the case supposed, we should, first of all, explain
to him that the farm comprises a great diversity of soils;
that its fields are very variously circumstanced as regards
climate, altitude, exposure, and distance from the home-
stead ; and that in its tillage, cropping, and general
management, regard must be had to these diversities,
whether natural or artificial We should then conduct
him through the homestead, pointing out the position and
uses of the various farm buildings and of the machinery
and implements contained in them. From thence we
should proceed to the fields to examine their fences and the
tillage operations. With some observations about the
succession of crops, and the manures applied to them, there
would follow an examination of the cultivated crops, pastures,
and meadows, of the live stock of tho farm, and of the
measures adopted Ln reclaiming certain waste lands belong-
ing to it. This 6ur\-ey being completed, there would
naturally follow some discussion about the tenure of bnd,
the capital required for its profitable cultivation, the con-
dition ol farm labourers, the necessity for devoting more
attention to the education of the agricultural community,
and the duty of the Legislature to remove certain obstruc-
tions to agricultural improvement.
Section 1. — Soils.
Tho soil constituting the subject matter on which the
husbandman operates, its character necessarily regulates
to a large extent the nature of his proceedings. The soil
or surface covering of tho earth in which plants are
produced is exceedingly varied in its qualities. Being
derived from the disintegration and decomposition of the
rocks which constitute the soUd crust of the globe, with a
mixture of vegetable and animal remains, soils take their
character from that of the rocks from which they have
chiclly been derived. There is thus a generally prevailing
resemblance between the soils of a district and the rocks
over which they lie, so that a knowledge of the composition
of the one aflbrds a key to the character of the other.
But this connection is modified by so many circumstances,
that it is altogether impossible by the mere study of
geology to acquire an easy and certain rule for determining
the agricultural character of thj soil of any particular
district or field, as it has been tho fashion with some writers
of late ycara to assert " WTien, indeed, we regard a
considerable tract of land, we can for the most pjrt trace
a connection between the subjacent deposits and the
subsoil, and consequently the soil Thus, in a country of
SOILS, ETC.]
AGRICULTURE
307
sandstone and arenaceous beds, we shall find the soil sandy ;
in one of limestone, more or less calcareous ; in one of
schistose rocks, more or less clayey. But even in tracts of
the same geological formation, there exist great diiTerences
in the upper stratum, arising from the prevalence of^ne or
other member of the series, or from the greater or less
inclination of the strata, by which the debris of the
different beds are more or less mixed together on the
surface. The action of ^ater, too, in denuding the surface
at one part, and canying the debris in greater or smaller
quantity to another, exercises everj-nhere an important
influence on the character of soils. Thus the fertility of a
soil on the higher ground, fron which the earthy particles
are washed, is found to be ven different from that of the
valley to which the?e particles are carried. It is seen
accordingly, that within the limits of the same geological
formation, soils are greatly varied, and that the mere
knowledge of the formation will not enable us to predicate
the character of the soil of any given tract, either with
respect to its texture, its composition, or its productiveness. "^
Even a very limited acquaintance with the geology of
Great Britain serves, however, to account for the exceed-
ingly diversified character of its soils. The popular defini-
tions of soils — and to these it is saiest for practical farmers
to adhere— have respect to theii' most obvious qualities.
Thus they are designated from their composition, as clays,
loams, sands, gravels, chalks, or peats; or from their texture,
in which respect those in which clay predominates are
called heavy, stiff, or impervious; and the others light,
friable, or porous. From the tendency of the former to
retain moistiue they are often spoken of as wet and cold,
and the latter, for the opposite- reason, as dry and warm.
According to their measure of fertility, they are also
described as rich or poor. The particular crops for the
production of which they are respectively considered to be
best adapted have also led to clays being spoken of as
wheat or bean sails, and the friable ones as barley and turnip
soils. This latter mode of discriminating soils is, however,,
becoming every day less appropriate ; as those of the
lighter class, when sufficiently enriched by suitable
manuring, are found the most suitable of all for the growth
of wheat ; while the efforts of agriculturists are now
successfnlly directed to the production of root crops on
soils so strong as heretofore to have been reckoned unfit
for the purpose. But still, such extreme diversities as we
everywhere meet yiiih in our soils must necessarily
lead to a corresponding diversity in their agricultural
treatment, and hence the necessity for keeping this fsct
prominently in view in every reference to British agriculture
as a whole.
Section 2. — InA-aence of Climate.
But if diversity of soil necessarily modifies the practice
of the husbandman, that of climate does so far more
powerfully. The soils of the different parts of the globe
do not very materially differ from each other, and yet their
vegetable products vary in the extreme. This is chiefly
owing to difference of temperature, which decreases more
or less regularly as we recede from the equator, or ascend
from the sea-leveL Places in the same latitude and at the
same elevation are found, however, to vary exceedingly in
temperature, according to their aspect, the prevailing winds
to which they are exposed, their proximity to seas or
mountains, and the condition of their surface. The different
parts of Great Britain are accordingly found to possess very
different climates. Is passing from south to north, its
mean temperature may be taken to decrease one degree
Fahrenheit for every 80 miles of latitude, and the same
' Lon s Practical Agrie-iUim, p. 42.
for every 300 feet of Elevation. The tem^jeraturp of the
west aide of our island also diners materially from that
of the east, being more equal throughout the year. This
is owing to the prevalence of mild westerly winds "charged
with moisture, which, while they equalise the temperature,
cause the average fall of rain on the west side of Britain
to be in many cases double, and in some nearly three
times that on the opposite side. In the, centta^l parts
of England cultivation is carried on at 1000 feet of
elevation, bnt 800 may be taken as the ordinary limit
In Scotland the various crops are usually from two to three
weeks later in coming to maturity than in England. In
both divisions of the island the western counties, owing to
their nUd and humid climate, are chiefly devoted to
pasturage, and the eastern, or dry ones, to tillage. As
compared with the continent of Europe, our summers are
neither so hot, our winters so cold, nor our weather so
steady. We want, therefore, many of its rich products,
bat, on the other hand, our milder winter and moister
climate are eminently favourable to the production of
pasturage and other cattle crops, and admit of agricultural
operations being earned on more regularly throughout the
year. Indeed, looking to the immense varieties of the
products of our soil, there is probably no other country so
favourably circumstanced for a varied and successful agri-
culture.
Section 3. — Influence of Population, &a.
Besides those variations in the agricultural practice of
this country which arise from diversities of soil and climate,
there are others which are- due to the distribution of the
populatioa The proximity of cities and towns, or of
populous villages, inhabited by a manufacturing er mining
population, implies a demand for dairy produce and vege-
tables, as well as for provender and litter, and at the same
time -affords an ample supply of manure to aid in their
reproduction. Such commodities, from their bulk or perish-
able nature, do not admit of long carriage. The supplies
of these must therefore be drawn from comparatively
limited areas, and the character of the husbandry pursued
there is determined apart from those general influences
previously referred to. From these and other causes there
is a diversity in the practice of British agriculture which
increases the difficulty of describing it accurately. Indeed,
it is so well known that there are peculiarities of cha-
racter attaching to almost every individual field and
farm, and still more to every different i district or
cotmty, which demand corresponding modifications of
treatment in order to their successful cultivation, that
a prudent man, if required to take the management of
a farm in some district greatly inferior in its general
system of farming to that which he may have left, will
yet be very cautious in innovating upon specific practices
of the natives.
To such peculiarities it is obviously impracticable to refer
,in such a treatise as the present.' They are referred to
now because they suggest an explanation of some of those
discrepancies in the practice and opinions of farmers,
equally successful in their respective localities, which we
constantly meet with ; and because, in proceeding to deli-
neate the practice of Berwickshire, where our personal
experience has been gained by upwards of forty years of
actual farming, we would deprecate the idea of claiming
for its modes a superiority over those of other district!
Its geographical position, and the mixed husbandry pur-
sued in it, would justify, in some measure, its being
referred to as a fair sample of the national agriculturei
But it is on the specific ground that it is best to speak
from actual experience as far as that will serve, that we
vindicate this selection.
:50b
A. G K I C U L T U II E
[far*!
CHA.PTEA T^.
TAMM-BVUJJUiaS.
Section 1. — General RerptitiUt.
In pursuance of the plan already indicated, let us now
refer for a little to Farm-Buildings. Wo have spoken of the
soil as the raw material upon which the farmer operates :
his homestead may, in liJce manner, bo regarded as his
manufactory. Tliat it may serve this purpose in any good
measure, it is indispensablo that the accommodation
afforded by it be adequate to tlio extent of the farm, and
adapted to the kind of husbandry pursued upon it It
ohould be placed upon a dry, sunny, sheltered site, have a
good supply of water, and be as near as possible to the
centre of the farm. The buildingj should be eo arranged
as to economise labour to the utmost. It should bo con-
structed of substantial materials, so as to bo easily kept in
repair, and to diminish, to the utmost, risk from fire.
The most cursory examination of existing homesteads
will suffice to show that in their construction these obnous
conditions have been sadly neglected. For one farm
really well equipped in this respect, hundreds are to bo
met with in all i)arts of tho kingdom, and more especially
in England, most wretchedly deficient Wherever this is
the case, it is impossible that the fanner, however skilful
or industrious, can make the most of his materials, or
compete on equal terms v.ith his bctt-er furnished neigh-
bours. As tho agricultural community becomes more
generally alivo to the importance of economising labour
by a judicious arrangement of buildings, and of reducing
the cost of the production of beef (and adding to the
amount and fertilising power of the homemade manure) by
tho manner in which the live stock is housed, we may
hope that improvement in this department will make rapid
progress. Tenants \Till refuse to embark their capital, and
waste their skill and labour, on farms unprovided with
suitable apparatus for cultivating them to the best advan-
tage. Landlords and their agents will by-and-by find
that until this is done, they must put up with an iiiferior
tenantry, an antiquated husbandry, and with lower and
worse-paid rents.
Section 2. — P!ans.
In erecting new homesteads, or in making considerable
additions to or alterations upon existing ones, it is of
much importance to call in the aid of an architect of ascer-
tained experience in this department of his art, and then
to have the work performed by contracts foimded upon the
plans and specifications which he has furnished. A
reasonable sum thus expended will be amply returned in
the cost, trouble, and disappointment, which it usually
saves to both landlord and tenant It is to be hoped that
in future a greater number of thoroughly qualified architects
win devote themselves to this department of their profession,
and that they will meet with adequate encouragement It
is not, therefore, with the view of superseding their
services, but simply to illustrate our references to existing
practices, that we subjoin a plan of farm-buildings.
While protesting against the utter rudeness and inade-
quacy of the great majority of homesteads, we must also
deprecate the hurtful expenditure sometimes lavished in
erecting buildings of an extent and style altogether
disproportionate to the size of the farm, and out of keep-
ing with its homely purposes. When royalty or nobility,
with equal benefit to themselves and their country, make
agriculture their recreation, it is altogether befitting that
in such cases the farm-yard should be of such a style as to
adorn the park in which it is situated. And even those
intended for plain everyday fanning need not he \m-
Mghtlv : for ugliness is . sometimes more costly than
elegance. Let utility, e<^onomy, and comfort, first be
secured, and, along with these, as much as possible of
that pleasing effect which arises from just proportions,
harmonious arrangement, and manifest adaptation to the
use the buildin<^ dro desired for.
Section 3. — PriiicipUt of Arrangemenl.
The bam, vrith its thrashing-machinery, and other
appurtenances, naturally forms the nucleus of the home-
stead, and regulates the distribution of the other b'lildings.
The command of water-power will often determine the
exact site of the bam, and indeed of the whole buildings.
Tho cheapness and safety of this motive-power render it
well worth while to make considerable sacrifices to secure
it, when a really suflScient and regular supply of it can be
had. But the difficulty of securing this when the adjoining
lands are thoroughly drained, and the great efiiciency and
facility of application of steam-power, are good reasons
why precarious supplies of water-power should now be
mted very differently than they were when a horse-wheel
or windmill were the only alternatives. A very usual and
suitable arrangement is to have the whole buildings,
forming a lengthened parallelogram, facing south or south-
east ; the bam being placed in the centre of the north
range, with the engine-house behind it, and the straw-
house at right angles in front, with doors on both sides foi
the ready conveyance of litter and fodder to the yards, ic.
It is always advantageous to have the bam of sufiacient
height to afford ample accommodation to the thrashing and
winnowing machinery. When the disposition of the ground
admits, it is a great convenience to have the stackyard on
a level with the upper bam, so that the nnthrashed com
may be wheeled into it on barrows, or on a low-wheeled
truck drawn by a horse. Failing this, tho sheaves are
usually pitched in at a wide opening from a framed cart
Tho space on which the cart stands while this is going on
Ls usually paved, that loose ears and scattered grain may
bo gathered up without being soiled ; and it is a further
improvement to have it covered by some simple roof, to
protect tho sheaves from sudden rain.
It is a good arrangement to have the straw-bam fitted
up with a loft, on tho level of the opening at which the
straw is discharged from the thrashing-mill, so as to admit
of fodder being stored above and litter below. A sparred
trap-door in front of the shaker retains the straw above, or
lets it fall to the ground as required. This upper floor of
the straw-barn is the most convenient place for fixing a
chaft"-cutter to bo driven by the thrashing-power. The
granary should communicate with the upper bam, that the
dressed grain may be raised to it by machinery.
A loft over the engine-room, communicating with the
upper barn and granary, forms a suitable place for fixing a
grinding-mill, brxiising rollers, and cake-breakers, as it affords
opportunity for having these machines easily connected with
the steam-power. It suits well to have the house in which
cattle food is cooked attached to and under the same roof
as the engine-house. One coal store and chimney thus
serves for both. Over this cooking-house, and communi-
cating with the grinding-loft, may advantageously be placed
a kiln, to be heated by the waste steam from the engine.
An open shed outside the bam, for the accommodation of a
circular saw, is also a desideratum. By the aid of the latter
machine and a handy labourer, the timber required for ordi-
nary repairs on the farm may be cut out at trifling expense.
The cattle-housing, of whatever description, where there
are the largest and most frequent demands f^r straw, it
placed nearest to the straw-house, and in communication
with the tumip-stores, and the house (if any) in which food
is cooked or otherwise prepared Where cattle are bred,
the cow-house and calf -house arf. kept together. A roomy
VOL. I
AGEIOULTUEE
TLATE IITr
roL, L
AGRICUITUIIE
V LATE 17,
PLAN or HOMESTEAD FOR A F^RM OF SOO ACRES BY CHARLES lYALL ESO.
ARCHirCCT. WILLlAW fCTTCS. CRtCHIH.
XmpZanent STic^
Ttcf srdn t • f
T Cx \j iii lirtliB^ IT I M Til
22 U T'orrsft ff" Cap^Mt^* ^ar im ^fiy Sv-ar fru^ TLIL St^ifft V O^ c/2tfit
ir,&a#r>-iiia nTYniifrti^- --■-"-■ -j-
r_Li.
Sf-al^ t^ FuB
BUILDINGS.]
AGKICULTUKE
SOD
working court is always a great convenience, aud it suits
well to have tlie stable opening to it, and the cart-slied and
tool-house occupying another side. Costly machines, such
as'cora-drills and reaping machines, require to be kept in a
locked place, to preserve them from the collisions, and the
loss or derangement of their minute parts, to which they
are exposed in an open cart-shed
(Water. An abundant supply of good water is a most important
matter. The beat source is from springs, at such an
elevation as to admit of its being brought in a pipe, with
a continuous flow. Failing this a well and pump ia the
usual alternative, although it is sometimes necessary to
collect the rain-water from the roofs, and preserve it in a
capacious and carefully-made tank. In every case it is
desirable to have a regulating cistern, from which it is
distributed by pipe to every part of the homestead where
it is required. It is, in every case, of importance to have
the eaves of ''the whole buildings spouted, and the rain-
water carried where it can do no mischief, Where fattening
Cattle are kept in open yards with sheds, by spouting the
eaves, and slightly hollowing the yards towards their
centres, the urine to a large extent is absorbed by the litter,
and retained in the manure. The effectual way, however,
is to have the whole of the yards roofed over. The waste
of food and litter, and the damage sustained alike by cattle
and manure, from the excessive rainfall of winter 1872-3,
has probably done more than any amount of argument
could do to convince farmers of this. If stall feeding is
practised, a pit is required, into which the solid dung is
wheeled and the Uquid conveyed by drains. Liquid manure
tanks are at present in universal repute, but we shall
endeavour to show, when treating of manures, that they are
not such an indispensable appendage to a farm-yard as is
generally asserted. In Scotland it is customary to carry
the dung from the byres into a yard in which young cattle
are kept, where, it is daily spread about and subjected to
further treading, along with such quantities of fresh litter
as are deemed necessary. That from the stables is carried
into the adjoining feeding-yard, and it is usually remarked
that the cattle occupying it make more raoid progress
than their neighbours.
Cottages. An important part of the buildings of a farm are the
cottages for its labourers. It is in all cases expedient to
have the people required for the ordinary working of a farm
resident upon it ; and it is always much better to have
families, each in its own cottage, than a number of young
people boarded in the farm-kitchen, or with the farm-
overseer. These cottages are usually a little removed from
the other farm-buildings, and it is, on various accounts,
better to have them so. There is, however, an advantage
in having the cottages of the farm-steward and cattleman
either within the courtyard, or close to its entrance, that
these responsible functionaries may at all times be near
their charge, and especially that they may be at hand
when any of the live stock require night attendance. As
there are manifold advantages in having but one main
entrance to the homestead, and that closed by a gate which
can be locked at night, it will be obviously necessary
to have the keeper of the key close at hand to open the
gate by night if required. Much more attention than
formerly is now paid to the construction of cottages. The
apartments are better floored, higher in the roof, and so
arranged as to secure comfort and decency. Besides a
small garden, each cottage is usually provided with a pig-
sty and ash-pit, and in some cases with a coal-place and
privy besides.
Farm- The position and style of the farmer's awelling also
housa claims a remark here. The approved mode used to be, to
place it either directly in front or rear of the farm-yard, on
the ground that the fanner would thus have hia premiaea
and cattle under his eye even when in his parlour or bed-
room. As has been well remarked, " The advantages of
thia parlour-farming are not very apparent, the attendant
evils glaringly so. If the condition of ready communication
be obtained, the farm-house should be placed where the
amenities of a country residence can be best enjoyed."^ On
all hands we now hear it urged, that it is only by men
possessed of capital and intelligence that the business of
farming can be rendered remunerative. Those who desiie
to have such men for tenants will be more likely to succeed
by providing a commodious and comfortable farmer)',
pleasantly placed among trees and shrubs, than by settinj;
it down in the precincts of the dung-heap.
CHAPTER V.
FENCES.
Section 1. — Bev,efii of Fences.
The fences by which farms are generally enclose(?. and
subdivided form another part of what may be termed their
fixtures, and may therefore be suitably noticed here. Wher
J lands are let to a tenant, the buildings and fences are
usually put into sufficient repair, and he is taken bound to
keep aud leave them so at the issue of his occupancy.
Although there are some persons who advocate the total
removal of subdivision fences, it is admitted on all hands
that the farm as a whole, and the sides of pubUo thorough-
fares which may intersect it, should be guarded by sufficient
fences of some kind. The general belief has hitherto been,
that there is a farther advantage in having the land
subdivided by permanent fences into enclosures of moderate
size. The use of such partition fences is not only to confine
the live stock to particular fields, or restrain them from
trespassing on the other crops, but to afford shelter from
cutting winds. It is now frequently urged, that the heavier
cattle should never be turned to pasture at -.11, but kept on
roots and green forage the whole year round, and that sheep
can be managed satisfactorily by means of movable hurdles.
It is highly probable that the practice of soiling will
become more'-general, as it undoubtedly deserves to do.
Still, this does not necessarily call for the total removal of
subdivision fences, which we cannot but regard as an
imprudent proceeding. It is probable that those who have
adopted it have done so very much owing to the prevalence
of the opposite extreme. There are large portions of the
finest land in England so encumbered with hedges and
hedgerow trees, as to be utterly incapable of profitable
cultivation. In many cases the fields are so small and the
trees so large that their roots actually meet from the
opposite sides, and pervade the entire surface soil of the
area enclosed by them. When manure is api)lied to such
fields, it is monopolised by these freebooters from the hedges,
and the crops of grain or hay, such as they are, are so
screened from the sun and wind that there is great risk of
their being spoiled in the harvesting. If drains are made
in such fields, they are speedily filled up by the rootlets,
and thus rendered useless. It has been computed that not
less than one and a quarter million acres are occupied by
hedgerows in England and Wales, and that if the land
overshaded and plundered by roots be included, the amoun t
is three millions. In Devonshire one-fourth of the en-
closures in many parishes are imder two acres ; more than
one-third under three acres ; and nearly two-thirds under
foup- acics. Two millions, at least, of these acres might be
redeemed, and what a margin is here available for increased
production 1 The land thus wasted would probably yield
a sum equal to county and poor rates, and perhaps maltrtai
' For fxirther mfonnation on Farm Buildings, see also Morton^*
Oyclopcfdia of Agriculture^ article "Farm Buildings," and Tht Book-
of Farm Building*, by Henry Stephens and K bcott Bum, Sdin
burgh. 18<1.
310
A G 11 I C U L T U U E
[fences.
too ■ III such circumstances, it u no wonder that zealous
agiicultunil mii)rover3 should look upon hedgerows much
as American settlers do upon their forests, and, Eke them,
be sometimes indiscriminate in th«ir clearings. We believe
that there is an advantage in having land, whether for
pasture or tillage, subdinded into parallel-sided fields of
from ten to forty acres each, according to tlio size of the
farm, by cicaus of permanent fences of a kind adapted to
the locality.
Section 2. — Varietus of Fencei.
rUorS, ^Vhen the soil and climate arc favourable to the growth
of the common vAitc tUom, hedges formed of it combine
efficiency, economy, and ornament, in a greater degree than
any other fence. But to have a really efficient thorn
hedge, much attention must ba paid to its planting, rearing,
and after management In proceeding to run a new line
of thorn hedge, care must be taken that the soil is clean
and in good heart, and that the subsoil is porous and dry.
^\'hen these conditions do not obtain, they must bo secured
by fallowing, manuring, draining, and trenching. The
young quicks should be stout and well rooted ; not taken
indiscriminately as they stand in the nurscrj-men's beds,
but of unifonn stoutness. Such selected plants are always
to bo had for a small additional price, which will be found
to be well repaid in the superior progress of such plants,
when coL'.rasted with that of others taken as they chance
to come to hand. The embryo fence must be kept free
of weeds, and Becured from the encroachments of cattle by
a line of rails on both sides. Some persons advise that the
young hedge should from the first be trimmed into line by
using the pruning-hook after each year's growtL It is
certainly bettor not to touch it with the knife, or, at least,
only to restrain an occasional shoot that unduly overtops
its neighbours, until the centre stems are at least a couple
of inches in diameter. If the plants are then headed over
fence-high, and the lateral shoots pruned to a straight line,
a close fence with a substantial backbone in it is secured;
whereas by pruning annually from the first, a fence is
obtained that pleases the eye, \A\t which, consisting only of
a mass of spray, presents no effectual barrier to cattle.
AVhen a thorn hedge has reached the stage just referred to.
the protecting rails may be removed, and the hedge kept in
a neat and efficient state by annual pruning. On good,
deep soil, thorns will stand this constant removal of the
annual gro^-th of spray for many years without injur)',
especially if the pruning is delayed until the leaf has fallen.
In less favourable circiunstances, it is found necessary from
time to time to withhold the pruning-knife for a few years
together. Wien the hedge has been reinvigoratcd by such
periods of unrestrained growth, it can again be cut back to
the centre stems, and subjected anew to a course of annual
pruning. ■ To insure a close fence, the bottom of the hedge
must at all times be kept clear of tall weeds. The
constant use of the weeding-iron is, however, objectionable ;
for, besides being expensive, it injures the bark of the thorns
and thereby impairs their health. It is quite sufficient to
cut the weeds close to the surface twice a year by means
of a reaping-uook or short scythe.
In arable lands, by this plan of keepmg hedges aoout
four feet high, and cutting down the weeds as required,
an efficient and ornamental fence is maintained at com-
jiaratively smaU cost, and -n-ith little injury to the ad-
joining crops from shading, or the harbouring of weeds
and vermin.
Although tne white thorn forms a better hedge tnan any
shrub yet tried for the purpos'e in this country, there are
many upland situations where the beech and hornbeam grow
more freely, and are to bo preferred either alone or in
See FunncT'i Magazine for M&rch 1852. p. 3AS.,
mixture with it. These plants, and also crab or sloe, aie
sometimes useful in filling a gap occasioned by the removal
of a hedgerow tree or the death of a portion of thorn hedga
In exposed situations, where thorns do not thrive, Stoua
drystont walU are the most usual substitute^ When
carefully constructed, of stones suitable for the purpose,
they last a long time, and form an ezcellent fence. Their
durability is much enhanced by having the cope-stones set
Lq lime-mortar. A layer along the centre of the wall, and
an external pointing, of lime-mortar \\-ill also repay the
additional first cost thus incurred. A wall of this kind
four feet high, exclusive of the cope, while quite sufficient
to restrain cattle and the heavier kinds of sheep, is no
barrier to the mountain breeds, which can easily clear a
six-foot wall
A simple and very effective fence hJia, however, come Vi'in
much into use of late years. It is composed of iron wire
(No. 8 being the size most commonly used), which is
attached by small staples to common stakes, such as aie
used for wooden railings, driven firmly into the ground
about five feet apart The wire is drawn out of the coil,
and the ends of the various lengths or thrtads are neatly
joined by first heating them, and then twisting the one Lntc
the other, until the quantity required for the stretch of fence
is run out It is then attached to every third or fourth
stake by a staple, which must not be driven home. The
other lines of wire are then treated in the same manner,
each being attached to the stakes at such width apart at
has been determined upon, and marked upon the stakes.
A ready way of doing this is by stretching along the stakci
a common gardener's line which has been previously rulbed
%(-ith chalk, or a charred stick, and striking it against the
stakes at the required heights, in the way that saT.yers mark
a plank, ^\^len the requisite number of wires has thus been
loosely attached, they are pulled as tight as possible by the
hands of the workmen, after which a screw or lever is applied
to cadi in turn until it is made perfectly tight As the
efficiency of this kind of fence is wholly dependent on perfect
tightness being obtained, a stout straining-post must be fixed
securely in the ground at the end of each line of fence.
This serves the double purpose of furnishing a fulcrum for
the stretching instrument, and a secure attachment for the
ends of .the wires. 'UTien the straining is accomplished,
each wire is stapled to each stake. The gates are usually
hung upon these straining-posts. Although wooden strain-
ing-posts are commonly used, some persons prefer iron ones,
fixed into brge blocks of stone. Five wires thus stretched,
at an average width of six inches, form an effectual fence
for the wildest sheep. They could, indeed, easily clear it so
far as height is concerned, but they are afraid to leap at
an object which they cannot see until they are close upon it
They may be seen at first walking along the line anxiously
looking for an opening, and if one more bold than the others
makes a run at it, he is sure to catch such a fall as effectually
deters him from repeating the attempt With these cheap
and portable materials, which any labourer of ordinary in-
telligence can easily put together, a fence admirably adapted
for enclosing or subdividing mountain pastures is now quita
attainable by every sheep-farmer, and will well repay its cost
It is equally available for protecting young thorn hedges,
and generally for aU purposes for which wooden railing is
used. As a fence for cattle or horses, it is advisable to add
a single rail of wood nailed fiat along the top of the stakes,
which must be savm off evenly for this purpose. As com-
pared with wooden railing, wire is much cheaper and more
durable, and more easily kept in repair. It is cheaper also
than stone walls, available in many situations where they
are not, and a more certain barrier to agile sheep ; but it is
less durable, and affords no shelter.
Tho h.'-'.-r defect can in some sitoations bo remedied bv
Machines.]
AGRICULTURE
311
raising a low mound of turf, ranning the wire-fence along
the top of this mound, and sowing on it the seeds of the
common whin.
Wainteu- We have already noticed that the fences of a farm are
|nce. usually erected by the landlord and kept in repair by the
tenant The latter is at least usually taken bound in his
lease to keep and leave them in good order ; but as this
obligation is often very indifferently performed, and much
damage and vexation occasioned in consequence, it is always
Bxpedlent that a person should be appointed by the landlord
to attend to the fences, and the half of his wages charged
against the tenant. By such a course, dOapidation and dis-
pute are effectually guarded against, and the eyesore of
defective, ill-kept fences is wholly removed.
CHAPTER VI
MACHIlfES AND EIPLEMEJJTS OF HUSBAXBBY.
Section 1. — Recent Improvements.
That the cultivation of the soil may be carried on to tha
l)est advantage, it b necessary that the farmer be provided
with a sufficient stock of machines and implements of
the best construction. Very great improvement has
of late years taken place in this department of
mechanics. The great agricultural societies of the
kingdom have devoted much of their attention to it ;
and under their' auspices, and stimulated by their
premiums, exhibitions, and competitive trials, manu-
facturers of skill and capital bave embarked largely
in the business. In many instances the quality of
the article has been improved and its cost reduced.
There has hitherto been a tendency to produce imple-
ments needlessly cumbrous and "elaborate, and to in-
troduce variations in form which are not improvementa.
The inventors of several valuable implements, the exclusive
;r'iT!ufacture of which they have seemed to themselves by
patent, appear to have retarded their sale, and marred their
■own profits by the exorbitant prices which they have put
Tioon them. Some, however, hare become alive to tha advan-
iages of looking rather to largo sales with a moderate profit
on each article, and of lowering prices to secure this. A
jnost salutary practice has now become common of inventors
4)f implements of ascertained usefulness granting licence to
other parties to use their patent-right on reasonable terms,
And thus removing the temptacion to evade it by introducing
some alteration which is trumpeted as an improvement,
although really the reverse.
The extended tise of iron and steel in the construction
•if agiicultural unplements'is materially adding to their
durability, and generally to their efficiency, and is thus a
source of considerable saving. While great improvement
has taken place in this department, it too commonly happens
that the village mechanics, by whom a large portion of this
class of implements is made and repaired, are exceedingly
unskilled, and lamentably ignorant of the principles of their
drt They usually furnish good materials and substantial
workmanship, but by their unconscious violation of mechar
nical laws, enormous waste of motive power is continually
incurred, and poor results are attained. This can probably
be remedied only by the construction of the more costly and
■complex machines being carried on in c."i'ensive factories,
■vshero, under the combined operation of scientific superin-
tendence, ample capital, and skilled labour, aided by steam-
power, the work can be so performed as to combine the
taaximuin of excellence with the minimum of cost
Section 2. — Ploughs.
We begin our brief notice of the implements of the farm
wilh those used for the tillage of the soil Of these the
first place is unquesrionably duo to the plough. A history
of tjua implement, tracing its firaJnal progress fiom the
ancient Sarcle to its most improved form at the present day,
is necessarily a history of agriculture. So much is this the
case, that a tolerably correct estimate of the progress of the
art in any country, whether in ancient or modem times,
may be formed by ascertaining the structure of the plougk
Much attention has been paid to its construction in Britaiu
for the last hundred years, and never more than at the present
day. After all that has been done, it is still, however, ai;
unsettled point which is the best plough for different soils
and kinds of TPork ; and accordingly, many varying forms
of it are in use in those parts of tha kingdom which have
the repatation of being mostskiifullycultivated. Eversince
the introduction of Small's improved swing^l(/ugh, the
universal belief in Scotland, and to a considerable extent i;:
England, has been that this is the best form of the imple-
ment. 'Wheel-ploughs have accordingly been spoken of by
Scottish agriculturists in the most depreciatory terms, and
yet it turns out that this has been nothing better than an
unfounded prejudice ; for when subjected to careful com-
parative trial, as has been fretjuently done of late, ths
Howard's Champion Fktugh.
balance of excellence is undoubtedly ia favour of the
plough with wheels. Its advantages are, that it is easier of
draught ; that the quality of its work is better and greatly
more uniform than can be produced by a swing plough :
that in land rendered hard by drought, or other causes, it
will enter and turn over even furrows where its rival either
cannot work at all, or at best with great irregularity and
severe exertion to the ploughman; and, lastly, that its
efficiency is independent of skill in the ploughman. This
last quality has indeed been usually urged as an objection
to wheel-ploughs, as their tendency is said to be to produce
an inferior class of workmen. Those who know the diffi-
culty of getting a field ploughed uniformly, and especially of
getting the depth of furrow specified by the master adhered
to over a field, and by all the ploughmen, can best appreciate
the value of sn implement that, when once properly adjusted,
will cut every furrow of an equal width and depth, and lay
them all over at exactly the same angle. The diversity in
the qiaality of the work at those ploughing competitions, to
which only the picked men of a neighbourhood are sent,
and where each may be supposed to do his very best, shows
conelusively how much greater it must be on individual
farms, even under the most vigilant superintendence. In
every other art the effect of improved machinery is to
supersede manual dexterity ; and it docs seem absurd to
count that an objection in agriculiure which is an advantagj
in everything else. There is. moro force in the objection
that wheel-ploughs are inferior to swing ones in ploughing
cloddy ground, or in crossing steep ridges, and that they
cannot be used for forming drills for turnip or other crops.
This objection vanishes when it is known that in the most
improved wheel-ploughs, the wheeb can bo laid aside at
pleasure, and that they can then be used in all respects as
swing-plougiia. A mould-board, somewhat higher and
wider behind than that best adapted for ordinary work, b
required for forming tumip-drilb. Thb, however, b easily
managed by having two dbtinct mould-boards for eacli
plough, or, better b'oU, by using only the double msiUd Imard
ol2
A G R I C U L T a K E
iMACHINES a:i1>
nr bulking plough for drilling. An important leaturo in
the English ploughs is, that they are fitted with cast-iron
iJiarcs, which, being case-hardened on their under surface,
wear unecjually, and bo preserve a sharp edge. The necessity
for daily recourse to the smithy b thus removed, and along
with it that irregularity in the quality of the work and
draught of the plough, which so often arises from witting
or unwitting alterations being made in the tct of the
share in the course of its unceasing journeys thither. These
rast-iron shares are slightly more brittle than those made
of malleable iron with steel points ; but it is of importance
in determining their comparative merits to bear in mind
that the prime cost of the former — lOd. to Is. each^is so
small as to render them at the year's end the least expensive
of the two. When it is desired to turn a very deep furrow,
a plough is used differing from the common one only in
being somewhat larger and stronger in all its parts, with
four horses to draw it
Ploughs which break and stir the subsoil, without bringing
it to tlio surface, by following in the wake of the common
plough, are now much used. The first of the kind — the
invention of the late Mr Smith of Deanston — is a ponderous
implement, requiring at least four good horses to draw it.
It is well adapted for displacing and aiding in the removal
of earlh-fast stones. The inventor has happily described
its operation by terming it a " horse pick." Head's subsoil-
plough is a much lighter implement, which can usually bo
drawn by two horsc.i. Since the introduction of thorough
draining, it b found beneficial to loosen the sod to a much
greater depth than was formerly practicable, and thb class
of implements is well fitted for the work. It is always ad-
visable to use this implemiint, and to mark and dig out the
largo stones encountered bj it, before introducing steam
cultivation.
Broadshare or paring-plouglis are much used in various
parts of England in the autumn cleaning of stubble. A
broad-cutting edge is made to penetrate thu soil to the depth
of three or four inches, so as to cut up the root-weeds which
at that season lie for the most part near the surface.
These, as well as the stubble, being thds detached from the
firm soil, are removed by harrowing and raking ; after which
the land b worked by the common pIougL An implement
of thb kind b frequently used in carrying out the operation
of paring and burning. Bentall'a Broadshare has the
reputation of being the best of its class ; but we can con-
fidently recommend the common plough, stripped of its
mould-board and fitted with a rJ:are twelve inches broad,
OS not only the cheapest, but decidedly the most efficient
scarifier that has yet been used.
An ingenious Aberdeenshire mechanic, Mr Pirie of
Kinmundy, has recently invented i double-furrow plough,
on an entirely now principle, which has mot mth general
approval, and haa already been adopted by all the great
plough makers. By carrying the plough on three wheels,
one on the land and two bevelled ones in the angle of the
furrow, Mr Pirie dbpenses with both soles and side plates,
and thereby lessens tho friction, and avoids that hurtful
glazing and hardening of the bottom of the furrow which
attends tho use of other ploughs. So much b the
draught lessened by thb improvement, that three horses
and one man with thb double-plough can perform as
much work in a day as four horses and two men with
two ordinary ploughs. Eor a seed-furrow or level field
of free soil, two horses are quite able to work t)ie double-
plough.
Various implements of the plough type, so modified as
to adapt them for particular processes, have from time to
time been oflfered to public notice, but have failed to meet
with general favotir. We limit our notice to those of
ascertained utility, and refer the reader who dcsiiea fuller
information to liansomf't Implements of AgrimUure^ and
the more recent work by ilcs.srs Stephens and Scott
Burn, where ho will find descriptions of the most interest-
ing of them.
Section 3. — Grulheri, ic.
Neit in importance to the plough is the class of impla-
ments variously called grubbers, cultivators, drags, or scari-
fiers. To prepare the soil for the crops of tho husbandman,
it b necessary to pulverise it to a snflicient depth, and to
rid it of weeds. Tho appropriate function of tho plough is
to penetrate, break up, and reverse tho firm surface of the
field. This, however, is only the first step in tho process,
and docs but prepare for tho more thorough dbintegration
which has usually been accomplbhed by harrowing, rolling,
and repeated ploughings. Now, however excellent in ita
own place, the plough b a cumbrous end tedious pul-
veriser, besides needlessly exposing a fresh surface at each
operation, and cutting tho weeds into minute portions,
which renders their removal more diffictilt. These defects-
were long felt, and suggested the desirableness of having
some implement of intermediate character betwixt the
plough and harrow, which should stir tho soil deeply and
expeditiously without reversing it, and bring tho wecda
unbroken to the surface. The whole tribe of gnibbers,
ic, has ariscu to nect thb demand, and we shall now
consider tho comparative merits of the more prominent of
the group. The first notice b due to Finlayson's harrow,
which, as improved by Scoular, was, until recently, the
best in)i)leraent of its kind. Its faults — and they attach
equally to Kirkwood's and Wilkie's — are, that it b severe
work for two horses, b liable to choke In turfy or foul
grotmd, and that it consolidates the bottom of the furrow,
whUa producing a fine tilth on the surface. Finlayson's-
grubber, in its improved form, weighs about five cwt.,
and costs as many pounds.
Another useful implement of this class which enjoys a
Urge reputation in England b Biddle's scarifier. It is
Biddlc'a Scarifier, a^ ::iuJc by ll.-.:isume .Ji Co.
mounted on lour wlieuls — two small ones in front and tv.-o
much larger behind. The frame and tines are of cast-
iron, and can be raised and depressed at pleasure by
means of two levers which regulate the depth to which tiie-
tines shall penetrate. The tines are prepared to receive
case-hardened cast-iron points of different widths, or steel
hoes of nine inches width, so that the implement can, be
used for breaking up and paring tho surface, or for
grubbing out weeds and pulverising the soil, as may be
required. An important feature in thb scarifier b, that
it keeps its hold of a hard surface much better than a
plougi It weighs half a ton b drawn by four or six
horses, and costs about XI 8.
* Thi Imj'lcTnents of Agriculture, by J. AUen Ranfome, Load.
1843. The Book of Farm Impltmenta and Mcuhina, \ij Uenrj-
SlophccL fni K. Scott Earn, Edin.
IMPLEJIENTS.]
AGRICOLTURE
313
The Ducie or Uley cultivator has many features in
^'.ommon with BiddJe's, and although brought forwanl a^
an improvement upon it, has not established its title to 1 e
so regarded. The great weight, high price, and amount
of horse-poTver required to work them, are serious objec-
tions to all these implements.
Of more recent notoriety than these, and contrasting
with them favourably in these respects, \s an implement
invented by the late Mr John Tennant, at Shields, near
Ayr, and now popularly known as Tennant's grubber. Its
-construction, as the annexed cut will show, is simple in the
o^treme. Its weight is about two cwt., its price £4, 10s.,
Tennant's Grubbc.-, as improved by T. Brown, EiUr.^ton.
iii;(l its draught easily overcome by two horses. The depth
at which it works is regulated by raising or lowering the
shank which supports its wheels in front. Its tines can be
easily moved on their supporting bars, and it may be
worked with five or seven as .desired. . By substituting a
shorter hind bar. and setting the tines more closely to-
:gether, it makes a most efficient drill-grubber. AVe .shall
liave occasion to refer to this iiiiplcmont frequently in
treating of tillage operations. The improvement which
Mr T. Brown has made on Tennant's grubber consists
mainly in the mode of attaching the tines to the bars. This
attachment, which the cut explains, has the merit of being
at once very simple and very effectual The tines when
thus fised are as rigid as if welded to the bars, and yet, by
merely slackening the screws and driving out the wedges,
they can with ease and rapidity be either adjusted at
varj'ing widths apart, or detached for repair.
Keeper
5 .Actual Size.
A, Tine ;
Section 4. — Steam-Power Tillage Implements.
Such are the most important of those implements by
which the tilling of the soil has hitherto been accomplished,
and upon which the farmer must continue to rely so long as
ho uses the muscular force of animals as his motive power.
Fowler'3 Locomotive Engine, willi Clip Drum.
3i^ the progress of invention has at last made the steam-
engine practically available for this purpose, and accordingly
■we hero introduce some notice of what has now been accom-
plished, in applj-ing steam power to the cultivation of the
-sofl.
After many abortive attempts to do this by moving
the engine itself over the land to be operated upon, it is now
admitted on all hands that the only available method is to
communicate the power from the engine to the implements
by nicans of steel wire-ropes and windlassea This is dona
in a variety of ways, some of the most prominent of which
we shall now describe. The systems actually in operation
fall under twj general classes, which ore known severally as
the " Direct" and the " Roundabout.'' The first of these is
the system introduced by Messrs John Fowler & Ca of
Cornhill, London, and now so well known in connection with
S14
A G K 1 C U L T I] K E
[machines asp
their name. The late Mr John Fowler's first cffci-t3 were
dixccted to the production of a draining apparatus, and it
was after succeeding in tliis apparently more arduous eiiurt
that he adapted hh tacUe to the hauling of tillage imple-
ments. After various tentative changes, Mr Fowler settled
on the form which is still in extensive use. It consists of
a siygle locomotive engine, usually of 12 or 14 horse-power,
with a windlass attached to it under the boiler. Around
this windlass an endless steel wire-rope passes with a single
turn in a groove, which, by means of hinged clips, lays hold
of nearly the entire circumference of the rope, and that with
a force proportioned to tlio strain upon the rope, which thus
obtains sufficient grip to convey the necessary hauling
power without risk of slipping upon the drum. This wire-
rope, which requires to be just twice as long as the field to
be tilled is wide, passes round a sheovo upon a self-acting
anchor placed at the farther side of the field opposite to the
ennne. This anchor is a prominent featvue in Mr Fowler's
apparatus. It consists of a low truck on four wheels, with
sharp disc edges, which cut deeply into the soil, and thus
obtain a hold sufficient to resist the strain of the wrire rope.
A box, loaded with stones, is C-ted on the outer side of this
truck to hinder it from canting over. The sheave mounted
upon this track, besides serving its primary use, gives motion
when required to a drum, which winds up a rope, the other
end of which is fixed well ahead in the direction in which
the truck is required to move. Thus the apparatus warps
itself along the headland as the ploughing progresses, and is
kept always ma-m to the engine, v/hich moves itself forward
by its own locomotive power at every bout of the ploughs,
and keeps abreast cf them. That tb<' mpe may net drag
iipdn the ground, friction rollers or rope-i)orters, as they are
called, are placedatsuitabieintervak These beingmouated
on wheels and strung upon the rope, are now in a good
measure self-acting, as the tautness of the rope keeps them
in its own line. The ploughs are fixed to a balance frame
carried on two wheels, and are in duplicate, pointing to each
oiher, 60 that when the sot at one end of the frame is in
work, the opposite set is carried aloft in the air. The plough
frame is thus hauled to and fro across the field, between the
engine and movable anchor, ' y reversing the action of the
windlass ; and it is adapted for Uiking from tv/o to eight
furrows at once, according to the power of the engine cm
ployed, or the nature of the soil that is opf rated upon.
Messrs Fowler have made this form of their apparatu* ■
more generally available by adapting it for attachment to
the ordinary 8-horse power thrashing-engine. When thus
used the clipdnim is mounted on a separate frame and
connected with the engine, which being stationed in a corner
of the field to be ploughed, the ropo is carried to two self-
acting anchors, one at each side of the field, and thus encloses
a triangle. The plough is drawn to and fro betwixt these
anchors, and as it gradually approaches the engine at each
successive bout, the gearing on the plough-frame tightens up
the ropo and accommodates it to the diminishing length
required.
To work Fowler's apparatus there is required one engine-
driver, one ploughman, a stout lad to attend to the anchor,
I two boys to shift the rope-porters, and a horse and boy ' >
1 supply the engine with water and fuel
Fuwlcr's Steara-Plough as at work.
About 1865 Messrs Fowler ;nade an important addition
to their apparatus by substituting a second engine for their
movable anchor. In this arrangement, now well known as
the " Double Engine system," a pair of loco:notive engines,
each having a plain winding drum instead of the clip-drum,
are placed opposite to each other at the ends of the field to
be operated upon ; the rope of each of the engines is attached
to the plough, or other tillage implement, which is drawn
to and fro betwixt them \fy each working in turn. While
the engine in gear is coiling in its rope and drawing the
plough towards itself, the rope of the other engine is padd
out with merely so much drag on it as to keep it from kinking
or getting ravelled on the drum. The advantages claimed
for this system are, economy of power from the direct pull
of the engines on the implomcat ; the facility and rapidity
with which the engines move themselves and the whole
apparat;is from field to field, or farm to farm, and take up
their positfons and get to work without the aid of horses ;
and the few hands required to work it. Its drawbacks are
the largo first cost, and corresponding charge for wear and.
tear, depreciat ion, and interest ; its unsuitableness for -.Torking
in small and irregularly shaped fields ; and the injury done
to headlands in wet weather. Its special adaptation is for
large farms, and for working for hire; and for these it is
UiidoubtedJy without a rival
Mr William Smith of Woolston, Bedfordshire, may fairly
be regarded as the pioneer of cultivation by steam power.
At the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England
at Carlisle in 1855, he witnessed the performance of the )?.tc
Johu Fowler'a steam draining-plough, ind then coctrar.te<S
llirLEMENTS.]
A G R i u a L T U K E
315
v/ith liim to construct for liim a Tandlass and other tilling
apparatus, with which he got to work on his own farm in
the autumn of tha'o year. These two leaders in steam-
cultivation did not long work together. They had decided
and diver:;e opinions as to the best road to success, and
accordingly each for the future took his own course. Mr
Smith's merit is not largely that of an original inventor of
machinery, but rather that of a zealous, persevering, and
successful applier of the inventions of others. But by his
own example and his vigorous writings, he has contributed
very largely indeed to the success of steam cultivation. Ho
makes use of the ordinary portable engine, such as is em-
ployed as a thrashing power, which gives motion to a
detached windlass with two drum.% from which a wire-rope
is carried round the area to be operated upon, and hence
the name " Roundabout" applied to this system. This rope
being attached by a turning bow to a powerful grubber, the
implement is di'awn to and fro across the field by revcreing
as required the action of the windlass, the slack half of the
rope being uncoiled from the one drum as the part, in work is
wound up upon the other. His m.ode of working is to break
up the ground by using a three-tined grubber, and then to
go over it again with a seven-tincd one, working at right
angles to the first. Mr Smith zealously advocates the supe-
riority of grubbing to ploughing, being of opinion that if
the soil is thoroughly broken up to a sufficient depth, it is
better not to reverse the surface, as weeds are thus kept
on the top, and the removal of them thereby greatly
facilitated.
Mr Smith soon made an important addition to his system
of tillage by means of an implement.which he calls a Ridger
and Subsciler. By means of it the soil, after being
thoroughly smashed up by the sieam-grubber, is throwu
into 36-inch ridges, the tine at the same time penetrating
and loosening the subsoil in each furrow several inches
deeper. His clay soil treated thus immediatc'y after harvest
is put into the best possible condition for benefiting by the
alternations of wintry weather, for allowing rain-water to
pass readily and beneficially to the drains, and for yielding
a friable seed-bed in spring. It has enabled him altogether
to dispense with dead fallows; to grow abundant crops of
wheat and bcaus alternately for a number of successive years,
at an average annual cost of 83. Cd. per aero for tillage ;
and to keep his land perfectly clean under this constant
cropping. He has the high merit not only of being the
first man who successfully used steam power for the cultiva-
tion of a farm, but bf demonstrating that this can be done
with manifest economy even by the occupiers of small farms,.
r-
J^.-:
^-jy
Smilli's Stoam Cultivator as at work.
seeing that his own farm extends to but 180 acres of arable
land. After the kpse of eighteen years there is probably
no one who yet practises steam cultivation with as great
success and economy. At the cud of this period ho reports
that his engine and tackle are in excellent condition.
Mr Smith's apparatus was for a time manufactured by
the well-known firm of J. & F. Howard of Bedford, and
more recently by Barford it Perkins of Peterborough.
Since 18C0 the Messrs Howard have sent out a tackle of
their own, in which the main features of Smith's system
nre retained, but to these they have themselves added
from time to time various improvements. By means of a
self-acting windlass and self-moving anchors, their tackle
(•an LOW be worked by ono engincman (who also attends
to the windlass), one ploughman, and two porter-boys.
Although the earliest in date of invention, the most
recent in actual operation is the tackle of Messrs Fiskea,
which has features peculiar to itself. A single traction
engine is stationed at any convenient point on the
margin of or near to the field to be operated upon, the
preference always being given to a site where there i:.-
water, whence it can sujjply itself either by pumping
or by the patent injector. The other jjarts of the apparatus
are two self-moWng anchor windlasses, which are placed
opposite to each other on two sides of the field, occupying
the place and doing the work of the tii-o engines in the
double-engine system. These windlasses ore mouuled on
four disc wheels, and have also a spud which cuts into the
soil to give the necessary resistance to the side pull.
They each carry a wimling-dnim w ith the necessary length
of wiie-rope, and these windlass-drums wind up and p.-iy
out alternately in precisely the same way as in Fon-ler't
double engines. They also have each a winding- forward
drum with wire-rope and anchor died ahead, by mcnoa o(
.31G
A G R I C U L T U 11 E
[machisem and
which they warp themselves forward and koe() abreast aa
the work progresses. Power is communicated from the
engine to these windlasses hy means of a light hemp rope,
travelling at the speed of the fly-wheel, .which is carried all
round the field, and takes a double turn round a grooved
puUey on each windlass. A. set of anchor pulleys on
wheels carry this ropo round the corners of the field;
another set of puUoys, on stakes driven into the ground at
saitablo points, carry it off the ground; and a tension
anchor mounted on four wheels, and having, like the
windlasses, an apparatus by which it warps itself forward,
aud keeps the hcmpropo taut as the length out varies with
the progress of the work. The windkisscs have each a
self-acting clutch, which stops the imiilement when any
obstruction is encountered, and . by which the attendants
stop it at the turnings, or when otherwise necessary, with-
out in any case requiring to stop the engine. By these
arrangements the engine-driver does not require to have
the implement in sight, his duly being merely to drive his
•:ngine at a uniform epcod, as neither stopping nor revers-
ing are required. The advantages claimed for Fisken's
tackle are those which it has in common with the other
Uoundabont systems, and, in addition, the use of a light
hemp rope to convey power from engine to implement with
leas friction and cost than In other systems; great adapta-
bility to fields of any size, or shape, or inequality of surface ;
and a capacity in certain circumstances of being worked by
a fixed Btcam-engino or water power.
The Eoyal Agricultural Society of England has from the
first devoted much attention and large funds to the promo-
tion of steam cultivation, by the prizea offered at its annual
shows, and by the reports published in its Journal from year
to year. In the prolonged trial of steam-ploughs which took
place at Leeds La July 1861 under its auspices, the competi-
tiun was mainly betwixt Fowler's and the modification, by
Howard, of what is popularly known as Smith's system.
The award of the judges was as foUows : — "The £100
prize offered for the most economical application of jtoam
power to the cultivation of the soil, was awarded to Mr
Fowler for his 12-horso power engine, moving anchor-
age, and plough; and of the £100 ofi'ered for the most
economical application of the ordinary thrashing-engine of
the farm to steam cultivation, £75 was given to Mr Fowler,
and £25 to Mr Howard. Besides these a sOver medal is
given to Mr Hayes, for his clever windlass for fhe same
purpose ; and the same to Mr Roby for his combined engine
aud windlass."
During the summer and autumn of 1861, Mr J. C.
Morton, editor of the Agricultural Gazette, personally in-
sjiected the farms of many of these parties, and published
from time to time in that paper detailed accounts of his
own observations and of the information supplied to him in
regard to each casa In his Kew Farmer's Almanac for
1862, he condensed these reports, and from it we give the
IoUo%ving extracts : —
" Little Woodcote Farm lies — a tract of open country
and light calcareous soil of various depth — upon the chalk,
about a mile from the Carshalton station on the London and
Epsom railway. Mr Arnot has had Fowler's 10-horsa
power steam-engine and ploughing apparatus since the
harvest of 1859. His apparatus. rope,and engine cost £7 00.
Ke works a three-furrow plougL The work done each
year by the steam-plough on his 400 acre farm has thus
been 393 acres in 1859-60, and 389 acres in 1860-61. It
haj been done at the rate of six or seven acres a day for
ordinary ploughing, and three acres a day (one acre per
furrow) when at the 10 and 12-inch deep work. It may
average on the whole five acres a day, including all stoppages
.and removals, and has thus taken close upon eighty days
iot its accompliiihmcnl. Biuidea this, Lowover, 160 acres
have been ploughed during the time for neighbours at ■
charge, including everything, of 12b. an acre. The engine
is also used for thrashing puTjKises, and 220 acres at home
and 250 acres elsewhere are thus thrashed out for hire.
" The cost of repairs .has been uncommonly small — in-
cluding a new cog-wheel, repacking cylinders, and a thorough
overhaul and cleaning of the whole apparatus at the end of
two years — besides the replacement of shares and sharpening
of coulters for the plough, and the gradual wearing of the
rope-porters. In all it has not nearly reached £10 a year,
at which, nevertheless, wo put it The tear and wear of
ropo is reported as follows : — A now 400-yard rope, lately
bought, costing £35, has made the stock stronger and better
than it was at the beginning. This charge may therefore
be put against more than two years' work, and is equal to
about £15 a year. The weekly cost of labour when at work
is as follows : — Engineer, 18s. j ploughman, 14s. ; anchor
hid, 9s. ; two porter lads, 6a each ; horse and water cart,
about 24s. weekly — in all, £3, ITs. weekly, or as nearly as
possible 128. a day. The cost for oil is Is. a day, aud for
fuel, at nine or ten cwt. a day, it may be put at 1 Os. daily.
The charge for depreciation at 10 per cent is £70 a year,
aud for interest of capital £35 a year Tho whole annual
cost may thus be estimated : —
Labour, 80 days .... £li
Fuel and oil ... . 44
Repairs and rope ... 25
Depreciatioa aud interest of capital . 106
Total
£222
"But 500 acres of thrashing, and 70 or 80 acres per annum
of steam ploughing for hire, equal in all to at least forty
days' work per atmum, are also done by this engine. And
the profits of this work should be deducted from this sum
before ilr Arnot's experience of his investment can be
accurately described. Tho sum of £222, at which, if there
had been no other use for engine and apparatus, his cost
must have been estimated, is equal to lis. per acre over the
work accomplished, much of which, however, was 12 inches
deep. But if tho proper share of the interest and depreciation
of capital be charged upon its work elsewhere for hire, the
cost of steam ploughing will not exceed £190, or lOs. 6d.
an acre. But Mr Arnot would contend that tho engino
is not £30 worse than when he purchased it two years ago ;
and one-half of this, with interest of capital, will amount to
£50, two-thirds only of which should bo charged against the
plough-work ; and £150 would thus appear to be tho annual
cost of ploughing 400 acres, or 7s. 6d. an acre. In fact, ho
might- very well claim that this sum should be still further
reduced by all the profit of his hire elsewhere, which can
hardly be put at less than 203. a day, and this on forty
days per annum will amount to £40 or more ; so that the
net cost to him of his machinery has not been more than
£1 10 a year, or 58. 6d. an acre over his ploughing.
" What did it uso to cost him when he worked thirteen
horses on his farm t He now works six horsea His
horses get 2 J bushels of oats, and 2J trusses of hay weekly
each, during seven months : —
SO weeks at 11a amount to . £18 10 0
22 weeks on clover, kc. at 5a. . 6 10 0
The a""Tift1 food per horse coeta £22 0 0
" Tho annual charge for depreciation, farrier, blacksmith,
saddler, and implements, is at least £5 per horse, and for
interest of capital in horse and implements at least £2
more. This makes the annual cost of each horse £29.
The wages paid, in cash and cottage, to ploughmen is at
least £32 per pair, or £16 per horse, and the whole cost is
thus equal to £45 per horse per annum ; which over seven
horses amounts to £316 per annum — one-half more than
the expenditure, even on the highest estimate, upon tho
IMPLEMENTS
,1
AGRICULTURE
317
engiue which has disjilaced thcin, and nearly double wnat
Mr Arnot has actually incurred when he deducts his
profits on its hire.
" A clay land farm near Bedford (the Woolston or Bea-
lord apparatus), the Tithe Farm of Stcviugton, occupied by
Mr William Pike, is a tract naturally of poor clay soil
The extent farmed by Mr Fike has till lately been about
475 acres, of which 357 were arable; and fifteen horses
were employed in five 3-hoise teams upon this extent.
Now, about 600 acres are farmed, of which 420 acres are
arable ; and the whole is managed with ten horses and an
8-horse power engine, working grubbers on the Wool-
ston system. If the additional land requires the same
horse-power per 100 acres as was needed on the original
farm, then, in place of ten horses, seventeen or eighteen
must have been needed, and probably Mr I'ike's mere
saving by the use of his 8-horse engine and cultivating
apparatus does not fall short of £300 a year.
"The present cropping of the land is as follows : — ^125
acres are in wheat, of which 105 were partly after beans,
cross-grubbed by steam-power before powing, and partly
after clover, having been cross-grubbed also by steam-power
more than once before the previous harvest time, and then
horse scarified and harrowed. The remainder was after
horSe cultivation. There are CO acres of beans after wheat,
its stubble having been dressed with farm-yard dung, and
then ploughed by horse power. There are 60 acres of
grass and clover ; 20 acres now in vetches have been cross-
grabbed after a manuring : 25 acres in mangolds and
turnips have been cross grubbed in autumn, and again
steam-scarified and crossed in spring ; 50 acres in barley,
and 25 acres in oats, make up the extent of the farm, and
were got in after steam cultivation. By ' cross-grubbing '
it is meant that the operation was repeated.
" More horse cultivation than usual was done in 1 8t)0.
Clay land was fit only on rare ocasicns, and both horse
and steam power were then used to the utmost. Mr Pike
has had Mr Smith's grubber worked by an ordinary
thrashing-engine since July 1858. Since that tmie 73-1
acres have been cross-grubbed, i.e., doubly-worked. In
addition to this Mr Pike informs me that he has also
cross-grubbed for hire 300 acres of land. For this ha
charges 25s. an acre, the coals being supplied to the
employer.
" Excluding this item f i om our consideration in the
meantime, and assuming that 730 acres — double cultivated
between July 1858 and June 1861 — correspond to 250
acres annually, t.h4 average performance of the engine, m-
cluding all stoppages except removals, has been six acres
daily once cultivated. To do 250 acres twice would there-
fore occupy at least eighty-three doys ; adding three days
for removals, there are eighty-six days' v/ork of the .steam-
engine to ,bo charged upon the steam cultivation of the
farm. The folTowing is the labour and its cost per
week : — 1 engineer, 16s.; 1 ploughman, lis.; 2 men shift-
ing anchors, 228 ; 1 man at windlass, 12a ; 1 porter-boy,
63. ; 1 boy and horse with water ca;-t, 2-is. : the. whole
amounts to £3, l&s., or 13s. 2d daily. In addition to
this' we add the cost of coals, 10 iwts. at 19s. a ton on
the ground, or 93. 6d. daily. The oil at 5s. a gallon costs
about Is. a day.
"The daily coi;t thus comes Ui 23s. 6d. . and this over
eighty-six days pmouuis t-o about £100. Against the
engine and apparatus, costing about X510, wo must put
10 per cent, or X51, for depreciation, and 0 p3r cent, or
j£25, 10a., for interest cf capital The cost of repairs may
IHsrhaps be satisfied by an annual chrrge of X15 ; and for
tear and wear of rope we ha\ e the follow ing items : 1 400
yards of iron wire-rop« originally purchased, £50 ; steel
tupes, 1400 yards, since purchased, £60 Probably the
annual cnarge needed to maintain this may be made ._iu
the theory that 'ihe rope will last three years, and £25 a
year may suffice for this particular. Adding up these
items, we have a sum total of £216, 10s. to be charged,
against the farm for steam cultivation. Putting £216
against 500 acres once gmbbed in the course of the year,
we have a charge of about 8s. 7d. an acre for the grubbing.
Mr Pike informed mo that, during the three years of his
steam cultivation, on several of the ten fields already
specified, he has not used the plough at all Even the
mixing of manure with the soil is done by the grubber.
No plough is used to bury it. It is laid upon the laud,
and grubbed to and fro, and thereby mixed sufficiently.
The cleanness of the land, too, ia a fair testimony to the
quality of cultivation by implements which stir, but do
not overturn the soil
" Mr Pike has till lately used the grubber invented by
Mr Smith of Woolston, with the turnbow apparatus for
turning the tool at the land's end. Latterly he has used
the cultivator of Messrs Howard, each tiue of which is
double, pointing both fore and aft, so that no turning at
all is needed, the claw which foUows in the wake of-the
working tooth as it goes coming into ODeration in its turn
as it comes back again."
Mr Pike thus writes to Messrs Howara, of date
December 2, 1861 :—
"Gentlemen, — I have cultivated my farm by steam-power for
the laat four years, and therefore feel myself in a position to spe^k
positively of the meiits of the system.
" My farm, beloD^ng to the L>uko of Bedford, consists princip.-uiy
of poor, strong, hilly, clay land, which, before I entered upon it,
was laid up in three yard ridges, with water gutters drawn across
the ridges to take oil" the water. Since I have steam cultivated it,
1 have done away with ridges and furrows entirely ; my fields of
40 and 50 acrss each, which are steep in places, are all laid on the
iiat, and during the wettest season 1 have never seen any water
stand upon them. I am convicced if laud is broken up a good
depth by the cultivator, and under drained, there is no need of auv
furrows, if it is ever so strong.
"I am enabled to manage my ft^rm with aoout naij the numoer of
hoises. I do it with less trouble to myself. I am always more
forward with my work, and the horses I do keep cost much less per
head than formerly, as all the hard work is done by steam.
" The effect of deep stirring this soil is very apparent in the crops :
my land is naturally very poor, so that very large yicldB are out of
the question ; but 1 am convinced 1 can grow much more com by
st^ara than by horse culti'v ation, and I can also grow a larger
breadth of root crops. I also find that by constant deep tillage
my laad moves easier every ycj^r, conaequentiy it is less expense to
crltivate. 1 seldom use the plough, except mv horsea have got
nothing else to do.
"I break up mv clover lays before narvest, and maa.e a bastard
fallow of tbem. I am convinced this ia the surest way of getting a
good wheat crop on strong soil ; and, besides cleaning the land, it
hea tills advantage, it does not leave so iruch work to do at
Michaelmas. I also break up my tere laud before harveat, so that
after 'tiarvest 1 have nothing to do but cultivate my bean and
wheat stubbles.
" I put away my tacKle as soon as possiDie after we have heavy
ra'us, the latter part of October or beginning of November, and do
not bring it out again until the turnip land is ready to break up
for barley My object ia to m.'.ke the liest use of the summer ani
the early autumn.
"When I commenced cultivating by sxeam, 1 usea to set down to
little pieces, but 1 found that too much trouble, therefore increased
the length of my ropes, as I found it made very little difference to
my 8-horse engine whether I had out a long or short length of lope.
I have now sufficient to do a 60 acre field, without moving cither
engine or wniidl.iss ; this is my la»-geat field ; 1 dug a pond at one
end. and I do tiio whole without moving from the pond. "When 1
can, I set my engine apd windli..s3 in ar\ adjoining field, so ^s to
finish headlando and all complete, without going into it. Water
carting is a great expense, and in a wet season a great nuisance. 1
therefore have dug some pondf , and sometimca 1 dam un a ditch or
m.'j.SLcr drain to obtain a supply.
"I air particularly pleased with lao new- apparatus you made for
m*! lust spring. The windlass is much easier moved about, and is
very simple to manage. The cultivator takes less time at land'i
end, thcr« is no dancer of ovorrurninc, it dne.i not jump so mucli in
wo-k, and tlio bind alioiea caui^c t belaud to lay looeer. >fo matter-
318
AGRICULTURE
[machines and
how haid the grounil. it will brailc It np, and on siJehills it goe.i
much steadier am' better than my oM one.
"The first slcel rope I h;i<l did iibovc 2000 acres, nndl have rnimall
|jortion of it at work yeL If people mean to havo their ropes l.-xst, they
must Iwc-cp thom o£l the crouad, and attend Well to the coiling on
the wiudlnsi drums. I lilto your new "-ollen!, wliitli uirr>' the rope
further from the ;TTOund. — I nm, Gentlemen, youn very truly,
" Messrs J. & t. Howard, Bedford. Williaji Pike."
. It 13 duo to Messrs Howard to state that their numerous
other customcra concur ia testifying to the general efficiency
of their tnckle, its little liability to brcal;age or doraugo-
meiit, and to the rcadinesa with which their ordinary farm
labourers havo learned to work it cQiciontly.
By this time cultivation by steam-powor nad been
.idopted by enterprising individiiala ia nearly every county
in England, and was making steady progicsa in the face of
many hindrances. In every instance the purchaser and
his Rorvauts had to learn the use of novel and somewhat
complicated machinery ; much of v/hich, as first sent out,
proved to bo defective both in structure and in material The
fields also, through lack of preparation, often presented
obstacles which, as c.\perienco was gained, were seen and
remedied. In a few instances, where the purchaser of
steam tackle was either unable to give his personal super-
intendence, or lacked the needed energy and perseverance
to cope with the difficulties of a new enterprise, it proved
a failure. But with raro exceptions, easily accounted for,
it was overyv.liero demonstrated that by steam-power and
appropriate implements, the tillage of the soil can be per-
formed with a rapidity, efficiency, aad economy far
excelling what is practicable by animal power and the old
implements.
In the auttimn of 1 806, by which dato steam tillage had
greatly extended, the Royal Agricultural Society of England
scut out three sets of commissioners to inspect and report
on the position of steam cultivation at that time. The reports
obtained were published in the S'joiety's Journal for I8G7,
and present a mass of most interesting and instractive in-
formation on the whole subject The commissioners visited
about 150 farms situated in nearly 40 different counties
of England, and a few in East Lothian, containing an
aggregate area of GG.OOO acres, which they estimate to
be about a third of the whole area Ihen under steam ctiltiva-
tioh. They amply confirm what bas already been stated
as to the success of this new system of tillage, and make it
plain that the changes thus brought about are of such im-
portance 03 really to amount to a revolution in modem
agriculture.
At its annual show in 1871, at Wolverhampton, the
English Society again pro^'ided for a careful competitive trial
of steam-tillago machinery, when the following awards were
made : —
Class I. — For tho best combination of machinery for the cultiva-
tion of the soil by steam-power —
Ist Prize, £100— Awarded to Messrs J. towlori Co., Leeds.
2d Prize, £50— do. do. da
Class If. — For the best combination of machinery for the cultiva-
tion of the soil by steam-power, tho weight of the steam-engine
not to exceed 10 tons —
Ist Prize, £50 — Awarded to Messrs Fowler, Leeds.
2d Prize, £25 — A\7ardcd to the Ravensthorjw J^gineering Co.
(Fisken system i.
Class IIL — For the beat combination of machinery for the cultiva-
tion of the soil by an ordinary agricultural engine, whether
self-propelling or portable.
1st Prize, £50 — Awarded to Messrs Fowler, Leeds.
2d Prize, £25 — Awarded to Messrs Howard, Bedford,
i Silver Cup, value £100, offered by the Right Hon. Lord Vernon,
president, for tho best combination of machinery for tho culti-
vation of the soil by steam-power, tho cost of which shall not
exceed £700. The engine to be locomotive, and adapted for
threshing and other farm purposes, — Awarded to Messrs
Fowler k Co., Leeds.
Steaut ciUtivation has now ceased to be a novelty, and is
making rapid progress in all parts of Great Britain and il
foreign countries. In March 1873, at an agricultural meet
ing, it was stated by Messrs Fowler >!: Co. of Leeds, that
they are turning out annually from their works about 1(0
sets of their tackle for the home market, and from CO to CO
for foreign countries. Of their homo sales about half arc
to private iudividuab, and half to persons who work them
for hire. In a district around il.igdeburgh fifty sets of
their tackle are employed in cultivating tho soil for tho
growth of stigar-boet. The other leading makers are also
doing a largo business, with tho certainty of its becoming
Lirger every year. The expiry of several patents applicable
to steam cultivating tacklo ia giving f"i additional stimulus
to the manufacture of such machines. Partly in tins way,
and also by contriiAnccs of their own, tho Messrs Howard
of Bedford havo recently (1873) mado very con.sidcrablc
changes and progress with their tackle. Their self-acting
anchors, and their turning cultivator, which is constructed
on an entirely new principle, ore said to bo respectively tho
best of their kind.
Section 5. — Uarrowt.
When a field hiis been broken up by the plough, it ia
usually next operated upon by the harrow, whether tho object
bo to prepare it for and to cover in seeds, or to bring clods
and roots to tho surface. This is virtually a rake dragged by
horses. In its most ordinary form, the framework is of
wood with iron tines, of which each harrow contains twenty.
Formerly each horse dragged a single harrow, although two
or more were worked abreast Under this arrangement tho
harrows had too much independent motion, and were liable
to get foul of each other. This has been remedied, first,
partially, by coupling them loosely by riders, and then more
effectually by a hinge-like joining, which allows a separate
vertical motion, but only a combined horizontal one. A
rhomboidal form is also given to this pair of harrows —
usually called brakes — so that when properly yoked, no two
tines run in tho same track. This description of harrow
is now frequently made entirely of iron.
Howard's patent harrows are a further improvement on
this implement The zig-zag form given to each section cii
Howard's Patent Harrow.
ablcs the whole so to fit in, that the working parts are
equally distributed over the space operated upon. The
number of times is 75, instead of 40, as in the form last
noticed, and yet, from the form of frame and manner of
coupling, the tines are well apart, and have each a separate
line of action. Practical farmers speak very highly of tho
effective working of this implement By an exceedingly
simple contrivance, the centre part when turned on its back
forms a sledge on which its fellows can be piled and drawn
along from one field to another. A light description of
harrows, with smaller and more numerous tines, is some-
times used for covering in grass-seeds. If a harrow is tc
be used'at all for this purpose, Howard's is a very suitable
IMPLEMENTS.]
AGRICULTURE
319
tind, but a much tetter implement is Cartnright's chaia-
harrow, which abrades the surface over which it is drawn
to a degree that could not bo anticipated from a mere
inspection of the implement. It is formed by attaching
to a drauglit-bar pairs of square-linked chains, each 7i
feet long, connecting them by cross links, and keeping
the whole expanded by two movable stretchers. The
old-fashioned ponderous break harrow is now entirely
discarded, and tlie more efficient cultivator ixsed in ita
stead. A form of the latter, from its close resemblance
to harrows, is noticed now rather than before. It is a
very strong iron harrow, with the tines made longer,
and very considerably curved forwards. An iron rod
with a loop handle is fixed to the hind bar, by means of ' ;
which the driver can easily hitch it up and get rid of
weeds, &c. Two such harrows are coupled togetker
and drawn by four horses. Its pulverising power is
very considers ble. But when clods have been brought
to the surface, they are most effectually reduced by various
kinds of rollers.
Section 6. — Rollers.
Those formerly used were solid cylinders of timber or
stone attached to a frame and shafts, for which hollow ones
of cast-iron are now generally substituted. The simplest
form of these has a smooth surface, and is cost in sections
to admit of more easy turning. They are made of diverse
weights, so as to be adapted f. r the draught of one or two
"horses as required. Those of the former description, weigh-
Cambridge's roUer possesses several features in cominou
with Crosskill's, and is used for similar purposes. In the
Smooth Caat-Iron Field Koller.
iug in all 6 cwt, and costing as many pounds sterling, are
exceedingly useful for all purposes where expedition rather
than heavy pressure is wanted. From their greater dura-
bility, smoother surface, and less liability to clog, the readi-
ness with which they can be cast of any weight that is re-
quired, and their moderate price, it is probable that cast-iron
eylinders will speedily supersede all others.
Several important variations on the common smooth roller
have been introduced of late years. Of these the first notice
is due to Crosskill's clod-crusher, oc the ground both of its
intiinsic merit and the date of its introduction. It consists
of cast-iron discs 2 J feet in diameter, with serrated edge and
e, series of sideway-projecting teeth. Twenty-three of these
discs are strung loosely upon a round axle, so as to revolve
independently of each other. The free motion thus given
to each disc, and which has latterly been increased by cast-
ing each alternate one of greater diameter in the eye, adda
at once to the pulverising and self-cleaning power of the
roller. Three horses yoked abreast are required to v/ork
it The axle is prolonged at each end sufficiently to receive
travelling wheels, on which it is transported from place to
place. Although primarily designed and actually much used
for breaking clods, it is even more in request for consolidating
loose soils, checking the ravages of wire-worm, and covering
In clover and grass seeds. For the latter purpose, its action
is perfected by attaching a few bushes to it, which fill up
the indentations, and leave a surface so beautifully even as
to rival the accuracy and neatness of a well-raked border.
It is now to be had oa a amaller scale adapted tu the draught
of two horses.
Cambridge's Press-Wheel BoUef
I form in which it was first brought cat it consisted of discs,
I fitting close to each other, with fluted instead of serrated
edges. In its recently improved form the discs are. not
made of uniform diameter as formerly, but each alternate
one in the set is raised about two inches, and has the centre
hole, not circular and close fitting to the axle, but triangular
and wide. The result is that while the discs press uniformly
on the surface over which they are roUed, the larger ones
rise above their fellows with a jerking motion, which gives
a most efficient self-cleaning power to the implement, and
thus admits of its being used when other rollers would be
clogged. The eccentric discs are now made either with
serrated or smooth edges as customers prefer. After careful
trial we have coma to the conclusion that it is the most
useful roller for general pui-pcsc.^ which we yet possess.
DUc of Cambridge's RoUer, showing Self-cleaning Action.
Under this head may be noticed press drills, which, by
means of a series of narrow cylinders with conical edges,
form corresponding grooves in loose soil Seeds sown broad-
cast ovei a surface thus treated come up in rows. The
Lond-Presser,
land-prcsser is a modification of the press-roller. It is
made with two or three conicAl edged cylinders to fit ioto
the seams of as many plough furrows, the other end
320
A G R I C U L T U 11 !•:
[machines aki>
of the axle on wbicli they are fixed being supported by a
plain carriage-wheel. It is drawn by one horse, and follows
in the wake of two or three ploughs, according to the number
of its cylinders. When wheat is tiown after clover lea, this
iin[)Icincnt is found exceedingly useful in closing the scams
and forming a uniform seed-bed.
The Norwegian, or, as it should rather bo called, the
Swedish harrow is strictlya clod-cnisliing implement. From
its radiating spikes penetrating the s\irface over which it is
drawn, it has been called a harrow; but its revolving motion
entitles it rather to bo classed with rollers. In its usual
form itjjonKists of three rows of cast-iron rowels arranged
upon parallel axles fixed in an iron frame, wliich is supported
on three wheels, — one in front and two behind.- The out-
line and arrangements are in fact the same as in Finlayson'n
grubber, only substituting parallel rows of rowels for tines.
There is also the same leverage for raising and depressing
the frame. Uut this implement has recently been con-
stnicted on a much simpler and cheaper plan, in which the
wlieels and lever apparatus are discarded altogether. It
thus consists of a simple wrought-iron frame with four rows
of rowels. A few boards are laid across the frame, forming
a platform over the rowels, on which the driver stands when
it is wi-shed to increase the weight and efficiency of the im-
]>lcment. On the upper side at cither end is lixcd a piece
of wheel-tire, on which the implement, when turned on its
back, can slide along, sicdgo-fashion, when it is wished to
move rt from place to place. As thus constructed it can
be made for about £5. This is the best implement yet in-
troduced for breaking moist clods.
Section 1 .—Breast- Plough and Trencldng-Forh.
Hefore leaving the implements of tillage, it may be proper
to notice two, which have been a good deal brought under
notice of late years, viz., the breast-plough and trenching-
fork. The former is extensively used in carrying out the
process of paring and burning. It is the implement known
in Scotland as the flaughter (or thin turf) spade. In using
it the workman guards his thighs with a piece of board,
fastened on apron-wise, and with this presses against the
cross-head of the implement, and urges forward its cutting
edge. When a thin turf has thus been severed from tlie
surface, ho turns it over by a jerk of his arms. The
fork is used in giving a deep autumn digging to land in
preparation for root crops. Both operations can ordinarily
be more economically performed by using horse-power with
suitable implements. But for clearing out corners of fields,
hedge sides, and similar places, manual labour mth these
tools can frequently be made to supplement the plough to
good purpose.
Section 8. — Implements /or Somng.
A large portion of the grain annually sown iu Great
Britain is still distributed by hand from the primitive'
sowing-sheet.
" The sower stalks
With measured step, and liberal throws the grain
Into the Hiithful bosom of the ground."
In Scotland a decided preference is still given to broadcast
sowing, for which purpose a machine is used that covers
from 15 to 18 feet, according to the -\vidth of ridge
adopted. It consists of a long seed-box, carried on a frame
mounted on two wheels. From these motion is com-
nmnicatcd to a spindle which revolves in the seed-box, and
expels ■ the seed by means of cogs or brushes, through
openings which can be graduated to suit the required rate
of seeding. It is drawn by a single horse, is attended by
one man, and can get over 30 acres a day. It is peculiarly
adapted for the regular distribution of clover and grass
scedi Now that reaping by machinery has become so
general, there is an obvious advantage in having the fields
as level and with aa few open forms as po.ssiblc, and henco
of having a marker attached to the sowing-machine. In
ono made by SherifT at West Barns, by an ingenious
apparatus on the principle of the odometer, the machine
itself is made to register the space which it travels over,
and thus to indicate the rate per acre at which it is
distributing tho seed. Excellent results have been, and
still are, obtained from broadcast sowing. But as tillage
becomes more perfect, there arises a demand for greater
accuracy in the depth at which seeds are deposited in the
soil, for greater precision in the rate and regularity of their
distribution, and for greater faciliries for removing weeds
from amongst the gromng crop. These considerations led,
at a comparatively early period, to tho system of sowing
crops in rows or drills, and hence the demand for machine*
to do this expeditiously and accurately. We accordingly find,
in our best cultivated districts, the sowing and after-culture
of tho crops now conducted with a precision which reminds
the spectator of the processes of some well-arranged factory.
This is accomplished by means of a variety of* drilling-
machines, tho most prominent of which we shall now
notice.
Tho Suffolk drill is the kind in most.general use. It is
a complicated and costly machine by which manure and
seeds can be simultaneously deposited. That called tho
"general purpose drill" can sow ten rows of corn, with or
\vithout manure, at any width between the rows from 4 J
to 10 inches, and at any rate per acre^between two pecks
and si.x bushels. It can be arranged also to sow clover
and grass seeds, — the heaWer seeds of clover being thrown
out by minute cups, — and the lighter grass seeds brushed
out from a separate compartment. It is further fitted for
sowing beans and turnips — the latter either two drills at
a time on tho ridge, or three on the flit. This drill, as
most recently improved by Messrs Hornsby of Grantham
and Garrett of Leiston, has an apparatus for preserving
the machine in a level position when working on sloping
ground. As a main object in drilling crops at all is to
admit of the use of tho hoe, it becomes an important point
to accomplish the drilling with undeviating straightness,
and exact parallelism in each successive course of the drUL
This is now obtained by means_of a fore-carriage, which aa
assistant walking alongside so controls by a lever as easily
to keep the wheel in the same rut down which it had
previously passed. Messrs Ilornsby have also introduced
India-rubber tubes for conducting the seed, in place of
the tin funnels hitherto used. These drills cost about
£42.
The Woburn drill of the Messrs Hensman is simpler in
its construction than those already noticed. " In all other
drills, the coulters, which distribute the manure or seed,
hang fram the carriage. In this drill the carriage rests-
upon the coulters, which are like the iron of skates; it may
be said, indeed, to mn on four pairs of skates. Hence this
drill's power of penetrating hard ground, and of giving a
firm bed to the wheat-seed in soft.,ground. Each drill
coulter, however, preserves its independence as when
suspended. This self-adjustment is required by tho in-
equality of tilled ground, and is thus obtained : each pair
of coulters is fixed to the end of a balance beam, theie
again to others, and they to a central one. Thus each
coulter, in well-poised rank, gives its independent share of
support. It varies from the gcnerahty of drills, as it is
drawn from the centre by whipple-trecs instead of shafts ;
and the drill-man behind can steer or direct the drill with
the greatest nicety. Tho corn-box of the drill is CLtirely
self-acting, and delivers the seed equally well going either
up or down hilL It is also capable of horse-hoeing, by
attaching hoes to the levers instead of the coulter-shares.
IMPLEMENTS.]
AGRICULTURE
321
It is drawn by a pair of horses, and the price from j£18
to £20."i
Turnip drill.— In Scotland, and in the north and west
of England, turnips are usually sown on the ridge by a
machine which sows two rows at a time. In the south-
eastern parts of England, which are hotter and drier, it is
found better to bow them on the flat, for which purpose
machines are constructed which sow four rows together,
depositing manure at the same time. Both kinds are
adapted for sowing either turnips or mangold-wurzel seeds
as required. With the Tiew of economising seed and
manure, what are called drop-drills have recently been
introduced, which deposit both — not in continuous streams
^but in jets, at such intervals apart in the rows as the.
farmer wishes the plants to stand. What promises to be a
more useful machine is a water-drill invented by a Wilt-
shire farmer — Mr Chandler of Market Lavington. " His
water-drill pours down each manure-coulter the requisite
amount of fluid, mixed TNith powdered manure, and thus
brings up the plant from a mere bed of dust. Having
used it largely during three years, I may testify to its
excellence. Only last July, when my baiUff had ceased
turnip sowing on account of the drought, by directing the
use of the water-drill, I obtained from this latter sowing
an earlier and a better show of young plants than from
the former one with the dust-drilL Nor is there any
increase of expense if water be within a moderate distance,
for we do not use powder-manures alone. They must be
mixed with ashes, that they may be diffused in the soil
Kow, the expense and labour of supplying these ashes are
equal to the cost of fetching mere water; and apart from
any want of rain, it is found that this method of moist
difl"usion, dissolving, instead of mingling only, the super-
phosphate, quickens its action even upon damp ground,
and makes a little of it go further."'
Section 9.-'— Manure-Distributors.
The practice of top-dressing ■wheat, vetches, clover, or
meadows, with guano and various light manures, has now
80 much increased, and the inconvenience of scattering
them over the surface by hand is so great, that various
machines have recently been invented for distributing
them, which can also be used for sowing such manures
over turnip drills, covering three at once. Such machines
will probably be used in future for distributing lime, which
can thtis be done much more regularly than by cart and
shovel, especially when it is wished to apply small quan-
tities for the destruction of slugs or for other purposes.
It seems quite practie^Me to have this or a similar machine
so constructed as that it could be readily hooked on to tho
tail of a cart containing the lime or other substance which
it is desired to distribute by it. The top-dressing material
could by such an arrangement be drawn into the hopper of
tho distributor as it and its tender move along, and the
cart when emptied be replaced by a full one with little
loss of time.
A cheap and effective machine, capable of being in a
similar maimer attached to a dung-cart, which could
tear asunder fold-yard manure, and distribute it evenly in
the bottoms of turnip drills, would be a great boon to
farmers, and seems a fitting object to be aimed at by
those possessed of tho inventive faculty.
Section 10. — Horie-Hoei.
It has already been remarked that the great inducement
to sow grain and gieen crops in rows is that hoeing may
be resorted to, for the double purpose of ridding them of
^ See Mr Pusey's Roport on Iroplomente, in the Journal qf the Royal
Ayriculturai Society q/ Fnglandf vol. lil. p. 604.
• Ibia., p. 007.
1—12
weeds and stimulating their growth by frequent stiiring
of the solL It is now upwards of a century since Jethro
TuU demonstrated, in his books and on his fields, tho
facility with which horse-power could be thus employed.
His system was early adopted in regard to turnips, and led,
as we have seen, to a complete revolution in the practice of
agriculture. The peculiar manner in which he applied his
system to grain crops, and tho principles on which he
grounded his practice, have hitherto been for the most part
repudiated by agriculturists, who have thought it indispens-
able to drill their grain at intervals so narrow as to
admit, as was supposed, of tho use of the hand-hoe only.
But the accuracy with which corn-drills perform their work
has been skilfully taken advantage of, and we now have
horse-hoes, covering the same breadth as tho drill, which
can be worked with perfect safety in intervals of but
seven inches' -width. By such a machine, and the labour
of a pair of horses, two men, and a boy, ten acres of corn
can be hoed in as many hours. Not only is tho work
done at a fifth of the expense of hand-hoeing, and far more
effectually, but it is practicable in localities and at seasons
in which hand-labour cannot be obtained.
Garrett's hor.'^e-hoe is admitted to be the best implement
of its kind. It can bo used for hoeing either beans, tur-
nips, or com, as the hpes can be adapted to suit any width
betwixt rows, and the axle-tree being movable at both
ends, the wheels, too, can be shifted so as to be kept
between the rows of plants. The shafts can be attached
to any part of the frame to avoid injury to the crop by
the treading of the horses. Each hoe works on a lever
independent of tho others, and can be loaded with different
weights, on the same principle as the coulters of the corn-
drill, to accommodate it to uneven surfaces and varying
degrees of hardness in the soil
A great variety of implements, imder the general names
of horse-hoes, scufflers, scrapers, or drill-grubbeis, fitted
for the draught of one horse, and to operate on one drill
at a time, is in use in those parts of the country where
root crops are chiefly sown on ridgelets from 24 to 30
inches apart With considerable diversity of form and
efEciency, they iu general have these features in common,
viz., provision for being set so as to work at varying
widths and depths, and for being armed either with hoes
or tines, according as it is wished to pare the surface or
stir tho soil more deeply. A miniature Norwegian harrow
is sometimes attached to drill-grubbers, by which weeds
are detached from the soil, and the surface levelled and
pulverised more thoroughly. Tcunant'a grubber, with uj
tines set close together, and two horses yoked to it abreast
by a treo long enough to allow them to walk in the drills
on either' side of that operated upon, is the most effective
implement for cultivating between the rows of beans,
potatoes, turnips, or mangolds, that we have yet seen nssd
for this purposa
Section 11. — Turnip- Thinneri.
It sometimes happens, as when drought prevails while
the earlier sowings of turnips or mangold are made, and
this is followed by copious rains and forcing weather, that
the farmer finds it impracticable to get the thinning-out of
the seedlings overtaken as fast a.' is needful To aid bim
in such emergencies, a class of machines has been brought
out, of which Huckvale's turnip-thinner may be named as
a typo. They are very favourably reported of by those
who have used them. Such machines, drawn by one horse,
and made to operate upon either one' or two rows of young
turnip pl»nt3, have first a paiing apparatus, which clears
off weeds from the sides of the rows, and along with this s
set of revolving hoes by which gaps are cut in the rows o(
turnip plants, and tufts of them are left standing at any
I. — 4;
322
AGRICULTUKE
[machines and
rciimied distance apart. This doce not dispense with the
rifter use of the haDd-hoc or fingers to effect a perfect
singling of the plants ; but as a large space can be gone
over in a day at small cost, it enables the farmer to save
his crop from getting overgrown and choked until be can
overtftke the more perfect thinning of it The next class
that claims attention is
Section 12. — Ilarvetting ImplemenU.
These, till little more than twenty years ago, comprised
only the reaping-hook and scythe. An implement by means
of which horsepower could be made available for this
important operation has long been eagerly desired by farmers.
Repeatedly during the first half of the present century their
hopes had been excited, only to be disappointed, by the
announcement of successful inventions of this kind. These
hopes were revived, and raised to a higher pitch than
ever, by the appearance, in the Great Exhibition of the
Industry of all Nations, of two reaping-machines, known
as M'Comiick's and Hussey's, from the United States
of America, where for several years they had been used
extensively and successfully. These implements were
subjected to repeated trials in different parts of England,
on crop 1851, bvt never in circumstences which admitted
of their capabilities being tested in a thoroughly satisfac-
tory manner.
At tho first of these trials, made under the auspices of
the Royal Agricultiuiil Society, the preference was given
to Jl'C'jrmick's, to which the Eidiibition Medal was in
consequence awarded. It turned out, however, that at this
trial Hussey's machine had not a fair chance, being
attended by a person who had never before seen it at work,
for,- when a further trial took place before the Cleveland
Agricultural Society, with Mr Hussey himself super-
intending his own machine, an all but unanimous decision
was given in his favour. Hussey's machine wa.3 in conse-
quence adopted by the leading implement makers, such as
Messrs Garrett, Crosskill, ic.
Early in 1852, a very important communication from
the pen of the late Mr James Slight, curator of the
museum of the Highland and Agricultural Society, appeared
in the Transactions of the Society, by which the attention
of the public was recalled to a reaping-machine of home
production, viz., that invented by the Rev. Patrick Bell,
minister of the parish of CarmyUe in Forfarshire, and for
which a premium of X50 had been awarded to him by
the Highland Society. This machine attracted much
attention at that time. Considerable numbers were made
and partially used, but from various causes the invention
was lost sight of, until, by the irrival of these American
machines, and the notoriety given to them by the Great
Exhibition, with concurring causes about to be noticed,
an intense interest was again excited regarding reaping by
machinery. From Mr Slight's report, the public learned
that the identical Bell's machine, to which the prize was
awarded, had for the previous fourteen years been statedly
employed on the farm of Inch-Michael in the Carse of
Gowrie, occupied by Mr George Bell, a brother of the
inventor, who, during all that period, had succeeded in
reaping, on the average, four-fifths of his crop by means
of it every year. Mr Slight further stated, that at least
fonr specimens of it had been carried to America, and that
from lbs identity in principle between them and those now
brought thence, with other corroborating circumstances,
there is little doubt that the so-called American inventions
ire after all but imitations of this Scottish machine. WTien
it became known that Bell's machine was to be exhibited,
and, if possible, subjected to public trial, at the meeting of
the Highland and Agricultural Society at Perth, in August
1852, th< event was looked forward to by Scottish farmers
with eager interest On tjiat occasion it was .iccordingly
again brought forward, with several important improve-
ments made upon it, by Mr George Bell, already referred
to, and was fully tested in competition with Hussey's, as
made by Crossldll. To the disappointment of many, Mr
M'Cormick did not think fit to eatet the lists at this or lU
some subsequent opportunities.
The success of Bell's machine on this occasion, and at
some subsequent public trials, gave it a high place in public
estimation, and accordingly many of the implements manu-
factured by Mr Crosskill of Beverley, were sold to farmers
in all parts of Great Britain, and especially in Scotland.
After a hopeful start the success of this machine has not
been so decided as was at first anticipated. In common
with other reaping-machines, it had of course to contend
with the disadvantages of unprepared fields and unskilful
guides ; but in addition to this, it was found to be too heavy
in draught, too liable to derangement, and (in the first
issues of it) too easily broken in some of its parts to be
fitted for general use. These drawbacks were, to a greater
or less extent, obviated by subsequent improvements, and
the machine continued for a few years to receive a fair
measure of public patronage. By-and-by it was in a great
measure superseded by other self-delivery machines, such
as Burgess & Key's M'Cormick, with its Archimedean screw,
which, like Bell's, lays off the reaped grain in a continuous
swathe, and by others which, by means of revolving rakes,
Liy it off in quantities suitable to form a sheaf. In crops
of moderate bulk and standing erect, these self-delivery
machines make rapid and satisfactory work, but when
the crop is lodged and twisted they are nearly useless. The
consequence is that for several years, and especially in those
districts where reaping by machinery is most practised, the
preference is given to manual-delivery machines, on the
ground that they are lighter of draught, less liuble to derange-
ment, less costly, more easily managed, and thus more to be
depended upon for the regular performance of a fair amount
of daily work, than their heavier rivals. And, accordingly,
Kght machines on Hussey's principle, but with endless
variations, are at present most in demand.
Before leaving this subject, a remark is due in connection
with the strange neglect of Bell's machine for twenty-five
years, and the enthusiasm with which it was hailed on its
reappearance. The first is so far accounted for by the fact
noticed by Mr George Bell, that such specimens of his
brother's machine as formerly got into the hands of farmers
were so imperfectly constructed that they did not work
satisfactorily, and thus brought discredit on his invention.
The true explanation seemsto be, that at that date the country
was not ready for such a machine. Not only was manurd
labour then abundant and cheap, from the number of Irish
labourers, who annuaUy, as harvest drew near, flocked into
the arable districts of Great Britain, but thorough draini£;j
had made little progress, and the land was everywhere laid
into high ridges, presenting a surface peculiarly unfavourable
for the successful working of a reaping-machine. Now,
however, the conditions are reversed. Emigration to the
colonies, and the ever-growing demand for labourers in
connection with factories, mines, docks, and railways, have
to a very great extent withdrawn the class of people that
used to be available for harvest work, and have so largely
raised the rate of wages to those who still remain as to render
reaping-machines indispensable to the farmer. The pro-
gress of thorough draining has at the same time enabled him
to dispense with the old-fashioned ridges and furrows, and
to lay his com lands in the level state so favourable for reap-
ing and other operations of husbandry. In these altered
conditions lies the true explanation of the former apathy
and subsequent enthusiasm manifested by our farmers to
wards this invention.
IMPLEMENTS
1
AGRICULTURE
323
Section 13. — Mowing-il achines.
Another class of labour-saving machines, closely allied
to those we have jiist described, for which we are indebted
to our American cousins, is mowing-machines. Several
different forms of these were introduced and brought into
somewhat general use during the years 1858 and 1859.
Having used such machines for the past fourteen years we
can testify to their thorough efficiency, and to the very
great saving of labour, and stiU more of time, which can be
secnrsd by means of them. In one instance 30 acres of
clover — a very full crop, and partially lodged — were mown
in 32 hours, and thi.s under all the disadvantages of a first
start. This machine being of very light draught, a pair of
horses can work it at a smart pace without difficulty. By
employing two pairs of horses, and working them by relay,
it can, in the long days of June and July, be kept going
sixteen hours a day, and will easily mow from 16 to 18 acres
of seeds or meadow in that time, making, moreover, better
work than can ordinarily be obtained by using the scythe.
These mowing-machines, which cost from £16 to £25 each,
have proved a most seasonable and truly important addition
to our list of agricultural implements. That they may be
used to advantage, it is absolutely necessary to have the land
well rolled and carefully freed from stones.
Section 14. — Hayrtip^'ers.
Haymakers are valuable implements, and well deserving
of more general use. They do their work thoroughly, and
enable the farmer to get through a great amount of it in
snatches of favourable weather. 'Where . manual labour is
scarce, or when, as in Scotland, haymaking and turnip-
thinning usually come on hand together, the mower and
haymaker render the horse-power of the farm available for
an important process which cannot be done well unless it is
done rapidly and in seasoa
Section 15. — Horse-Sales.
Horse-rakes are in frequent use for gathering together the
stalks of corn which are scattered during the process of
reaping, for facilitating the process of haymaking, and
also for collecting weeds from fallows. By an ingenious
contrivance in the most improved form of this implement,
the teeth are disengaged from the material which they
have gathered without interrupting the progress of the
horse.
We seem to be verging on the time wnen, by means of
machines worked by horse-power, farmers will be enabled
to cut and carry their grass and grain with little more than
the ordinary forces of their farms.
Section 16. — Wheel-Carriaaes.
The cartage of crops, manure, &c., upoa an arable farm,
is such an important part of the whole labour performed
apon it (equal, as shown by a recent estimate, to one-half),'
that it is a matter of the utmost consequence to hye the
work performed by carriages of the most suitable kind. It
was for a long time keenly debated by agricidturists, whether
waggons or cai'ts are most economicaL ThL' question is now
undoubtedly settled. Mr Puscy says, " It is proved beyond
question that the Scotch and Northumbrian farmers, by
using one-horse carts, save one-half of the horses which south
counti-y farmers still string on to their three-horso waggons
and three-horse dung-carts, or dung-pots, as they are called.
Tho said three-horse waggons and dung-pots would also cost
nearly three times as much original outlay. Few, I suppose,
if any, farmers huy these expensive Juyurics now, though
it is wonderful they should keep them ; for last year at
Grantham, in a public trial, five horses with five carts were
matched against five waggons with ten horses, and the five
' Sco Morton' t Cl/clopadia vif Asricultwc, Article "CurriagM." ~
horses beat tne ten by two loads. "^ The one-horse carts
here referred to are usually so constructed as Jo be easily
adapted to the different purposes fbr which wheel-carriages
are needed upon a farm. Fqr each pair of wheels and axle
there is provided a close-bodied cart, and another with
sparred sides and broad shelvings, called a long-cart, or
harvest^cart, either of which can easily be attached toJha
wheels, according to the nature of the commodities to be
carried. Sometimes a simple movable frame is attached to
the close-body to fit it for carrying hay or straw ; but
although one or two such frames are useful for casual pur-
poses thraughout the year, they are inferior for harvest
work to the regular sparred cart with its own shafts. In
some districts the whole of the close-bodied carts used on
the farm are made to tip. For many purposes this is a
great convenience ; but for the conveyance of grain tp
market, and generally for all road work, a ^m frame is
much ^asier for the horse, and less liable to d^cay and de-
rangement. The Berwickshire practice is to have one paii
of tip-carts on each farm, and all the rest firm or dormant-
bodied, as they are sometimes called.
Many farms are now provided with a water or tank cart,
for conveying and distributing liquid manure.
Section 17. — RoadSnr/ines.
Althdugh many attempts have been made to adapt the loco-
motive steam-engine for the conveyance both of passengers
and goods on common roads, the results hitherto have not
been altogether satisfactory.- Progress is, however, undoubt-
edly being made in this effort ; and in not a few instances
such engines are actually in use for the carriage of heavy goods.
If beet-sugar factories shftuld increase in Great Britain, the
carriage of the roots from the farms to the factories wiU
probably be performed by traction engines ; for the inex-
pediency of withdrawing the horse-power of tho farm from
its other urgent work at the season most suitable for deliver-
ing these roots to the sugar-maker presents at present a
serious hindrance to the cnltivatioa of this croD.
MACHINES FOR PREPAEING CP.OPS TOR "AJIKET.
(Sfictiops 18, 19, 20.)
Section 18. — Steam-Enginc!.
The extent to which steam-power is now employed for the
purposes of the farm is another giaiked feature in the recent
Poctablo Stcam-Euglno. (Claviuii, bbuttlcworth, i Co.)
progress of agncuiture. W» nave already referred to tha
value of water-power for propelling agricultural machinery
' Mr Pu8ey'B Roport, in tho Joymial oj t\c tU%ia2 Agr'cnllaraJ
SocUty of England voi. lii. p. 617
324
AGRICULTURE
[haceines and
wLen it can ba had in BufScient and regular supply. As
it is only in exceptional cases that fanns are thus favoured,
the Bteam-engine is the power that must generally bo
leckoned upon, and accordingly its use is now so common
that a tall chimney has become, over extended districts, the
prominent feature of nearly every homestead. It has been
satisfactorily shown that grain can be thrashed and dressed
by well-constructed, steam-propelled machinery, at one-
fourth the cost of thrashing by horse-power and dressing
by hand-fanners. So great, indeed, is the improvement in
steam-engines, and so readily can the amount of power be
accommodated to the work to bo done, that we^d them
everywhere superseding the one-horso gin, and even
manual labour, for pumping, churning, coffee-grinding, <5ic.
Wherever, then, a thrashing-mill is used at all, it may bo
safely asserted that, next to water, steam is the cheapest
power by which it can be propelled. The portable engine
is the form which has hitherto found most favour in the
southern parts of tho kingdom. Mr Pusey thus states the
reason for which he regards them as preferable to fixed
engines: — "If a farm be a large one, and especially if, as
is often the case, it bo of an irregular shape, there is great
waste of labour for horses and men in bringing home all
the com in the straw to one point, aud in again carrying out
the dung to a distance of perhaps two or three miles. It is
therefore common, and should be general, to have a second
outlying yard. This accommodation cannot be reconciled
with a fixed engine.
Portable Thrashing-Machine. (Clayton, Shuttlewortb, t Co.)
" If the fann be of a moderate size, it will hardly — and
if small will certainly not — bear the expense of a fixed
engine : there would be waste of capital in multiplying fixed
engines to be worked but a few days in the year. It is now
conunon, therefore, in some counties for a man to invest a
small capital in a movable engine, and earn Sais livelihood
by letting it out to the farmer.
" But there is a further advantage in these movable
engines, little, I believe, if at all known. Hitherto corn
has been thrashed under cover in barns ; but with th^
engines and the improved thrashing-machines we can thrafa
the rick in the open air at once as it stands. It will be said.
How caa you thrash out of doors on a wet dayl The
answer is simple. Neither can you move your rick into
your barn on a wet day; and so rapid is the work of the
aew thrashing-machines, that it takes no more time to thrash
the corn than to move it. Open-air thrashing is also far
pleasanter and he-althier for the labourers, their lungs not
being choked with dust, as under cover they are ; and there
is, of course, a saving of labour to the tenant not inconsider-
able. But when these movable steam-engines have spread
generally, there will arise an equally important .saving to
the landlord in buildings. Instead of three or more barns
clustering round the homestead, one or other in constant
want of repair, a single building will sufEco for dressing
com and for chaff-cutting. The very barn-floors saved will be
no insignificant item. Now that buildings are required for
new purposes, we must, if we can, retrench those buildings
whoso objects are obsolete. Open-air thrashing may appear
visionary, but it is quite common with the new machinery ;
nor would any one perform tho tedious manoeuvre of setting
horses and men to pull down a rick, jilace it on carta, and
build it up again in the barn, who had once tried the simple
plan of jntching the sheaves at once into the thrashing-
machine."'
To us these reasons arc inconclusive.. A fixed engine
can bo erected and kept in repair at greatly less cost than
a portable one of the same power. It is much easier to
keep tho steam at working pressure in the common boiler
than in the tubular one, which, from its compactness, is
generally adopted in portable engines. It is, no doubt,
very convenient to draw up engine and machinery alongside
a rick and pitch the sheaves at once upon the feeding-board,
and very pleasant to do this in the sunshine and " caller air ; "
but we should think it neither convenient nor pleasant to
have engine and thrashing-gear to transport and refix every
time of thrashing, to have grain and chaff to cart to the barn,
the thrashed straw to convey to the respective places of
consumption, and all this in circumstances unfavourable to
accurate and cleanly disposal of the products, and excessive
exposure to risk of weather. Sudden rain will no doubt
interrupt the carrjdng in of a rick in the one case as the
thrashing of it in the other ; but there is this vast difference
in favour of the former, that the partially carried rick is
easily re-covered; machinery, products of thrashing, and
work-people, are safely under cover; and the engine is ready
by a slight change of gearing forother work, such as bruising,
grinding, or chaff-cutting. '
It is urged on behalf of the portable engine, that in districts
where the farms are generally smaD, one may serve a good
many neighbours. Now, not to dwell on the expense and
inconvenience to small occupiers of frequently transporting
such heavy carriages, and of having as much of their crop
thrashed in a day (there being manifest economy in having
at least a day's work when it is employed) as will meet their
demands for fodder and litter for weeks to come, we are
persuaded that on farms of even 80 or 1 00 acres, a compact
fi-xed engine of two or three horse-power will thrash, bruise
grain, cut chaff, work a chum, and cook cattle food, ic,
more economically than such work caa be done in any other
way. It is very usual to find on such farms, especially in
.dairy districts, an apparatus for cooking cattle food by steam,
or by boiling in a large copper, where as much fuel is used
every day, and as much steam generated, as would work
such an engine as we have referred to, and do the cooking
over and above. Even a smaU dairy implies a daily demand
for boiling water to scmb vessels and cook food for cows.
How manifestly economical, then, when the steam is up at
any rate, to employ this untiring, obedient agent, so willing
to turn the hand of anything, in performing the heavy work
of the homestead with a power equal, perhaps, to that of all
the men and horses employed upon the farm.
Whenever tillage by steam-power is fairly available, there
will undoubtedly be an inducement to use the portable
engine as a thrashing-power that has not hitherto existed,
as there will be a manifest economy in having both opera-
tions performed by the same engine. Dven then, however,
there is a high probability of its being found impracticablo
to withdraw the engin ) even once a week for the needful
thrashing during the six or eight weeks immediately after
^ Mr PuBoy's Report on Implements. — Journal of the Royal Agri-
culiurai Society of England, vol. xii. p. 621.
IMPLEMENTS.]
d.GRICULTURE
326
harvest, when it will be ot such consequence to make
diligent use of every available hour for pushing on the
tillage.
The kind of fixed engine most approved for farm-work
in the north of England And south of Scotland is the over-
head crank engine, attached by direct action to the spur-
wheel, and sometimes even to the drum shaft of the
thrashing-machine. Their cheapness, simplicity of con-
struction, easy management, and non-liability to derange-
ment, fit these engifios in an eminent degree for farm-work.^
Section 1 9. — Thrasldng-ifachines.
It is now sixty-five years since an ingenious Scotch
mechanist, Andrew Meikle, produced a thrashing-machine
so perfoit that its essential features are retained unaltered
to the present day. Indeed, it is frequently asserted that,
after all the modifications and supposed improvements of
the thrashing-machine v/hich have been introduced by
various parties, the mills made by Meikle himself have not
yet been surpassed, so far as thorough and rapid separation
of the grain from the straw is concerned. The unthrashed
com is fed evenly into a pair of slowly revolving fluted
rollers of cast-iron, by which it is presented to the action
of a rapidly revolving cylinder or drum armed with four
beaters, which are square spars of wood faced with iron,
fixed parallel to its axis, and projectihg about four inches
f rovi its circumference. The drum is provided mth a dome
or cover, and the corn being partly held by the fluted rollers
R3 it passes betwixt the drum and its cover, the rapid strokes
of the beaters detach the grain froEa the ears, and throw
the straw forward upon slowly revolving rakes, in passing
over which the loose grain is shaken out of the straw, and_
falls through a grating into the hopper of a winnowing and
riddling machine, which rids it of dust.<nd chaff, and
separates the grain from the unthrashed ears and broken
straw, called rouglis or shorts. The grain and roughs are
discharged by separate spouts into the apartment below the
thrashing-loft, whence the com is fed into the rollers, and
the thrashed straw falls from the rakes inio the straw barn
beyond. Since Meikle's time further additions have been
made to the machinery. In the most improved machines
driven by steam or a sufficient water power, the grain is
raised by a series of buckets fixed on an endless web into
the hopper of a double winnowing-machine, by which it is
separated into clean com, light, whites or capes, and small
seeds and sand. The discharging spouts are sufficiently
elevated to admit of sacks being hooked on to receive the
diflferent products as they faU. When barley is thrashed,
it is first carried by a separate set of elevators; which can
be detached at pleasure, into a- " hummeller," in which it
is freed from the awns, and then raised into the second
fanners in the same manner as other grain. The hummeUer
is a hoUow cylinder, in which a spindle fitted with transverse
blunt knives revolves rapidly. The rough grain is poured
in at the top, and, after being acted upon by the knives, is
emitted at the bottom through an opening which is enlarged
or diminished by a sliding shutter, according to the degree
of trimming that is required. A large eet of elevators is
usually employed to carry up the roughs to the feeding-board,
that they may again be subjected to the action of the drum.
The roughs are emptied, not directly on the feeding-board,
but into a riddle, from which the loose gr?.in passes by a
canvas funnel direct to the winnower in the apartment
below, and only the unthrashed ears and short straw, are
lllowed to fall upon the board.
The alterations that have been made upon the thrashing-
' See article on ** Comparative Advantages of Fixed and Portable
Steam Power for the Purposea of a Faim," by Robert Ritchie, Esq.,
C.E,, Edinbnrgh, is Transaciimt o/ Highland Socitty for March 1662,
p. 5»i
machJ-.T since M«ikle's time chiefly affect the drum. Meikla
himself tried toJmprove upon his beaters by fixing a project-
ing ledge of iron on theL.» outer edges, so as to give them
a scutching action similar id that of flax-mills. This strips
off the grain from oats or barley very well when thinly fed
in ; but its tendency is to mb off the entire ears, especially
of wheat, and also to miss a portion of the ears, whenever
there is rapid feeding in. More recent trials of drums on
the scutching principle show them to be on the whole inferior
to the plain beater.
We have already referred to the general use Oi portable
thrashing-machines in the eastern coimties of England.
These, for the most part, have drums with six beaters upon
a skeleton frame, which revolve with great rapidity (about
800 times per minute, hence often called high-speed drum),
vrithin a concave or screen, which encloses the drum for
about one-third its circumference. This screen consists
alternately of iron ribs and open wire-work, and is so placed
that its inner surface can bo brought into near contact with
the edges of the revolving beaters, and admits of this space
being increased or diminished by means of screws. No
f eeding-roUers are used with this drum, the unthrashed com
being introduced directly to it.
Another form of drum, acting on the same principle as
that just referred to, buS cased with rfate-iron, and having
for beaters eight strips of iron projecting about one-fourth
of an inch from its surface, and. which works within a
concave which embraces it for th;ee-fifths of its circum-
ference, is in use when it is desired to preserve the sti-aw
as straight and unbroken as possible. These are made of
sufficient width to admit of the com being fed in sideways^
and are called bolting machines, from the straw being
delivered in a fit state for being at once made up into bolts
or bufidlcs for market. Although the term beaters isretained
in describing these drums, it is evidert that the process by
which the grain is separated from the ears is rubbing rather
than beating. This necessarily requires that only a naiTow
space intervene between druta and concave, and that the corn
be fed in somewhat thinly. Such machines thrash clean,
whether the ears are all at one end of the sheaf or not, and
deliver the otraw straight and uninjured ; but it is objected
to these by some that thsy are slower in their operation
than those with the beating drum, are liable to choke if the
straw is at all damp, that the grain is sometimes broken by
them, and that they require greater power to drive them.
A further snd more recent modification is the peg-drum.
In this case the drum is fitted with parallel rows of iron
pegs, projecting about 2 J inches from itssurfacfe, which in
its revolutions pass within one-fourth of an inch of similar
pegs fixed in the concave in rows running at right angles
to the drmn. Great things were at first anticipated from
this invention, which, however, it has failed to realise. But
iron pegs have more recently been added to the common
beater-drum with apparent success. The beaters in this
case are made one-half narrower than usual, and have stout
iron pegs, formed of E^uare rods, driven into their faces,
angle foremost, and slightly reflected at the points. These
act by a combination of beating and rippling, and are said
to thrash clean and to be easily driven.
There is thus a great variety of thrashing-machines to be
found in different parts of the country, the comparative
merits of which are frequently -and keenly discussed by
agriculturists. The extraordinary discrepancies in the
amount and quality of the work perfomied by different
machines, and in the power reqxxired to effect it, are due
quite as much to the varying degrees of skill with which
their parts are proportioned and put together, as to varying
merit in the respective plans of construction.
In the b(»3t examples of 6-hor8e power stationary etcam-
ongines and thraahing-raachinery, aa fonnd in the Lothians,
32G
AGRICULTURE
[MACHLSUa AND
(ifty quarters of grain, taking the average of wneat, barley,
and oat3, are thrashed, dressed, and sacked up ready for
market, in a day of ten hours, irith a consumption of 7 J
cvrt. of good coals, and a gross expenditure for wages,
value of horse labour, fuel, and wear and tear of machinery,
of 9d. per quarter.
The exigencies of the labour market are giving a power-
ful stimulus to the use of labour-saving contrivances of all
kinds ; and hence the recent introduction of straw elevators,
to be worked cither by horse-power or by the same stcam-
enjfine that is driving the thrasliing-machlnery. The latter
plan finds most favour in England, where it has already
been adopted to a considerable extent
The Royal Agricultural Society of England has done
much towards ascertaining the real merits of the various
thrashing-machines now in use, by the carefully conducted
comparative trials to which it has subjected those which
have been presented in competition for its liberal prizes.
The accuracy of these trials, and the value of the recorded
results, have been much enhanced by the use of an
ingenious apparatus invented by Mr C. E. Amos, consulting
engineer to the Society, which is figured and described at
p. 479 of vol xi. of the Society's Journal. A pencil
connected with this apparatus traces a diagram upon a
sheet of paper, recording every variation of the power
employed during the experiment to work the machine under
trial For reasons already stated, we regard it as unfor-
tunate that the patronage of tliis great Society has hitherto
been so exclusively bestowed upon portable machines.
Section 20. — Winnovnng-Machines.
Wo have already referred to the fanners, which, except
in portable machines, are almost invariably found in com-
bination with thrashing-machinery, so wS to deliver the
grain into tlie corn-chamber in a comparatively clean state ;
and we have also noticed the further contrivances by which,
when there is a sufficient motive power at command, the
complete dressing of the grain goes on simultaneously with
the thrashing. The winnowers used in such cases do not
diiTer in constraction from those worked by hand. In-
deed, it is usual to have one at least that can be used
in either way at pleasure. In these machines the separa-
tion of the clean from tie light grain, and of both from
dust, sand, and seeds of weeds, or other rubbish, is eiTected
by directing an artificial blast of wind upon a stream of
grain as it falls upon a riddle. There is thus a comvSnation
of fanning and sifting, which is used in different dvigrees
according to the views of the mechanist In some forms
of this machine the benefit of the artificial blast is in a
gieat measure lost through an injudicious application of it
Section 21. — Com^Bruiser and Grinding-MUl.
The now frequent use of v.irions kinds of grain in the
fattening of live stock creates a necessity for machines to
prepare it for this purpose, either by breaking, bruising,
or grinding. A profusion of these, to be worked by hand,
is everywhere to bo met with. Such jnachines are always
most economically worked by steam or water power.
When that can be had, a set of rollers for bruising oats or
linseed, and millstones to grind the inferior graiu of the
farm, form a most valuable addition to barn machinery.
Section 22. — Cake-Crushers.
Machines for breaking linseed-cake into large pieces for
cattle, or smaller ones for sheep, are now in general use.
The breaking is performed by passing the cakes between
serrated rollers, by which it is nipt into morsels. These
are usually driven by hand ; but it is always expedient to
have a pulley attached to them, and to take advantage of
mechanical power when available.
Section IZ.—Chaff-Cuttert.
The use of this class of machines has increased very
niiuh of late years. Fodder when cut into lengths of from
hulfan-inch to an inch is somewhat more easily masticated
than when given to animals in it« natural state; but the
chief advantages of this practice arc, that it prevents waste,
and admits of different qualities — as of hay and straw,
straw and green forage, or chaff and pulped roots — being
BO mixed that animals cannot pick out the one from
amongst the other, but must eat the mixture as it ib
presented to them. Such cut fodder also forms an
excellent vehicle in which to give meal or bruised grain,
either cooked or raw, to live stock. This applies parti-
cularly to sheep feeding on turnips, as they then require a
portion of dry food, but waste it grievously when it is not
thus prepared. Chaff-cutters are constrjicted on a variety of
plans ; but the principle most frequently adopted b that
of radial knives bolted to the arm of a fly-wheel, which
work across the end of a feeding-box fitted with rollers,
which draw forward the straw or hay and present it in a
compressed state to the action of the knives. A machine
on this principle, made by Comes of Barbridge, has gained
the first premium in its class at recent meetings of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England. Gillets' guillotine
cha2-cutter is an exceedingly ingenious and efficient
machine, performing its work with great accuracy, and
without frequent sharpening of its one double-edged knife.
These machines are most economically worked by the power
used for thrashing. The most convenient site for them is
in the upper loft of the straw-bam, where the straw can be
supplied with little labour, and the chaff either .shoved
aside, or allowed to fall as it is cut through an opening in
"the floor into the apartment below, and at once conveyed
to other parts of the homestead. The practice on some
farms where there is a fixed steam-engine, is to thrash a
stack of oats in the forenoon, and to cut up the straw,
and bruise or grind th"e grain simultaneously, in the
aftemooa
Secticm Hi. — Turnip-Cutters.
Cattle and sheep which have arrived at maturity are
able to scoop turnips rapidly with their sharp, gouge-like
front teeth, and so can be fattened on this kind of food
without an absolute necessity of slicing it for them. Even
for adult animals there is, however, an advantage in
reducing turnips to pieces which they can easily take into
their mouths, and at once get between their grinders with-
out any preliminary scooping ; but for young stock, during
the period of dentition, it is indispensable to their bare
subsistence. It is largely through the use of slicing-
machines that certain breeds of sheep are fattened on
turnips, and got ready for the butcher at fourteen months
old. It seems to be admitted on all hands that Gardener's
patent tiimip-cuttcr is the best that has yet been produced
for slicing roots for sheep. It is now made entirely of iron,
and is an exceedingly useful machine.
In cattle feeding it is not usually thought necessary to
divide the roots given to them so minutely as for sheep.
A simple machine, fashioned much on the principle of
nut-crackers, by which, at each depression of the lever
handle, one turnip is forced through a set of knives
which divide it into slices each an inch thick, is- very
generally used in Berwickshire for this purpose. Many
persons, however, prefer to have the turnips put into the
cattle-troughs whole, and then to have them cut by a
simple cross-bladed hand-chopper, which at each blow
quarters the piece struck by it The mode of housing
fattening cattle largely determines whether roots can be
most couvenicntly sliced before or after being put into the
((^ing-truiigh&
IMPLKMEKTS.J
AGRICULTURE
327
Section 25. — Tumip-Pulpers.
An opinion now obtains, and is on the increase, that it
is advantageous to rasp roots into minute fragicents and
fniir them with chtiff before giving them to cattle, as this
not only facilitates mastication, but in wintry weather
prevents the chilling effects of a bellyful of such watery food
as turnips are when eaten alone. This system is peculiarly
appropriate when it is desired to give a few roots to store
cattle which are being fed mainly upon straw or coarse hay.
When a few turnips or mangolds are put down in their
natural state there is a scramble for the better food, in
which the stronger cattle get nore than their share, and
the weaker are knocked about But by pulping the
roots and mixing them with a full allowance of chafT, every
animal gets its fill, and there is nothing to quarrel about.
At the Carlisle meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society
a premium was offered for machines to perform this kind
of work, under the somewhat inappropriate designation
of "pulping-machines." The prize was awarded to Mr
Philips for his machine, which reduces roots to minute
fragments by means of a series of circular saws. We learn
from parties who have made trial of most of the machines
of this class yet brought out, that they give the preference
to that made by Bentall of Maldon in Sussex
Section 26. — Steaming Apparatus for Cooking Cattle Foofi.
We have several times alluded to the cooking of food for
lattle. This is performed either by boiUng in a common
pot, by steaming in a close vessel, or by infusion in boiling
water. Varieties of apparatus are in use for these purposes.
A convenient one is a close boiler, with a cistern over it,
from which it supplies itself ' with cold water by a self-
acting stop-cock. This is alike suitable for cooking either
by steaming or infusing.
Section 27. — Weighing-Machines.
It IS of course indispensable for every farm to be
provided with beam and scales, or other apparatus, for
ascertaining the weight of grain, wool, and other' com-
modities, in quantities varying from 1 lb. to 3 cwt. But,
besides this, it is very desirable to have a machine by
which not only turnips, hay, manures, &c., can be weighed
in cart-loads, but^ by which also the live weight of pigs,
ehcep, and bullocks can be ascertained. Such a machine,
conveniently placed in the homestead, enables the farmer
to check the weighing of purchased manure, linseed-cake,
coal, and similar commodities, with great facility. It
affords the means of conducting various experiments for
ascertaining the' comparative productiveness of crops, the
quantities of food consumed by cattle, and their periodic
progress, with readiness and precision. To. persons unable
to estimate the weight of cattle by the eye readily and
accurately, such a machine is invaluable.
Section 28. — Concluding Remarks on Implements.
We have thus enumerated, and briefly described, those
machines and implements of agriculture which may be held
to be indispensable, if the soil is to be cultivated to the
best advantage. The list does not profess to be complete ;
but enough is given to indicate the progress which has
recently taken place in this department. We have already
referred to this department of the proceedings of the Royal
Agric\iltural Society of England, and would earnestly
recommend to all engaged in agriculture the careful study
of the reports on implements contained in the ninth and
subsequent volumes of their Journal. The care with which
they have selected their judges, and the skilful fnanner in
which those entrusted with the difficult and responsible
offica have discharged' their duties, are truly admirable.
A few extracts from these reports will serve to show the
extent and value of this department of the Society's laboura
In the report for 1849, Mr Thomson of Moat-Hall says —
" The Society's early shows of implements must be viewed
chiefly in the light of bazaars or. expositions. Neithai
stewards nor judges had yet acquired the experience
requisite for the adequate discharge of their ofiice, so that
such men as Messrs Garrett, Hornsby, Ransome, and a few
others, would have laughed in their sleeves had they been
told that they could learn anything in the Society's show-
yard. In spite, however, of a creditable display on thf
part of a few leading firms, the majority of the implements
exhibited at these early shows were of inferior construction
and workmanship, and the general appearance of the
exhibitions meagre and unsatisfactory.
" The attention of some of the leading members of the
Society (especially of the late lamented Mr Handley) was
earnestly directed to tie improvement of this department,
and they soon perceived that little was gained by collecting
implements in a show-yard for people to gaze at, unless an
adequate trial could be made of their respective merits.
To attain this end great exertions were made, and everj-
improvement in the mode of trial was followed by so
marked an increase in the number and merit of the imple-
ments brought forward at subsequent shows, as to prove
the strongest incentive to further effort.
" At the Cambridge and Liverpool meetings, when these
trials were in their infancy, their main attraction consisted
of ploughing-matches on a large scale, which gratified sight-
seers, but gave no results that could be depended upon,
and therefore disappointed all practical men. It would
occupy time unnecessarily to trace the gradual changes
which have led to the discontinuance of these showy exhi-
bitions, and the siibstitution in their place of- quiet,
business-like trials, in the presence of stewards and judges
alone. Suffice it to say, that what they have lost in dis-
play, they have gained in efliciency, and consequently in
favour with those classes for whose benefit they were de-
signed At the York meeting, the improved mode of trying
the thrashing-machines supplied a deficiency which, until
that time, had been much felt, viz., the absence of anj
means of ascertaining the amount of power expended in
working the machines under tri-al ; and it may now be
asserted, with some confidence, that, with the exception
of an occasional error or accident, the best implements are
uniformly selected for prizes.
"It now remains to answer the question proposed for
consideration, viz., to what extent the great improvement
made of late in agricultural implements is due to the
exertions of this Society ; and with this view a tabular
statement is subjoined, which shows the relative extent and
importance of the Society's two first and two last shows of
implements : —
No. oJ
Awards.
Exhibitors.
Honey.
Sfcda]
1839 Oxford .
23
£5
.4
1840 Cambridge
36
0
7
1848 York
. 146
230
21
1849 Norwich .
. 145
364
13
" From this it will be seen that at Cambridge, where the
trial of implements was confined to one day, and was, in
other respects, so immatuie as to be of little practical value,
the number of exhibitors was only thirty -six, and the judges,
in whom a certain discrfitionary power was vested, awarded
no money and but seven medals, in consequence of tlie
scarcity of objects deserving of reward ; whilst at. York,
eight years aft'er, when trials lasted several days, and ha,
attained a considerable degree of perfection, the number oi
exhibitors had increased four-fold. The additional amount
offered in prizes a:t the lat«r meetings lias undoubtedly
assisted in creating this great increase of competition, but
it cannot be coaaidered the 'irincioal cause, eiacs the implo
328
AGRICULTURE
ment-makers are unanimous in declaring that, even when
most successful, the prizes they receive do not reimburse
them for their eipenacs and loss of time. How, then,
are the increased exertions of the machine-makers to be ac-
counted for t Simply by the fact that the triahi of imple-
ments have gradually won the confidence of the farmer, so
ihat, when selecting implements for purchase, he gives the
preference to those which have received the Society's mark
•of approval This inference is corroborated by the makers
themselves, who readily admit that the winner of a prize,
for any implement of general utility, is sure to receive an
ample amount of orders, and that the award of a medal ia
worth on an average i50."
In reporting upon the agricultural implement department
of the Great Exhibition, Mr Pusey says — " The yearly shows
and trials of the Royal Agricultural Society have certainly
done more in England for agricultural machines within the
last ten years, than had been attempted anywhere in all
former time It seems proved that since annual
country shows were established by Lord Spencer, Mr
Uandley, and others yet living, old implements have been
improved, and new ones devised, whoso performances stand
the necessary inquiry aa to the amount of saving they can
effect. To ascertain that amount precisely ia diihcult ; but,
looking through the successive stages of management, and
seeing that the owner of a stock-farm is enabled, in the
preparation of his land, by using lighter ploughs, to cast off
one horse in three, and by adopting other simple tools to
dispense altogether with a great part of his ploughing, —
that in the culture of crops by the various drills, horse labour
can be partly reduced, the seed otherwise wanted partly
saved, or the use of manures greatly economised, while the
horse-hoe replaces the hoe at one-half the expense, — that
in harvest the American reapers can effect thirty men's work,
whilst the Scotch cart replaces the old English waggon with
exactly half the number of horses, — that in preparing com
for man's food, the steam thrashing-machine saves two-thirds
of our former expense, — and in preparing food for stock,
the turnip-cutter, at an outlay of Is., adds 8s. a-head in one
winter to the value of sheep ; lastly, that in the indispensable
but costly operation of draining, the materials have been
reduced from 8O3. to 153. — to one-fifth, namely, of their
former cost, — it sepms to be proved that the efforts of agri-
cultural mechanists have been so far successful, as in all
these main branches of farming labour, taken together, to
effect a saving, on outgoings, of little less than one-half."
Since these reports were made, the demand for improved
agricultural implements and machinery has increased
enormously, so much so that the manufacture of them is
now a most important and a rapidly increasing branch of
our national industry, and we quite anticipate that in a short
time there will be such a general appreciation of the benefits
of cultivation by steam power, and such a demand for engines
and tackle to carry it out, as the makers and manufacturers
nill find it difficult to satisfy.
Scottish agriculturists, in reading these reports, will pro-
bably note with self-gratulation, that some of the improve-
ments referred to as of recent introduction in England, viz.,
two-horse ploughs and one-horse carts, have long been estab-
lished among themselves. Indeed, they will find graceful
acknowledgment of the fact in these reports. Unless alto-
gether blinded by prejudice, they will, however, see that our
brethren south of the Tweed have already outstripped us in
many particulars, and that unless our national Society, our
mechanists, and farmers, exert themselves with correspond-
ing judgment and zeal, we must henceforth be fain to follow,
where we at least fancy that we have hitherto been leading.
But we have more important motives and encouragements
to exertion than mere national emulation. The extent to
which the cost of production of farm produce has been
[DRAININO
lessened by recent improTementa in the implements of
husbandry, and in the details of farm management, is greater
than many are awaro of. It seems to bo in this direction
mainly that the farmer must look for a set-off against the
steadily increasing cost of land and labour. If by further
improvements in his machinery and implements he ia enabled
to keep fewer horses, to get his deep tillage performed by
steam power, and his mowing and reaping accomplished by
the ordinary forces which he requires throughout the year,
the reduction upon the prime cost of his produce will bo
really important A hopeful element in this anticipated
progress ia that it tends directly to elevate the condition of
the rural labourer. Every addition to the steam power and
labour-saving machines used upon the farm impUes an
increased demand for cultured minds to gxiido them, a
lessening of the drudgery heretofore imposed upon human
thews and sinews, an equalising of employment throughout
Ihe year, and a better and steadier rate of wages. , BelieWng,
as wo do, that on every farm enormous waste of motive
power — mechanical, animal, and manual — is continuously
going on through the imperfection of the implements and
machines now in use, we would urge upon all concerned
to look well to this ; for, with all our improvements, there
is undoubtedly yet a large margin for retrenchment here.
Besides the bulky and costly implements now enumerated,
every farm must be provided with a considerable assortment
of hand-implements and tools, all of which it is of conse-
quence to have good of their kind. Although not individu-
ally costly, they absorb a considerable capital in the aggre-
gate. When not in use, they require to be kept under lock,
and at all times need to be well looked after. Without
waiting to describe these in detail, let us now see how the
work of the farm is conducted.
CHAPTER VU.
PRBPAEATION OP THE LAJfD FOE TILLAGE 0PBEATI0N6.
Section 1. — When Required.
Before those simple tillage operations which are necessary
in every instance of committing seeds to the earth can be
gone about, there are more costly and elaborate processes of
preparation which must be encountered in certain circum-
stances, in order to fit the soil for bearing cultivated crops.
It is now only in exceptional cases that the British agri-
culturist has to reclaim land from a state of nature. The
low-country farmer does occasionally meet with a patch of
woodland, or a bank covered with gorse or brushwood, which
he sets about converting into arable land. It is in the
higher districts that, from the facilities now afforded for
readily enriching poor soils by portable manures, the plough
still frequently invades new portions of muir and bog, and
transforms them into fields. The occupiers of land in these
upkind districts are accordingly still familiar with the
processes of paring and burning, trenching, removing earth-
fast stones, and leveULig inequalities of surface. In break-
ing up land that has been for a course of years imder
pasturage, paring and burning are also frequently resorted
to in all parts of the country. The grand improvement of
all, thorough underground drainage, is common to every
district and class of soils.
Section 2. — Draining.
From the moist climate of Britain, drainingis undoubtedly
the rH-importaiit preliminary operation in setting about the
improvement of the soil
To drain land is to rid it of its superfluous moisture.
The rivers of a country with their tributary brooks and rills
are the natural provision for removing the rain water which
either flows directly from its surface, or which, after
percolating through porous strata to an indefinite depth, ia
again discharged at the surface by springs. The litter may
8PEKATI0NS.]
AGRICULTURE
329
thus be regarded aa the outlets of a natural underground
drainage. This provision for disposing of the water that
falls from the clouda is usually so irregular in its distribu-
tion, and so imperfect in its operation, that it leaves much
to be accomplished by human labour and ingenuity. The
art of the drainer accordingly consists —
\st, In improving the natural outfalls by deepening,
straightening, or embanking rivers; and by supplementing
these, when necessary, by artificial canab and ditches ;
and,
'2d, la freeing the soil and subsoil from stagnant water,
by means of artificial underground channels.
(JUlfaci The first of these operations, called trunk drainage, 18 the
most needful ; for until it be accomplished there are exten-
sive tracts of land, and that usually of the most valuable
kind, to which the secondary process either cannot be
applied at all, or only with the niost partial and inefiicient
results. Very many of our British rivers and streams flow
nth a sluggish and tortuous course through valleys of flat
alluvial soil, which, as the coast is approached, expand into
extensive plains, but little elevated above the level of the
sea. Here the course of the river is obstructed by shifting
shoals artd sand-banks, and by the periodic influx of the
tides. The consequence is, that immense tracts of valuable
land are at all times in a water-logged and comparatively
worthless state, and on every recurrence of a flood are laid
entirely under water. In a subsequent chapter on " Waste
Lands" some account shall be given of the extent of this
evil, and of the efforts that have been successfully devoted
to its remedy. Some of these fen-land and estuary drain-
age works have been accomplished in the face of .natural
obstacles of the most formidable character, and constitute
trophies of engineering talent of which the country may well
be proud. Great as the natural difRcnltlea are which have
to be encountered in such cases, there are others of a differ-
ent kind which have often proved more impracticable. It
has been found easier to exclude the sea and restrain land-
floods, than to overcome the prejudices and reconcile the
conflicting interests of navigation companies, commissioners
of sewers, owners of nulls, and landed proprietors. Although
all these classes suffer the most flerioua losses and incon-
veniences from the defective state of many of our rivers,
it is found extremely diflicult to reconcile their conflict-
ing claims, and to allocate to each his proper share of the
cost of improvements by which all are to benefit. A most
interestipg and instructive illustration of the urgent necessity
for improving the state of our rivers, of the difficulties to
be encountered in doing so, and of the incalculable benefits
thus to be obtained, has been given in an essay on Trunk
Drainage, by John Algernon Clarke, Esq., published, in
vol XV. (part first) of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society of Erwjland. Mr Clarke, after some most important
observations on trunk di'ainage, describes in ' detail works
projected under powers granted in an Act of Parlia-
ment, passed in 1852, "constituting commissioners for
the improvement of the river Nene and the navigation
;hereof."
There is not a district of the kingdom in which works
similar in kind are not absolutely indispensable, before
extensive tracts of valuable land can be rendered available
for profitable cultivation by means of underground drainage.
[tis inter(;8tingto know that the necessity for trunk drainage,
and the means of accomplishing it, were distinctly set before
the public 200 years ago by a practical draining engineer,
to v/hose writings the attention of the agricultural com-
munity has been frequently directed of late by Mr
Parkes, Mr Qiabome, and others. From the third edition
{1652) of The Improver Improved, by Walter Blithe, the
author refuisd to, in which the true principles of land
'Irainage are stated as distinctly, and urged aa earnestly, as
1—12*
by any of our modem wmers, we nere quote tho following
remarks : —
" A strait water-course, cut a considerable depth, in a thonaand
parts of this nation, would be more advantageous than we are
aware of, or I will taak myself here to dispute further. And though
many persons are interested therein, and some toU agree, and others
will oppose ; one creek lyeth on one side of .the river, in one lord's
manor, and another lyeth on tbe other side, and divers men own tlie
same ; why may not one neighbour change with another, when both
are gainers ? If not, why may they not be compelled for their &u/n-
good, and the commonwealth's advantage t 1 daresay thousands of
acres of very rich land may hereby be gained, and possibly as many
more much amended, that are almost destroyed ; but a law is want-
ing herein for the present, which I- hope will be suppH^d if it may
appear advancement to the public ; for to private interests it is not
possible to be the least prejudice, when every man hath benefit, and
each mai> may also have an equall allowance if the least prejudiced-
" But a word or two more, and so shall conclude this chapter —
and it is a Uttle to further this improvement through a great
destruction (as some may say) ; it is the removing or the destroying
of all such mills, and none else, as droivn and coniipt more lands
than themselves are worth to the commonwealth, and they are such
as are kept up or dammed so high as that they boggyiie all the
lands that lye nuder their mill-head. Such mills as are of little
worth, or are by constant great charges maintained, I advise to be
Eulled down ; the advance of the land, "w}ien the water is let run
is course, and not impounded, will be of far greater value many
times. But in case the mills should be so necessary and profitable
too, and far more than the lands they spoil, I shall then advise,
that under tby mill-dam, so many yards wide from it as may prevent
breaking through, thou make a very deep trench all along so far as
thy lands are putrefied, and thereinto receive all the issuing, spew-
ing water, and thereby stop or cut o3' the feeding of it upon thy
meadow, and carry it av/ay back into thy back-water or false course,
by aa deep a trench, cut through the most low and convenient part of
thy meadfl. But put case that thou shouldst have no convenient
fall on that side thy mill-dani, then thou must make some course,!
or plant some trough under thy mill-dam, and so carry it under
into some lower course that may preserve it from soaking thy
meadows or pastures under it ', and by this means thou maist in a
good measure reduce thy land to good soundness, and probablv
wholly cure it, and preserve thy mill also."
It is painful to reflect that after the lapse of two cen-
turies, we should stiU see, as Blithe did, much "gallant
land" ruined for want of those draining operations which he
so happily describes.
A clear outfall of sufficient depth being secured, the way Subsoil
is open for the application of underground draining. And
here it may be proper to state, that there is very little of
the land of Great Britain naturally so dry as not to be
susceptible of improvement by artificial draining ; for land
is not in a perfect condition with respect to drainage, unless
aU the rain that falls upon it can sink do'ivn to the
minimum -depth required for the healthy development of
the roots of cultivated crops, and thence find vent, either
through a naturally porous subsoil or. by artificial channels.
Much controversy has taken place aa to what this minimum
depth is. Sufiice it to say, that opinion ia now decidedly
in favour of a greater depth than was considered necessary
even a few years ago, and that the best authorities concur
in stating it at from three to four feet There are persons
who doubt whether the roots of our ordinary grain or green
crops ever penetrate to such a depth aa has now been
specified. A careful examination will satisfy any one who
makes it, that minute filamentary rootlets are sent down to
extraordinary depths, wherever they are not arrested by
stagnant water. It has also been questioned whether any
benefit accnies to crops from this deep descent of their
roots. Some persons have even asserted that it is only
when they do not find food near at hand that they thus
wander. But it must be borne in mind that plants obtain
moisture as well as nourishment by means of their roots,
and the fact is weU known that plants growing in a deep
soil resting on a porous subsoil seldom or never suffer from
drought. It is instructive, too, on this point, to observe
tho practice of tho most skilfiil gardeners, and aeo tho
importance which they attach to trenching, the great depth
1 — 43
330
AGRICULTURE
[oBArNiKa
8ubsoil at -which thoy often deposit manure, and the stresa which
they hiy upon thorough drainage. On the other-hand, it
is well known that Boils which eoonest become saturated,
and run from, the surface in wet weather, are preciBcly
those which parch and get chapped the soonest in drought
The effectual way to secure our crops at once from drown-
ing and parching, is to put the land in a right condition
with respect to drainage.
All soils possess more or icsa the power of absorbing
and retaining water. Pure clays have it in the greatest
degree, and gritty siliceous ones in the smallest. In dry
weather this power of attracting moisture is constantly
operating to supply from below the loss taking place by
evaporation at the surface. In heavy rains, as soon as the
eutiro mass has drunk its fill, the excess begins to flow off
below ; and therefore a deep stratum, through which water
can percolate, but in which it can never stagnate — that is,
never exceed the point of saturation — is precisely that in
which plants are most secure from the extremes of drought
and drowning.
If a perfect condition of the soil with respect to drainage
is of importance for its influence in preserving it in a right
condition as respects moisture, it is still more so for its
effects upon its temperature. All who are conversant with
rural affairs are fanjiliar with that popular classification of
soils in virtue of which such as are naturally dry are also
invariably spoken of as warm and early ; and conversely,
that wet soils are invariably described as being cold and
late. This classification is strictly accurate, and the explana-
tion of it is simple. An excess of water in soil keeps, do^vn
its temperature in various ways. In passing into the state
of vapour it rapidly carries off the heat which the soil has
obtained from the sun's rays. Water possesses also a high
radiating power ; so that, when present in the soil in excess,
and in a stagnant state, it is constantly carrying off heat by
evaporation and radiation. On the other hand, stagnant
water conveys no heat downwards ; for although tho surface
is warmed, the portion of water thus heated being lightest,
remains floating on the surface, and wUl give back its
heat to the atmosphere, but conveys none downwards.
\VIien the surface of stagnant water becomes colder than the
general mass, the very opposite effect immediately ensues ;
for as water cools its density increases, and thus causes an
instant sinking of the portion that has been cooled, and a
rising of a waim portion from below to take its place — this
movement continuing until tho whole has been lowered to
40°, at which point water reaches its maximum density,
while, if the temperature be reduced a few degrees more,
water will begin to freeze. It is thus that soil surcharged
with water is kept at a lower temperature than similar soil
that has a sufficient natural or artificial drainage.
But while the presence of stagnant water in a soil has
ihis injurious power of lowering its temperature, a very
different effect ensues when rain water can sink freely into
it to a depth of several feet, and then find a ready exit by
drainage ; for in this case the rain water carries down with
it the heat ■which it has acquired from the atmosphere and
from the sun-heated surface, and imparts it to the subsoil
There is as yet a lack of published experiments to show the
ordinary increase of temperature at various depths and in
iifferent soils, as the result of draining wet land. Those
conducted by Mr Parkes, in a Lancashire bog in June 1S37,
showed, as the^mean of thirty-five observations, that the
drained and cultivated soil at seven inches from the surface
was 10" wanner than the adjoining undrained bog in its
natural state at the same depth. It is understood that
later oxjieriments conducted by the same gentleman on an
extended scale fully establish the fact, that an increased
temperature of the soil is an unfailing accompaniment of
thorough draining. The importance of this result cannot
well be over-rated. The temperature and otlier conditions
of the atmosphere, which we call climate, are placed beyond
human control ; but this power of raising the temperature
of all wet, and consequently cold soils, becomes tantamount
in some of its results to a power of improving the climate.
There are, accordingly, good grounds for stating that in
numerous cases grain crops have ripened sooner by ten or
twelve days than they would have done but for the drainiDg
of the land on which they grew.
Tho points which we have thus briefly touched upon are
so essential to an intelligent appreciation of the subject,
that we have felt constrained to notice them, however
meagrely. But our space forbids more than a mere enumera-
tion of some of the many evils inseparable from the presence
of stagnant water in the soil, and of the benefits that flow
from its removal Wet land, if in grass, produces only the
coarser grasses, and many sub-aquatic plants and mosses,
which aro of little or no value for pasturage ; its herbage
is late of coming in spring, and fails early in autumn ; the
animals grazed upon it are unduly liable to disease, and
sheep, especially, to tho fatal rot When land is used as
arable, tillage operations are easily interrupted by rain, and
the period always much limited in which they can be
prosecuted at all ; the compactness and toughness of such
land renders each operation more arduous, and more of
them necessary, than in the case of dry land. The surface
must necessarily be thrown into ridges, and the furrows and
cross-cuts duly cleared out after each process of tillage, on
which surface expedients as much labour has probably been
expended in each tliirty years as would now sufliec to make
drains enough to lay it permanently dry. With all these
precautions tho best seed-time is often missed, and this
usually proves the prelude to a scanty crop, or to a late and
disastrous harvest The cultivation of the turnip and other
root crops, which require the soil to be wrought to a deep
and free tilth, either becomes altogether impracticable, and
must be abandoned for tho safe but costly bare fallow, or
is carried out with great labour and hazard ; and the crop,
when grown, can neither be removed from the ground, nor
consumed upon it by sheep without damage by poaching.
The dung, lime, and other manure, that is applied to such
land is in a great measure wasted ; and the breaking of
the subsoil and general deep tillage, so beneficial in other
circumstances, is here positively mischievous, as it does but
increase its power of retaining water. Taking into account
the excessive labour, cost, and risk, inseparable from the
cultivation of wet land, and the scanty and precarious
character of the crops so obtained, it would in many cases
be wiser to keep such lands in grass, than to prosecute
arable husbandry under such adverse circumstances. These
very serious evils can either be entirely removed, or, at the
least, very greatly lessened by thorough draining. It often
happens that naturally porous soUs are so soaked by springs,
or so water-logged by resting upon an impervious subsoil,
or, it may be, so drowned for want of an outfall in some
neighbouring river or stream, that draining at once effects
a perfect cure, and places them on a par with the best
naturally dry soils. In the case of clay soils, the improve-
ment effected by draining is in some respects greater than
in any other class, but stUl it cannot change the inherent
properties of clay. This has sometimes been overlooked
by sanguine improvers, who, hastily assuming that their
strong land, when drained, would henceforward be as friable
and sound as the more porous kinds, have proceeded to
treat it on thi^ assumption, and have found t<i their cost
that clay, however v. <51 drained, will still get intir mortar
and clods, if it is tilled or trodden on too soon after raiu.
It is entirely owing to such rash and unskilful management
that an opinion has sometimes got abroad, that clay lands
are injured by draining. They merely retain the aualitie*
OPJSBATIONS.J
AGRICULTURE
S31
peculiar to clay, and when tney are treated judiciously, j
show as good a comparative benefit from draining as. other \
soils. The only instances in which even temporary in'urr |
arises from draining is in the case of some peaty and feu ;
lands, which are so loose that they suffer from drought in
protracted dry weather. As such lands are usually level
and have water-courses near them, this inconreiuence admits
of an easy remedy by shutting up the main outlets, and then
admitting water into the ditches. The drains in this way
become ready channels for applying the needed moisture
by a kind of subterraneous irrigation.
Thorou^ The beneficial effects of thorough draining are of a very
decisive and striking kind. The removal of stagnant water
from a stratum of 4 feet in depth, and the establishing of
a free passage for rain water and air from the surface to
the level of the drains, speedily effects most Important
changee in the condition of the soil and subsoil. Plough-
ing an i other tillage operations are performed more easily
than lefore in consequence of a more friable state of
the soil. Moderate rainswhich formerlywould have sufficed
to arrest these operations do so no longer, and heavy falls
of rain cause a much shorter interruption of these labours
than they did when the laud was in its natural state. Deep
tillage, whether by the common or subsoil plough (which
formerly did harm), now aids the drainage, and is every way
beneficial Ridges and surface furrows being no longer
needed the land can be kept flat, with great benefit to crops
and furtherance to field operations. An earlier seed-time
and harvest, better crops, a healthier live stock, and an
Improved style of husbandry, are the usual and well known
sequents of judiciously conducted drainage operations. In
short, the most experienced and skilful agriculturists now
declare with one consent that good drainage is an indispens-
able preliminary to good cultivation.
Bistory. Although it has been reserved to the present times to see
land draining reduced to a system based on scientific prin-
ciples, or very great improvement effected in its details, it
is by no means 'a modem discovery. The Romans were
careful to keep their arable lands dry by means of open
trenches, and there are even some grounds for surmising
that they used coversd drains for the same purpose. In-
dubitable proof exists that they constructed underground
channels by means of tubes of burned earthenware ; but
it seems more probable that these were designed to carry
water to their dwellings, &c., than that tbey were used
simply as drains. Recent inquiries and discoveries have
also shown that it is at least several centuries, since covered
channels of various kinds were in use by British husbandmen
for drying their land. It is, at all events, two centuries
since Captain Walter Blithe wrote as follows : —
31ith«> " Superfluous and venomous water which lyeth in the
earth and much occasioneth bogginesse, mirinesse, rushes,
flags, and other filth, is indeed the chief cause of barrenesse
in any land of this nature Drayning is an excellent
and chief est means for their reducement ; and for the depth
of such drajmes, 1 cannot possibly bound, because I have
not time and opportunity to take in all circumstances
And for thy drayning trench, it must be made so deepe
that it goo to the bottome of the cold, spewing moyst water,
that feeds the flagg and the rush ; for the widenesse of it,
use thine owne liberty, but be sure to make it so wide as
thou mayest goe to the bottome of it, wliich must be so
low as any moysture lyeth, whish moysture usuaUy lyeth
under the over and second swarth of the earth, in some
gravel or sand, or else, where some greater stones are mixt
with ckiy , under which thou must goe halfe one spades graft
deepe at least ; yea, suppose this corruption that feeds and
nuunsheth the i-ush or Hagg should lie a yard or fouro foot
deepe, to the bottome of it thou must goe, if ever thou wilt
d'ayne it tu purpose And for the drayning trench
be. sure thou indeavoui to carry it as neare upon a straight
line as possible. .... To the bottwme where the spewing
spring lyeth thou must goe, and one spades depth or graft
beneathj how deep so ever it be, if thou wUt drayne thy
land to purpose. I am forced to use repetitions of soma
things, because of the suitableness of the things to which
they are applyed : as also because of the slownesse of peoples
apprehensions of them, as appears by the non-practice of
them, the whii^h wherever you see drayning and trenching
you shall rarely find few or none of them wrought to the
bottome Gc to the bottome of the bog, and there
make a trench in the sound ground, or else iu some cild
ditch, so low as thou verily conceivest thy selfe assuredly
under the level of the spring or spewing water, and then
carry up thy trench into thy bogg straight through the mJdd'a
of it, one foot under that spring ; . , . . but for these
common and many trenches, oft times crooked too, that
men usually make in their boggy grounds, some one foot,
some two, never having respect to the cause or matter that
maketh the bogg to take that way, I say away with them
as a great piece of foUy, lost labour and spoyle
After thou has brought a trench to the bottom of the bog,
then cut a good substantial trench about thy bog ; and
when thou hast so done make one work or two just over-
thwart it, upwards and doivnwards, all imder the matter of
the bog. Then thou must take good green faggots, wiUow,
alder, elme, or thorne, and lay in the bottome of thy works,
and then take thy turfe thou tookest up in the top of thy
trench, and plant upon them with the green sward down-
wards ; or take great pebbles, stones, or flint stones, and so
fill up the bottome of thtj trench about fifteen iriches high,
and take thy turfe and plant it as aforesaid, being cut very
fit for the trench, as it may join close as it is layd downe,
and then having covered it all over with earth, and made
it even as thy other ground, waite and expect a wonderful!
effect through the blessing of God."
These sagacious arguments and instructions were doubt- Ellii-cta^
less acted upon by some persons in his own times and since ;
but still they had never attained to general adoption, and
were ultimately forgotten. Towards the close of last
century, Mr Elkington, a Warwickshire farmer, discovered
and promulgated a plan of laying dry sloping land that is
drowned by the outbursting of springs. When the higher
lying portion of such land is porous, rain falling upon it
sinks down until it is arrested by clay or other impervious
matter, which causes it again to issue at the surface and
wet the lower-lying ground. Elkington showed that by
cutting a deep drain through the clay, aided when necessary
by wells or augur holes, the subjacent bed of sand or gravel
in which a body of water is pent up by the clay, as in a
vessel, might be tapped, and the water conveyed harmlessly
in the covered drain to the nearest ditch or stream. In
the circumstances to which it is applicable; and in the hands
of sldlful drainers, Elkington's plan, by bringing into play
the natural drainage furnished by porous strata, is often
eminently successful His system was given to the public
in a quarto volume, edited by a Mr John Johnston of
Edinburgh, who does not seem to have shared the engineer-
ing talents of the man whose discoveries he professes to ex-
pound. During the thirty or forty years subsequent to
the publication of this volume, most of the draining that
took place was on thiii system, and an immense capital was
expended in such works with very varj'ing results. ■ Things
continued in this position untU about the year 1823, wlien
the Lite J jnes Smith of Deanston, having discovered ane". ■ Smitb of,
tloss principles of draining so long before indicated !:;■ DeanstoBi
Blithe, proceeded to exemplify them in hia own practic:,
and to expound them to the public in a way that speed.'./
effe^rted a complete revolution in the art of draining, and
nif.rked an era in our agricultural progress. Instead of
332
AGRICULTURE
[dbaikino
persisting in fruitless attempts to diy extensive areas by
a few dexterous cuts, he insisted, on the necessity of pro-
viding every field that needed draining at all with a complete
system of parallel Underground channels, running in the
bne of the greatest slope of the ground, and so near to each
other that the whole rain falling at any time upon th«
surface should sink down and be carried ofl" by the drains.
The distances between drains ho showed must be regulated
by the greater or less retentlvencss of the ground operated
upon, and gave 10 feet as the minimum, and 40 feet as the
maximum of these distances. The depth which he pre-
scribed for his parallel drains was 30 inches, and these
were to bo filled with 1 2 inches of stones small enough to
pass through a 3-inch ring — in short, a new edition of
Blithe's drain. A main receiving-drain was to be carried
along the lowest part of the ground, ^vith sub-mains in every
subordinate hoUow that the ground presented. These
receiving drains were directed to bo formed with a culvert
of stone work, or of tiles, of waterway sufficient to contain
the greatest volume of water at any time requiring to be
passed from the area to which they respectively supplied
the outlet. The whole cultivated lands of Britain being
disposed in ridges which usually lie in the line of greatest
ascent, it became customary to form the drains in each
furrow, or in each alternate, or third, or fourth one, as the
case might require or views of economy dictate, and hence
the system soon came to be popularly called furrow
draining. From the number and arrangement of the drains,
the terms frequent and parallel were also applied to it.
Mr Smith himself more approjiriately named it, from its
effects, thorough draining. The sound principles thus
promulgated by him were speedily adopted and extensively
carried into practice. The great labour and cost incurred
in procuring stones in adequate quantities, and the difficulty
of carting them in wet seasons, soon led to the substitution
of tiles and soles of burned earthenware. The limited
supply and high price of these tiles for a time impeded the
progress of the new system of draining ; but the invention
of tile-making machines by the Marquis of Tv.'ecddale and
others, removed th's impediment, and gave a mighty
stimulus to this fundamental agriciiltural improvement.
The substitution of cylindrical pipes for the original horse-
shoe tiles has stiU further lowered the cost and increased
the efficiency and permanency of drainage works.
Modem The system introduced and so ably expounded by Smith
•jy.ster.i. of Deanston has now been virtually adopted by all drainers.
Variations in matters of detail (having respect chiefly to the
depth and distance apart of the parallel drains) have indeed
been introduced ; but the distinctive features of his system
are now recognised and acted upon by all scientific drainers.
Outfa'.l. In setting about the draining of a field, or farm, or
estate, the first point is to secure, at whatever cost, a proper
outfalL The lines of the receiving drains must next be
determined, and then the direction of the parallel drains.
The former must occupy the lowest part of the natural
hollows, and the latter must run in, the line of the
greatest ascent of the ground. In the case of flat land,
where a fall is obtained chiefly by increasing the depth of
the drains at their low»r ends, these lines may be disposed
in any direction that is found convenient ; but in undu-
kting ground a single field may require several distinct sets
of drains lying at different angles, so as to suit its several
slopes. ^Vhen a field is ridged in the line of the greatest
ascent of the ground, there is an obvious convenience in
adopting the furrows as the site of the drains ; hut wlierever
this is not the case the drains must be laid of to suit the
contour of the ground, irrespective of tht furroxoi altogether.
When parts of a field are flat, and other parts have a con-
siderable acclivity, it ia expedient to cut a receiving drain
near to the bottom of the slopes, and to give the flat ground
an independent set of drains. In laying ofl" reccivinn
drains it is essential to give hedge-rows and trees a gtx-d
offing, lest the conduit should be obstructed by roots.
ANTien a drain must of necessity pass near to trees, we have
found it practicable to exclude their roots from it by the
use of coal-tar. In our own practice, a drain carried
through the comer of a plantation has by this expedient
remained free from obstruction for now fourteen years. In
this instance the tar was applied in the following manner: —
Sawdu.st and coal-tar being mixed together to the consis-
tency of ordinary mortar, a layer of this was laid in the
bottom of the trench; the drain-pipes were then laid, and
completely coated over with the same mixture to thethickness
of an inch, and the earth carefuUy replaced in the ordinary
way. When a main drain is so placed that parallel ones empty
into it from both sides, care should be taken that the inlets
of the latter are not made exactly opposite to each other.
Indeed, we have found it expedient in such oases to have
two receiving drains parallel to each other, each to receive
the subordinate drains from its own side only. As these
receivings drains act also as ordinary drains to the land
through which they pass, no additional cost is incurred by
having two instead of one, provided they are as far apart
as the other drains in the field. Much of the success of
draining depends on the skilful planning of these main
drains, and in making them largo enough to discharge the
greatest flow of water to which they may be exposed. Very
long main drains are to be avoided. Numerous outlets are
also objectionable, from their liability to obstruction. An
outlet to an area of from ten to fifteen acres is a gcod
arrangement. These outlets should be faced with mason-
work, and guarded by iron gratings.
The depths of the parallel drains must next be aeter- Dfptns.
mined. In order to obtain proper data for doing so, the
subsoil must be carefully examined by digging test-holes
in various places, and also by taking advantage of any
quarries, deep ditches, or other cuttings in the proximity,
that afford a good section of the ground. We have already
expressed an opinion that the drains should not bo less than
four feet deep ; but it is quite possible that the discovery
at a greater depth than four feet of a seam of gravel, or
other very porous material charged with water, underlying
considerable portions of the ground, may render it
expedient to carry the drains so deep as to reach this seam.
Such a seam, when furnished with sufficient outlets,
supplies a natural drain to the whole area under which
it extends. When such exceptional cases are met with,
they are precisely those in which deep drains, at wide
intervals, can be trusted to dry the whole area. When the
subsoil consists of a tenacious clay of considerable depth,
it is considered by many persons that a greater depth than
thre« feet is unnecessary. The greater depth is, however,
al-^vays to be preferred ; for a drain of four feet, if it works
at all, not only does all that a shallower one can do, but
frees from stagnant water a body of subsoil on which the
other has no effect at alL It Ijaa indeed been alleged that
such deep drains may get so closed over by the clay that
water will stand above them. If the surface of clay soil is
wrought into puddle by improper usage, water can undoubt-
edly be made to stand far a time over the shallowest drains
as easily as over the deepest But the contraction which
takes place in summer in good alluvial claj's gradually estab-
lishes fissures, by which water reaches the drains. In such
soils it is usually a few years before the full effect of draining
is attained. This is chiefly due to the contraction and con-
sequent cracking of clay soils in summer just referred to, and
partly, as Mr Parkes thinks, to the mining operations of thn
common earth-worm. Both of these natural aids to drainage
operate with greater force with drains fourfectdeep than when
they are shallower. The tardy percolation of water through
OPERATIONS.]
A G Tl 1 C U L T U R E
333
day soils seems also a reason wTiy m sucli cases it should get
the benefit of a greater fall, by making the drain deep.
Draining is always a costly operation, and it is therefore
peculiarly needful to have it executed in such a way that it
shall be effectual and permanent. We advocate a minimum
depth of four feet, because of our strong conviction that
euch drains carefully made will be found to have both these
qualities. And this opinion is the result of dear-bought
experience, for we have found it necessary in our own case
to re-open a very considerable extent of 30-inch drains in
consequence of their having totally faded to lay the land
dry, and to replace them by four feet ones, which ' have
proved perfectly efficacious. In doing this we have seen a
30-inch drain opened up and found to be perfectly dry, and
yet when the same trench was deepened to four feet there
was quite a run of water from it. Now also that steam
power has become available for the tillage of. 'the soil, and
is certain, at no distant day, to be in general requisition for
that purpose, it is peculiarly expedient to have the drains
laid at such a depth as to admit of that potent agency being
used for loosening the subsoil to depths hitherto unattain-
able, not only without hazard to the drains, but with the
certainty of greatly augmenting their efficiency. Therefore
we earnestly dissuade all parties who are about to undertake
drainage works from giving ear to representations about
the sufficiency and economy of shallow drains. These,
doubtless, cost somewhat less to begin with, but in thousands
of cases they fail to accomplish the desired end, and the
unfortunate owners, after all their outlay, are left to the
miserable altemativeof seeing their land imperfectly drained,
or of executing the works anew, and thus losing the whole
cost of the first and inefficient ones. The extreme reluctance
with which the latter alternative is necessarily^ regarded will
undoubtedly operate for a long time in keeping much land
that has been hastily and imperfectly drained from partici-
pating in the benefits of thorough drainage. The distance
apart at which the drains should be cut must be determined
by the nature of the subsoil. In the most retentive clays
it need not be less than 18 feet. On the other hand, this
distance cannot safely be exceeded in the case of any sub-
soil in which clay predominates, although it should not be
of the most retentive kind. In all parts of the country
instances abound in which drains cut in such subsoils, from
24 to 30 feet apart, have totally failed to lay the land dry.
When ground is once prc-occupied by drains too far apart,
there is no remedy but to form a supplementary one betwixt
each pair of the first set ; and thus, by exceeding the proper
width at first, the space betwixt the drains is unavoidably
reduced to 12 or 15 feet, although 18 feet would originally
have sufficed. It is only with . a decided porosity in the
subsoil, and in proportion to the degree of that porosity,
that the space between drains can safely be increased to 24,
or 30, or 36 feet. In those exceptional cases in which
drains more than 36 feet apart prove efTcctual, their success
is due to the principle on which Elkington's system is
founded. A few years ago an opinion obtained currency,
that as the depth of drains was increased their width apart
might with safety be increased in a corresponding ratio.
And hence it came to be confidently asserted, that with a
depth of 5 or 6 feet a width of from 40 to 60 feet might
be adopted with a certainty of success, even in the case of
retentive soils. We believe that experience has already
demonstrated the unsoundness of this opinion. At all
events, in recommending a minimum depth of 4 feet, we do
50 on the ground that (other things being equal) the whole
benefits of drainage are more fully and certainly secured by
drains of this depth than by those of 2J or 3 feet In
ordinary cases an increase of depth does not compensate for
an increase of the width apart of the drains. Draining can
be carried on at all seasons, but is usually best dona in
summer or autumn. The digging is usually paid for by-
task work, and the setting of the pipes by day's wages. A
thoroughly trustworthy and experienced workman is selected
for the latter work, with instructions to set no pipes until
he is satisfied that the depth of the drains and level of the
bottoms are correct. When the eoU is returned into the
drains all defects are of course buried, and it therefore be-
hoves the landlord, or his substitute, whether tenant or
bailiff, to exercise a vigilant oversight of draini jg operations.
Unless carefully executed they cannot be efficient; and with-
out efficient drainage all other agricultural operations must
be carried on under grievous disadvantages. The extent of
land in Great Britain naturally so dry as not to need artificial
drainage is very much less than even practical farmers, who
have not studied the subject, are at all aware of.
Cylindrical pipes with collars are undoubtedly the best Pines.,
draining material that has yet been discovered. ' The collars
referred to are simply short pieces of pipe, just so wide in
the bore as to admit of the smaller pipes which form the
drain passing freely through them. In use, one of these
collars is so placed as to encase the ends of each contiguous
pair of tubes, and thus forms a loose fillet around each
joining. The ends of these pipes being by this means
securely kept in contact, a continuous canal for the free
passage of water is infallibly insured, the joinings are
guarded against the entrance of mud or vermin, and yet
sufficient space is left for the admission of water. Pipes
of all diametgl's, from 1 inch to 16 inches, are now to be
had ; those from 1 to 2 inches in the bore are used for
subordinate drains ; the larger sizes for sub-main and main
receiving drains. Collars are used with the smaller sizes only,
large pipes not being so liable to shift their position as small
ones. In constructing a drain, it is of much importance
that the bottom be cut out just wide enough to admit the
pipes and no more. Pipes, when thus accurately fitted in,
are much less liable to derangement than when laid in
the bottom of a trench several times their width, and
into which a mass of loose earth must necessarily be re-
turned. This accurate fitting is now quite practicable in
the case of soils tolerably free from stones, from the
excellence of the draining tools that have lately been
introduced. The following cut represents the most import
ant of these tools.
c and e are long
tapering spades for
die and bottom spits.
a, d, and / recurved
scoops for clearing
out the debris, and
b a pipe-layer, by
means of which a
workman standing
at the margin of a
drain hooks up a.
pipg and coUar, and
deposits them easily jja
and accurately in the
deep narrow trench.
If a quicksand is encountered in constructing a drain, it
wiU be found expedient to put a layer of straw in the bottom
of the trench, and then, instead of the ordinary pipe and
coUar, to use at such a place a double set of pipes — one
within the other — taking care that the joinings of the inner
set are covered by the centres of the outer ones. By such
precautions the water gets vent, and the running sand is
excluded from the drain. When a brook has been diverted
from its natural course for mill-power or irrigating purposes,
it oft?n happens that portions of land are thereby deprived
of the outfall required to admit of their being drained to
^
w<>
Pminhig Tools,
834
AGRICULTURE
[DBAUriNO
a proper depth. In such crises it ia frequently practicablo
to obtain the needed outlet by carrying a main drain through
below the water-course, by using at that point a few yards of
cast-iron pipe, and carefully filling up the trench with clay
i uddle.Bo that there maybe no leakage from tho water-course
.iatothodrain. Whilethisisbeingdonothowatermusteitherbe
turned ofTor carried over the temporary gap in a wooden trough.
Cost, Tho cost of draimng is so much influenced by tho ever-
varying price of labour and materials, and by tho still more
varying character of the land to bo operated upon, that it is
impossible to give an estimate of tho cost that will admit
of general application. Tho following tabular data, taken
chiefly from Mr Bailey Denton's valuable treatise, are pre-
sented to aid those who wish to form such an estimate : —
Table I. — Showing the numoer oj roas oj arain per acre at given
distances apart^ and the number of pipes of given lengths
required per acre.
Interval*
bL'twcen
Ro-la per
IMnch
n-lnch
14-Inch
U-lnch
llip drains
acre.
plpci.
• pipes.
pipoi
pipes.
tn rccL
18
14G3
2420
2234
2074
1936
21
125?
2074
1915
1778
1669
24
110
1815
1676
1555
1452
27
971
1613
14S9
13ii3
12S0
30
88
1452
1340
1241
1161
Table 11. — Showing the cost of draining per acre at different
intervals between the drains.
Jjrtbour, cutting and fillinj;
in at 6s. per rod
Material, pipes for minor
drains, 18s. per 1000
Haulage, two miles, and de-
livery in fields at 23. 6d.
per I'OOO
Pipe-laying and finishing.
Id. per rod
Puperintendcnce, foreman..
Kxtra for mains
Iron-outlet pipes, and ma-
sonry, antl extra labour...
Total
Add for collars, if used
£ s. d.'£ s. d.\£ s. d.
3 13 4'3 210 2 15 0
2 5 9.1 19 21 14 3
0
18 fctt !1 feet 24 feet
apart, apart, apart.
6 40
5 50 4
0 4 303
0 12
0 5
0 2
010 6 0 9
0 1 6
0 5
0 2
00
00
0 1 6|0 1
7 6 1 6 6 55 11 8
1 2 10019 70 17 1
3 8 11
7 6 0689
27 feet
apart.
5, d.
811
110 6
so feet
apart.
£ S. d.
2 4 0
1 7 5
8 2;o
5
2
0 1 6
0 1 6
5 0 4
0 15 3
5 15
4 110
0 13 8
5 4 8
Various attempts have from time to time been made to
loicer tho cost of draining land by the direct application, ef
nnii/ial or steam power to the work of excavation. The
Steam Braining Plough.
A Engine.
a Lari^e dnim.
o' Small drum.
B B> Snatch blocks
C Anchor
/ Larce rope
S I*ulley attached toplongh.
F DralDtng.plOQfth.
G Small rope.
B Anchor and oheare for small ropCL
most successful of these attempts is the steam-draining
apparatus invented by Mr John Fowler of Bristol, uanally
called Fowler't draining plough. A aiz-horse portable
steam-engine is anchored in one comer of the field to b«
drained. It gives motion to two drums, to each of which
a rope 500 yards' long b attached, the one uncoiling as the
other is wound up. These ropes pass round blocks which
are anchored at each end of the intended line of drain, and
are attached one to the front and the other to the hinder end
of the draining apparatua This consists of a framework,
in which is fuced, at any required depth not exceeding 3J
feet, a strong coulter terminating in a short horizontal bar
of cylindrical iron, with a piece of rope attached to it, on
which a convenient number of drain pipes aro strung. This
frame being pulled along by the engine, tho coulter is forced
through the soil at a regulated depth, and deposits its string
of pipes with unerring accuracy, thus forming, as it proceeds,
a perfect drain. The supply of pipes is kept up by means
of holes previously dug in the lino of tho drain, at distances
corresponding to the length of the rope on which they are
strung. This machine was subjected to a very thorough
trial at the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England at Lincoln in 1854, on which occ.tsion a silver
medal and very high commendation were awarded to it In
March 1855 it was publicly stated that five of these im-
plements are now at work in different parts of England,
and that already 10,000 acres of land have been drained by
means of them. At the Lincoln trial it was satisfactorily
proved that this implement could work at a depth of SA
feet As' it moved along, the soil on each side, to the
width of 2 or 3 feet, seemed to be loosened. It is therefore
probable that this implement, or at least one propelled on
the same principle, may yet be used as a subsoil disin-
tegrator.
A great stimulus has recently been given to the improve- pn,'.atyt
ment of land by the passing of a series of Acts of Parlia- A'^t*.
ment, which have removed certain obstacles that effectually
hindered the investment of capital in works of drainage
and kindred ameliorations. By the first of these Acts,
pa,ssed in 1846, a sum of j£-i,000,000 of the public money
was authorised to be advanced to landowners to be expended
in draining their lands. The Enclosure Commissioners
were charged with the allocation of this money and the
superintendence of its outlay. The most important pro-
visions of this Act are that it enables the possessors of
entailed estates (equally with others) to share in the benefits
of this fund ; that it provides, on terms very favourable to
the borrower, for tho repayment of the money so advanced
by twenty-two annual instalments ; that before sanctioning
the expenditure of these funds on drainage works, the com-
missioners must have a report from a qualified inspector,
to the effect that they are likely to prove remunerative ; and,
finally, that the works must bo performed according to
specifications prepared by the inspector, and approved by
the commissioners, who have seldom allowed of a less depth
of drain than 3| feet By the end of the year 1854 the
whole of this money was allocated, and more than half of
it actually expended. Scottish landowners were so prompt
to discern, and so eager to avail themselves of this public
fund, that more than half of it fell to their share. The
great success of this measure, and the rapid absorption of
the fund provided by it, soon led to further legislative Acts,
by which private capital has been rendered available for
the improvement of land, by draining and otherwise, on
conditions similar to those just enumerated. *These Acta
are —
Isl, The Private Moneys Drainage Act (12 and 13 Vict
c. 100), limited to draining.
2d, The West of England, or South-West Land Draining
Company's Act (11 and 12 Vict, c. 142), for the purpose
of draining, irrigation and warping, embanking, reclaiming
and enclosing, and road-making.
Ol'ERATIOXS.l
AGRICULTURE
335
3d, The General Land-Drainage and ImproTement Com-
pany's Act (12 and 13 Vict. c. 91), for the purposes of
draining, irrigating and warping, embanking, reclaiming
and enclosing, road-making and erecting farm-buildings.
4th, The Lands Improvement Company's Act (16 and
17 Vict. c. 154), for the same pvirposes as the above, with
the addition of planting for shelter. This company's
powers extend to Scotland.
By these Acts ample provision is made for rendering the
dormant capital of the country available for the improvement
of its soiL To the owners of entailed estates they are
peculiarly valuable, from the power which they give to them
of charging the cost of draining, &c., upon the inheritance.
If such owners apply their own private funds in effecting
improvements of this kind, they are enabled, through the
medium of these companies, to take a rent-charge on their
estates for repayment of the money they so expend, over
which they retain personal control, so that they can be-
queath as they choose the rent-charge payable by their suc-
cessor. Besides their direct benefits, these Drainage Acts
have already produced some very important indirect fruits.
They have led to many improvements in the manner of
accomplishing the works to which they relate, to the wide
and rapid dissemination of improved modes of draining,
&c., and, in particular, they have had the effect of creating,
or at least of greatly multiplying and accrediting, a staff of
skilful and experienced draining engineers, of whoso services
all whu are about to engage in draining and similar works
will do well to avail themselves.
Section, 3. — Eetnoval of Earlhfast Stones.
Newly reclaimed lands, and even those that have long been
under tillage, are frequently much encumbered with earth-
fast stones. This is particularly the case in many parts of
Scotland. Their removal is always desirable, though neces-
Barily accompanied with much trouble and expense. In
our personal practice we have proceeded in this way. In
giving the autumn furrow preparatory to a fallow crop,
each ploughman carries with him a few branches of fir or
beech, one of which he sticks in above each stone encoun-
tered by his plough. If the stones are numerous, particu-
larly at certain places, two labourers, provided with a pick,
a spade, and a long wooden lever shod with iron, attend
upon the ploughs, and remove as many of the stones as
they can, while yet partially uncovered by the recent furrow.
Those thus dug up are rolled aside upon the ploughed land.
When the land gets dry enough in spring, those not got
out at the time of ploughing are discovered by means of the
twigs, and are then dug up. Such as can be lifted by one
man are carted off as they are, but those of the larger class
must first be reduced by a sledge hammer. They yield to
the hammer more easily after a few days' exposure t9 drought
thaii when attacked as soon as dug up. Before attempting
to break very large boulders a brisk fire of dried gorse or
brushwood is kept up over them until they are heated,
after which a few smart blows from the hammer shiver them
completely. Portions of otherwise good land are sometimes
80 full of these boulders, that to render it available, the
stones must be got rid of by trenching the whole to a con-
siderable depth. When ploughing by steam-power becomes
general, a preliminary trenching of this kind will in many
cases be requisite before tillage instruments thus propelled
can be used with safety.
Section 4. — JParing and Burning.
Paring and burning Lave, from an early period, been re-
sorted to for the more sp6cdy subduing of a rough uncultured
surface. This is still the most approved method of dealing
with sucll cases, as weii as with any tough old sward which
is again lo bo subjected to tillage. In setting about the
operation, which is usually done in March or April, a turf,
not exceeding an inch in thickness, is first peeled ofif in
successive stripes by a paring-plough drawn by two horses,
or by the breast-plough already described. These turfa
are first set on edge and partially dried, after which they
are collected into heaps, and burned, or rather charred. The
ashes are immediately spread over the surface, and ploughed
in with a light furrow. By this process the matted roots
of the pasture plants, the seeds of weeds, and the eggs and
larvsB of innumerable insects, are at once got rid of, and a
highly stimulating top-dressing is supphed to the land. A
crop of turnips or rape is then drilled on the flat, and fed
off by sheep, after which the land is usually in prime con-
dition for bearing a crop of grain. This practice is unsuit-
able for sandy soils, which it only renders more sterile ; but
when clay or peat prevails, its beneficial effects are indisput-
abla We shall, in the sequel, give an example of its recent
successful application.
Section 5. — Levelling,''
Land, when subjected to the plough for the first time,
abounds not unfrequently with abrupt hollows and pro-
tuberances, which impede tillage operations. These can
be readily levelled by means of a box shaped Like a
huge dust-pan, the front part being shod with iron, and
a pair of handles attached behind. This leveUing-box is
drawn by a pair of horses. Being directed against a promi-
nent part, it scoops up its fill of soil, with which it slides
along sledge-fashion to the place where it is to discharge
its load, which it does by canting over, on the ploughman
disengaging the handles.
In all parts of Great Britain, abundance of pasture land,
and often tillage land also, is to be met with lying in broad,
highly raised, serpentine ridges. These seem to have
originated when teams of six or eight bullocks were used in
ploughing ; and it has been suggested that this curvature
of the ridges at first arose from its being easier to turn these
long teams at the end of each land by sweeping-jpund in
a curve than by driving straight out. The very broad head-
lands found in connection with these curved ridges point to
the same fact, A theory still lingers among our peasantry,
that " water runs better in a crooked furrow than in a
straight one," and has probably been handed down since
the discovered awkwardness of curved ridges was first seen
to need some plausible apology. These immense, wave-
like ridges are certainly a great annoyance to the modern
cultivator ; but still the sudden levelling of them is accom-
panied with so much risk, that it is usually better to cut
drains in the intervening hoUows, and plough aslant them
in straight lines, by which means a gradual approximation
to a level surface is made. A field in our own occupation,
which was levelled, by cleaving down the old crooked ridges,
fifty years ago, still shows, by alternate curving bands of
greater and less luxuriance, the exact site of the crowns and
furrows of the ancient ridges.
Section 6. — Trenching.
But for its tediousness and costliness, trenching two oi
three spits deep by spade or fork is certainly the most effectual
means for at once removing obstructions, leveUingthe surface,
and perfecting the drainage by thoroughly loosening the
subsoil For the reasons mentioned, it is seldom resorted
to on a large scale. But it is becoming a common practice,
with careful farmers, to have those patches of ground in
the corners, and by the fences of fields, which are miased
in ploughing, gone over with the trenching-fork. The
additional crop thus obtained may fail to compensate for
this hand-tillage, but it is vindicated on the ground that
these corners and margins are the nurseries of weeds which
it is profitable to destroy.
336
AGRICULTURE
[tillaqe
CHAPTER VIII.
TUXAOE OPEBATIONS.
Stctiun 1. — Ploughing,
When the natural green sward, or ground that has been
cleared of a cultivated crop, ia to bo prepared for the sowing
or planting of further crops, the plough leads the way in
breaking up the compact surface, by cutting from it succes-
sive slices, averaging about ten inches in breadth by seven
in depth, which it turns half over upon each other to the
right-hand side. This turning of tlio slices or furrows to
one side only renders it necessary to square ofif the space
to be ploughed into parallelograms, half the slices of which
are laid the one way and the other half the other, by the
going and returning of the plough. These parallel spaces
are variously termed rid/jes, etelches, lands, ar feirings, which
in practice vary in width from a few furrows to 30 yarda.
When very narrow spaces are used, a wa.sto of labour ensues,
from the necessity of opening out and then reclosing an
extra number of index or guiding furrows ; while very wide
ones involve a similar waste from the distance which the
plough must go empty-in traversing at the ends. The spaces
thiis formed by equal numbers of furrow-slices turned from
opposite sides have necessarily a rounded outUne, and are
separated by open channels. In a moist climate and im-
pervious soil, this ridging of the surface causes rain-water
to pass off more rapidly, and keeps the soil drier than would
be the case if it was kept flat. Hence the cultivated lands
of Great Britain almost invariably exhibit this ridged form
of surface. Until the art of under-ground draining was
discovered, this was indeed the only mode of keeping
cultivated ground tolerably dry. But it is at best a very
defective method, and attended by many disadvantages.
When land is naturally dry, or has been made so by thorough
drainage, the flatter its surface is kept the better for the
crops grown upon it. We are not forgetful that there are,
in various parts of Great Britain, cla}'3 so impervious that
probably no amount of draining or disintegration of the
subsoil will render it safe to dispense with ridging. These,
however, are exceptional cases, and, as a rule, such a con-
dition of soil and subsoil should be aimed at as will admit
of this rudo expedient of ridging being altogether dispensed
witL Unless land can absorb the whole rain which falls
upon it, its full range of fertility cannot bo developed ; for
the same showers which aggravate the coldness and sterility
cf impervious and already saturated soils carry down with
them, and iinpart to those that are pervious, ever fresh sup-
plies of genial influences. Instead, then, of this perennial
source of fertility being encouraged to run off by surface
channels, or to stagnate in the soil and become its bane,
let provision be made for its free percolation through an
open stratum sover.il feet in thickness, and then for its escape
by drains of such depth and frequency as each particular
case requires. V; hen this is attained, a flat surface will
generally be preserved, as aUke conducive to the welfare
of the crops and to the successful employment of machinery
for sowing, weeding, and reaping them.
In all treatises on British agriculture of a date anterior
to the first quarter of the present century, we find great
stress laid on the proper formation of the ridges, caieful
cleaning out of the separating chaimels or water-furrows,
and drawing and spading out of cross-cuts in all hollows, so
,hat no water may stagnate on the surface of the field. As
thorough under-draining makes progress, such directions are
becoming obsolete. But whether ridging or flat work is
used, the one-sided action of the plough renders it necessary,
in setting about the ploughing of a field, to mark it off into
parallel spaces by a series of equi-distaut straight lines.
Supposing the line of fence, at the side at which he begins,
to be straight, the ploughman takes this as hia base Une ;
and measuring from it, erects bis three or more feiring \xAat
perfectly in line, at a distance from the fence equal to half
the width of the ridges or spaces in which it is proposed
to plough the field. This operation — cilled in Scotland
feiring the laud — is usually entrusted to the most skilful
plouglunan on each farm, and is regarded as a post of honour.
Having drawn a furrow in the exact Une of his poles, which
practice enables him to do with an accuracy truly admirable
ho proceeds, using always the last furrow as a fresh base
from which to measure the next one, until the field is all
marked off. When this is done, it presents the appearance
of a neatly ruled sheet of paper. Besides the poles just
referred to, the ploughman is frequently furnished with a
cross staff, by means of which he first of all marks off two
or more lines perpendicular to the straight side at which
ho commences, and along these he measures with his poles,
which are graduated for tho purpose, in laying off his parallel
linea This feiring is only require when a process of
fallowing, in preparation for green crop, has obhtcratcd tho
former ridges. In breaking up clover lea or older sward,
tho ploughman begins at the open furrows, which afford
him a sufficient guide.
In ploughing for a seed-bed the furrow'slico is usually
cut about five inches deep. In tho case of lea, it should
be turned over unbroken, of uniform thickness, and laid
quite close upon the preceding one, so as to hide all green
sward. The imjjroved wheel-plough already referred to does
this work very beautifully, cutting out the slice perfectly
square from the bottom of the furrow. Tho perfect uniform-
ity in the width and depth of the slices cut by it permits
the harrows to act equally upon tho whole surface. When
the sUco is cut unevenly, they draw tho loosened soil from
tho prominences into the hollows, so that one part is scraped
bare, and tho other remains untouched and unbroken. This
must necessarily yield a poor seed-bed, and contrasts un-
favourably with the uniform tilth produced by harrowing
after such work as these wheel-ploughs invariably produce.
In the Lothians and west of Scotland, a form of plough is
much used for ploughing lea, which cuts out the slice with
an acute angle at tho land side. This^ when turned over,
stands up with a sharp ridge, which looks particularly well,
and offers a good subject for harrows to work upon. But
if a few of these furrow-slices are removed, tho firm earth
below exhibits tho same ribbed appearance as the newly
ploughed surface, instead of the dear level solo on which
the right-angled slice cut by the wheel-plough is laid over
so as to rest upon its lower angle. This ribbing of the
unstirred subsoil is exceedingly objectionable in all kinds
of ploughing.
In the autumn ploughing of stubble-ground in preparation
for the root-crops of the following season, a much deeper
furrow is turned over than for a seed-furrow. In ordinary
cases it should not be less than nine inches, while in very
many, if ten or twelve can bo attained, so much the better.
In all deep soils this bringing up and mixing with the sur-
face of fr&sh material from below is highly beneficial. It
must not, however, be practised indiscriminately. Siliceous
and peaty soils need compactness, and to have the soil that
has been artificially enriched kept a-top. For such deep
work as we have noticed above, three or even four horse.a
are frequently yoked to the plough. When a field slopes
considerably one way, it is good practice to work the plough
down the slope only, and rettim without a furrow. A
pair of horses working in this way will turn as deep a
furrow, and get over as much ground, as three will do taking
a furrow both ways, and with less fatigue to themselves
and to the ploughman. After bringing a heavy furrow
downhill, they get recruited in stepping briskly back with
only the plough to draw. This mode of ploughing one
furrow dovin, the slope tends less to gather the soil t<fc
OPEEATIONS.]
A a E I C U L T U B E
ward the bottom than by using a turn-wrest plough across
the slope. It is while giving, this deep autumn furrow
that the subsoil plough is used. It follows in the wake
of the common plough, and breaks and stirs the subsoil,
but without raising it to the surface. This is a laborious
operation, and engrosses too much of the horse-power of the
fana to admit of large breadths being overtaken in any one
season. In all indurated subsoils, however, it repays its
cost ; for when once thoroughly done, it diminishes the
labour of ordinary ploughings for several succeeding rota-
tions, aids the drainage, and adds to the fertihty of the soil
It is in the performance of this deep autumji tillage and
breaking up of the subsoil, that the steam-engine, with
appropriate tackle, has begun to play an important part,
and for which it will probably one day supersede all other
means.
Section 2. — Harrowing, d-c.
The harrow, cultivator, and roller, are all more simple in
their action and more easily managed than the plough. Har-
rowing is most effective when the horses step briskly along.
The tines are then not merely drawn through the soil,
but, in their combined swinging and forward movement,
strike into it with considerable force. It is with reference
to this that a single application of this implement is called
a stroke of the harrows. Rollers are used to aid in pulveris-
ing and cleaning the soU, by bruising clods and lumps of
tangled roots and earth which the other implements have
brought a-top ; in smoothing the surface for the reception
of small seeds, or the better operation of the scythe and
other implements ; and for consolidating soil that is too
loose in its texture. Except for the latter purpose, light
rollers are much superior to heavy ones. When it is wanted,
for example, to bruise clots of quickens, that the after
harrowing may more thoroughly free the roots from the
adhering earth, a light cast-ii'on roller, say of 5 cwt., drawn
by one torse, effects this purpose as thoroughly as one double
the weight drawn by a pair, — and does it, moreover, in much
less'time, at le^ than half the expense, and without in-
juriously consolidating the free soil These light rollers
are conveniently worked in pairs, the ploughman driving
one horse and leading the other. With a pair of active
horses, and such rollers, a good dea,! more than double the
space can be rolled in a day, than by yoking them both to
one heavy one of the same length of cylinder. For mere
clod-crushing, provided the clods are moist, the Norwegian
harrow Ls superior to any roller ; and for compressing a
loose surface or checking wire-worm, serrated or smooth-
edged discs, such as Crosskill's or Cambridge's, are better
than smooth cylinders of the same weight, so that the
heavy smooth roller, requiring two or more horses to draw
it, is superseded by better implements for aU purposes where
rollers are used at all, unless it be for the rolling of the
grass-lands.
As a general rule, none of these tillage operations can be
performed to advantage when the soil is wet. When rain
falls inopportunely there is a strong temptation to push
on the field operations, before the soU has recovered the
proper state of dryness. When this is done the farmer
almost invariably finds in the issue that the more haste ho
makes the worse he speeds. Soils ■ivith a good deal of clay in
their composition are peculiarly susceptible of injury in this
way. Nice discrimination is needed to handle them aright.
They require, moreover, a full stock of well-conditioned
horses, that the work may be pushed rapidly through
in favourable weather. To manage such soils success-
fully, especially when root crops are grown, tries the skill
of the farmer to the utmost. So at least it has hitherto
been ; but with steam-power to aid him, there is now a
probability that the clay land farmer, by being able to
break up his soil without treading it, and to get through
1—14
66 t
with a large extent of tillage when his land is in trim for
it, may find it practicable to grow root crops on equal
terms with the occupier of freer soiL
Section 3. — Fallowing.
When, by such operations as have now been described,
land has been reclaimed from its natural state, and rendered
fit for the purposes of the husbandman, it is everywhere
so charged with the germs of weeds, most of which possess,
in a remarkable degree the power of reproduction and
multiplication, that it is only by the most incessant and
vigorous efforts he can restrain them from encroaching upon
his cultivated crops, and regaining entire possession of the
soil He can do much towards this by ordinary tillage,
and by sowing his crops in rows, and hoeing in the inter-
vals dui-ing the early stages of their growtL But if his
efforts are restricted to such measures only, the battle will
soon go against him. Besides this,, all arable soils in
which clay predominates, particularly when undrained, have
such a determined tendency to become compact and soured,
that under ordinary efforts they fail to yield a genial seed-
bed. There is a necessity, therefore, for having recourse,
from time to time, to that ameUorating process of len^hened
tillage called fallowing. This process begins in autumn,
immediately after the removal from the ground of the
cereal crop, which had been sown upon the land newly
broken up from clover lea or natural sward, and extends
either to the time for solving turnips and analogous crops
in the following spring, or is continued during the entire
summer in preparation for autumn-sown wheat. We shall
first describe that modification of the faUowing process by
which the soil is prepared for the sowing of dniled green
crops, and then the more prolonged form of it usually caUed
summer or naked fallow.
Green Crop Fallow.
The object aimed at being the thorough disintegration
and cleaning of the soU, the usual practice is to begin by
ploughing as deeply as is found practicable. This first or
autumn furrow is accordingly turned over to a depth of S
or 9 inches ; or by using a stronger plough drawn by
three or four horses, it is carried to 12 inches in depth ; and
in some cases, by following with a subsoil plough in the
wake of the common one, the soil is stirred to the depth
of 14 or 16 inches. All cultivators are agreed as to the
importance of thus deeply and effectually disintegrating all
soils that are naturally dry or thoroughly drained. In the
case of undrained land.?, and even of very unctuous clays,
although well drained, such deep stirring of the soil in
autumn does but increase its capacity of retaining the rains
of winter, and of being thereby more effectually soured,
and is therefore to be avoided. Assuming, however, that
we have to do with soil thoroughly drained and moderately
friable, it is undoubtedly beneficial to loosen it deeply and
thoroughly at this stage. But before this deep ploughing
is set about, it will be worth while to consider weU its
bearing upon the cleaning part of the process. On carefully
examining the fields at the time of reaping the grain-crops,
and from week to week thereafter, the roots of the couch
grass are found at first lying close to the surface ; but in-
stantly, on their getting the ground to themselves, they
begin to send out fresh fibres, and to push their shoots
deeply into the soil In these circumstances, to proceed
at once, according to the customary practice, to plough
deeply, allows theso weeds much time to increase, while
this laborious and tedious operation is going on ; and
although, when performed, it gives some present check
to their progress, by burying them under a mass of loosened
soil, it not only increases the difficulty of their after removal,
but places them out of the reach of frost, and in the best
L — 43
338
A. G II I C U L T U n E
[tillaoe
possilln position for pervading tho entire soil, on the first
recurrence of mild weather. The consequence is, that
fallows so treated are invariably found in spring more fully
stocked with quickens than tbey were at the time of the
autumn ploughing. The observation of this suggested
Autumn tho practice, now very common in England, of cleaning
clcuoiug. f,illnms in autumn hrfnrr giving t/ie firf> deep furrow. For
this purpose, auch imj)lemont3 as Kiddle's scarifier, tho
bioad-sharo paring-ploughs, or better still, the common
plough, divested of its niduld-bnard and fitted with a share
a foot broad, are set to work as fast as tho grain-crops are
reaped, and tho whole surface is ra|)idly pared at a dei)th
of three or four inches. This completely loosens the yet
shilliiw-lj-ing roots of tho couch-grass, which are then freed
from tho adhering earth by the Norwegian and chain-
harrow, raked together and burned, or carted off This
pulverising of tho surface soil in early autumn is usually
followed by the springing u|) of an abundant crop of annual
weeds and of shaken grain, which are thus got rid of by
-the subsequent ploughing. So great and manifold are the
advantages of this modern practice, that in those districts
where it is mrat in use, other autumn work, even wheat-
sowing, is comparatively neglected until it is accomplished.
When the weeds have been got rid of in this summary, and
inexpensive manner, deep ploughing is then resorted to
with unalloyed benefit. Whenever steam-power becomes
f nil)'' aviiiliilile for tillage o])crations, this autumn cleaning
and deep stirring of fallows will bo accomplished rapidly
and effectually, and tho teams will meanwhile be set at
liberty for root-storing, wheat-sowing, and other needful
work, which can bo well done only when accomplished
during the brief season of good weather, which usually
intervenes betwi.xt tho close of harvest and beginning of
winter.
In the case of farms that have for a lengthened period
been carefully cultivated, tho stubble may be found so
clean as not to require tho whole area to bo scarified in tho
manner now described. Instead of this, it may suffice to have
the ground carefully examined, and such patches or stray
plants of couch-gra.'ss, or other perennial weeds, as are met
with, forked out By this means the fallows are kept clean
at little o.xjiense, and when spring arrives, those repeated
plougliings, and other tedious and costly operations, are
wholly avoided, in performing which tho condition of the
soil is maf red and the best seed-time often missed. When
f illows are thus cleaned in autumn, it is highly advantageous
to cart on to them at once, and cover in with a deep furrow,
all the farm-yard dung that is on hand up to the completion
of their first ploughing. From tho length of time which
must elapse before the land can again bo touched, it is quite
Bafe, or rather it is highly advantageous, to apply all the
recently made dung, although in a 'very rough state. In
doing this, it is necessary that a person precede each plough,
and trim the rank litter into the previous furrow, that it
may be properly covered up and regularly distributed
Unless this precaution is observed, the ploughs are constantly
choked and impeded, the manure is drawn together into
unsightly hassocks, and the whole operation is imperfectly
performed. The recommendations to this practice are —
First, An important saving of labour; for the manura being
carted direct from tho yards, kc, on to the laud, and evenly
spread over it, there is no forming, covering up, and turning
of dunghills, or refilling and carting in spring. This heavy
work is accomplished at a season when time is less pressing
than in spring, and the sowing of the crop can be proceeded
■with more rapidly when the time for it arrives, and while
weather favours. Second, There is a saving of manure by
burying it at once in its rough state, mstead of first
fermenting it in large heaps ; and a large portion of the
fallow-break can thus bo dressed with home-made manure.
Third, Tho rough dung thus ploughed in decomposes slowly,
its virtues are absorbed and retained by the soil, with the
whole mass of which it is thoroughly incorporated by the
spring tillage, and which, in consequence, is found, after
such treatment, in a peculiarly mellow and favourable con-
dition for receiving the seed
Tho advantagns of autumn cleaning and manuring of
land in preparation for green crops are so great that thc-
utmost exertions should bo made to secure them. Over a
large portion of England tho harvest is usually so early as
to leave ample time for accomplishing the cleaning process
before being arrested by bad weather. From the latci
harvest sea.son and more humid climate of Scotland, it is
there more difficult to carry it out to the whole extent of
the fallow-break ; but still, with promptitude and energy,
much can be done. One of her shrewd and intelligent sons,
Mr Tennant, the inventor of tho grubber which bears his T«i>nanir»
name, has, however, introduced a system of autumn tillage, Bystem.
founded upon the same principle, and accomplishing vir-
tually the same end, but less expensive and better adapted
to the chmate of Scotland than that just described So
soon as the grain crops are harvested, Mr Tennant seta his
light grubbers agoing, and by working them over the whole
field several times and in opposite directions, stirs the whole
surface soil to the depth of six or eight inches, tears up and
brings to the surface all root-weeds, where, after being
knocked about and freed from adhering soil by repeated
harrowings and a final grubbing, they are left for the
winter. In our own practice wo have latterly improved,
as wo imagine, on Mr Tennant's plan by broadsharing the
land before using the grubbers, and also by employing the
Nor\vcgian harrow instead of *the common one. The
broadsharing ensures that the whole of the couch-grass
and other weeds are thoroughly loosened without being
buried, and the Norwegian harrow shakes out the roots from
the adhering earth better than the common harrow. When
it is intended to treat a field in this way, care should be
taken at harvest time to reap the crop as close to the ground
as possible, as rank stubble seriously encumbers the tillage
implements. In setting about the grubbing of a field it is
expedient also to begin w-ith the headlands, and to work them
thoroughly all round twice over, before they are trodden
down by tho frequent turning of the horses upon them.
If this is omitted it will be found nearly impossible to have
the margins of the field as well cultivated as the rest of it
A field thus treated presents for a time a singularly untidy
and unpromising appearance ; but the ultimate effects of the
practice, aa well in the cleaning as the disintegrating of the
soil, are very remarkable. When roots of couch-grass, ic,
are freed from the soil, and fully exposed to the vicissitudes
of the weather at a season when their vital force is at the
lowest point, they are unable to resist its effects, and gra-
dually die. If placed in similar circumstances in spring,
with their vital energy in full play, the merest point of a
root embedded in, or even in contact with, pulverised soil,
enables them to push down fresh fibres, to re-establish their
connection with the soil, and to grow as lustily as ever.
But so completely U the destruction of these pests secured
by this simple process of winter exposure, that on the return
of spring they may be ploughed in with impunity. Jlr
Tennant assures us, that ever since he adopted this practice
he has been enabled to dispense w-ith the removal of these
weeds. Having had an opportunity of inspecting his farm,
we are enabled to testify to its cleanness and high state of
fertility. On this plan, then, the cleaning of fallows is
accomplished by tillage operations alone, without any outlay
for raking or hand-picking, burning, or carting off. Nor i«
this done at the expense of the pulverising part of the pro-
cess. On the contrary, Mr Tennant asserts, and we hav?
so far verified his assertion by actual experiment, that by dis-
0PEKATI0N3.J
AGKICULTITRE
339
integrating the soil in autumn, as is done by this broadskar-
ing, grubbing, and harrowing, it receives far more benefit
from the alternation of frost and thaw, rain and drought,
than when merely ploughed and left lying during winter
in compact furrow-slices. This plan affords the same
facilities as the other for autumn manuring, if the weeds
are raked off at once from so much of the fallow-break
as it is wished to manure before winter. When the
remainder is ploughed in April following, more of it may
then have the farm-yard dung applied to it in the same
way. Agriculturists owe a large debt of gratitude to Mr
Tennant for the invention of his beautifully simple and
efficient grubber, and for this scientific appUcation of it to
the faUowing process. Those who have been pursuing this
system of tillage will be much interested in observing that
It has been adopted by Mr Smith of Woolstou, who is
carrying it out to perfection by means of his steam-drawn
implements.
The autumn tillage of the fallows having been accom-
plished in one or other of the ways described, the land is
left untouched till the return of spriiig. If it is infested
by annual weeds, it is expedient, as sotn as it is dry enough
to bear treading with impunity, to le^el and stir the surface
by a turn of the harrows. This slight moving of the
mellowed surface-soil induces the seeds of weeds to germinate
more quickly than they would otherwise do, and thus a
crop of them is got rid of by the next tilling. This pre-
liminary harrowing is useful also in affording a level course
for the tUlage implements. By the time that the labour
connected with the sowing of spring crops is over, the fallows
are usually dry enough to be stirred with safety. This
point, must, however, be well seen to, as irreparable mischief
is often done by going upon them too soon. And now it
is, that, instead of rigidly following any customary routine
of 80 many ploughings, harrovmigs, and rollings, the skilful
cultivator will regulate his procedure by the actual circum-
stances of his sod, and the object which he has in view.
What is needed for the successful gro\rth of drilled green
crops is to have the soil free from weeds, thoroughly disin-
tegrated to the depth of six or eight inches, and yet moist
enough to ensure the ready germination of seeds deposited
in it. Where such autumn cleaning and manuring as we
have described have been successfully carried out, all that
is needed, in order to obtain a proper tilth, is to go to work
with light grubbers, first in the line of the previous furrows
and then across them, and then to harrow, roU, and remove
any weeds that have been missed in autumn, after which
the soil wiU bo in the best possible condition for drilling.
On friable soils, this method of performing the spring tillage
by means of the grubber instead of the plough is perfectly
practicable, and has manifold advantages to recommend it.
The saving of labour is very great, as a man and pair of
horses will more easily grub four acres than plough one acre.
Weeds are more easily removed, as the grubber pulls' them
out unbroken, whereas the plough cuts them in pieces. The
soil that has been all v/inter subjected to the mellowing in-
fluences of the weather, and which, in consequence, is in
the best possible condition to yield a geniiJ seed-bed, is
retained a-top, whereas ploughing buries it and brings up
clods in its stead. And, lastly, the soil being merely stirred,
without having its surface reversed, its natural moisture
(or winter sap) is retained, whereby the germinating of seeds
sown in it becomes almost a certainty. The importance
of this last point in the cultivation of such crops as the
turnip, whose seeds must usually be sown during hot ana
dry weather, can scarcely be overrated. This practice is
peculiarly appropriate for soils of loose te-xture, which are
invariably injured by repeated ploughings. But it is also
rosOBted to successfully on soils of the opposite extreme.
Mnuy fHTiners in the Lothians now grow abundant and ex-
tensive crops of turuips on strong clay soils' By spreading a
liberal dressing of dung on the stubble in auturon, ploughing
it in with a deep furrow, leaving the land untouched until
sowing-time has fully arrived, and then stirring the mellowed
surface soil by the grubbers, removing weeds, and dnUing
and sowing at once without any ploughing. When this
system is adopted on tenacious soils, it lb prudent to operate
opon portions of the field in detail, taking in only so much
at a time as can be grubbed and drilled the same day ; foi
if rain should intervene betwixt the grubbing and the
drilling, the soil would set like mortar and the tide bo lost
When once the ridgelets are made up in good condition, thdy
can withstand a fall of rain with comparative impunity ,
and hence the occurrence of a course of fine weather, when
the season is yet too eaily for sowing, is sometimes takou
advantage of by preparing the land and making it up into
ridgelet/S, although it should require to remain in this state
wseks, or even months, before sowing takes place. In such
a case, immediately before sowing, the ridgelets are first
partially levelled by harro\viug length-wise, in order to loosen
the soil and destroy annual weeds, and then again made
up by using a double-breasted plough. We must here,
however, insist upon the importance of having the grubbing
thoroughly performed, which it cannot be unless the tines
penetrate the soil as deeply as the plough has done at the
autumn ploughing. It is o^ving to the neglect of this that
the system has failed in the hands of many farmers, who
'first mismanage the operation, and then throw the blama
upon the gi-ubbers. To ensure success, the implement must
be set so as to work at its full depth, sufficient motive power
being applied by yoking three horses, if necessary, to each
grubber at the first and also at the second going over, and
there must bo vigilant superintendence exercised lest the
ploughman do the work slightly. It is sometimes objected
to this system of spring tillage, that it fails to rid the land
of thistles and other tap-rooted weeds ; but it is surely
easier to fork these out as they appear, than to plough a
whole field merely to destroy as many thistles as a man, it
may be, would dig up in a day. By taking advantage of
the tilth obtained by the action of the elements, instead of
first ploughing doviTi the mellowed surface, and then
attempting laboriously to reduce the obdurate furrows by
mechanical means, skilfid and energetic farmers now succeed
in preparing even tenacious sods for drilled green-crops, at
little expense, and with a good measure of certainty.
On these opposite classes of soils, then — the very loose,
and the tenacious — spring tillage, in preparation for root-
crops, is performed to better purpose by means of the
grubber than the plough. Betwixt these extremes, however,
lies the most valuable class of soils — the strong fertile loams
—on which the heaviest crops and best quality of Swedes
are grown. With these it is usually expedient to have
recourse to at least one spring ploughing, as soon, but only
as soon, as the soil is dry enough to crumble freely to the
very bottom of the furrow. As this usually occurs from
four to six weeks before the time of sowing the crop, it is
advisable to plough the entire field, and leave it so until
rain falls, when a mod^mie use of the grubber, harrows,
and light roller, usually suffices to produce a good tilth for
ridging. When operations are not thus facihtated by a
seasonable fall of rain, it is necessary to proceed somewhat
differently. The field is lying as it was left by the plough,
with a rough dried surface. If harrowed while in this
state, an abundant crop of clods is brought to the surface,
which quickly harden when thus fully exposed to drought.
To avoid this inconvenience, the field is first rolled with a
heavy roller, and then grubbed across the direction in whieh
it was last ploughed. By this means the clods, . being
partially crushed and pressed down amongst the loose earth,
resist the grubber, and are crumbled by it, instead of being
340
A G K I C U J. T U 11 E
[succession
nierfly raked out and left entire on the surface, as would
biij^ijen but for tliia preliminary rolling. TLo grubbers are
fulliiwed closely by barrows and a light roller, and these
again by the grubbers ; but this timq with mm tines on
instead of five, after which a sufEcicnt tilth is usually
obtained. All this is on the supposition that the land ia
clean when these sjmng operations are commenced ; for
should it bo otherwise, it is usually better to begin with
the grubber on the stale winter furrow, and to get rid of
the weeds, before using the plough. If it is found necessary
to plough near to the time of sowing, then the harrow and
roller must keep pace with the ploughs in order to retain
moisture and jirevcnt the fonnation of clods. The Nor-
wegian harrow is the proper implement to use in such cases.
Let it ever be borne in mind that if the soil is cleaned and
sufficiently disintegrated, the less working it gets at this
stage the better.
It may be well indeed to remind the reader that although
the fallowing process can most conveniently be gone about
during the period which intervenes bttwixt the removal of
a grain-crop from the ground and the sowing of the succeed-
ing root-crop, and on this account is often spoken of in a
loose way as being performed "in preparation for the root-
crop," it is a fallacy to regard this laborious and costly
process of tillage and cleaning as undertaken solely or
mainly for the benefit of the turnip or other root-crop,
then about to be sown. The other crops of the rotation
benefit by it in a far greater degree, and it would be re-
quired on their account although turnips were not grown
at all, as may be seen ill the case of clay lands with their
periodic naked fallows. It is the overlooking of this fact
which has led people to charge the whole cost of this fallow-
ing procesi), and of all the manure then ajipliedto the land,
against the turnip-crop, and then to represent this crop as
the most costly one wliich the farmer grows, — one which
often yields him less than it cost to produce it. Undoubt-
edly the cost of the fallow must be charged equally against
all the crops of the rotation.
Summer or Kaked Fallow.
Having thus described at length that modification of the
fallowing process by which the soil is prepared for the
sowing of green crops, we shall now, as proposed, speak
of that prolonged form of it called a summer or 7iaked fallow.
From the facilities now afforded, by means of tile-draining
and portable manures, for an extended culture of green
crops, this laborious and costly process, which in its day
was justly regarded as the very key to good and profitable
farming, is now restricted to the more obdurate clay soils,
or to cases where draining and other modern improve-
ments are neglected. The manifold , advantages of having
abundant crops of turnips, or mangel-wurzel, instead of
naked fallow, sometimes tempt the occupiers of clay soils
to push the cultivation of these crops beyond due bounds.
We know of cases where, after large expenditure in draining,
the cultivation of turnips has been carried to such an extent,
and conducted so injudiciously, that the land has got fo.ul
and soured, and its gross produce has been reduced below
what it was while the land was undrained, and under a
regular system of all but exclusive naked fallows. However
thoroughly drained, clay soils retain their ticklish temper,
and are so easily disconcerted by interference during un-
favourable -weather, that the preparing of them for the
cultivation of root-crops, and still more the removing of
these crops when grown, is at best a hazardous business,
and requires to be conducted with peculiar tact. Judicious
farmers, who know by experience the difficulties that have
to be overcome im;ultivating such soils, are of opinion that
all that can yet be ventured upon with safety is to prolong
tfco veriod of the naked fallow's recurrence, rather thai)
entirely to dispense with it. After a series of- alternate
grain and cattle crops, it is accordingly still their practice
to wind up with a summer fallow, by which they rectify
unavoidable defects in the tillage of preceding years, and
put their land in good humour for entering again upon a
fresh course of crojjping.
This process is begun by a deep ploughing in autumn, in
performing which the land is gathered into ridges, that it
may be kept as dry as possible during winter. When the
more urgent labours of the following spring are so f.ar dis-
posed of as to afford leisure for it, a second ploughing is
given to the fallow, usually by reversing the furrows of
autumn. This is followed at interials by two cros'-plough-
ings, which are made to reverse each other, in order to keep
the land le\-eL As it is the nature of these soils to break
into lumps, under the action of the plough, rather than to
crumble down, the clods thus produced got so thoroughly
parched in dry weather, that root-weeds enclosed in them
are killed by^ sheer desiccation. To further this cheap mode
of getting rid of them, the land is not rolled, but stirrcU by
the grubber and harrow as frequently as po.ssible, so as to
expose the clods freely to the drought Wo know by ex-
perience that fallows can be cleaned effectually by thug
taking advantage of the tendency in clay soils to bake
excessively under exposure to the hot dry weather which
u.sually prevails in June and July. Should the season
happen to be a showery one, this line of tactics must needs
be abandoned, and recourse had to the judicious use of the
grubber, Norwegian and common harrow, in order to free
the weeds from the soil, and then clear them off by laking
or hand-picking. This is more costly, and, as we believe,
less beneficial to the soil than the simple method first
noticed, which should therefore be attempted in the first
place. As in hay-ni-iking, much can here be done in a fen-
favourable days, by keeping grubbers and hairows at work,
and turning the clods frequently. When fai-m-yard dung
is to bo applied to such fallows, it is desirable that it should
be carted on and ploughed in before July expires. In
applying it, two methods are followed. That usually
adopted is, after marking off the ridges, to put down the
dung in small heaps, at regular distances, and forthwith to
spread it and plough it in. In the other, the land is formed
into ridgelets, running diagonally across the intended lino
of the ridges, and the dung is enclosed in them in the
manner to be hereafter described in treating of turnip
culture. In either way, after the lapse of several -nceks,
the surface is levelled by harrowing, and the land is gathered
into ridges by the last of this series of ploughings, hence
called the seed-furrow. When lime is to be applied to such
land, this is the stage of the rotation which is usually chosen
for doing so. It is spread evenly over the surface, imme-
diately before the last ploughing. In finishing off this
fallowing process, it is necessary, on undrained lands, to
be careful to clean out the ridge-furrows and cross-cuts, in
anticipation of winter rains. But if such land is worth
cultivating at aU, it is surely worth draining, and this
operation once thoroughly performed. r>uts an end to all
further solicitude about furrows.
CH^VPTER IX.
SUCCESSION OF CEOPS.
Section 1. — Rotation necessary.
There are few agricultural facts more fully ascertained than
this, that the growth, year after year, on the same soil, of
one kind of plants, or family of plants, and the removal
froin it, either of the entire produce, or at least of the
ripened seeds of such plants, rapidly impairs the general
fertility of that soil, and, in particular cases, unfits it fyj-
bearing further crops of the kind by which it has been ex-
hausted. The explanation of the causes of this phenomenon
S.1
AGIIICULTUEE
341
belongs to the agricultural chemLst or vegetable physiologist,
to whom we willingly leave the task. What we have to do
with is the fact itself, and its important bearing on agri-
cultural practice. There is no natural tendency in the soil
to deterioration. If at any time, therefore, the earth fail.s
to yield its increase for the use of man, it is owing to his
own ignorance and cupidity, and not to any defect in the
beneficent arrangements of the Creator. The aim, then,
t>f the agriculturist, and the test of his skill, is to obtain
from his farm abundant crops at a remunerative cost, and
without impairing its future productiveness. In order to this,
two conditions are indispensable, — first, that the elements
of fertility abstracted from the soil by the crops removed
from it be duly and adequately restored ; and, second, that it
be kept free from weeds. The cereal grains, whose seeds
constitute the staple food of the human famOy, are neces.
sarOy the most important and valuable of our ordinary
crops. The stated removal from a farm of the grain pro
duced on it, and its consumption elsewhere, is too severe a
drain upon its productive powers to admit of these crops
being grown every year on the whole, or greater part of it,
without speedily impairing its fertility. Supposing, how-
ever, that this waste could be at once repaired by the annual
return to the soil of manure equivalent in constituent
elements to the produce removed, the length of time which
grain-crops occupy the soil, and their habit of growth, inter-
pose peculiar difficulties in the way of cleaning it thoroughly,
either before they are sown, or while they occupy the ground.
Again, although bread -corn is the most important product
of our soil, other commodities, such as butcher-meat, dairy
produce, vegetables, wool, and flax, are indispensably re-
quired. The economical culture of the soil demands the
employment of animal power, which, to be profitably used,
must be so distributed as to fiU up the year. The mainten-
ance of the working cattle, and of other live stock, implies
the stated culture of a large amount of herbage and forage.
Now, these varied conditions are duly met by cultivating
grain and cattle crops alternately, and in about equal pro-
portions. In carrying out these general principles, much
discrimination is required in selecting the particular plants
best adapted to the soil, climate, and other circumstances,
of each farm, and in arranging them in the most profitable
sequences ; for not only is it necessary duly to alternate
grain and green crops, but, in general, there is a necessity,
or at least a high expediency, in so varjdng the species or
varieties of the latter class as to prolong, as jnuch 13
possible, the periodic recurrence of any one of them on the
same field. In settling upon a scheme of cropping for any
particular farm, regard must be had to its capabilities, to
the markets available for the disposal of its products, and
to the command of manure. When these things have been
maturely considered, it is always beneficial to conduct
the cropping of a farm upon a settled scheme. The number
of men and horses required to work it is regulated chiefly
by the extent of the fallow-break, which it is therefore
desirable to keep as near to an average annual breadth as
possible. When the lands of a farm varj- much — as regards
fertility, fitness for particular crops, and proximity to the
homestead, — they must be so apportioned as to make the
divisions alloted to each class of crops as equal as possible
in all respects, taking one year with another. Unless this
is done, those fluctuations in the gross proAice of farms
wliich arise from varying seasons are needlessly, it may
happen ruinously, aggravated ; or such an accumulation of
labour is thrown on certain years which may prove un-
favourable ones as to weather, that the work is neither
done well nor in due sea.son.
No better rotation has yet been devised for friable soils
of fair quahty than the well-known four-field or Norfolk
BTstem. By this course half tne arable lands aie in grain -
crops, and half in cattle-crops, annually. It is indeed true
that, in the way in which this course has hitherto been
usually worked, both turnips aiTd clover have recurred so
frequently (every fourth year) on the same fields, that they
have become subject to disease, and their produce excessively
precarious. But the excellence of this course is, that its
main features can be retained, and yet endless variation be
introduced in its details. For example, instead of a rigid
one-fourth of the land being each year under turnips, barley,
clover, and wheat or oats, respectively, half only of the
barley division is frequently in practice now sown with
clover seeds, and the other half cropped in the following
year with beans, peas, potatoes, or vetches. On the same
set of fields, coming round again to the same point, the treat-
ment is reversed by the beans, &c., and clover, being made
to change places. An interval of eight years is thus sub-
stituted for one oi four, so far as these two crops are con-
cerned. Italian rye-grass, unmixed with any other plant,
is now frequently taken in lieu of clover on part of the
division usually allocated to it, and proves a grateful change
both to the land and to the animals which consume it.
In like manner, instead of sowing turnips unvaryingly every
fourth year on each field, a portion of the annual division
allotted to this crop can advantageously be cropped wiUi
mangel-wurzel, carrots, or cabbages, care being taken to
change the site occupied by each when the same fields again
como in turn. The sam.e end is even so far gained by
alternating Swedish with yellow or globe turnips. It is
also found expedient, either systematically or occasionally,
to sow a field with clover and pasture grasses immediately
after turnips, without a grain crop, and to allow it to remain
in pasture for four years. A corresponding extent of the
other land is meanwhile kept in tdlage, and two grain crops
in succession are taken on a requisite portion to equalise
the main divisions, both as respects amount of labour and
the different staple products. A closer cover of grasses and
a better pasture is obtained in this way than by first taking
the customary grain crop after turnips; the land is rested
and invigorated for future tDlage, the outlay on clover and
grass-seeds somewhat diminished, and the land better ma-
naged for the interests of all concerned than by a rieid
adherence to the customary rotation.
Section 2. — Restrictive Clauses in Leases Ilurtful.
It is common enough for landlords, or their agents, to
tie down the tenantry over large estates to the rigid observ-
ance of some pet rotation of their own. In an unimproved
state of agriculture, and for a tenantry deficient both in
capital and intelligence, such trammels, kindly enforced,
may be as beneficial to them as to their landlord. But
when the culture of the soil is undertaken by men of good
education, who bring to the business ample capital, and
skill to use it to the best advantage, such restrictions are
much more likely to do harm than good to both parties.
It is to be observed in regard to those restrictive clauses
usually inserted in farm-leases, — such as, that two grain-
crops shall never be taken in immediate succession ; that
no hay, straw, or turnips, shall be sold from the farm ; that
only certain limited quantities of potatoes or fl.ax shall be
grown ; that land shall be two or more years in grass, Ac, —
that they all proceed on the supposition that the fanu is
to maintain its own fertility. They obviously do not con-
template the stated purchase of large quantities of guano,
bones, and similar extraneous manures, or the consumption
by live stock of iinseed-cake, grain, or other auxiliaries to
the green crops produced on the farm. Now, not only are
such clauses incompatible with such a system of fanning as
we harve ju.=;t now indicated, but their direct tendency, if
enforced, is to hinder a tenant from adopting it even when
disposed to do so. We hear nowadays of tenants who art
342
AGRICULTURE
[u^KURES.
annual purchasers of these extraneous fvrtilismg substances
to the extent of 208. to 30a. worth for every aero occupied
by theiu. 'IVj euforco the same restriction on such men as
on others who buy none at all is obviously neither juat
nor politic ; and we believe that any practical farmer, if he
had his choice, would rather bo the successor of a liberal
mauurer, however ho may have cropped, than of one who
has farmed by rule on the starving ayatein. We are quite
aware that, in regard to the first-mentioned of these restric--
tions (viz., that which forbids taking two grain-crops in
immediate succession), the contrary practice is still asserted
by agricultural authorities lo be necessarily bad farming.
Now, we do not concur with this opinion, but believe, on
the a)ntrary, that when huid is kept clean, and is 33 highly
manured and well tUled as it must be to grow cattle-crops
in perfection, the second successive ciop of grain will usually
be better than the first, its production nowise injurious to
the land, and the practice, in suck circumstances, not only
not faidty, but an evidence of the skill and good manage-
ment of the fanner. A frequent encomivun applied to a
particularly well-cultivated farm is, that " it is like a garden."
The practice of market-gardeners is also frequently referred
to as a model for farmers. Now, the point with them is
to have every inch of their ground under crop of some kind
at all seasons, and to carry everj'thing to market. Under
such incessant cropping, the fertility of the soil is maintained
only by ample manuring and constant tillage. By these
means, however, it Is maintained, and the practice is extolled
as the perfection of management. Such a system must
therefore be as true in farming as in gardening, when the
like conditions are observed. Undoubtedly he is a good
farmer, who, while keeping his land clean and in good heart,
obtains the greatest produce from it at the least proportion-
ate outl.iy ; and it is no valid objection to his practice merely
to say that he is violating orthodox rotations.
Section 3. — Erperiments at Bothavistead and Lou Weedon.
Some curious information has been obtained regarding
the effects of growing successive crops of one kind of
plant on the same field, from two e.tamples of it that
attracted much attention. We refer to the experiments of
Mr Lawes at Uothamstead, and of the Rev. Mr Smith
at Lois Weedon. It is well known that Mr Lawes
for a number of years devoted a considerable extent of land
to the prosecution of a series of interesting experiments, one
field being allotted to experiments with wheat, another to
turnips, and another to beans. One acre in the wheat-field
bore upwards of twenty successive crops of wheat without
any manure whatever. The land was annually scarified and
thoroughly cleaned as soon as the crop was removed; it
was then ploughed and again drilled with wheat, which was
duly hoed in spring. Now, with occasional variation, due
to the character of particular seasons, Mr Lawes found that
the average annual produce of this acre was 16 bushels
of grain and 16 cwt of straw, below which he failed to
reduce it by these successive crops. Hia soU was a strong
clay loam, resting at a depth of five or six feet upon chalk.
In the case of turnips, he found that, when treated in
the same way, they cease after a few years to grow larger
than radishes, nor could he, by the application of any
amount or variety of manure which he tried, obtain a second
successive crop equal to the first. With the wheat, on the
contrary, the addition of four cwt. of Peruvian guano at once
doubled the produce. Mr Smith's experiments, as is well
known, were a revival of Jethro TuU's system of growing
wheat continually on the same field, by a plan of alternate
strips of wheat and bare fallow, made to change places an-
nually. He improved in so far upon Tull's practice, inasmuch
as he thoroughly drained his land, and his fallow spaces
were deeply trenched every autumn, as well as ploughed
and hoed during tho growing season. The result was tb&t
his land thus treated yielded an average annual produce
of 34 bu.sheb per acre for eleven or twelve successive croph.
Now, it is not our intention to offer any ojiinion on this
as a system of wheat growing. We refer to it along with
Mr Lawea's, for the purpose of showing that, notwithstand-
ing the prevalent opinion that grain-crops exhaust the
fertility of soLU more rapidly than green crops, this is tru(
only in a very restricted sense. Oreen crops judiciously
interposed do undoubtedly serve a most important puq,os(
in the means which they furnish for maintaining the fertilit)
of a farm ; but it is worthy of note, that whereas, by the
addition of suitable manure, thorough tillage, and diligent
removal of weeds, clay soil at least will stand an indefinite
succession of grain crops, the same means entirely fail to
jield the same results with our most popular green crops.
Our personal experience quite accords with this ; for we
suppose it will be admitted that the com crops of the country
are at the present day superior, both in quality and quantity,
to those of any preceding period ; whereas potatoes, turnips,
and clover, which we have so long regarded as our sheet-
anchor, have become increasingly precarious, and threaten
to faO us altogether. We offer these facts for the cunsider-
atioTi of those who out-and-out condemn the practice of
sowing two white crops in immediate succession. In stating
this oi)inion, wo must, however, guard against misappre-
hension. Unless the land is highly manured and kept
thoroughly clean, we are just as much opposed to the
practice as any one can be ; but when mischief is done by
it, we believe that it is due rather to the presence of weeds
than to the second grain-crop. Neither do we plead for the
absolute removal of restrictive clauses from farm leases.
Human nature being what it is, men who do not see it to
be for their own iidvantage to farm well, will, through
ignorance or greed,' impoverish their land unless they are
restrained. Clauses as to cropping should, however, be pro-
hibitory rather than prescriptive — have reference rather to
what is removed from the farm than to what is grown upon
it — and they should be contingent upon the other practice6
of the tenant So long as he continues, by ample manuring
and careful tillage, to maintain the fertility and general
good condition of the farm rented by him, it can be no ad-
vantage to his landlord to hinder him from cropping it at
his own discretion. It will be seen from these remarks,
that we attach more importance to those general principles
which should regulate the succession of crops, than to the
laying down of formulae to meet supposed cases. The man
who cultivates by mere routine is unprepared for emergencies,
and is sure to lag in the race of improvement ; while he
who studies principles is still guided by them, while alterirp
his practice to suit changing circumstances.
CHAPTER X.
MAinntEs.
Section 1. — Farm-yard Dung.
In our remarks on tillage operations and on the Buccessioi.
of crops, ve have seen how much tho practice of the husband-
man is modified by the kinds and amount of manures at
his disposaL In describing the crops of the farm and their
culture, frequent reference will also necessarily be made to
the use of vario^is fertilising substances ; and we shall, there-
fore, before proceeding to that department of our subject,
enumerate and briefly remark on the most important of
them. In such an enumeration, the first notice is un-
questionably due to farm-yard dung.
This consists of the excrements of cattle, their Uttor, and
the refuse of their fodder ; usually first troddeu down in
successive layers, and partially fermented in the farm-yard^
and then removed to some convenient place and thrown
together in heaps, where, by further fermentation and d-jcay.
BES.]
AGRICULTUEE
343
it is reduced to a dark-coloured, moist, homogeneous mjisa.
in which state it is usually applied to the land. It is thus
the residuum of the whole products of the farm, mintis the
exported grain, and that portion of the other crops which,
being first assimilated in the bodies of the live stock, is sold
in the form of butcher-meat, dairy-produce, or wool In
applying farm-yard dung to land there is thus a returning '
to it of what it had previously produced, leas the above
exceptions, and such waste as may occur during the process
of decay by gaseous exhalation or liquid drainage. It is
obvious that the value of snch dung as a fertilising agent
must depend much on two chcumstances, viz., \st, The
nature of the food consumed by the animals whose excre-
ments arc mingled with it; and, 2d, The success with wliich
waste from drainage and exhalation has been prevented.
When cattle used during the winter months to be barely
kept aUve on straw and water, and were confined in an
open yard, which, in addition to its own share of rain, re-
ceived also the drip from the eaves of the surrounding build-
ings— which, after percolating the litter, flowed unchecked
into the neighbouring ditch — it is needless to say that the
dung resulting from such a process was all but worthless.
It is much to be regretted that, from the faidty construction
of farm-buildings, farmers still find it impossible to guard
their dung-stores from injury and waste. When cattle-
vards are slightly hollowed towards their centre, and the
surrounding eaves are spouted, the litter absorbs the whole
of the urine and the rain which falls upon the uncovered
area, while the treading of the cattle goes far to prevent
undue fermentation and escape of gases. The same remark
appUes still more strongly to covered boxes, the dung re-
sulting from this mode of housing fattening cattle being of
the best quality. In the case of byres and stables it is
certainly desirable to have a covered depot, into which the
Utter and solid excrements may be wheeled daily, and to
have the urine conveyed by proper drains and distributed
over this mass of solid matter. As there is usually more
liquid than these can at once absorb, it is well to have a
tank at the lowest part of this depot in which to store the
surplus, that it may from time to time be returned upon
the adjoining mass, or conveyed to heaps in the fields.
Advantage is usually taken of frosty" weather to cart out to
the fallow division of the farm the dung that has accumulated
in yards and boxes. It is formed into large square heaps
sibout four feet deep, in situations most convenient for ready
application to the land when the season for sowing the crops
arrives. It is desirable to prepare a site for these heaps by
carting together and spreading down a quantity of earth
(or peat, when that can be got), for the purpose of absorbing
the ooze from the fermenting mass laid upon it. At the
beginning of winter, the loaded dung-carts are driven on to
the heaps, and their contents are spread evenly over it,
layer above layer, both to equalise the quality of the dung-
beap as a whole, and, by the compression thus applied,
to prevent a too rapid fermentation. When the heap has
attained the requisite bulk, a covering of earth or peat is
spread over it to keep it moist and to prevent the escape of
its ammonia. When this home-made manure was the only
kind statedly at the command of the farmer, it was con-
sidered necessary, and we believe truly, to have it in an
advanced state of decomposition before appljring it to a turnip
crop. There was a waste of manure by tlus practice, but
unless it was in a state to supply instant nourishment and
stimulus to the young turnip plants, the crop was certain
to be a deficient one. The application, along with farm-yard
dung, of guano, superphosphate of lime, and other portable
manures, quite does away with the necessity of having the
former much rotted. These concentrated manures stimulate
the growth of the plants during their early stage, and put
them in the Ircst condition for making gradual use of the
slowiy dissolving aung. Excessive decomposition of farm-
yard dung is now therefore avoided, and pains rather be-
stowed to improve its quality by protecting it from the
weather, and retaining its ammonia and natural juice. The
cheapest, and perhaps also the best, way of doing this is to
cart the dung direct from the cattle-yard to the fields, and
at once to plough it in.
Section 2. — Liquid Manures.
We have spoken of the importance of carefully retaining
the urine of the housed live stock, by having it absorbed in
the solid matter of the dung-heap, and of collecting the
surplus into a suitable tank, where it may be available for
moistening the heap from time to time, and especially when
about to be applied to the lan5.' A system has, however,
lately attracted much notice, by wliich pains are taken
not only to preserve every drop of urine and ooze from dung-
heaps, but, as far as practicable, to apply the whole manure
produced on the farm in a liquid form. It is in Ayrshire,
and especially on the farm of Myremill, that this system
has been carried out most fully. Our reference will be best
explained by quoting al length from the Minutes of Infor-
mation issued by the General Board of Health regarding
sewage manure.
" The next farm visited was in the immediate vicinity of Glas-
gow, where the supply of liquid manure is derived from another
source, and distributed in a dili'erent manner. The supply is froui
a dairy o£ 700 cows, attached to a large distillery ; the entire drain-
age from the former flows in a full continuoM stream into a tank
containing 30,000 or 40,000 gallons, whence it is pumped up
immediately by a 12-horse power engine, and forced through 4-inch
iron pipes, laid about 18 inches under ground, into large vats or
cisterns placed on the highest points of the land to be irrigated.
From these it descends by gravitation through another "eystem of
pipes laid along the ridges of the hills, tinding an outlet thi-ough
stand-cocks placed at intervals, from which it is distributed throuHU
movable iron pipes fitting into each other, and laid along the surface
in whatever direction the supply is required. The land thus irngaied
consists of three farms lying at some distance apart, the farthest
point to which the liquid is conveyed being about two miles, and
the highest elevation 80 feet above the site of the tank and engine.
The principal use to which the irrigation has been applied has
been to preserve the fertility of the pastures, the general appearance
of which was at first rather disappointing, but this was explained
by the fact that they are fully stocKed, and that the cows rush with
avidity to those parts' that have been last irrigated, and eat them
down quite bare. As is the case in other instances, however, by
far the most profitable application has been found to be Italian rye-
grass, of which 15 (Scotch) acres were under cultivation, some with
seed supplied by iir Dickinson, whose successfid cultivation of it
by similar mear^s near London has long been known. The first cat-
ting of this had yielded about ten tons the acre, the second nine,
and the third, which was ready for cutting, was estimated at eight
or nine more. Some crops of turnips and cabbages were pointed
out to us in a state of vigorous growth, and with more than common
promise of abundance ; these were raised by a dressing of ashes and
refuse (of little fertilising value, having been purchased at 23. 6d. a
ton), conjoined with four doses of liquid, one after the preceding
crop of oats had been carried, one prior to so\ring, and two more at
dili'erent stages of growth. The enterprising gentleman who has
carried out these works at his own expense, ana in spite of the dis-
couragement arising from partial failure in his earlier attempts,
thcT^gh speaking cautiously, a-s was natural in a tenant on a nine-
teen years' lease, of the pecuniary results of this undertaking,
imparted seme facts which leave little doubt that it must have been
largely remunerative. Besides maintaining, if not increasing, the
fertility of the pastures, to which the solid manure from the byres
was formerly devoted, at a heavy expense of cartage (the whole of
which is now saved), be is enabled to sell all this manure, of which
wo estimated the quantity at about 3000 tons a year, at 68. a load.
For a good deal of the Italian rye-grass not required for his own con-
sumption, he obtained upwards of 13s. a ton, the profit on which,
taking into account the yield before stated, mr.y ea.>;ily be iniagiued.
Thirteen carts, each containing six barrels of ten gallons each, are
used to convey the milk to market, where it is sold at 6d. the Scotch
pint, equal to six pints imperial measure. The income from milk
would, therefora, bo not less than £43, 63. 8d. per day, or £15,810,
135. 4d. per annum.
" The next place visited was the farm of Myremill, near Maybole,
in Ayrslure, the property of Mr Kennedy, who adopted and
improved on the method of distribution just described. On thin
^44
AGRICULTURE
[manubks.
fftnn, about 400 injpfrral acres of which aro laid down with pipps.
Bome of the solid as well as tho litjuid mauure has b<;i;n opplieu by
tht'ae niecins, giiano and superphosphato of lime having beiu thus
transmitted in solution, whereby their valuo is considerably
enchanccd. This is oipecially tho cose with guano, the use ofwlucn
U thus rendered in ^eat measure inde[H'ndent of the uncertainties
of climate, and it ut made capable of being applied with equa'
advantage in dry as in wet weather. lu some resjject^ tho farm
labours under i>couliiir disadvantages, as water for tho puipose of
diluting tho liquid haa to bo raised from a depth of 70 feet and
from a distance of more than 400 yards from tho tanks where it is
mixed with the drainage from the byres. These tanks are (bur in
number, of the following dimensions rcspcclively : — 48 x 14 x 12;
48 X 14 X 15 ; 72 X 14 x 12 ; 72 x 17 x 12. Th-jy have each a
separate communication with tho well from which ^heir contents
are pumped up; which aro used in dilterent degrees of * ripeness,' a
certain amount of fermentation induced by tlio addition of rape-
dust beiug considered desirable. Tho liquid is diluted, according to
circumstances, with three or four times its bulk of water, and
doliverc',1 at the rate of aliput 4000 gallons an liour, that being the
usual fJronortion to an aero. 'i'he quantity to be appliod is
determmea by a Hoat-gaugo in tho tank, which warns the engineer,
whose business it is to watch it, when to cut olf the Bupply, and
this is a signal to the man distributing it in tho field to add another
length of hose, and to commence manuring a fro.sh portion of land.
The pumps aro worked by a r2-horse power steam-engine, which
performs all tho usual work on tho farm, thrashing, cutting chalf
and turnips, crushing oil-cake, grinding, ice, and pumping, Tho
pipes aro of iron ; mains, submains, and service pipes, five, three,
and two inches in diameter raspectively, laid eighteen inches or two
feet below tho surface. At certain points aro hydrants to which
gutta-percha hoso is attached in lengths of twenty yards, at the end
of. which ia a sharp nozzle with on orifice ranging from one to ono
and a half inch, according to the pressure laid on, from which the
liquid makes ita exit with a jot of irom twelve to fifteen yards. All
tho labour required is that of a man and a boy to adjust the hoso
and direct the distribution of tho mauure, and eight or ten acres
may thus bo watered in a day. There are now 70 acres of Italian rye-
grass and 130 of root crops on the farm. The quantity they would
deliver by a jet from a pump worked by a IS-horsepower steam-
engine would be 40,000 gallons, or 178 tons, per diem, and the expense
per ton about 2d., but a double set of men would reduce the cost.
The extreme length of pipo is three quarters of a mile, and with the
hoso the total extent of delivery is about 1,900,000 yards, or 400
acres. To deliver the same quantity per diem by water-carts, to the
same extreme distance, would bo impracticable. One fi'eld of rye-
grass, sown in April, had been cut once, fed off twice with sheep,
and was ready (August 20th) to be fed offa^ain. In another, after
yielding four cuttings within the year, each estimated at 9 or 10
tons per acre, the value of tho aftermath for the keep of sheep was
atated at 253. an acre. Of tho turnips, one lot of swedes, dre.^ed
with 10 tons of solid farm manure, and about 2000 gallons of the
liquid, having six bushels of dissolved boaes along with it, was
ready for hoeing 10 or 12 days earlier than another lot dressed with
double the amount of solid manure without the liquid application,
and wero fully equal to thoso in a neighbour's held which had
received 30 loads of farm-yard dung, together with 3 owt. guano
and 16 "bushels bones per acre ; the yield was estimated at 40 tons
the Scotch acre, and their great luxuriance seemed to me to justify
tho expectation. From one field of white globe turnips sown later,
and mantired solely with liquid, from 40 to 50 tons to the Scotch
acre was expected. A field of carrots, treated in the same manner
as tho swedes, to which a second application of liquid was given
just before thinning, promise from 20 to 25 tons the acre. Similarly
favourable results have been obtained with cabbages ; and that the
Emit of fertility by these means haa not yet been reached, was
clearly shown in one part of the Italian rye-grass which had acci-
dentally received more than its allowance of liquid, and which
showed a marked increase of luxuriance over that around it The
«xact increase of produce has not been accurately determined, but
the number of cattl^ on tho farm has increased very largely, and by
means of the Italian rj'c-grass at least four times as many beasts as
before can bo kept now on the same extent of land, the fertility of
the laiid being at the same tinie increased. This plant, of all others,
appears to receive its nourishment in this form with most gratitude,
and to make the most amjdo returns for it ; and great as are the
results hitherto obtained, I believe that the maximum of productive-
ness is not yet reached, and that the present experiment must be
carried yet further before wo know the full capabilities of this
manure. Of one important fact connected with this crop, I am
assured; that -notwithstanding the rank luxuriance of its growth,
animals fed upon it not only are not scoured, but thrive more than
on any other land of grass in cultivation.
*' Taking into the irrigation account the whole cost of the engine,
and the whole of the fuel and wages^ although half of these might
^ave been deducted — the following anjicars to be the capital account
And working expenses for fertilising Alyremill farm : —
'* Tanks com])let« ■ . . .
Steam engine . «
Pumps ......
Iron pipes, laying, and hydrants
Gutta-percha distributing pipes, Ac
• ''Annual interest on £15SG| and wear and ) ^-iiq m a
tt-ar, at 74 percent. . . . / AUS 19 0
Annual wages . . • , . 104 0 0
Fuel £8 10 3
£300
0
0
150
0
0
80
0
0
1000
0
0
&t
0
0
:i58«
0
0
£281 9 0
This amo'int, divided by ths number of acres, is equal to the annual
sura of 1 is. j)C-r acre.
** i now como to the practical results of so cheap a mode of fc-r*
tilising laud.
" Mr Youn^ informed me that iu one of the fields he had him-
self measured the growth of Italian rye-grass, end had found it to
bo two inches iu twenty-four hours ; and that within eeven mouths,
Mr Kennedy had cut from a lieid we were passing at the time 70
tons of grass per acre. Where the whole ia cut, four or five heavy
crops are thus tjikeu ; but upon some of the land during the last
two years 20 sheep to the acre have been penned in hurdles, and
moved about tho same field from time to time ; after each remove
the fluid has been applied, and immediately followed by an abun-
dant growth of food. There is net the slightest appf;arance of
exhaustion in the land, — its fertility appears to increase. I was
informed that, before the liquid manure was used, the land would
not keep more than a bullock or five sheep to the acre ; now it will
maintain, if the crops are cut and carried m, five bullocks or twenty
sheep to the acre. Some beans, bran, and oil-cake are Iraught for
the stock ; but, on the other hand, one-third or more of the fann is
kept in grain, notivithstanding the great number of live stock.
" Canning Park. — Jlr Telfer's farm, near A}T. This is a small
dairy farm of 40 acres, near the level of the sea, and about a mile
and a half west of tho town of Ayr. The subsoil is beach gravel
with a slight admixture of clay. Water ia too abundant. It lies
dead within about 20 inches of the surface, and in winter ncarei
than that.
" No bedding or litter is used here. The cows lie on cocoa-nut
mats. The ventilation is perfect ; and tho air sweeter than iu the
majority of the dwelling-houses of human beings.
" Tho following appears to be the cost of carrying out tho system
of Mr Telfer's fann : —
"Tank £30 0 0
Engine CO 0 0
Iron pipes and hydrants .... 100 0 0
Distnbuting hose-pipe, 8sc . . . 20 0 0
£210 0 0
" Annual interest on £210, and wear and tear,
at 74 per cent
Wages and fuel
£15 1."!
11 0
£26 IS 0
" In summer the cows have a quantity of oil-cake, as well as
grass ; and in winter they have turnips or mangel-wurzel, bean or
barley meal, and cut hay or grass ; the whoie mess being steamed
together. Miss Bell, the cousin of Mr Telfer, manages the dairy,
and said that last year the hay nought would amount to (rotfi £30
to £40, and she should think the grain to not less than £200. In
general terms, the other food is produced upon the farm. As to the
produce of gra.'js, which is the chief article, the first cutting during
tho present year was in the latter end of March about 18 inches
thick. The second was from 18 inches to 2 feet thick. The third
was from 3 feet to 4 feet 6 inches thick. The fourth nearly the
same. The fifth was 2 feet thick; and the sixth, in process of
cutting at the time I was there, wo measured at 18 inches thick.
Taking tho mean, where two dimensions are given for the same crop,
1 find the aggreg.->te depth of grass, grown and cut off this farni
within seven months, to be not less than 14 feet 3 inches. All this
is, however, eaten upon the premises, and the whole marketable
produce of tho farm is represented by the milk and butter.
" As to the quantity and value of these, Miss Bell stated that
tho previous week the butter was 114 lb and 120 lb — together 234
lb, sold at Is. per pound. This, she stated, was about the average
quantity and price. The amount for butter would therefore be
£11, 14s. per week, or per annum £008, 8s. She informed me far-
ther, that during about eight months in the year, the cold milk rea-
lises about the same amount as the butter. In the summer months,
durinf hot weather, the market value of the oiilk is only about
half tSat of the butter. From these data, the amount for inilk sold
per atinum is £507.
" The total receipts for the two atticles of milk and butter amonnl
to £1113, 8s. per Br:i"m.
LIQUID.]
AGRICULTURE
345
" I only need to add that, previously to the adoption of the present
system of farming, these 40 acrea of land were oarely sufficient to
support eight or nine cow 8, and would have been weUlet at a rental
of 30a. an acre. "
The attention now so generally directed to this subject,
and the importance attached to it in many quarters, justify
this lengthened quotation, and call for some remarks upon
it We have carefully examined two of the instances re-
ferred to in this report, viz., Port^Dundas and Myremill;
and some smaller experiments more cursorily. After doing
so we are sorry to say that we have arrived at a very
different estimate of this system of manuring from that
expressed in the above quotations. We at once, and with
pleasure, acknowledge that in so far as concerns the storing
ap and preparing of the liquid manure, its application to
llie land, and the production, by means of it, of crops of
Italian rye-grass almost surpassing belief in their luxuriance
and weight of produce, Mr Kennedy's expeiiments have
been crowned with complete success. The excellence of
this grass as food for live stock, and their relish for it, is
also indisputable. Neither do we dispute the statements
of those who tell us that manure, when largely diluted with
water, and properly applied in the liquid form, is more
beneficial to plants than in any other way in which it (.an
be presented to them. Admitting all this, the question,
remains, Has it yet been shown that this system can be
economically applied to ordinary farms ? Data are still
wanting from which to answer this question conclusively,
but we shall state some of the reasons which constrain us,
with our present information, to do so in the negative.
Supposing. an adequate motive power already to exist,
and to be partly employed for other purposes, the capita)
that must be invested in providing the tanks and other
apparatus necessary for carrying out this system amounts to
about £4 per acre over a farm of average extent If the
system be a sounjd one, the great amount of this outlay can-
not fairly bo urged as an objection to it The addition of
a permanent rent charge of 5s. per acre to an entire farm,
for a benefit which in any one year can be available to but
a limited portion of it, is however a serious matter. In
each case referred to in the MinuUs of Informalmn, the
whole annual charge, whether arising from interest on
capital, wear and tear of machinery, or working expenses,
is divided by the whole acreage of the farm. In the first
seven cases given in the tabular statement, this mode of
calculation is correct, as the whole are.is do actually benefit
Table III. — Showing Cost, dc, of the JppUcation of Sewerage WaUra and Liquid Manurei.
No.
Cost of Works
Annual In-
Annas]
Total
Annnal
Name of Place.
Enc-
Mode of AppMcttilon.
and
terest, &c
at71pe
^nt.
-•
Worklofi
Cbaree
por
O^iservatlnna I
llab
Apparatus.
Expcnsea
Engliali
acres
d.
0
_
acx&
1
Fdinburtjh.
Graigentinny Meadows.
63
f Steam-engine, pumps, and 1
t open gutters and panes, J
£
2000
.. d.
0 0
£ s.
160 0
117 12
d.
0
£ ».
4 4
d.
11
1
( Average rental upwards of!
\ £16 per English acre. '
High-level
Sea Itieadows.
38
I Graviution, open gutters 1
( and p.ines, . . . i
700
0 0
62 10
0
19 17
6
1 18
1
1 Worth about £20 t*'"'
< English acre ; worthloto
\ before.
Old JIeado\r3.
223
Do. do.
2700
0 0
2J2 10
0 119 6
0
1 8
2}
( Maximum rental, £25 per
t English acre.
Nottinghamshire,
The Duke of Portland.
Clipstone Meadows.
Wiltshire.
Wiley Meadows.
300
150
( Catchraeadow, gravitation, 1
\ and open gutters, . . J
fBeadwork of ridge and)
-; furrow, gravitation and
36.000
3000
0 0
0 0
2700 0
225 0
0
0
150 0
52 10
0
0
9 10
1 17
0
0
Worth upwards of £12 ; pn*-
vioUBly worth from 3a. U)
5a. per acre per anuuni.
t Foot heavy crops of gr-i^ per
1 annum
Devonsh ire.
The Duke of Bedford.
Tavistock Meadows.
90
( .open glitters, . . J
I Beadwork and catch- "j
-< meadows, gravitation V
(. and open gutters, . . j
1163
0 0
83 11
6
67 10
0
1 14
8i
j" Lan-l more than quadrMple'!
I In value after only 4 ye im
\ vrigation.
Berkshire.
Pusey Meadows.
/Land not pierionnly worth
ICO
( Uatchmeadow, giavitation, 1
( aad open gutters, . . (
4U
0 0
33 7
C
37 18
4
0 14
3
) more thati 53. per acre,
1 yielding sii heavy crops
OlaSrfOW.
Mr Harvey's farm.
^Steam.engine, pumps, 1
V of gri!M per annuiii.
( 10 feet thick of gra'w cut fi*orti
t an acre La aix mouths.
603
J underground iron main I
\ pipes and iron distribut- 1
1450
0 0
103 16
0
210 10
0
0 13
9
V. ing pipes, . . . )
Affrshire.
Myremill farm.
803
1 Steam-eugine, pumps. \
1 underground iron maius, I
15S6
0 0
118 19
0
~(,1 10
0
0 11
1
j 70 tons of gras« cut froKi an
1 gutta-percha hose, and ?
t acre in six mouths.
Canning Park farm.
60
( jet pipe, . . ]
Do. do.
210
0 0
15 15
Oj 11 0
0
0 10
M
( HJ feet of grass cut in soveiij
1 months.
Leg or Dunduff fann.
60
Gravitation, undergroand \
iron mains, gutta-percba V
boiie, and jet pipe, . . J
191
0 0
14 6
c
3 10
0
0 7
ij
(SO Btacj:i» per annum; in
\ place ofl2, aa previously.
Staffordshire.
The Dnko of Sutherland.
/Steam-engine, pumps, \
Uancburch farm near)
Trcntb.-im. /
83
} nndei-ground iron mains, (
j gutta-percba hose, and }
620 13 4
39 1
Q
13 «
0
0 13
n
1 Tanks couBtructcd sufEcicnt
I for 303 acres.
\ jet pipe, . . .;
Lancashire.
( One dressing of liquid cfpi.i!
Ualewood farm.
120
Do. do.
621
12 0
39 2
5
19 16
2
0 9
n
< to 25 or 30 tons of farrn-
\ yard maTiure psj acre,
? A fourth crop ol gravt Uin;:
,
Cheshire.
weighed, was found e'piall
Lescard farm.
150
Do. do.
672
1 10
iO 8
C
17 11
c
0 9
4i
to 10 tons per acre, llw.v-*,
the lijhtedt crop cut off llici
1^ same land. i
OlamoT'janshire.
t Gravitation, nnderground
C Tanks conutructed BufHcJcnl
Porlh Kerry Farm.
60
< iron mains, gutta-percha
( hose and jet pipe .
300
0 0
22 10
0
0 lu
0
0 13
0
< ferSOO acres. Dftwrcu !'
t and 10 fe«t of grats ci-t.
each year by the irrigating proce.s.'i. But when we como
to those irrigated by machinei-y, wo find that a half or two-
fiitha only of the land receives the benefits of it in any one
I-!l"
year. If the annual charge in this latter class of cases i?
divided by the acreage actiuilly irrigated, itbeccnim evid,;iiT
that the e-tpense is double that cf the I'usey meadows, aud
I. - 4a ■
34H
AGRICULTURE
[lCA.!iaB1t8.
equal to that of tlio old moadows near Edinburgh, instead
of being leas, na it is made to appear. Again, in estimating
the profits aa opposite course is followed. While the chart^cs
are made to appear less by spreading them over the whole
area of the farm, the enormous produce of grass from the
irrigated parts is put prominently forward, and little is said
about its produce aa a whole. In the dairy cases, too, we
are told of enormous gross profits, without being pointedly
reminded that the larger portion of the keep of the cons,
such aa distillery offal, bean-meal, hay, and even straw and
turnips, is actually purchased ; that in this way a quantity
of extraneous manure becomes available for the associated
farm, sufficient (however applied) to maintain it ia a state
of fertility ; and that there would be handsome profits from
the dairj', irrespective of the farm altogether. In fact, town
dairies usually have no land attached to them. The cows
are maintained solely by purchased food, and the sale of
manure, liquid and solid, forms one of the stated items of
income. In Mr Harvey's and similar cases, two separate
businesses are in fact mixed up, and yet the whole is spoken
of in such a way aa if the profit waa mainly due to the use
of liquid manure. Indeed, the whole of these Minutes of
Information issued by the General Board of Health have
an air of special pleading about them, which to us seriously
detracts from their value.
The entire annual cost of applying manure in this manner
13 stated to amount to from 10s. to 14s. per acre for the
whole extent of the farm. Now this would suffice to provide
annually from 1 to 1 J cwt. of Peruvian guano (even at its
present high price) for every acre of the farm, or from 2 to
3 cwt per acre, if applied, as the liquid is, to the portion
under green crop only. The stated application of such a
dressing of guano, in separate portions, and during showery
weather, will be found to yield results little inferior to those
obtained by the use of liquid manure. To do this requires
no costly apparatus or permanent sinking of capital, and
its application can be desisted from at any time when found
unremunerative. The adoption of this plan of applying
the liquid manure of the farm necessarily demands that the
whole system of management be accommodated to it In
order to furnish this liquid manure, the whole green crops
must, summer and winter, be conveyed to the homestead,
and there consumed in such a manner as that the urine and
dung of the animals fed upon it may be scoured into the
tanks. It is no such easy matter to replenish those tanks
as some persons seem to think. 'When cattle are houssd in
boxes or properly protected yards, the whole of the urine
is absorbed by the litter, and goes to the field in the dimg-
cart. This is certainly a more expensive way of conveying
it to the fields than by pipes. I5ut then, as in the new
system, the urine, itc, is diluted with at least three times
its volume of water, there are four tons of manure to con-
vey on the one plan for one on the other. Even where pipes
are used, all the litter, and a portion at least of the dung,
has stiU to be carted out, so that no claim of a saving of
carriage can validly be put forward on behalf of this system ;
but its merits must bo grounded solely on the superior
efficacy of manure, when applied La a liquid instead of a
solid form.
In the case of dry and loose soils, the consuming of the
turnip crop, by folding sheep upon it, has hitherto been
regarded as at once the cheapest way in which it can be
converted into wool and mutton, and the land consolidated
and enriched, so as to fit it for producing grain and other
crops. On tenacious soils, and in a moist climate, which
IS quite the case at Myremill, it is certainly impracticable to
pursue this system in winter. It is perhaps also the case
that sheep are healthier, fatten more rapidly, and yield more
wool, when fed under cover, than when folded on the open
turnip field. Admitting all this, however, we are disposed
to think that these benefita are oettcr secured by Mr Randell
of Chadbury's plan of littering the pens with burnt clay,
which koups the sheep clean, and their feet in good order,
and, when mingled with their urine and dung, forms a most
valuable manure for any kind of land. Were this carried
out by means of movable covered pons, which could b«
erected and easily shifted from place to place in the turnip
field, the carriage of the turnips and manure would be
greatly reduced, especially if accomplished by meana of the
portable railway.
In the case of dairies near towns, where the cows ore
largely fed on brewery or distUlery offal and other purchased
food, the circumstances are totally different from those of
ordinary farms, depending solely on their own resources.
The liquid manure that would otherwise run to waste, when
thus applied, is so much clear gain, in so far as the value
of the increased produce exceeds the cost of application.
It may fonn a wholesome caution to some persona to men-
tion here that, notwithstanding all that has been written
about the success of the spirited operations at Port-Dundas,
we were told by Mr Harvey, that so dubioiis is he still
about it, that if the thing were to do again, he would rather
keep his money in his pocket, and let the urine run into the
canal as formerly. If there ia doubt even in such a case,
how much more wheU the manure must virtually bo
purchased. And this leada ua to remark that wo have better
hopes of the ultimate success of this plan of manuring, when
it is restricted to the application of the surplus liquid manure
of the homestead to some piece of meadow near at hand,
Eupplementing -this supply, when necessary, by dissolving
guano in water, and sending it through the pipes. These
remarks apply even more strongly to the se*age from towns.
The liquid, in this case, is highly charged with fertilising
ingredients of the most valuable kind, seeing that it con-
sists largely of night-soil from a population consiuning much
animal food. With few exceptions, this valuable liquid,
which flows in such quantities from all our tewns, is not
only utterly lost, but is a grievous nuisance, by polluting
our streams and generating disease. In applying it as
manure, the expense lies entirely in providing and working
the necessary apparatus. In such cases, then, with an un-
failing supply of highly fertilising liquid, costing nothing
to begin with, there is every inducement to put into opera-
tion any plan by which it can be economically applied to
field crops. The enhanced value of green forage in tha
vicinity of towns is an additional motive for attempting this.
The profitable disposal of town sewage in a way neither
injurious to the health nor offensive to the sensea of the
communitv. is, however, a problem yet remaining to be
solved.
The ingenuity and enterprise displayed by Mr Kennedy
and others, in their endeavours to cheapen by this means
the cost of farm produce, and the frankness and untiring
patience.with which they have shown and explained their
proceedings to the unceasing stream of visitors, which the
novelty of the operations attracted from all parts of the
kingdom, and even from foreign countries, are altogether so
admirable and jiraiseworthy that it requires no slight effort
to speak of them otherwise than approvingly. The con-
fidence with which various influential parties have proclaimed
the complete success of this scheme of irrigation, and recom-
mended it for general adoption, seem-s, however, to require
that those who have examined it, and arrived at an
opposite conclusion, should publicly say so.
It IS unreasonable to expect that private parties are to
divulge their whole business affairs ; and yet, without a fuU
Dr. and Cr. account for some ordinary arable farm treated on
this system, it is impossible to arrive at a sound judgment
on its merits. Until this can be done, it would be better to
abstain from publishing partial statements, which tend only
OUANO, BONES.]
AGRICUI TURE
to mislead the public mind. We oflfer these remarks in no
spirit of hostility to this new system of farming. We shall
rejoice nnf eignedly to find that our opinion of it is erroneous,
and that it reai'y warrants the sanguine expectations which
some parties entertain regarding it We simply maintain
that as yet the case is " not proven," and our counsel to those
who are disposed to try it is, not to embark in it to an extent
that would embarrass them. if. as we fear, it should prove
a failure
Section 3.— Guano.
Next to farm-yard manure, which must ever be looked to
as the chief means of maintaining the fertility of a farm,
guano claims our notice. This substance is the dung of
eeafowl, and is found on rocky islets in parts of the world
where rain seldom falls. The droppings of the myriads of
birds by which such places are frequented have in many
cases been permitted to accumulate during untold ages, and
are now found in enormous deposits. The principal supply,
both for quantity and quality, has hitherto come from the
Chincha Islands, on the coast of Peru. The introduction
■of this powerful and exceedingly portable manure gave a
prodigious impetus to agricultural improvement. It is
about thirty years since a few casks of this article were
brought to Liverpool from Peru, where it has been knovra
and prized as a valuable manure from the remotest periods.
No sooner had its value been discovered by our British
agriculturists than the demand for it became so keen, that
the quantity imported rose from 2881 tons in 1841 to
283,300 tons in 1845. The price at which it was sold at
first was £20 per ton, from which, with increased supplies,
it fell to £1 1, when the discovery in 1844 of a considerable
deposit on the island of Ichaboe, on the coast of Africa, at
once reduced the price to £9.
Discoveries have from time to time been made of other
deposits on the African coast and in Australia. The
quality of both is much inferior to that from Peru. It is
in a more advanced state «f decay, and contains more
moisture and sand. Great as was the deposit of this valu-
able fertiliser on the Chincha Islands, it rapidly diminished
under the excessive demand for it from Great Britain and
other countries. Gradually the quality became very in-
ferior, and in 1871 it was announced that this deposit was
entirely exhausted. Considerable supplies are still obtained
from other parts of the Peruvian coast ; but unfortunately
the quality is very inferior to that formerly obtained from
the Ohiuchas. This circumstance would not be of much
consequence if the guano was offered for sale on fair terms ;
but as the agents of the Peruvian Government sell it only
at one uniform price per ton, although different cargoes, and
even different portions of any one cargo, vary excessively
in quality, it is now an unsafe article for farmers to purchase.
We give here, from the Board of Trade returns, a table
•of the quantities of guano imported yearly, with the com-
puted real value, from 1854 to 1872.
Table showing the Imports of Quano from 1851 to 1872.
Tmt.
Tona.
Volao.
TCM.
Tons.
Valaa.
1854
235,111
£2,630,272
1864
131,368
£1,467,088
1855
306,061
8,137,160
1865
2.37,393
2,675,905
1856
191,601
2,136,431
1866
136,697
1,439,679
1857
288,302
3,613,074
1867
192,303
2,109,605
1858
353,641
4,084,170
1863
182,343
2,039,478
1859
84,122
769,333
1869
210,010
2,640,983
I860
141,435
1,557,895
1870
280,311
8,476,680
1861
178,423
2,022,283
1871
178,678
1,994,145
1862
141,636
1,635,322
1872
118,704
1,201,042
1863
233,674
2,668,856
The dung of birds, from its including both liquid and
solid excrements, is superior as a manure to that of quadru-
347
Pigeons' dung has long been in high repute as an
excellent fertiliser, and brought a high price in days When
portable manures were scarcely to be had. It is now little
heaid of, guano, the excrement of fowls which feed upon
fish, being superior, weight for weight. The dung of
domestic poultry is usually mixed with the general dung-
heap, but it could be turned to better account if kept by
itself. It has been recommended to strew the floors of poul-
try-houses daOy with sawdust or sand, and to rake this with
the droppings into a heap to be kent under cover and used
like guano.
Section i. — Bones.
It is now about sixty years since ground bones began to
be 'used by farmers in the east side of England as a manure
for turnips. At first bones were roughly smashed by ham-
mers and applied in great quantities. By and by mills were
constructed for grinding them to a coarse powder, in which
state they continued to be used as a dressing for turnips, at
the rate of sixteen to twenty bushels per acre, in all parts
of the kingdom and to a very great extent, imtil the ad-
mirable discovery by Baron Liebig of the mode of preparing
superphosphate of lime by dissolving bones in sulphuric
acid. We shall not attempt to explain on chemical princi-
ples the wonderful superiority of this substance over simple
bone-dust in promoting the growth of the turnip plant
What we should do indifferently, by borrowing from others,
will be found well done by various accomplished chemists
who write specially on these subjects. We can, however,
testify irom experience to the important fact, that one
bus'hel of bone-dust dissolved by a third of its weight of
sulphuric acid is as a manure superior in value to four bushels
of simple bone-dust. It is not merely, or even chiefly, in
the lessened cost at which an acre of turnips can be manured
that this superiority lies, but especially in this, that from
the extraordinary stimulus given by superphosphate of lime
to newly germinated turnip plants, they usually arrive at
the stage when they are fit for thinning in from ten to
fifteen days earlier than when sown over farm-yard dung
or simple bone-dust, or both combined. This shortening of
the critical period during which the attacks of the insignifi-
cant but dreaded tumip-beatle bo often baulk the hopes of
the husbandman is an advantage not easOy estimated, and
one weU fitted to inspire him ■with confidence in the science
to which he owes the discovery, and with grateful respect
for the eminent discoverer. This powerful effect in quicken-
ing the growth of the young turnip plants is possessed in
nearly as great a degree by Peruvian guano, when it is
supplied with sufficient moisture. In climates and seasons
which may be characterised as moist and cool, guano will
show best results, whereas in those which are rather hot and
dry superphosphate has the advantage. Accordingly we
find guano the comparative favourite in Scotland, and its
rival in the drier counties of England.
Quano is believed to encourage a great expanse of foliage,
and to be more especially suited for early sowings ; and
superphosphate to influence development of bulb, and to
deserve the preference for a later seed-time. The obvious
inference is that, for the turnip crop at least, these valu-
able fertilisers should be used in combination ; and actual
experiment has verified its soundness. The use of them
is universal and ever on the increase. They constitute also
the standard by which fanners estimate the cost and effects
of other purchased manures. The extent to which they are
used, their high price, and the facility with which they can
be adulterated with comparatively worthless ingredients,
have led to almost unparalleled frauds. The adulteration
of manures has, in fact, become a regular trade. Had
farmers only their bodily senses to aid them, the detection
of this fraud would be dijicult — perhaps impossible. Here.
348
AGRICULTURE
[manobbs.
however, they can call the cheiiMst to their aid, tt-ith the
certainty of ascertaining the real character of the article*
which they are invited to ])urchase. If purchasers of ma-
nures would but insist in every instanci on getting from ths
seller an analysis by some competent, chemist, and along
with it a written warrandice that the stock is of the quality
therein indicated, det«ction and punishment of fraud would
be easy. In regard to superphosphate of bme, the farmer
can purchase bone-dust aiid-^ulphuric acid and prepare it
himself. We conducted this proit s for several years in
the following way: — A trough was provided 7 feet x 3i x
2'10, made of 2J-inch deal, strongly jointed, and secured at
the corners by wooden pegs, as iron nails would be corroded
by the acid. This holds conveniently 48 bushels of bones.
The heap of bone-dust is then gone over with a barley riddle,
and the small dust which parses through this is laid aside to
be used as a drying material for the other portion, after it
is subjectfd to the acid. Wo find that a third part of the
bone-dust passes through the riddle. Three bottles, or
carboys as they are called, of concentrated acid, averaging
180 lb. each, are then emptied into the trough and mixed
with cold water at tlie rate of 1 1 of water, by measure, to
1 of acid. In practice, the water is poured in first and then
the acid. Into this mixture 48 bushels of bones, previously
measured and laid close to the trough, are rapidly shovelled
by two labourers, who will do well to be attired in clothes
and shoes past spoiling. So soon as the bones begin to be
thrown in, violent ebuUition commences. By the time that
the whole of the bones are thrown in, there will be barely
liquid enough to moisten the last of them. The labourers
therefore dig down at one end of the trough till they reach
the bottom, and then carefully turn back and mix the whole
quantity until they reach the other end. J'he surface is
then levelled and covered with a layer of the dry riddlings
two inches thick. In this state it is allowed to remain for
two days, when the trough is emptied, and the same process
is repeated until the whole quantity is gone over. WTien
shovelled out of the trough the bones are found to have
become a dark-coloured paste, still very warm, and emitting
a sweetish smelL While one person throws it out, another
adds to it its proportion of dry riddlings, and mixes them
carefully. This mass is heaped up in the corner of a shed,
and augmented at each emptying of the trough, until the
requisite quantity is obtained. After this the mass is care-
fully turned over several times, at intervals of five or six
days, and is then dry enough for sowing either by hand or
machine. Some prefer moistening the bones with boiling
water, and then adding pure .acid as they are shovelled into
the trough ; but by first mixing the acid and water there is
greater certainty of all the bones being equally acted upon.
There is also great convenience in using the tineet portion
of the bone-dust for drying the other, as suitable material
for this purpose is sometimes difficult to procure. The
homely process now described is quite inferior to, and more
costly than, that pursued in factories, and should only be
resorted to TChen a genuine article cannot otherwise be
obtained
We have referred to superphosphate of Lme prepared
from bones. A new source of supply has, however, been
discovered of late years, the extent and importance of which
is becoming more apparent as investigation proceeds. We
allude to those phosphoric deposits found in such abundance
in the crag, and upper and lower green-sand formations in
the south of England. The existence of these fossil animal
remains was first pointed out by Drs Mantel and Buckland,
though it is to Professor Henslow that we are indebted for
having called attention to their eminent agricultural value,
and described the localities whence they may be most readily
obtained. These remains consist of the fractured and rolled
bones of sharks, gigantic sca-lizanhi, and whales, which at
ono period of our earth's history must have existed- in
myriads in our oceans and i>eas. Mixed with these bones
arc found many lishteeth aod ihells of dilfcrent species,
and Ukewisfl immense numbers of rolled, water-worn pel^bles,
which at oi o period were imagined to be tho fossilised ex-
crements of the animals themselves, and were on this account
called coproliUa by Professor Henslow and others. Although
thib has since been proved a mistake, tho uamo has been
adopted, and will probably bo continued. These fossil
bones, and so-called coproUtes of the crag, are found in
enormous quantities on the coast of Suffolk, Norfolk, and
Essex, whence MrLawcs of Rothamstead obtained nearly tho
whole of tho material which ho cniployed in the preparation
of his well-known " coproUto manure," or " Lawes' super-
phosphate." Already, it is believed, several thousands of
tons of these fossils in one fonn or other are annually sold
for manure, with a rapidly increasing demand. Those found
in tho crag formation are exceedingly hard, and require to
bo ground by powerful machinery, and dissolved in sul-
phuric acid, to render the phosphate of lime available as
manure. Fossils, though less abundant in the green-sand,
can be reduced to the requisite fineness by simple machinery,
and .arc then fit for agricultural purposes without any chemi-
cal preparation. They are found plentifully in the parish
of Farnham, bo long celebrated for the excellence and abun-
dance of its hops, which are now discovered to bo due to the
presence in the soil of these fossil remains. The discovery
of these mines of manure in various parts of our country
was made most seasonably, and has proved of immense
national importance ^\'hen Liebig predicted that, " in tho
remains of an extinct animal world England is to find the
means of increasing her wealth in agricultural produce, as
she has already found the great support of her manufactur-
ing industry in fossil fuel," he was regarded by many as
merely indulging a fine philosophic fancy ; but enough has
already been reaUsed to convince the most sceptical of the
importance of the data on which he founded his opinion.'
On mixing a quantity of bone-dust with its own bulk of
mould or sand, and wetting the whole with the liq-oiu which
oozes from the dung-heap, violent fermentation immedi-
ately ensues, dissolving the bcrjes, and making them more
readily avaOable for the nourishment of the turnip crop.
Many farmers are so satisfied with this preparation, that
they dispense with the acid. This is not judiciou^, as the
superTjhosphate of lime is a more valuable manure than
bones dissolved by simple fermentation.
Bones are sometimes applied as a top-dressing to grasi
land with singular success. " This Cheshire practice con-
sists in applying an extraordinary dose of bones to pasture-
land. ' For pasture land, especially the poorer kind,' says
Mr Palin, ' there is nothing equal to bone manure, either
as regards the permanency of its effects, or the production
of a sweet luxurious herbage, of which all cattle are fond.
Many thousand acres of the poor clay soils have been
covered with this manure during the last eight or ten years.'
The average quantity used is about a ton and a half to the
acre ; it is therefore a landlord's improvement, on which
seven or eight per cent, is generally paid. Boiled bones act
as long as unboiled bones, retaining the phosphorus, {hough
not so quickly, having lost the animal matter. Boiled bones
(1845) cost £3, 10s. per ton; the outlay then was five
guineas per acre, sometimes X7 or £8. ' I have known,'
says a correspondent, ' many instances where the annual
value of our poorest clay lands has been increased by an
outlay of from £7 to £8 an acre, at least 300 per cent. ;
or, in other, words, that the land has been much cheaper
after this outlay at 30s., than in its native state at lOs. per
acre ; with the satisfaction of seeing a miserable covering
' Journal of the Royal Agrictdtural Socitly of Emjtand, vol. Lu
p. 56, uid vol. zii. p. 91.
RAPE, BLOOD, ETC. |
of piok-grass, rusues, hen-gorae, and otner noxious weeds,
exch.inged for a most luxuriant herbage of wild clover;
trefoil, and other succulent grasses.' Though much of the
clover and trefoil may disappear in five or ten years (some
times they last fifteen years), an excellent herbage remains.
' Draining,' the writer adds, ' may be carried too far where
bones are used, for boned lands suffer by a dry summer.
The land should be kept cooL' I have found the same
thing on water meadows. The freer the grass is growing,
the more it suffers from drought ; and this is natural, for
a larger supply of sap is required. This writer adds, ' I
have known many a poor, honest, but half-broken man,
raised from Doverty to comparative independence, and many
a sinking family saved from inevitable ruin, by the help of
this wonderful manure.' Indeed, I beUeve, land after
boning will keep three cows where two fed before. As to
this practice, however, caution is necessary. It seems to
belong to cold clays for grass in Cheshire, though on such
soil it would hardly answer elsewhere, even for turnips.
A Cheshire landlord told me that he had tried it vainly for
gi-ass in Suffolk. I know no case of its success out of Che-
shire, unless in the bordering' counties, and have heard some
cases of its failure even in those. It will not do, therefore,
at all to adopt it hastily. AVe only know it to have
succeeded about Cheshire, which is on the red marls geo-
logically, and on the rainy side of the country, and must
remember that it is a costly proceeding, striking in its
success, but as yet circumscribed in its practice, and there-
fore in the proof of its efficafy."'
Section 5. — Rape-Cake, etc.
Ratpe-cake reduced to powder forms an excellent manure
for wheat and other crops. It is usually applied at the
rate of from tour to eight cwt. per acre. The cakes result-
ing after oil has been expressed from cameUna, hemp, and
cotton seeds, and from pistachio and castor-oil nuts, from
beech and other mast, all possess considerable value as
manure, and were at one time available for that purpose.
Most of them now command a price for cattle feeding that
forbids their use as manure unless when in a damaged state.
Section 6. — Blood, tkc.
All parts of the carcases of animals form valuable manure,
and are now carefully used in that way whenever they are
unfit for more important uses. The blood and other refuse
from shambles and 'from fish-curers' yards, when mixed with
earth and decomposed, make a valuable manure, and are
eagerly sought after by farmers to whom such supplies are
accessible. In London a company has been formed by
whom the blood from the shambles is purchased, and em-
ployed instead of water in preparing superphosphate of lime,
which, when thus manufactured, contains an amount of
ammonia which adds considerably to its efficacy as a manure.
In Australia and South America it has long been the practice
to slaughter immense numbers of sheep and cattle for the
sake of their hides and tallow only, there being no market
for them as beef and mutton. To obtain the whole tallow,
the carcases are subjected to a process of boibng by steam
and afterwards to pressure, and are then thrown aside in
great piles. This dried residuum is afterwards used as
fuel in the furnaces of the steaming apparatus, and the
resulting ashes constitute the bone-ash of commerce, which
is now an important raw material in our manure factories.
After many abortive attempts to convey Australian beef
and mutton to the British market, the difficulty has at last
been overcome by enclosing the meat in a par-boiled state
in tin cases, hermetically sealed. This has already grown
' Articlo by Mr Pnsey. 8eo Journal qf Rotial Society of £nt/laml,
vol. xi. p. 409.
AGRICULTURE
349
to a large trade, with every likelihood of its increasing
rapidly. As the meat in these cases is sent free from bone,
a plan has been found for rendering the bones also a pro-
fitable article of export. For this purpose they are crushed
into compact cakes 6 inches square by 3 inches thick, in
which form they can be stowed in comparatively small
space.
The refuse from glue-works ; the blubber and dregs from
fish-oil ; animal charcoal that has been used in the process
of sugar-refining ; the shavings and filings of horn and bones
from various manufactures, and woollen rags, are all made
available for manure.
Section 7. — Night-Soil.
Night-Soil is a powerful manure ; but owing to its
offensive odour it has never been systematically used in
Britain. Various plans are tried for obviating this objec-
tion, that most in repute at present being its mixture with
charred peat. From the universal use of water-closets in
private dwellings, the great mass of this valuable fertilising
matter now passes into sewers, and is carried off by streams
and rivers, and is for the most part totally lost as a manure.
\Vhen sewage water is used fof -^irrigation, as in the
neighbourhood of Edinburgh, it is to the night-soU dissolved
in it that its astonishing effects in promoting the growth
of grass are chiefly due. We have already expressed our
views in regard to the use of it in this diluted form of
sewage water. That mode of applying it is necessarily
restricted to lands in the vicinity of towns. Hitherto the
numerous and costly attempts that have been made to
separate the fertilising matter from the water in which it
is contained have proved utter failures. The most feasible
plan for the utilisation of night-soil that we have hitherto
heard of is that brought forward by the Rev. Henry Moule,
Fordington Vicarage, Devon. In a tract addressed to cot-
tagers he says, — " Now, my discovery is this : The earth
of 3-our garden, if diied — or dried and powdered clay — will
suck up the liquid part of the privy soil ; and, if applied
at once and carefully mixed, will destroy all bad smell and
all nasty appearance in the solid part, and will keep all the
value of the manure. Thi-ee half pints of earth, or even
one pint, will be enough for each time. And earth thus
mixed enxn once is very good manure. But if, after mixing,
you throw it into a shed and dry it, you may use it again
and again ; and the oftener you use it the stronger the manure
will be. I have used some seven and even eight times ;
and yet, even after being so often mixed, there is no bad
smell with the substance ; and no one, if not told, wouM
know what it is." To adapt a privy for using dried earth
in this way, he says, — " Let the seat be made in the com-
mon way, only without any vault beneath. Under the seat
place a bucket or box, or, if you have nothing else, an old
washing-pan. A bucket is the best, because it is more
c-asily handled ; only let it have a good-sized bail or handle.
By the side of the seat have a box that will hold (say) a
bushel of dried earth, and a scoop or old basin that ^ill
take up a pint or a pint and a half, and let that quantity
of earth be thrown into the bucket or pan every time it is
used. The bucket may be put in or taken out from abo's
by having the whole cover moved with hinges ; or else,
through a door in front or at the back." He has also in-
vented and patented an earlh<loset, as a substitute for the
ordinary water-closet, which he describes tlius : — "The back
contains dried and sifted earth, which enters the pan
through a hole at the back of it, and covers the bottom.
The bottom is moved by the handle and lever ; the side of
the pan acts as a scraper ; and all that is upon the bottom
is pushed off, falling into the bucket or shaft below. The
earth thus applied at once prevents fermentation, and almost
aU exhalation and offensive smell The bottom returns to
350
AGRICULTURE
[mandbej.
its pl\ce by means of a spnng, and a fresh supply of the'
earth falls upon it from the box."'
This scheme has now been tested for a mffident length
of time, and on a wide enough scale to show that in the
case of private houses in rural districts, as well as in prisons,
asylums, hospitals, public schools, military camps, and fac-
tories, it is entirely successful as regards the sanitary results
of its use, and the value of the manure when applied to
gardens attached to the premises from which it is obtained.
But the cost and annoyance of moving so bulky a substance,
and the small percentoge of fertilising matter contained in
it, forbid the expectation of its being adopted in towns.
Sfction 8.—Sfa-Wefil.
Along our sea-board large supplies of useful manure are
obtained in the shape of drifted sea-weed. This is either
applied as a top-dressing to grass and clover, ploughed in
with a light furrow, for various crops, or mixed in dung-
heaps. It requires to be used in largo quantities per acre
— from 40 to 60 loads — and is cvaTiesccnt in its effects.
Grain grown on land manured with sea-weed is generally
of fine quality, and is in repute as seed com.
Section 9. — Manxtre Crops.
Crops of Biicl-ichfat, Rape, Vetches, and Mustard are some-
times ploughed in, while in a green, succulent state, to
enrich the land. It is, however, more usual to fold sheep
on such crops, and so to get the benefit of them as forage,
as well as manure to the land. The leaves of turnips are
frequently ploughed in after remo\'iDg the bulbs, and have
a powerful fertilising effect.
Section 10. — Lime.
Besides manures of an animal and vegetable origin, vari-
ous mineral substances are used for this purpose. The
most important and extensively used of these is lime. In
the drier parts of England it is not held in much esteem,
whereas in the western and northern counties, and in Scot-
land, its use is considered indispensable to good farming.
Experienced farmers in Berwickshire consider it desirable
to lime the land every twelve years, at the rate of from
1 20 to 200 bushels of the unslacked lime per acre. It is
found especially beneficial in the reclaiming of moory and
boggy lands, on which neither green nor grain crops thrive
untU it has been applied to them. Its use is found to
improve the quality of grain, and to cause it in some cases
to ripen earlier. It facilitates the cleaning of land, certain
weeds disappearing altogether for a time after a dressing
of lime. It is the only known specific for the disease in
turnips called " fingers-and-toes," on which account alone it
is frequently used in circumstances which would otherwise
render such an outlay unv/arrantable. The practice, still
frequent, of tenants at the beginning of a nineteen years'
lease, liming their whole farm at a cost per acre of from
£3 to £5, proves conclusively the high estimation in which
this manure is held. The belief — in which we fully concur
— is however gaining ground, that moderate and frequent
applications are preferable to these heavy doses at length-
ened intervals.
When bare fallowing was in use, it was commonly to-
wards the close of that process that lime was applied.
Having been carted home and laid down in large heaps, it
was, when slaked, spread evenly upon the surface and
covered in by a light furrow. It is now frequently spread
upon the autumn furrow preparatory to root crops, and
worked in by harrowing or grubbing, and sometimes b^
throwing the land into shsillow ridgolets. Another method
* AfanuTC for tht Million, by Rev. Benry Moale, price Id. Hr
Bloule h^i also published ft pamphlet on the uaae enbjecl, entitled
national Uealth arui Wealth.
much used is to form it into compost with decayed quickens,
parings from road-sides and margins of fields, 4c., which,
after thorough intei .nixture by frequent turnings, is spread
evenly upon the land when in gnus. A cheap and effectual
way of getting a dressing of such compost thoroughly com-
mini'ted and incorporated with the surface soil, is to fold
sheep upon it, and feed them there with turnips for a few
days. The value of such com{>o3t is much enhanced by
mixing common salt with the lime and earth, at the rate of
one part of salt by measure to two parts of lime. A mixture
of these two substances in these proportions prepared under
cover, and applied in a powdery state, is much approved as
a spring top-dressing for corn crops on light soils. In
whatever way lime is applied, it is important to remember
that the carbonic acid which has been expelled from it by
subjecting it in the kiln to a red heat, is quickly regained
from the atmosphere, to which therefore it should be Bt
little exposed as possible before applying it to the land.
A drenching from heavy rain after it is slaked is also fatal
to its usefulness. Careful farmers therefore guard against
these evils by laying on lime as soon as it is slaked ; or
when delay is unavoidable, by coating these heaps with
earth, or thatching them with straw. In order to reap the
lull benefit of a dressing of lime it must be so applied as,
while thoroughly incorporated with the soil, to be kept near
the surface. This is more particularly to be attended to iii
laying down land to pasture. This fact is so well illustrated
by an example quoted in the article " Agriculture" in the
7th edition of the present worif that we here repeat it
"A few years after 1754," says Mr Dawson, "havinc a consider-
able extent of outfield land in fallow, which I wished to lane previous
to its tieing laid down to pasture, and finding that I could not
obtain a sufficient quantity of lime for the whole in proper time, i
was induced, from observing tbc effects of fine loam upon the surface
o*"8imilai soil, even when covered with bent, to try a small quantity
'^f lime on the surface of this fallow, instead of a larger quantity
flcufhed d' wn in the usual manner. Accordingly, in the autumn,
abou' twenty acres of it were well harrowed in, and then about fifty-
iix Wmchester bushels only, of unslaked lime, were, after being
slaked, carefully spread upon each English acre, and immediately
well harrowed in. As many pieces of the lime, which had not been
fully slaked at first, were gradually reduced to powder by the dews
and moisture of the earth, — to mix these with the soil, the land was
Spain well harrowed in three or four days thereafter. This land was
sown in the spring with oats, with white and red clover and r^-e-grass
seeds, and well harrowed without being ploughed again, 'ihe crjp
of oat-s was good, the plants of grass sufficiently numerous sad
healthy ; and they formed a very fine pasture, which continued good
until ]iloughed some years after for com.
" About twelve years afterwards I took a lease of the hilly turn
of Grubbet, many parts of which, though of an earthy mould toler-
ably deep, were too steep and elevated to be kept in tillage. As these
lands had Been much exhausted by cropping, and were full of couch-
grass, to destroy that and procure a cover of fins gra.<is, 1 fallowed
them, and laid on the same quantity of lime per acre, then harrow, i
and sowed oats and grass-seed^ in the spring, exactly as in the b;'--
mcutionSd experiment The oats were a full crop, and the plai.'.s
of grass abundant. Se\ eral^f these fields have been now 8Lr> vc thirty
yeara in pasture, and are still producing white clover and other fiue
grasses; no bent or fog has yet appeared upon them. It des<r\r-3
particular notice, that more than treble the quantfty of lime was laid
upon fields adjoining of a similar soil, but which l*i°£ fitter for
occasional tillage, upon them the lime was ploughed in. These f:rMs
were also eown with oats and grass seeds. The latter throve well,
and gave d fine pasture the first year; but afterwards the ben
spread so fast, that in three years there was more of it thai> of the
fuer grasses."
The conclusions which Mr Dawson draws from his ex-
tensive practice in the use of lime and dung deserve the
attention of all cultivators of similar land :
"1. That animal dung dropped npon coarsj benty pastare pro-
dncea little or no improvement upon them ; and that, even wten
rtioep or cattle ar« confined to a small space, as in the .■ of
folding, their dung ceases to produce any beneficial efferti rJi\ei a
few yum, whether the land is ccntinued in paature or IroMht
under the plough. ^'
MANURES.]
AGRICULTURE
asi
" 2. That even when land of thia descnption is well fallowed
end dunged, but not limed, though the dung augments the produce
of the subsequent crop of grain, and of grass also for two or three
years, its effects thereafter are no longer discernible either upon
the one or the other.
*' 3. That when this land is limed, if the lime ia kept upon the
durface of the soil, or well mixed with it, and then laid down to
pasture, the finer grasses continue in possession of the soil, eren in
elevated and exposed situations, for a great many years, to the
exclusion of bent and fog. In the case of Grubbet* hills, it was
observed, that more than thirty years have now elapsed. Besides
this, the dung of the animals pastured upon such land adds every
year to the luxuriance, and improves the quality of the pasture,
and augments the produfctive powers of the soil when afterwards
ploughed for grain ; thus producing upon a benty outfield soil
effects similar to what are experienced when rich infield lands have
been long in pasture, and which are thereby more and more
enriched.
" 4. That when a large quantity of lime is laid on auch land,
and ploughed down deep, the same effects will not be produced,
whether in respect to the permanent fineness of the pasture. Its
gradual amelioration by the dung of the animals depastured on it,
or its fertility when afterwards in tillage. On the contrary, unless
the surface is fully mixed with lime, the coarse grasses will in a
few years regain possession of the soil, and the dung thereafter
deposited by cattle will not enrich the land for subsequent tillage.
*' Lastly, It also appears from what haa been stated, that the
four-shift husbandry is only proper for very rich land, or in situa-
tions where there is a full command of dung ; that by far the
greatest part of the land of this country requires to be continued in
grass two, three, four, or more years, according to its natural
poverty; that the objection made to this, vij:., that the coarse
passes in a few years usurp possession of the soil, must be owing
to the surface soil not being sufficiently mixed with lime, the lime
having been covered too deep by the nlough. " — Farmcra' Magazine,
vol. lUi. p. 69.
Section 11. — Marl.
Our remarks hitherto hare had reference to carbonate of
lime in that form oi it to which the term lime is exclusively-
applied by farmers. But there are other substances fre-
quently applied to land which owe their value chiefly to
the presence of this mineral The most important of these
13 marl, which is a mixture of carbonate of Ume with clay,
or with clay and sand, and other compounds. WTien this
substance is found in the proximity of, or lying under,
sandy or peaty Soils, its application in considerable doses is
attended with the very best effects. The fen lands of
England, the mosses of Lancashire, and sandy soils in
Norfolk and elsewhere, have been immensely improved in
this way. In Lancashire, marl is carried on the mosses by
means of portable railways at the rate of 150 tons, and at
a oost of about £3 per acre. In the fens long trenches are
dug, and the subjacent marl is thrown out and spread on
either side at an expense of 543. per acre. By this process,
often repeated, of claying or marling, as it is variously
called, the appearance and character of the fen lands have
been totally changed, excellent wheat being now raised
where formerly otily very inferior oats were produced. As
the composition both of peat and of clay marl varies exceed-
ingly, it ia always prudent, either by limited experiment or
chemical analysis of both substances, to ascertain the effect
of their admixture. Lime is always present Ln those cases
which prove most successful ; but an overdose does harm.
Section 12. — Shell-Marl.
Under some mosses and fresh-water lakes extensive de-
posits of shell-narl are frequently found. It contains a
larger percentage of lime than clay marl, and mast'tbe
applied more sparingly.
Section 13. — Chalk.
Throughout the extensive dmlk districts of EngTau.i,
the practice of spreading this mWanoe over the surfaoo of
the land has prevailed from the r>anotest times. In the
case of the Lincolnshire Woldfl, onoe as celebrated for
desokie barrenness as they now are for high culture and
smiling fertility, chalking was one important means of bring-
ing about this wonderful improvement, as it still is ia
maintainiug it " The soil being but a few inches in depth,
and often containing a large proportion of flints, naturally
possesses very little fertility — often being a light sand, not
strong enough naturally to grow turnips — so that the
farmers were at first obliged to make a soil, and must now
maintain its new-born productiveness. The three principal
means by which this is done are the processes of chalking,
and boning, and manuring with sheep. A dressing of 80 or
100 cubic yards per acre of chaUc is spread upon the land,
and then a crop of barley is obtained if possible, being sown
with seeds for grazing. The fields are grazed with sheep
two years, the sheep being at the same time fed with oU-
cake ; and then the land will be capable of producing a fine
crop of oats. Bones are also used frequently for the barley
crop, and when they first came into use were thrown upon
the land in a chopped state, neither broken nor crushed,
and as much as 40 or even 50 bushels per acre. The
boning and sheep-feeding are in constant operation, but
chalking is required only at intervals of a few years. On
the western side of the Wold district, wherever the chalk
adjoins the white or blue marl, an extensive application of
it is made to the surface. Thus immense quantities of
earth and stone have been added by manual labour and
horse-carriage to the thin covering of original soil ; and,
besides this, the soil is being continually deepened by deep
ploughing, the chalk fragments thus brought to the surface
crumbling into mould."'
In Dorsetshire "it is usual to chalk the land once in
twenty years, the sour description of soil being that to which
it 13 found roost advantageous to apply it. The chalk is
dug out of pits in the field to which it ia applied, and it ia
laid on sometimes with barrows, but chiefly with the aid
of donkeys. The first method costs 403. an acre,, the last
35s. when hire donkeys are used ; 203. to 25s. where the
donkeys are the property of the farmer. The chalk is laid
on in large lumps, which soon break down by the action of
frost and exposure to the weather. Chalk ia occasionally
buj-ned and applied as Hme, in which state it is preferred
by many farmers, notwithstanding the additional cost of
the burning."^
Section 14. — Shell-Sand and Limestone Gravel.
On the western shores of Great Britain and Ireland are
found great quantities of sand mixed with sea-shells in
minute fragments. This calcareotia sand is carried inland
considerable distances, and applied to the land as lime is
elsewhere. Limestone gravel is also found in various places
and used in the same way.
Section 15. — Gypsum.
Sulphate of lime or gypsum is considered an excellent
top-dressing for clover and kindred planfs. It is thought
by some thai the failure of red clover is to be accounted
for by the repeated crops of that plant having exbausted
the gypsum in the soU. Its application has been followed
by favourable results in some cases, but has yet quite
failed in others. It ia applied in a powdered state at the
rate of 'wo or three cwt. per acre when the plants are moist
with rain or dew.
Section 16. — Burnt Clay.
About fif ly J ears ago burnt clay was brought much into
notice as a manure, and tried in various parts of the country,
but again fell into disuse. It is now, however, more exten-
sively and systematically practised than ever. Frequent
^ " Farming of Lincolnshire," by John Algernon Clarke ; Journal
of Itct/al Agricultural Society/, xiL 331.
' Sei, Caird's Jiiir/lish Agriculture, 18Sft and 1851, p. 01.
352
AGRICULTURE
[tIANUBES.
r-ifereiico to the practice is to be found in the voluinea of
the Joumd of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Tim burning of clay is accomplished in Beveral ways.
Sometimes it is burned in hirge heaps or clamps containing
from 80 to 1 00 cart-loads. A fire being kindled with some
faggots or brushwood, which ia covered up with the clay,
taking care not to lot the fire break out at any point, more
fuel of the kind mentioned, or dross of coab, is added as
required, and more clay heaped on. A fierce firo must be
avoided, as that would make the clay into brickbats. A
low, sriiotlierod combustion is what is required ; and to
maintain this a good deal of skill and close watching on the
part of the workman is necessary. A rude kiln is sometimes
used for the same purpo3& Either of these plans is suitable
whore the ashes are wanted at a homestead for absorbing
liquid manure, itc. ; but for merely spreading over the land,
ihat called clod-burning is preferable, and is thus described
in volume viii. page 78, of the Royal Agricultural Society's
Jonmal : — " Roll and harrow, in dry weather, till the
majority of clods are about the size of a large walnut ; no-
thing so good as the clod-cru.shcr to forward this operation :
when perfectly dry, collect them into rows about six yards
apart, with iron-teethed rakes ; take a quarter of a whin
faggot, or less, according to size, previously cut into lengths
by a man mth an axe ; place these pieces about four yards
apart in the rows, cover them with clods, putting the finest
mould upon the top of the heap, to prevent the fire too
quickly escaping ; observe the wind, and leave an opening
accordingly ; having set fire to a long branch of whin, run
from opening to opening till two or three rows are lighted,
secure these, and then put fira to others, keeping a man or
two behind to attend to the fires and earthing up till the
quantity desired may be burned, which will generally take
four or five hours, say from 25 to 35 loads per acre of 30
bushels per load.
" This work is often put out to a gang of men at about
lOs. per acre for labour, and the whins cost 43. Cd. per acre,
not including the carting.
" When the heaps are cold, spread and plough in. The
groat advantage of burning clods in these small heaps, in
preference to a large one, is the saving of expense in collect-
ing and spreading ; there is much less red brick earth and
more black and chai^red ; no horses or carts moving on the
land whilst burning ; and a large field may be all burned
in a day or two, therefore less liable to be delayed by wet
weathe'r. In the heavj* land part of Suffolk, the farmers
purchase whins from the light land occupiers, and often cart
them a distance of fourteen or sixteen miles, when there is
no work pressing on the farm. These are stacked up and
secured by thatching with straw, that they may be diy and
fit for use when required. Eean straw is the next best fuel
to whins or furze, and it is astonishing to see how small a
quantity wiD bum the clods if they are of the proper size
and dry. Observe, if the soil is at aU inclined to sand, it
will not burn so well I will here mention, that I often
sift and store up a few loads of the best blackened earth
to drill with my turnips, instead of buying artificial
manure, and find it answers remarkably well, and assists in
maintaining the position that a heavy land farm in Suffolk
can be farmed ■ in the first-rate style without foreign
ingredients."
Burnt clay is an admirable vehicle for absorbing liquid
manure. A layer of it in the bottom of cattle-boxes does
good service, at once in economising manure, and in yielding
to the cattle a drier bed than they would otherwise have
until the litter has accumulated to some depth. Valuable
results have also been obtained by using it for strewing over
the floors of poultry-houses, and especially of pens in which
sheep are fed under cover. In the latter case it is mixed
with the excrements of the sheep as they patter over it, and
forms a substance not unlike gui^no, nor much inferior to
it as a manure. As an appUcation to sandy or chalky soils
it ia invaluable. It is mainly by this use of burnt clay, in
combination with fattening of sheep under cover, that Mi
Randell of Chadbury has so astonishingly increased the
productiveness of his naturally poor clay soil A Berwick
shire proprietor, himself a practical fanner, who visited Mr
Randell's farm in the summer of 1852, thus writes : — " I
have visited most of the best managed farms in England, at
least those that have so much of late been brought under
general notice ; but without exception, I never saw land in
the splendid condition his is in. The beauty of the system
lies in the cheap method by which he has imparted to it
this fertility, and in the manner in which he keeps it up.
A large part of the farm consisted, fourteen years ago, of
poor clay, and was valued to him at his entry at Ts. 6d. per
acre. It is now bearing magnificent crops of all kinds,
the wheat being estimated to yield from 6 to 7 quarters
per acrot
" Mechi has ennched Tiptreo-hcath, it is true ; but then
it is effected at a cost that will make it impossible for him
to be repaid. Mr Randell, on the other hand, has adopted
a course that is nearly self-supporting, his only cost being
the preparation of the cLiy. The great secret of his success
lies in his mode of using it ; and as I never heard of a
similar process, I will briefly explain to you how it is done :
— His heavy land not permitting him to consume the turnip
and mangold crops on the ground, he carts them home, and
feeds his sheep in large sheds. They do not stand on boards
or straw, but on the burnt clay, which affords them a
beautiful dry bed ; and whenever it gets the least damp or
dirty, a fresh coating is put under them. The mound rises
in height ; and in February, when the shearlings are sold
(for the sheep are only then twelve mouths old), the mass
is from 7 to 8 feet deep. He was shearing his lambs when
I was there, as he considers they thrive much better in the
sheds without their fleeces. They are half-bred Shropshire
downs ; and at the age I mention, attain the great weight
of 24 lbs. per quarter.
" I walked through the sheds, but of course they were
then empty. I saw the enormous quantity of what he
called his ' home-made guano ; ' the smell from it strongly
indicated the ammonia it contained. He had sown his tur-
nips and other green crops with it, and what remained he
us'id for the wheat in autumn. He assured me he had often
te.«Jed it with other manures, and always found 10 tons of
the compound quite outstrip 4 cwt. of guano, when they
were applied to an acre of land separately."
Section 17. — Cfiarred Peat.
Charred peat has been excessively extolled for its value
as a manure, both when applied alone, and still more in
combination with night-soU, sewage water, and similar
matters, which it dries and deodorises. So great were the
expectations of an enormous demand for it, and of the
benefits to result to Ireland by thus disposing of her bogs,
that a royal charter was granted to a company by whom
its manufacture was commenced on an imposing scale.
This charcoal is doubtless a useful substance ; but, as Dr
Anderson has proved, peat, merely dried, is a better
absorber and retainer of ansuuonia than after it is charred.
Section 18. — Soot.
Soot has long been in estimation as an excelle nt top
dressing for cereal crops in the early stage of their growth,
and for grasses and forage plants. It is applied at the rate
of 15 to 30 bushels per acre. On light soils the addition
of 8 or 10 bushels of salt to the above quantity of soot
is said to increase materially its good effect. This
mixture trenched, or deeply ploughed in. is also re-
MANURES.]
AGRICULTURE
353
commended as one of the most powerful of all manures for
carrots.
In London Labour and the London Poor we find the
foUowing sttitistids as to metropolitan soot : —
"53,840 houses, at a year// rental above £50, producing
six bushels of aoot f»uch per annum
90, 002 houses, at a yearly rental above £30 and below
£50, producing five bushels of soot each per annum
163,880 houses, at a yearly rental below £30, producing
two bushels of soot each per annum . •
Total numb»r of bushels of soot annually pro-
duced throughout London
Bnsh. of Soot
pe.' ar.DUin.
323,040
450,010
327,760
1,100,810
the price of soot per bushel is but 5d., and sometimes'4Jd., but 5d.
may be Uken as an average. Now, 1,000,000 bushels of soot at 6d.
will be found to yield £20,833, (Js^Sd. per annum." '
Section 19. — Salt.
Coinmon salt has often been commended as a valuable
manure, but has never been used in this way with such uni-
form success as to induce a general recourse to it. We
have already spoken of it as forming a useful compound with
lime and earth. It can also be used beneficially for the
destruction of slugs, "for which purpose it must be sown
over the surface, at the rate oi four or five bushels per acre,
early in the morning, or on mild, moist days, when they are
seen to be abroad. It is used also to destroy grubs and
wircworm, for which purpose it is sown in considerable
quantity on grass land some time before it is ploughed up.
It can be used safely on light soils, but v/hen clay pre-
dominates, it causes a hurtful wetness, and subsequent
incrustation of the surface. Its appUcation in its unmixed
state as a manure is at best of doubtful benefit; but in
combination with lime, soot, nitrate of soda, and perhaps
also superphosphate of lime, it appears to exert a beneficial
influence.
Section 20. — Nitrate of Soda.
Cubic saltpetre, or nitrate of soda, has now become one
of our staple manures. Th« fertilising power of common
saltpetre or nitrate of potass has been known from the
earliest times, but its high price has hitherto hindered its
use as a manure, except in the form in which it is obtained
as refuse from the gunpowder mills. The cubic nitre is
brought from Peru, where there are inexhaustible supphes
of it. The principal deposits of nitrate of soda are in the
plain of Taraarugal, at a distance of 18 miles from the coast.
The beds are sometimes 7 or 8 feet in thickness, and
from these it is quarried with ease. ' It is not found in a
perfectly pure state, but contains a mixture of several sub-
stances, chiefly common salt. To fit it for certain uses in
the arts, it is subjected to a process of purification by boiling
and evaporation. But for its use as a manure this is
altogether unnecessary, and the cost would be greatly
lessened if the nitrate were imported as quarried. As
cubic nitre and guano contain very nearly the same per-
centage of nitrogen (the element to which the fertilising
power of all manures is mainly due), it may seem sur-
prising that the former should ever be used in preference
to the latter. In practice, however, it is found that
when applied as a top-dressing in spring, the former
frequently yields a better profit than the latter ; and hence
the importance to farmers of getting it at a more reason-
able price. Nitrate of soda is used as a manure for grain
and forage crops. It is now extensively used as a top-
dressing for wheat. For this purpose it is applied at the
rate of 84 Bb per acre, in combination with 2 cwt. of salt.
The nitre and salt are thoroughly mixed, and earel ally sown,
' Farmer^ Magmine for Marcli 1862, p. 264.
1—1.3
by hand, in two or three equal portions, at intervals of
several weeks, beginning early in March, and finishing by
the third week in April If nitre alone is used, it has a.
tendency to produce over-luxuriance, and to render the crop
liable to lodging and mildew. But the salt is found to
correct this over-luxuriance,, and a profitable increase of
grain is thus obtained. Mr Pusey^ informs us that an
application of 42 ft> of nitrate of soda and 84 lb of salt per
acre, applied by him to ten acres of barley that had been
injured by frost, had such an effect upon the crop, that he
had seven bushels more grain per acre, and of better quality,
than on part that was left undressed for comparison.
These seven bushels per acre were attained by an outlay of
6s. 4d. only. This nitre is also appUed with advantage to
forage crops. Mr Hope, Teuton Bams, East Lothian, states
that he finds the use of it as a top-dressing to clover, at the
rate of one cwt. of nitrate and two of guano per acre, profit-
able. Its beneficial eS'ects are most apparent when it ia
apphed to light and sterile soils, or to such as have been
exhausted by excessive cropping.
Section 21. — Potash.
Crude potash, or kainite, has of recent years been largely
imported from Germany, and has been somewhat exten-
sively used in combination with other manures for potatoes
and other root crops — two cwt. per acre being a common
rate for the potash.
Section 22. — Artificial Manures.
Besides those substances, the most important of which ws
have now enumerated, which are available as manure in
their natural state, there are various chemical products,
such as salts,/?f ammonia, potash, and soda, copperas, sul-
phuric and muriatic acid, kc, which, in combination with
lime, guano, night-soil, and other substances, are employed
in the preparation of manures, with a special view to the
requirements of particular crops. In some cases these pre-
parations have been eminently successful, in others but
doubtfully so. Many failures are probably due to the
spuriousness of the article made use of ; as it is known that
enormous quantities of worthless rubbish have, of late
years, been sold to farmers, under high sounding names,
and at high prices, as special manures. We would recom-
mend those who desire information regarding the pre-
paration and use of such compounds to study the article on
Agricultural Chemistry, by Mr Lawes of Rothamstead, in
the Journal of the Royal Agncultural Society of England
(vol. viu. p. 226) ; the accounts of experiments with special
manures in the Transactions of the Highland and Agn-
cultural Society of Scotland ; and the articles relating to
Agricultural Chemistry in Morton's Cyclopcedia. Those
who purchase manures of this kind ought to be very care-
ful to insist in every instance upcm the seUer producing
an analysis by some chemist of established character, and
granting a written warranty that the article sold to them
is at least equal to the value indicated by the analysis.
Were all farmers to insist upon this mode of buying their
manures, they would at once put an end to that wholesale
system of fraud by which thev have been so enormously
cheated of late years.
In applying these concentrated manures, those only of a
slowly operating character should be used in autumn or
winter, and at that season should invariably be mixed with
the soil Those in which ammonia abounds should in
spring also bo mixed with the soil when crops to wiiich
they Rre applied are sown. When used for top-dressing
growing crops they should bo applied only in ■wet
weather.
• Journal </ Royal Agricultural Sockly, vol. liil. p. 349.
354
AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER XL
Cm,TIVATED ■ 0B0P8 OttAIN CROPB.
Pursuing th(j pMii announced at the outlet, wo have now
to speak of field crops, and shaU b?giij with the 'cereal
grasses, or white-corn crops, as they are usually called by
fanners.'"
Section 1. — Wheat.
It is unnecessary to dwell upon the value of this grain to
the farmer and to the community. It con.slitutes emphati-
cally our bread-corn — our staff of life. While its increased
consumption is, on the one hand, an indication of an
improved stylo of living among the general population, its
extended culture points, on the other, to an improving
agriculture, as it is only on soils naturally fertile, or that
have been made so by good farming, that if can be grown
with success. Wheat is sown both in autumn and spring,
from which circumstance attempts have been made to
classify its varieties by ranging them under these two
general heads. This distinction can only serve to mislead ;
for while it is true that there are varieties best adapted for
autumn and f'lr spring sowing respectively, it is also true
that a majority of the kinds most esteemed in Britain admit
of being sown at either season, and in practice are actually so
treated. • It is not our intention to present a list of the
varieties of wheat cultivated in this country. These are
very numerous already, and are constantly being augmented
by the accidental discovery of new varieties, or by cross-
iinprcgnDtion artificially brought about for this purpose.
The kinds at present in greatest repute in Scotland are the
hardier U'hite wheats, among which Ilmiter's white still
retains the first place. There are many kinds which, in
favourable seasons, produce a finer sample ; but its hardi-
ness, productiveness, and excellent milling qualities, render
it a general favourite both with farmers and millers. Its
most marked characteristic is, that in rubbing out a single
ear, part of the grains are found to bo opaque and white,
and others flinty and reddish coloured, as if two kinds of
wheat, had been mixed together. Selections from Hunter's
wheat have been made from time to time, and have obtained
a measure of celebrity under various local names. The
most esteemed of these is the Hopelon wheat. On very
rich soils both these varieties have the fault of producing
too much straw, and of being thereby liable to lodge.
Hence, several now kinds with stiffer straw, and consequent
lessened liability to this disaster, are now in request in
situations where this evil is apprehended. Fenton wheat,
possessing this quality in an eminent degree, and being at
the same time very productive, and of fair quality, is at
present extensively cultivated. It has the peculiarity of
producing stems of unequal height from the same root,
which gives a crop of it an unpromising appearance, but has
perhaps to do ^\\ih. its productiveness. The red-straw white
and Piper's thick-set have properties similar to the Fenton.
Piper's had the repute of being the shortest and stiff est
strawed wheat in cultivation, but after a brief popularity
is now never heard of. The red-chaff white is productive,
and yields grain of beautiful quality, but it requires
good seasons, as it sheds its seeds ea.sily and sprouts
quickly in damp weather. The ChiJdam, Trump, white
Kent, and Talavera, have each their admirers, and are
all good sorts in favourable seasons ; but, in Scotland at
least, their culture is attended with greater risk than the
kinds previously named; they require frequent change of
seed from a sunnier climate, and are only adapted for dry
and fertile soils with a good exposure. "^ A new sort, called
square-ftead, has quite recently been introduced, and is
Tep orted to be so exceedingly prolific as to yield from six to
leight bushels more per acre than any wheat previously in
cultivation. As red wheats usually sell at from 28. to 4a.
[ORAIN CROPR.
less per quarter than white wheats of sinular quality, they
are lesa grown than heretofore. But being more hardy and
leas liable to mildew and sprouting than the finer white
wheats, a recurrence of unfavourable eeasons always Heads
to an increased cultivation of them.T^Some of these red
wheats are, however, so prod;ictive that they are preferred
in the best cultivated districts of Hnglan4i'-,S/)aWtn^*
prolific holds a first place among these, being truly probfic,
and producing 'grain of good quality. (*-. In Scotland it
shows a tendency to produce a rough quality of grain.
The Northumberland red and the golden creeping are there
in estimation ; the former being well adapted for spring
sowing, and the latter for poor soils and exposed situations.
Several new varieties of wheat have recently been intro-
duced by Mr Patrick Sheriil of Haddington, formerly of
Mungoswells. One is a large-grained red wheat, another
somewhat Resembles Hunter's 'n colour, and the third has
grain of a pearly whiteness. They have all the peculiarity
of being bearded. They are all true autumn wheats ; but
they seem also well adapted for spring sowing, as they ripen
early. A red bearded variety, usually called April wheat,
from its prospering most when sown in that month, and
which indeed is a true summer wheat, is sometimes grown
^•ith advantage after turnips, when the season is too
advanced for other sorts. But except upon poorish day
soils, it seems only doubtfully entitled to a preference over
barley in such circumstances. The list now given could
easily be extended ; but it comprises the best varieties at
present in use, and such as are suited to the most diversified
soils, seasons, and situations in which wheat can be grown
in this country. In regard to all of them it is reckoned
advantageous to have recourse to frequent change of seed,
and in doing this to give the preference to that' which
comes from a soil and climate better and earlier than thoee
of the locality in which it is to be sown. Every farmer
will find it worth his while to be at pains to find out from
whence he can obtain a change of seed that takes well with
his own farm, and having done so, to hold to that, ar>d
even to induce his correspondent to grow such sorts as he
prefers, although he should have to pay him an extra price
for doing so. An experienced farmer once remarked to the
writer, that by changing his seed he got it for nothing ;
that is, his crop was more abundant by at least the quantity
sown, from the single circumstance of a suitable change of
seed. It is proper, however, to state, that tlus practice of
changing the seed is founded more upon mere opinion than
upon well-ascertained facts, and that in those instances
where it has been followed by beneficial results nothing is
known of the causes to which such success is due. It is
much to be desired that our agricultural societies should
address themselves to the thorough investigation of a
question of such vital importance. In fixing upon the kind
of wheat which he is to sow, the farmer will do well to look
rather to productiveness than to fine quality. For however
it may gratify his ambition to show the heaviest and
prettiest sample in the market, and to obtain the highest
price of the day, no excellence of quality can compensate
for a deficiency of even a few bushels per acre in the j-ield.
It is of import.ance, too, to have seed-corn free from the
seeds of weeds and from other grains, and to see that it be
true of its kind. Farmers who are systematically careful
in these respects frequently obtain an extra price for their
produce, by selling it for seed-corn to others ; and even
millers give a preference to such clean samples.
But there are seeds which no amount of care ot accuracy
in dressing can remove from seed-com-^vii., thoee of
certain parasitical fungi, which must be got rid of by a
different process. The havoc caused to wheat crops by
bunt, blackball, or pepper-brand {Uredo caries or TiUetia
caries), before the discovery of the mode of oreventing it
■GRAIN CROPS.]
AGRICULTURE
355
by steeiiing the seedcoru in some acrid or caustic bath, was
often ruinous. The plan at first most usually adopted was
to immerse the seed-wheat in stale chamber-lie,, and
afterwards to dry it by mixture with quick-lime. This
pickle, as it is called, is usually efiicacious ; but the lime
vexes the eyes and excoriates the hands and face of the
sower, or clogs the hopper of the sowing-machine, and has
therefore been superseded by other substances. Blue
vitriol (sulphate of copper) is as good as anything for this
purpose, and is used in the following manner. A solution
is prepared by dissolving powdered sulphate of copper in
water, at the rate of two ounces to a pint for each bushel
of wheat. The grain is emptied upon a floor ; a little of it
is shovelled to one side by one person, while artother
sprinkles the solution over it, and this process is continued
until the whole quantity is gone over. The heap is then
turned repeatedly by two persona working with shovels
opposite to each other. After lying for a few minutes, the
grain absorbs the moisture, and is ready for sowing either
by hand or machine. .
The season for wheat-sowing extends from Septemoer to
April, but ordinarily that succeeds best which is committed
to the ground during October and November. When
summer-fallows exist the first sowings are usually made
on them. It is desirable that the land neither be wet nor
very diy when this takes place, so that the precise time of
sowing is determined by the weather; but it is well to
proceed as soon after 1st October, as the land is moist
enough to insure a regular germination of the seed.
Over a large portion of England wheat is the crop
usually sown after clover or one year's " seeds." In such
cases the land is ploughed in the end of September, imme-
diately harrowed, and wheat sown upon it by a drilling
machine. On loose soils the land-presser is frequently used
to consoUdate the soil and to form a channel for the seed,
which in such cases comes up in rows, although sown broad-
cast. It is more usual, however, first to level the pressed
furrows by harrowing, and then to use the drill, by means
of which various portable manures are frequently deposited
along with the seed-corn. The sowing of wheat after clover
or " seeds," as now described, is rarely practised in Scotlsjnd,
where it so invariably fails as to show Ihat it is unsuited to
our northern climate. It is here not unusual, however, to
plough up such land in July or August, and to prepare it
for wheat-sewing by what is called rag-fallowing. After
the first ploughing the land is harrowed length\vise, so as
to break and level the surface of the furrows and close the
interstices without tearing up or exposing any green sward.
It is then allowed to lie for ten or fourteen days to allow
the herbage to die, which it soon does at this season when
light is thus excluded from it. A cross ploughing is next
given, followed by .repeated grubbings, harrowing, and
rollings, after which it is treated in all respects as a summer-
fallow.
The fallow and clover leas being disposed of, the land
from which potatoes, beans, pease, or vetches have been
cleared off will next demand attention. When these crops
have been carefully horse and hand hoed, all that is
required is 'to-clear off the haulm to plough and sow. If
the land is not clean, recourse must be had to a short
fallowing process before so\ving wheat. Fur this purpose
the surface is loosened by the broadshare and grubber, the
■weeds harrowed out and raked off, after which the land is
ploughed and sown. On soils well adapted for the growth
of beans and wheat, viz., tho.se in which clay predominates,
any lengthened process of autumn cultivation is necessarily
attended with great hazard of being interrupted by rain, to
the loss of seed-time altogether. Every pains should there-
fore bo taken to have the land so cleaned beforehand that
these unseasonable efforts may be dispensed with ; and to haTe
the sowing and harrowing to follow so closely upon the
ploughing as to diminish to the utmost the risk of Imidranca
from wet weather. As the crops of mangolds, carrots, or
tiiruips arrive at maturity, and are either removed to the
store-heajj or consumed by sheep where they grow, succes-
sive sowings of wheat can be made as the ploughing is
accomplished and as the weather permits. It is to be
noted, however, that it is only^n soila naturally dry, or
made so by thorough draining, and which are also clean
and in a high state of fertiUty, that wheat-so^wing can be
continued ■with advantage during the months of December
and January. If the whole of these conditions do not
obtain, it is ■wiser to refrain until February or March.
When these late winter so^wings are made, it is of especial
importance to sow close up to the ploughs daily, as a very
slight fall of rain wUl, at this season, unfit the land for
bearing the harrows. This so^wing and harrowing, in de-
tail, is the more easily managed, that in the circumstances
cross-harrowing is neither necessary nor expedient. Under
the most favourable conditions as to weather and drainage,
soils with even a slight admixture of clay in their composi-
tion will at this season plough up somewhat clammy, so
that cross-harrowing pulls the furrows too much about, and
exposes the seed, instead of covering it more perfectly.
Two double turns of the harrows lengthwise is as much as
should be attempted at this season.
The sowing of spring-wheat is only expedient on dry and
fertile soils with a good exposure. Urdess the whole con-
ditions are favourable, there is much risk of spring-sown
wheat being too late to be properly ripened or well har-
vested. On the dry and fertile soils in the valley of the
Tweed, where the entire fallow -break is sown ■with turnips,
and where consequently it is difficult to get a large breadth
cleared in time for solving wheat in autumn, it is the
practice to sow it largely in February and March, and
frequently 'with good success. Many judicious farmers are,
however, of opinion that, taking the average of a twenty
years' lease, barley is a more remunerative crop than
spring-sown wheat, even under circumstances most favour-
able to the latter. When it is resolved to try it, a very full
allowance of seed should be given — not less than three
bushels ' per acre, and 3 J will often be better. If the
plants have room they ■will tiller ; and thus the ripening of
the crop is retarded, the risk of mildew increased, and the
quality of the grain deteriorated. As much seed should
therefore be sown as will yield plants enough to occupy the
ground fully from the first, and thus remove the tendency
to tdlering. By such full seeding a fortnight is frequently
gained in the ripening of the crop, and this frequently
makes all the difference between a remunerative crop and
a losing one.
Much coiltroversy has taken place about the quantities
of seed-wheat which should be used per acre. The advo-
cates of thin seeding have been so unguarded and extra-
vagant in their encomiums of their favourite method, —
some of them insisting that anything more than a few
quarts per acre does but waste seed and lessen the produce,
— that many persons have been induced to depart from
their usual practice to their serious cost. It b true that
with land in a high state of fertiUty, and kept scrupulously
clean by frequent hoeings, a fuU crop of wheat may be
obtained from half a bushel of seed per acre, provided that
it is sown in September, and deposited regiilarly over the
surface. But what beyond a trifling saving of seed it
gained by this practicol And at what cost and hazard is
even this secured 1 It is a mere falUicy to tell 'is, as the
advocates of excessively thin seeding so often do, that they
obtain an increase of so many hundred-fold, whereas thick
seeders cannot exceed from twelve to twenty fold, whoji
after all the gross produce of the latter may exceed that of.
350
A (t R 1 C l< L T U li E
[oBAIN CEOPr:
the former by more than the <]iiantit7 of seed saTed, with
less expense in culture, less risk from accidents and disease,
an earlier harvest, and a better quality of grain. Such a
crowding of the ground with planta as prevents the proper
development of the car is of course to be avoided ; but the
most experienced growers of wheat are con\Tnced of the
benefit of having the ground fully occupied at the time
when active spring growth begins. This is secured by
using two bushels per acre for the sowing made early in
October, and by increasing this quantity at the rate of
half a peck per week until three bushels is reached, which
may bo held as the maximum. Less than this should not
bo used from the middle of November to the end of the
season. These are the quantities to bo used in broad-cast
sowing ; when drilling or dibbling is resorted to, two-fifths
less seed will suffice. In Scotland, at least, often repeated
trials have shown that larger crops are obtained by broad-
casting than by drilling. The latter mode is, however, to
be preferred wherever the land is infested by- annual weeds,
which can then be got rid of by hoeing. When clover and
grass-seeds are sown with the grain crop, it is believed also
that they thrive better from the grain being sown in rows,
probably because in this case light and air are less excluded
from them. It is believed also that in highly-manured
soils of a loose texture, grain deposited somewhat deeply in
rows is less liable to lodge than when sown broad-cast and
shallower. When drilling and hoeing are resorted to, the
latter 13 effected moat cheaply and effectively by using
Garret's horse-hoe. The mere stirring of the soil is con-
sidered by many farmers to be so beneficial to the wheat
crop that they use the horse-hoe irrespective of the presence
of weeds. Others are of opinion that, apart from the
destruction of weeds, hoeing is injurious to grain crops,
alleging that the cutting of their surface roots weakens the
stems and increases their liability to fall over. Carefully
conducted experiments are required to settle this point.
Wo have no personal experience bearing upon it beyond
this, that we have repeatedly seen a whe.it crop much
benefited by mere harrowing in spring. It is always use-
ful to roll wheat, and indeed all cereal crops, in. order to
facilitate the reaping process, although no other benefit
should result from it. When the plants have been loosened
by severe frosts, or are suffering from the attacks of the
wire-worm, the use of CrosskiU's roller is usually of great
benefit to the crop.
A plan of growing wheat year after year on the same
field OTthout the use of manure was practised for a number
of years by the late. Rev. Mr Smith of Lois Weedon, North-
amptonshire, and detailed by him in the pages of the
Royal Agricultural Socittt/s Journal, and in a pamphlet
which han passed through many editions and had a very
extensive circulation. His plan is to a certain extent a
revival of that of Jethro TuU, but with this important
difference, that whereas TuU occupied his ground with
alternate double rows of wheat a foot apart, and vacant
spaces, five feet wide, which were carefully cultivated by
ploughings and horse-hoeings repeated at intervals from the
springing of the wheat until midsummer, Mr Smith intro-
duced two important elements in addition, viz., thorough
draining, and trenching the vacant spaces in autumn, so as
to bring portions of subsoil to the surface. A field treated
on this system consists of alternate strips of wheat and
bar? fallow, which are made to exchange places year by
year, so that each successive crop occupies a different site
from iis immediate predecessor. It has also the benefit of
the fresh soil brought up by the previous autumn's double-
digging, which is subsequently mellowed and pulverised by
lengthened exposure to the atmosphere, and by frequent
stirrings. The produce obtained by Mr Smith from his
acre thus treated was very nearly 34 bushels each rear for
the first five years ; but aa his crops steadily improved, hi*
average at the end of fourteen years wa« fully 30 busheU.
Writing in July 18C1, he said, "The growing crop for
1861, notwithstanding the frost, looks strong and well,
with scarcely a gap. Thus year after year gives growing
confidence in the scheme." On steam-power being intro-
duced, Mr Smith became convinced of the practicability of
carrying out his system with advantage on an entire farm.
At first he restricted himself to the employment of manual
labour, but he subsequently invented a. set of implements
for sowing, covering in, rolling, and hoeing his crops by
horso labour. We give in his o^vn words his directions
for carrying out this system, what he believed to be the
advantages of it, and the cost of thus cultivating an acre : —
*' I Buppoae, at the outact, the land intended for wheat to be
whiat lana ; having besidea a fair depth of staple, and a subsoil, as
will generally, though not universally bo the case, of the same
chemical composition with the surface. I suppose it dry, or drained
throe feet deep at least; well cleaned of weeos ; the lands cast; acd
the whole tolerably leveL
" 1. First of all, then, plough the whole land, when dry, one
inch deeper than the used staple. If it turn up cloddy, bring the
clods down with the roller or the crusher. iJct this bo done, if
I>os3iblc, in Augtist. Harrow deep, so as to get five or six inches
of loose mould to admit the pressor. Before sowing wait for rain.
After the rain wait for a fine day or two to dry the sui-facc. With
this early commencement a week or two is of no material import-
ance compared with that of ploughing dry and sowing wet.
" As early as possible, however, in September, get in your seed
with the presser-djill, or with some implement which forms a firm-
bedded channel in which to deposit the seed, grain by grain, a few
inches apart. Cover over with the crusher or rough roller.
" 2. When the lines of wheat apj«ar above ground, guard against
the rook, the lark, and the slug — a trite suggestion, but ever needful,
especially here. And now, and at spring, and all through summer,
watch for the weeds, and wage constant warfare against them. The
battle may last for a year or two, or in some foul cases even more ;
but, in the end. the mastery, and its fruits, without fail, will be
yours.
" 3. The plant being now distiuctly visible, dig the intervals two
spits deep, increasing the depth, year after year, till they come to
twenty or twenty-four inches. Biing up at first only four, or five,
or six inches, according to the nature of tho subsoil, whether tena-
cious, or loamy, or light To bring up more at the outset would
be a wasteful and injurious czp^nse.
" The digging is done thus : — Before proceeding with the work, a
few cuts are m.ide within three inches of the wheat, the back of tho
spade being towards the rows. A few double spits, first of all, at
the required depth, are then thrown out on the headl.ind, and there
left for the present! After this, as the digging proceeds, the staple
is cast to the bottom, -and the subsoil thro\ni gently on the top.
This process is carried on throughout the whole interval ; at the end
of which interval, just so much space is left vacant as was occupied
by the soil thrown out at the beginning of it In commencing the
second interval at that finished end, the e.j-th is thrown out as at first,
not on the headland, however, but into the vacant sjnico of the first
interval. And so on all over the acre.
" 4. Late in winter, and early in spring, watch your opporttmity,
in drj* weather, before tho roots of the plant are laid bare, to press
them with the crusher.
"5. In the spring and early summer stir the spaces between the
rows as often as the surface becomes crusted over; and move the
settled intervals four or five inches deep with the common scarifier,
sot first of all about twcntj'-eight inches wide, reducing the width
till it come by degrees to twenty-four and eighteen inches. Continue
tho process, if possible, at tho last-named width, up to tho time of
flowering in June.
" These operations are indisp<>nsab1e to full snccvss, and happily
can bo carried on at little cost ; for, while the intervals of each .acre
can be scarified in fifty minutes, tho horee-hoe implement, cohering
two lands at once, c^n stir between the rows in twenty-five.
" 6. Immediately tho crop is carried, clean the intervals, and
move them with the scarifier in order to tow, without delay, the
shed grains. When these vcgetat* and come up into plant, more
the intervals again five or six inches deep, and so destroy them.
After that, level with the harrow implement, and tho land is ready
for the drill,
" If anything occur to prevent the sowing early in September,
and to drive you to the end of October, set the drill for a thicker
crop. But, if pos.<;ihle, sow early — for this reason. Tillered wheat
has a bad name. But that has reference only to wheat which baa
tillered late in tho spring. And certainly, in that case, there is
the fear of danger to tho crop, and danger to tho sample. For
•GRAIN CE0P3.]
AGRICULTURE
gtipposing no mildew to fall on it, even then the plant ripens
unevenly ; the early "Stems being ready for tho sickle, while the
late-grown shoots have scarcely lost their verdure. But if mildew
come when the stem is soft, and succulent, and porous, instead of
being, as it should bo at that time, glazed-and case-hardened against
its attacks, the enemy enters in and checks the circulating sap ;
and tlio end is, blackened straw, light ears, and shrivelled grain.
Therefore, Bo\f early. Let the plant tiller before winter. Give
every stem an equal start at spring ; and then, with a strict
adherence to rule, there need be no alarm as to the result, subject
only to those visitations from which no wheat, on any system, in
tho same description of soil, ftnd under the same climate, is
secure."— (See pamphlet, Word in Season, p. 36.)
"The advantages of the system of corn-growing which I have
described are principally these : — First, while one crop of wheat is
growing, the unsown intcn'als of the acre are being fallowed and
prepared for another. This the farmer well knows to be of infinite
moitocnt, meeting, as it does, one of the greatest difficulties he has
to contend with. Next, upon this half-portion of the acre, tilled
as I describe, there is a yield equal to average crops on a whole
acre. Then, for half tho portion of an acre, there is, of course,
only half the labour and half the expense of an entire acre required
for cultivation. And, lastly, the hand-labour req^uired finds constant
employment for the poor." — {Ibid., p. 17.)
"After harrowing, and cleaning, and levelling the whole, I
marked out tho channels for the seed with my pressor implement,
which is drawn with one horse, and presses two lands at once. My
scheme of implementsj to be complete, embraced a drill, which was
to act immediately behind the presscr-wheels, and to drop seed by
seed into the hard channels. The spindle of the presser was to
turn the drill-wheels, and tho boxes were to be made removable,
lieing unable to accomplish this in time for this year's sowing, 1
had the seed, as heretofore, dropped by hands, and covered over by
rollers.
"These rollers form the roller implement in the same frame, and
are managed thus : the three-wheeled pressors are removed from
their sockets, and in their place t\vo rough rollers, formed of several
wheels on the self-cleaning principle, are intioduced, ajid cover
over two lards at once.
"The portion of thte field thus seeded will Ko in this firm but
rough state till spring time. Then, when the rollers have been
apiilied again to keep the roots of the plant well in their place,
they too will be removed from the frame, and light wheels and
hoes will, be attached, forming the horse-hoe implejnent, for hoeing
and stirring between the wheat.
"There is yet one other use for the implement frame. The
intervals of the wheat having been trenched m autumn, and well
and frequently stirred by the common scarifier at spring, are shut
out by tlie wide-spreading wheat-plant in June from all further
processes till the crop is cut and carried. They are then to be
moved and levelled by the common one-horse scarifier for seed-
time. After this will follow the harrow. Tho hoes will be
removed from the frame, and two small harrows will bo attached,
to cover two lands at once ; and with this implement the horse will
walk on the stubble-land, between what before were the intervals ;
and the cycle of operations is now complete.
" In all these operations (excepting in that of scarifying) the
sown lands, and lands about to be made ready for sowing, arc
antouched by the foot of man or horse.
"The time occupied in scarifying the land is about an hour the
acre ; in heavily pressing the channels for the seed, half an hour ;
in the other operations about 20 or 25 minutes." — (Pp. 25, 26.)
"The presser-drill^ spoken of in p. 25, is completed, and I now
sow the four acres in 90 minutes, timed by watch ; being at the
rate of 18 or 20 acres a day in a day of 8 hours, with a norse of
average power and speed.
"it has been thought advisable to keep the drill in its own
frame, — devoting another frame to the roller-wheels or crusher, the
hoes, tho scarifiers, and'harrows, all of which are made removable,
and which, with the exception o: the spade, the hand-hoe, and the
common scarifier for stirring the intervals, perform the whole cycle
of operations for cultivating the land for wheat." — (Pp. 33, 34.)
"I have only to show now, by my fresh balance-sheet, how with
suitable implements, on wheat-land, the whole scheme I propose is
. economical, as well as easy and expeditious.
" One double digging in autumu . . £1 10 0
Three stirrings with scarifier at spring (6d.) . 0 8 0
One ditto with scarifier and harrow implement,
before sowing 0 10
Two pecks of seed (53. the bushel) , . , 0 2 6
Pressmg and drilling 0 10
Rough rolling 0 0 6
Four hoeings between wheat with horse-shoe im-
plement (Gd.) , , , . ."020
Bird-keeping 0 2 0
Cexried forward
.■€2 2 0
Brought forwM-d
All the operations from reaping to marketing
Rates, taxes, and interest . , , ,
Total amount of outlay
.357
£2 2 0
12 0
0 10 0
£Z 14 0
"Tho produce, supposing it eiual to that of former years, in
round numbers, would be : —
" Four quarters and ts*o nushels of wheat (it 403.) . £8 10 0
Ono ton and 12 cwt of straw (at £2 the ton) .. 3 4 0
Deduct outlay
i.11 14 0
3 14 0
TotiJ amount of profit . £8 0 a
—{Ibid., p. 30.)
Particular attention was directed to this system of wheat
cvdtuTO by a lecture on Tull's husbandry, delivered by
Professor Way, at a council meeting of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England, and by the animated discus-
sion which followed ; when several gentlemen who had
visited Mr Smith's farm bore testimony to the continued
excellence of his crops, and intimated that they and others
had begun to test the system upon their own farms. If
such a practice can indeed be pursued on the generality
of clay-soUs, then thd puzzUng problem of how to cultivate
them with a profit is solved at once. It is not to be
thought that practical farmers would regard otherwise
than with incredulity a system which so flatly contradicts
all existing theory and practice. The facts submitted to
them by Mr Smith being beyond challenge, they would
naturally imagine there must be some peculiarity in the
soil at Lois Wcedon which enabled it to sustain such heavy
and continued demands on its fertility; and that the issue,
there and elsewhere, must eventually be utter sterihty.
For our own part, believing that we have exceeding much
to learn in every department of agriculture, we cannot
thus summarily dispose of these facts. We simply accept
them as true, and leave the exposition of them to experience,
whose verdict we await with much interest.
But Mr Smith is not the only person who has furnished
us with information regarding the continuous growth of
wheat for a series of years on the same soil Mr Law&s,
at Rothamstead, in Herts, so weU known by his interesting
papers on agricultural chemistry in the Royal Agricultural
Society's Journal, has furnished some facts in connection
with the culture of wheat on clay soils to which fanners
were little prepared to give credence. Mr Caird, who
visited Rothamstead early iu 1851, thus refers to the sub-
ject in his valuable work: —
" On a soil of heavy loam, on which sheep cannot be fed on tur-
nips, 4, 5, and 6 feet above the chalk, and therefore uninfluenced
by it, except in so far as it is thereby naturally drained, ten crops
of wheat have been taken in succession, one portion always without
any manure whatever, and the rest with a variety of maniue, the
elTecta of which have been carefully observed. The seed is of tho
red cluster variety, drilled uniformly in rows at 8 inches apart,
and t\ro bushels to the acre, liand-hoed t^ice in spring, and liepi
perfectly free from weeds. When the crop is removed the land is
scarified with Bentall's skimmer, all weeds are reiinoved, it is ploughed
once, and the seed for the next crop ia then drilled in. During the
ten years, the land, in ^ natural state, without manure, baa produced
a uniform average of 16 bushels of wheat an acre, with 100 lb. of straw
per bushel of wheat, the actual quantity varying with the change of
seasons between 14 and 20 bushela. The repetition of the crop has
made no diminution or change in the uniformity of the average, and
the conclusion seems to be established, that if the land is kept clean,
and worked at proper seasons, it is impossible to exhaust this soil
below the power of^ producing 16 bushels of wheat every year.
** But this natural produce may be doubled by the application of
certain manures. Of these, Mr Lawcs's expcrimcnta led him t«
conclmlc that ammonia is the casential requisite. His conclusions
are almost uniform, that no organic matter aifccts the produce of
wheat, except in so far as it yields ammonia ; and that the whole
of the organic matter of the com crop is taken from the atmosphere
by the medium of ammonia. There is a consUint loss of ammonia
going r.n by cx|unitiou, so that a larger quantity must be supplied
than is contained in the crop. For practical purposes, S lb. of
358
AGRICULTUHE
[oBAl>' CEO PS.-.
%roinouia is found to produce a busbol of wheat, uuil tlio cheapest
fonn of ammonia at present being Peruvian guaoo, 1 cwt. of tbat
•ubstanco may bo calculated to givo 4 buiihcis of xfheaL Tlio
natural itroduco of 16 buuIielH an aero may tbiTeforo bo doubltvl by an
application of 4 cttt. of Peruvian guano. To this, however, tuero
is a limit — climate. Aramouia gives growth, but it doi^onda on
climate nhctbcr that produce is straw or com. In a wet, cold
summer a heavy application of ammonia produces an nilduo do*
volopment of the circulating condition of the plant, tho crop is laid,
and tho former's hoi)os oro disappointod. Seven o( com to ten of
straw is usually tho most productive crop ; five to ten seldom yields
well. The prudent farmer will therefore regulate his application of
ainin'^nia u-ith a referonco to the average character of tno climate in
whtch his fann is situated.
•'The practical conclusion ot which wo arrive is this, that in tho
cultivation of a clay. land farm, of similar qiuility of soil to that of
Mr Lnwcs, there is no other rcMtriction necew«nry thnn to keep tho
laud clean ; that whilo it is very possible to rciliice tho land by
wec^la, it is imt^isible to exhaitit it (to a certain point it may bo
Teducui) by cleanly cuUivat/'d corn corjis ; that it is an ascertained
f*«-t that wheat may I-o taken on soils of this description (T>rovidcd
they ore mauured) vearnfler year, with no other limit than the doccs-
ttity for cIcTuiug tlio land, and that iu.-;y best be accomjtlished by
an occisional greon crop — turnip or mangold, as best suits — at
great intervals, the strow being Drought to tho most rotten state,
and ajiplied in tho greatest possible quantity to insure a good crop,
which will clean the land well. If these conclusions are satisfac-
torily proved, the present mode of cultivating heavy clays may bo
grently changed, and tho owners and occupiers of such soils bo hotter
oorai'cnsatcd in their cultivation than they have of late had reason
to anticiiiatc" — (Caird's ^iiyfiiA Agriculture, in 1850 and ISM, pp.
400-402.) '
It w certainly curious to observe, tliat the addition of
four cwt of guano brings np the produce of Mr Lawea's
acre from its average annual rate of sixteen bushels, under
its reduced normal state, to very nearly the same as Rev.
Mr Smith's aero under his system of alternate strips of corn
and summer fallow.
From information carefuUy gathered, Mr Caird gives it
OS his opinion, that the average produce of wheat per acre
in 2G of tho 32 counties of England visited by him is 2G |
bushels, or 14»per cent, liigher than it was estimated at in
the same counties by Arthur Young 80 years before. Were
the country generally anything like as well cultivated as
particular farms that are to bo met with in all parta of it,
we should have the present average increased by at least
eight bushels per acre. 03 ft jrer bushel is a weight indi-
cating a good quality of grain. A good crop of wheat will
yield a ton of gr.ain and about two tons of straw per acre.
Besides its uses on tho farm, wheat straw, in certain
limited districts in the south of England, is an article of
some value, as the raw material of a not unimportant native
mamifacture, namely, Straio-Plaii. Tho first straws used
for this purpose in this country were grown in the neigh-
bourhood of Luton in Bedfordshire. This town is stiU the
principal seat of the straw trade and straw bonnet manufac-
ture, and the district around stiU produces the finest quality
of straws ; but straw-growing is now also carried on in
parts of Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, and
Berkshire. Light, rich soils are best adapted for this pur-
pose. The kinds of wheat grown with this view are the
Red Lammas and the Chiddam. A bright, clean, tough
straw being required, it is neces.sary to begin reaping before
the flag of the straw falls. If the straw is exposed to rain,
it becomes n^ted or spotted ; if to very hot and dry
weather, it gets sunburnt and brittle. The utmost care and
energy must, therefore, be used to get the crop dried,
carried, and stacked as quickly as possible. In favourable
seasons on acre of wheat will yield (besides the grain)
from 15 cwt to a ton of cut straws, of the value of £6 to
£9 per ton. cle.ar of all expenses. The farmer sells his
Straw to a class of men called straw-factors, who draw and
* Mr Lawea coDtJoaes these experiments of growing sureesslve crops
of wheat y^ar after year on the same site, with no material chon^ In
the results oflor a trial of thirty yean.
cut tho straws in his bariL The drawing and cutting-ofT of
the ears being there pei-formod, the factors remove the straw
to their omi premises. There it undergoes a farther cutting,
is exposed to tho fumes of sulphur, assorted into proper
lengths, and made up into marketable bunches of various,
sizes and qualities. These bunches are disposed of to the
)ilaitcra at the various marketa of the district About
50,000 females and boys are engaged in plaiting. No plait
is made in factories, tho work being jwrformcd by the wives
and children of agricultural labourers in their own cottages,
where it is carried on all the year except in harvest The
straw trade, in its various departments, is of considerable
importance and is steadily increasing. Tho gross returns
are supposed not to fall short of XI, 250,000 jjor annum.
There is .now also a small demand for wheat straw for
tho manufacture of pai^r.
Section 2. — Barley.
In Great Britain barley is tho grain crop which ranks
next in imporLance to wheat, both in an agricultural and
commercial jxiint of view. Its use as bread<orn is confined
to portions of the lowlands of Scotland, where unleavened
cakes, or " bannocks o' barley meal," still constitute the
daily bread of tho peasantry. It is more largely used in
preparing the " barley broth" so much rclLsbod by all classes
ill Scotland. To fit the grain for this purpose, it is pre-
pared by a peculiar kind of mill, originally introduced from
Holland by Fletcher of Saltoun, in which a thick cylinder
of gritty sandstone is made to revolve rapidly within a c-xse
of perforated shoot-iron. The barley is introduced betwixt
tho stone and its case, and there subjected to violent
rubbing, until first its husk and then its outer coatings are
removed. It is, however, in the production of malt liquor
and ardent spirits, and in the fattening of live stock, that
our barley crops aro chiefly consumed. Wo have no doubt
that it would be better for tho whole community if this
grain were more largely used La tho form of butchcr-meot
and greatly less in that of beer or whisky. It has been
customary for fanners to look upon distillation as beneficial
to them from the ready m ^ket which it affords for barley,
and more especially for tU ) lighter qualities of this and
other grain crojja But this is a very short-sighted view of
tho matter ; for careful calculation shows that when the
labouring man spends a shilling in tho dram-shop, not more
than a penny of it goes for the agricultural produce (barley)
from which the gin or whisky is naode ; whereas, when he
spends the same sum with the butcher or baker, nearly the
whole amount goes for tho raw material, and only a frac-
tion for the tradesman's profits. And not only so, but the
man who spends a port of his wages upon strong drink
diminishes, both directly and indirectly, his ability to
buy wholesome food and good clothing ; so that, apart
from tho moral and social bearings of this question, it can
abundantly bo shown that whisky or beer is the very worst
form for the farmer in which his grain can be consumed.
Were the X50,000,000 at present annually spent in Great
Britain upon ardent spirits (not to speak of beer), em-
ployed in purchasing bread, meat, dairy produce, vege-
tables, woollen and linen clothing, farmers would, on the
one hand, be relieved from oppresisive rates, and, on the
other, have such an increased demand for their staple pro-
ducts as would far more than comijensate for the closing of
what is at present the chief outlet for their barley.
There are many varieties of barley in cultivation, and
some of them are known by different names in different
distncts. Those most esteemed at present in Bcririckshire
and neighbouring counties arc the Cheixtlier, the Annat,
and the common-early long-careiL The chevalier produces
the finest and heaviest grain, weighing usually from 54 B)
to u6 ft) per bushel, and is in high estimation with maitatof*
^BAIN CR0P9 ]
AGRICULTURE
35»
It is also tall and stout in the straw, which is less liable to
lodgo than that of the common barley ; and when this
accident does happen, it has the valuable property of not
[ producing Jif tershoots or greens. It requires about fourteen
days longer than the common»-early to reach maturity, but
as it admits of being sown earlier than the latter sorl, this
is in practice no drawback to it. The Annat barlpy
resembles the chevalier in its leading features, but is
yellower in its complexion, and not quite so round in the
grain. It ripens a few -days earlier than the chevalier, and
in our o^vn experience is more productive. The common-
early ia more liable than those just noticed to suffer from
over-luxuriance. It is generally used for the latest sowings
on those portions of land froBi which the turnip crop has
been longest in being removed.
In the elevated or northern parts of the kingdom, four-
rowed barley, usually called here or higg, is cultivated, as
it is more hardy, and ripens earlier than the two-rowed
varieties. A new variety, called Victoria bere, is said to
be so productive, and to yield such a heavy sample, as to
be worthy ot cultivation even in lowland districts.
Barley delights in a warm, friable soil, and thrives best
when the seed is deposited rather deeply in a tilthy bed.
Being the grain crop best adapted for succeeding turnijjs
(iiat have been consumed by sheep-folding, advantage
must be taken of favouring -vveatber to plough up the fand
in successive portions as the sheep-fold is shifted. So
much of it as is ploughed before 1st February will usually
get s6 mellowed by the weather as to be easily brought
into suitable condition for receiving the seed. In Scotland
the usual practice is to sow broadcast on this stale furrow,
and to -cover the seed by simple harrowing. A better
way ia first to level the surface by a stroke of the harrows,
and then to form it into ribs twelve inches apart by such
an implement as has been described when speaking of
Tennant's grubber. _ Over this corrugated surface the seed
'is sown broadcast, and covered by another turn of the
harrows. The ribbing loosens the soil, gives the seed a
uniform and sufficient covering, and deposits it in rows.
The only advantage of such ribbing over drilling is, that
the soil is better stirred, and the seed deposited more
deeply, and less crowded than is done by the ordinai-y
drills. It is certainly of great advantage to have the seed-
corn deposited in narrow lines, so far as the working of
&e horse-hoe is concerned ; but we are convinced that
stiifer stems, larger ears, a more abundant yield, and a
brighter sample, are likely to be obtained when the seed is
loosely scattered in a channel three or four inches wide
thaji when crowded into a narrow line. Thin grain is now
sown considerably earlier than heretofore. When the soil
is enriched by plentiful manuring, its temperature raised
by thorough draining, and the climate and exposure favour-
able, it should bo sown as early in March as possible, and
will often do remarkably well although sown in February.
This early sowing counteracts that tendency to over-
luxuriance by which the crop is so often ruined in fertile
BoUs. It is chiefly owing to this early sowing (although
aided by the use of hummelling machinery) that the
average weight of barley is so much- greater now than it
was thirty years ago. From 54 tt) to 56 tt) per bushel is
now about the average weight in well-cultivated districts ;
while 57 lb and 58 Bb is by no means rare. The produce
per acre ranges from 30 to 60 bushels, 36 bushels being
about the average. The .quantity of seed used per acre is
'from 2 J to 3 bushels for broadcast sovring, and about a third
less when drilled. As already remarked in regard to wheat,
it is well, as the season advances, to avoid, by a fuller
allowance of seed, the temptation to excessive tillering, and
consequent unequal and later ripeidng. A good crop of
'barley yields about 1 ton each per acre of grain and straw.
Section 3. — Oatt.
Over a large portion of England oats are grown only as
provender for horses, for which purpose they are fully
ascertained to be superior to all other grains. Except,
thorefoio, on fen-lands and recently-reclaimed muiry soils,
the cultivation of oats in South Britain bears a small
proportion to the other cereals. It is in Scotland, " the
land o' cakes," that this grain ia most esteemed and moat
extensively cultivated. Considerably more than half of
the annual grain crops of Scotland consists, in fact, of oats.
The important item which oatmeal porridge forms in the diet
of her peasantry, and of the children of her other classes,
has something to do with this extensive culture of the oat ;
but it arises mainly from its peculiar adaptation to her
humid cUmate. As with the other cereals, there are very
numerous varieties of the oat in cultivation. In Meaara
Lawson's Synopsis of the Vegetable Products of Scotland, it
ia said (Div. L p. 80), " Our collection compi-ises nearly
sixty varieties, about thirty of which are grown in Scotland;
but of these not more than twelve are in general cultivation.
These twelve varieties, enumerated in the order of their
general cultivation, are, the Potato, Hopetoun, Sandy,
Early-Angus, Late-Angus, Grey-Angus, Blainslie, Berhe,
Dun, Friesland, Black Tartarian, and Barbachlaw." The
first four kinds in this list are those chiefly cultivated on
the best class of soils. It is to the produce of these that
the highest market prices usually have reference. The
weight per bushel of these sorts usually runa from 42 fi>
to 46 tti. From 50 to 60 bushels per acre is a usual yield
of oats. The two last namej kinds are chiefly esteemed
for their large produce, and adaptation to inferior soils; but
being of coarse quality, they are chiefly used for provender.
A variety which stands the winter ia now frequently grown
in England, for the double purpose of first yielding "a sea-
sonable supply of green food to ewes ^nd lambs in early
spring, and afterwards producing a crop of grain. It has
already been stated that in Scotland wheat does not prosper
when sown after clover or pasture ; but with the oat it ia
quite the reverse, as it never grows better than on land
newly broken up from grass. It ia, accordingly, almost
invariably sown at this stage of the rotation. The land is
ploughed in December or January, beginning with tha-
strongest soil, or that which has lain longest in grass, that
it may have the longest exposure to the mellowing influences
of wintry weather. In March or April the oats are sown'
broadcast on this first ploughing, and covered in by
repeated harrowings. These are given lengthwise until the
furrows are well broken do^vn, for if the harrows are
worked across the ridges before this is effected, they catch
hold of the edges of the sUces, and, partially lifting them,
permit the seed-corn to fall to the bottom, where it is lost
altogether. -As it is only when a free tilth is obtained
that the crop can be expected to prosper, care must ba
taken to plough early and somewhat deeply, laying the
furrows over with a rectangular shoulder, to sow when the
land is in that state of dryness that admits of its crumbUng
readily when trodo upon, and then to use the harrows until
they move smoothly and freely in the loose soil, two or
three inches deep. The Norwegian harrow is an important
auxiliary to the common ones in obtaining this result.
When wild mustard and other annual weeds abound, it is
advisable to drill the crop and to use the horse-hoe. When
tfie land ia clean, the general belief in Scotland La that the
largest crops are obtained by sowing broadcast. When
the latter plan of sowing is adopted, from 4 to 6 bushels
per acre is the quantity of seed used. The latter quantity
is reqmred in the case of the Hopetoun and other large-
grained varieties. The condition of the soil as to richneaa
and friability must also be taken into account in deter-
360
A (Wl I C U L T U R E
[leouuxnous
mining the quantity of seed to be used. \\Ticn it ia in high
heart and liJiely to harrow kindly, a less quantity will
«uiEco than under opposite conditions. In breaking up a
tough old sward, even 6 bushels per aero may be too little
to sow. The following very interesting e.tperiment bearing
on this point was made in the county of Fife : — " Mr
Gulland, Wemysa, offered a sweepstakes in 1850, that i
bushels of oats, sown per Scotch acre, in poor land, would
yield a better produce than 8 bushels sown under similar
conditions. The late Mr HLU, maintaining the contrary,
accepted the sweepstakes, and a number of others took up
the same. Experiments were made by Mr Dingwall,
Ilamomie, and Mr Buist, Hattonhill : —
In Mr Buist's expcrimcnta,
" 4 bush, sown j-ieljDd 28 bush, per aero, 34 tb per bush.
8 bush, sown jiclJod 3S „ „ 34j lb „
" In Mr Ding^'oU's experiments,
"4 bush, sorni yielded 45 bush, oer acre, 384 ''' V^ bush.
■ 8 bush, sown yielded 49 „ „ 39 tb „ "'
The advocates for thin seeding will of course regard even
the least of these quantities as foolishly redundant. It is
quite true, that if the land is in good heart, the crop will
ultimately stand close on the ground from a very small
seeding ; but it will take two or three weeks longer to do
this than if the land had been fully stocked with plants
from the first, by giving it seed enough. In our precarious
climate, where a late harvest and bad crops usoally go
together, it is of the utmost importance to secure early,
uniform, and perfect ripening ; and as liberal seeding tends
directly to promote such a result, practical farmers wiU do
v.-ell to take care how they omit such a simple means of
attaining so important an end. We believe that it is on
the princi[>le now indicated that the superior result, both
ns respects quantity and quality of produce, in the double-
seeded lots in the experiments now cited, is to be explained.
As with wheat, the vigour and productiveness of the oat
is much enhanced by frequent change of seed. Our
agricultural authorities usually assert that the change
should, if possible, always be from an earlier climate and
better soU. This is undoubtedly true as regards high-lj-ing
districts ; but with a good soil and climate we have always
seen the best results with seed from a later district. A
homely old couplet tersely expresses the, experience of our
ancestors in this matter of the changing of seed-corn by
directing us to procure —
•* Oats from the hills, here from the sea,
Gude wheat and pease wherever they be."
On poor hard soils it is usually remunerative to apply a
cwt. of guano per acre to the oat crop, sowing it broad-
cast, and harrowing it in along with the seed. As much
additional produce is thus ordinarily obtained as more than
pays for the manure, and the land is, in all respects, left in
better condition for the succeeding green crop. In the
case both of very light and strong clay soils, we have
obtained excellent results by applying a liberal dressing of
farm yard dung in autumn to grass-land about to be broken
up for oats. By using in this way the dung produced
during the summer ^months, we have obtained abundant
crops of oats from portions of land which, but for this,
would have yielded poorly ; and, at the same time, by
applying the bulky manure at this stage of the rotation,
instead of directly for the succeeding green crop, an
important saving of time and labour has been effected, as
we shall have occasion to notice when treating of turnip-
culture.
AVhen the young oat plants have pushed their second
leaf, it is always beneficial to use the roller, as it helps to
protect the crop from the evil effects of drought, and
• Agricultural QtCutU, 20th November 1852.
facilitates the reapmg of it. The oat frequently suffers
much from a disease called "scgging" or " tuhp root,"
wliich appears to be caused by the presence tf a maggot ia
the pith of the stems close to the ground. On laud which
is subject to this disease it is advisable not to sow early.
A dressing of lime is also believed to be serviceable a« a
preventative. On muiry soils this crop is also not unfre-
quently lost by what is called " tlayiny." This seems to
result from the occurrence of frosty nights late in spring,
when the crop is in its young stage, which, when grown
on such sods, it cannot withstand. The application of large
dressings of lime to light muiry soils greatly aggravates
this tendency to ttayiny in the oat crop. The only effectual
remedy is to improve the texture of the soil by a good coaU
ing of clay. Oats yield about 1 ton of grain and I J ton of
straw per acre.
Section 4. — liye.
The extensive cultivation of this grain in any country
being alike indicative of a low state of agriculture, and o(
a poor style of Lving among its peasantry, it must be
regarded as a happy circumstance that it has become nearly
obsolete in Great Britain. It is still occasionally met with
in some of our poorest sandy soils, and patches are occa-
sionally grovvn elsewhere for the sake of the straw, which
is in estimation for thatching, for making bee-hives, and
for stuffing horse-collars. Its cultivation as a catch crop,
to furnish early food for sheep in spring, is on the increase.
Section 5. — Leguminous Crops — Beans.
The only members of this family statedly cultivated for
their grain are beans and pease. Before the introduction
of clover and turnips these legumes occupied & more
important place in the estimation of the husbandman than
they have done since. Indeed, in many districts naturally
well adapted for the culture of turnips, that of beans and
pease was for a time all but abandoned. Recently, however,
increasing precanousness in the growth of clover, and even
of turnips, where they have been sown on the same ground
every fourth year for a lengthened period, has compelled
farmers to return to the culture of beans and pease for the
mere purjiose of prolonging the intervals in ^he periodic
recurrence of the former crops. But it is found, in regard
to the bean itself, in districts where it has long occupied a
stated place in rotations of six or -seven years, that its
average produce gradually diminishes. We have thus an
additional illustration of the importance of introducing as
great ^variety of crops as possible into our field culture.
It is on this principle that beans and pease are now again
extensively cidtivated on dry friable soils. Winter beans,
or pease of some early variety, are generally preferred in
such cases. The grain of these legumes, though partially
used for human food, is chiefly consumed by horses and by
fattening cattle and sheep. Being highly nutritious, they
are well adapted for this purpose. By growing beans on a
limited portion of the land assigned to cattle crops, a larger
weight of beef and mutton can be produced from a given
number of acres, than by occupying them whoUy with roots,
forage, and pasturage. Several varieties of field beans arc
cultivated in Great Britain, such as the common hufte
bean, the tick, the Heligoland, and the winter bean. The
latter was introduced into England about the year 1825,
and there rises steadily in estimation. It has been tried in
many parts of Scotland, and proves quite hardy, but b
objected to from the exceeding shortness of its straw. But
for this, it is a valuable acquisition, as it ripens so much
earlier than the spring-sown varieties. Beans should never
be sown on land that is foul. By diligent horse and hand
hoeing, land that is clean to begin with can be kept so
under beans, and left in fine condition for carrying a white
faEOPS,]
AGRICULTURE
'361
;com crop; but in opposite circmnstancea it is sure to get
into utter confusion. It is found advisable, therefore, to
take baans after the white crop that has succeeded roots or
a bare .faflow. In Berwicksliire, where a five-years' course,
consistfng of turnips, wheat, or barley, two years' seeds,
and cats, has long prevailed, beans are now not unfre-
queniy introduced by substituting them for the second
year's grass. A four-years' course with beans instead of a
portron of the seeds ia certainly preferable. In cultivating
thia crop the land is ploughed with a deep furrow in
autonin, a dressing of dung being first spread over the
surface and turned in by the plough, ■ As early in March
as the state of the soil admits, it is stirred by the grubber
and harrowed. The seeds are then deposited either in
narrow rows 14 inches, or in wider rows 27 inches apart.
The latter width has long been preferred in Scotland,
because of its admitting of the free use of the plough and
the drill-grubber, in addition to the hoe, during the early
stages of the plant's growth, and also from a belief that
the free entrance of light and air, of which the wide rows
admits, increases the productiveness of the crop. • We
shall describe both modes of . cultiu'e, and then state the
grounds upon which, after long shaiing in the opinion just
noted, and following that practice, we now give a decided
preference to sowing in narrow rows. In sowing at the
wider intervals, the soil, having been prepared as already
stated, is formed, by a single turn of the common plough,
into shallow drills 27 inches apart. Ten or twelve such
driUs being formed to begin with, the seed is scattered
broadcast, at the rate of 3 bushels per acre, by a sower
who takes in six of these drills at a time, and gives them
a double cast, or by a drilling-machine, which sows three
rows at once. The beans either roll into the hollows as
they fall, or are turned in by the ploughs, which now
proceed to open each a fresh drill, in going down the one
side of the working interval, and to cover in a seeded one
in returning on the other side. If tares are cultivated on
the farm, it is usual to sow a small quantity (say a peck
per acre) amongst the beans, on which they are borne up,
and so ripen their seeds better, and jdeld more abundantly,
than when trailing on the ground. When the crop comes
to be thrashed the tares are easily separated from the
beans'^y sifting. Ten days or so after sowing, the drills
are partially levelled by a turn of the chain harrow ; and
if the land is cloddy, it is smoothed by a light roller. If
showers occur when the bean plants are appearing above
(ground, or shortly after, the common harrows may be used
again' with the best effect in pulverising the soil and
destroying newly-sprugg weeds. A horse and hand hoeing
is then given, and is repeated if weeds again appear.
iWhen the plants have got about 6 inches high it is
bepeficial to stir the soil deeply betwixt the rows by using
Tennant's grubber, drawn by a pair of horses. For this
purpose the tines are set so close together as to clear the
rows of beans, and the horses are yoked to it by a main
tree, long enough to allow the horses to work abreast in
the rows on either side of the one operated upon. The
soil is thus worked thoroughly to the depth of 6 or 8
inches, without reversing the surface and exposing it to
drought, or risk of throwing it upon the plants. Just
before the blooms appear some farmers pass a bulking-
plough betwixt the rows, working it very shallow, and so
as merely to move the surface soil towards the plants.
This may do good, but a deep earthing up is hurtfiJ.
When the blooms open all operations should cease, as
otherwise much mischief may be done. Such an amount
of culture as has now been described may be thought
needlessly costly and laborious, but unless a bean crop is
kept clean, it had better not be sowik' And it ia to bo
remembered that the benefit of this careful tillage ia nut
:--is*
confined to it, but wiU be equally shared in'by.the wheat
crop that follows. The culture of winter beans differs
only in this, that they require to be sown 'as early ia
autumn as the removal of the preceding grain crop admits
of. 'When it is determined to sow ia 14-inch rows, tha
seeds are deposited by any of the corn driUing-machines ia
common use, set for the specified width of rows, or (which
we prefer) the soil is formed into narrow ribs or drills by
means of the one-horse plough, the seeds are scattered
broadcast by hand or machine over this corrugated surface,
and they are covered by a double turn of the common
harrows, and rolled by a light roller. As soon as the bean
plants appear, care must be taken to keep down weeds by-
diligent hoeing. " Two good hoeings wiU usually suffice,^
for by the time that the second is accomplished, the crop
will speedily so close in as to render any further hoeing
impracticable and unnecessary. After repeated trials • of
these two modes of cultivation, made alongside of each
other, we have found that the produce from the narrow
rows has been at the rate of from 4 to 6 bushels more per
acre than that from the wide rows, and that the soil has
been left decidedly cleaner after the former than after the
latter mode. It is certainly somewhat startling to find
results so opposed as these are to preconceived opinion and
approved practice. - And yet, when the matter is weU
considered, it becomes obvious enough why it should be so.'
The wide rows admit of a most effective process of tillage
and hoeing up to the time when the beans come into bloom,
when, however, it must wholly cease. But when farther
culture is precluded, the need for it by no means ceases,
seeing that the rows of beau plants usually remain suffi-
ciently apart to admit of the continued growth of weeds
during the long period which intervenes betwixt the
blooming and the ripening of the crop. "•> And hence it
happens — especially if the spring prove cold and parching
— that although the wide-rowed beans have been kept
scrupulously clean up to tjje time of blooming, their
upright habit of growth renders it impossible that they cau
so close in upon the wide space betwixt the rows, as to
preoccupy and overshadow the ground sufiiciently to keep
it clean during the long period that the crop must neces-
sarily be left to its own resources. By sowing in narrow
rows the crop is soon in a condition to defend itself against
weeds and drought, and hence the saving of labour, the
more bulky crops, and the cleaner stubble, which result
from sowing beans at 14 rather than 27 inch intervals.
In Scotland the haulm of beans is esteemed an excellent
fodder for horses and other live stock, whereas in England
it is thought unfit for such a use. The reason of this'
appears to be, that in the southern counties beans are
aUowed to stand uutU the leaf is gone and the sterna
blackened before reaping; whereas in Scotland they are
reaped so soon as the eye of the grain gets black. When
well got, the juices of the plant are thus, to some extent,
retained in the haulm, which in consequence is much
relished by live stock, and yields a wholesome and nutritious
fodder. A good crop of beans yields about 1 ton of graia
and 1 J ton of straw per acre.
Section 6. — Pease.
Pease are sown in circumstances similar to those just
detailed, but they are better adapted than beans to light
soils. They too are best cultivated in rows of such a width
as to admit of horse-hoeing. ^ The early stage at which.
they fall over, and forbid further culture, renders it evea
more needful than in the case of beans to sow them only
on laud already clean. If annual weeds can be kept in
check until the pease once get a close c»ver, they thcii
occupy the ground so completely that nothing else can livo.
under them; and the ground, after their removal, ia found.
362
AGRICULTURE
[lUBVESTING or
in tho clioiccst condition. A thin crop of peaso should
never he allowed to stand, as the bnd is sure to get
perfectly wild. The difhculty of getting this crop well
harvested renders it peculiarly advisable to sow only the
early varieties
Sfction 7. — Oilier Cropt.
The cereals and legumes now enumerated constitute the
staple grain-crops of Great Britain. Others are grown
occasionally, but more for curiosity than profit. Zealous
attempts were made by the late William Cobbet to introduce
maiie or Indian com as one of our reg\ilar crops. It has
licen conclusively proved that none of its varieties yet tried
can bo ripened in the ordinary seasons of this country. It
hna indee(\^ been suggested that it might form a useful
addition to our garden vegetables, — using it, as it is done
in America, by cooking the unripe cobs, and abo that we
might grow it beneficially as a forage crop. Lentilea have
recently been grown in different parts of the country ; but
"both of these grains can be imported of better quaUty, and
svt less cost, than they can be grown at home.
There is great inducement to agriculturists to endeavour
more earnestly to obtain improved varieties of grain by
cross-impregnation of e.xisting ones. Something has already
teen accomplished in this direction, but only enough to
show what encouragement there is to persevere. Whenever
the same skill and perseverance are directed to the improve-
ment of field crops that oirr gardeners are constantly
<-xerting, -.vith such astonishing results, on fruits, flowers,
and vegetables, we may anticipate a great increase of
produce, not only from the discovery of more fruitful
varieties, but of such as possess a special adaptation to
every diversity in the soil and cUmate of our territory.
Section 8. — Harvesting of Grain Crops, and preparing them
for Market.
Several distinct modes'of reaping grain are in use. The
most ancient, and still the most common, is by the sickle
or reaping-hook, which is used either with a smooth or
serrated edge. The latter was at one time preferred, as by
it the work was performed most accurately. The smooth-
edged instrument is, however, now the favourite, as it
requires less exertion to use it, and the reaper can, in
consequence, get through more work in a day ; and also
"because in using it the scalks are less compressed, and
conoequently dry faster when made into sheaves. In some
parts of England the crops are reaped in a method called
fagging or lagging. The cutting instrument used is
heavier, straighter, and broader in the blade than the
common reaping-hook. The workman uses it with a
slashing stroke, and gathers the cut com as he proceeds
by means of a hooked stick held in his left hand. It is a
similar process to the mode of reaping with the Hainault
scythe — an instrument which has been tried in this country,
but never adopted to any extent. The common scythe,
esp cially with that form of handle known as the Aberdeen
handle or sned, is very extensively used for reaping grain
in all parts of the kingdom. Indeed, the practice of
mowing grain has been increasing of late years, and would
extend more rapidly but for the greater difficulty of finding
good mowers than good reapers. A greater amount of
dexterity is required to cut grain well by the scythe than
by the sickle. The difficulty lies not in making smooth
iind clean stubble, but in so laying the swathe as to admit
of the com being sheaved accurately. When the mower
lays his swathe at right angles to his line of progress, and
the gatherer is skilful and careful, com may be handled as
■Jieatiy in reaping by the scythe as by the sickle. When
i"i3 crops are not much laid or twisted, mowing is somewhat
the cheapest of these modes of reaping. Its chief recom-
mendation, however, is that mown sheaves dry most
quickly, and suffer least from a drenching rain. This
arises from the stalks being less handled, and so forming
an open sheaf, through which the wind penetrates freely.
Tightly bound sheaves are always dilficull to dry.
In Berwickshire and adjoining counties the reaping of
the crops has hitherto been accomplished by employing, at
day's wages, such a number of reapers as suffices to cut
down the crops on each farm in from twelve to twenty
days. The rate of wages paid to reapers for a number of
years has ranged from 2s. 6d. to Ss. 6d. each per dietn,
with victuals in addition, costing about eightpence for each
person. In marshalling the band, two reapers are placed
on each ridge of 15 or 18 feet in breadth, with a binder to
each four reapers, and a steward, or the farmer in person,
to superintend tho whole. When the crop is of average
bulk, and lies favourably for reaping, each handwin, or set
oi four reapers and a binder, clear two acres in a dav of
ten hours, but IJ to IJ acre only, if it is bulky and
lodged. The cost of reaping by this method is therefo e
from 10s. to 15s. per acre. With a reaping-machine cutting
say six acres per diem, and requiring in all ten persons {five
men and five women or stout lads) to attend to and clear
up after it, at an average wage, including victuals, of 3?.
each, and allowing 3s. per diem to cover tear and wear, and
interest on- its prime cost, there seems a reasonable prospect
of a goodly portion of our future crops being reaped for
about 6s. per acre. The labour of the horses employed in
working the reaper is not included in this estimate, as at
this season they would otherwise be idle, and yet eating
nearly as much food as when at work. There would thus
be a saving in actual outlay of about 5s. per acre. But
tliis L3 the least important view of the matter. On a
Berwickshire farm producing 200 acres of crop, there are
usually at least six pairs of horses kept. With a resident
population sufiBcient to yield about thirty persons (including
women and youths) available for hardest labour. The
stated forces of such a farm wOl therefore suflSce to man
tliree reaping-machines, which, if the weather is favourable,
and the crops standing erect or Ij-ing in one direction, wili
cut down the crop in about ten days. When portions of
the crop are much lodged and twisted, it becomes necessary
to employ part of the labourers in clearing out suck
portions by the scythe or sickle. It is often possible to
manage these awkward-lying portions by setting one or
more men, each \vith a stout staff, to raise up the crop and
lay it towards the machine, ^^'hen two or more machines
are used on the same farm, it is best to work them together
by cutting the whole length or width of the field in
whichever direction the general lay of the crop admits of
them working to most advantage. As each machine
completes its cut, it returns empty to the side from which
it started ; and they follow each other at such an interval
as gives time to the Ufters and binders, who are placed
equidistant along the whole line, to keep the course clear.
In such cases a man is usually employed to sharpen the
spare knives, to assist in changing them from time to time,
and to attend to the oiling and trimming of the whole
machinery. It is good economy to have a spare machine
at hand ready to put in the place of one that may be
disabled by some breakage, and thus avoid interruption to
the urgent work of reaping while the dam.age is being
repaired. Great progress has been made in recent years in
working these machines skilfully and systematically; they
are in general use in all well-cultivated districts, and the
time appears to be at hand when the whole grain crops of
the country will be reaped by means of them.
It is now agreed on all hands that grain should be reaped
before it becomes what is called dead ripe. In the case of
wheat and oats, when the grains have ceased to yield a
«EAIN CE0P8.1
AGRICULTURE
363
milky fluid on being pressed under the thumt>-nail, and
when the ears and a few inches of the stem immediately
under them have become yellow, the sooner they are reaped
flie better. Barley requires to be somewhat more matured.
Unless the pink stripes on the husk have disappeared, and
the grain has acquired a firm substance, it will shrink in
drying, and be deficient both in weight and colour. When
allowed to stand till it gets curved in the neck, the straw
6i barley becomes so brittle that many ears break short off
in the reaping, and it then suffers even more than other
grain crops under a shaking wind.
It is of great consequence to see that com is dry when it
is tied up in sheaves, that these are not too tightly bound,
and that every sheaf is kept constantly on foot. From the
increased demand for harvest labourers, and the rapidity
"with which operations must be carried forward, stooking is
not now performed viith the same accuracy that it was wont
to be. There is therefore the greater need for employing
A person to review the stooks daily, and keep every sheaf
•erect. It was formerly the practice in Scotland to set up
■oats and barley in full stooks of twelve sheaves each, viz.,
five pairs and two hood-sheaves. These hood-sheaves are
an excellent defence when wet weather sets in, but they
retard the drying of the com in fine weather, and there are
now few binders who can set them up so as to stand
securely. It is better, therefore, to aim at rapid drying,
and for this purpose to have the sheaves small individually,
and to set but four or six of them together. Large sheaves
the worse to dry than small ones, not only from their
greater bulk, but from their being almost inevitably tighter
bound. The utmost vigilance is required on the part of
farmers to avoid this fault. Beans and pease are reaped
by the sickle. The former are usually not bound into
sheaves at once, but left prostrate in handfuls for a few
d_ays until they have withered a little. But it is on the
whole safer to stook them as they are reaped. They are
then sheaved and bound with ties of twisted straw, which
must be provided beforehand. <• In stacking beans, the tops
of the sheaves are kept outwards, as by this means fewer
pods are exposed to the weather, or to the depredations of
fowls, lie, than when the butts are to the outside. Pease
are rolled into wisps as they are reaped, and afterwards
turned daily until they are fit to carry. When stacked,
they must instantly be thatched, as they take in wet like a
sponge. It requires no little discrimination to know when
sheaves are dry enough to keep in a stack. The farmer
finds it for his profit to consult his most intelligent and
experifineed labourers on this point On thrusting the
hand mto a sheaf sufficiently dried, there is a lightness
and kindliness to the touch not easily mistaken when once
understood. > Whenever this is ascertained, the crop is
carried with the utmost possible dispatch. This is best
accomplished by using one-horse carts, and by building the
sheaves into round stadica of ten or twelve loads each.
Very large stacks are for ostentation, not for profit The
labour of pitching up the sheaves to them is needlessly
great ; com is much- sooner in a state to keep in small
stacks than in large' ones, and sooner gets into condition
for market ; the crop is more accessible for thrashing in
ten load quantities than in huge ricks ; and the crop of
<lifi'erent fields and kinds of grain more easily kept separate.
While naming ten or twelve loads as a convenient quantity
to put together in each stack, let it be observed that this
assumes the sheaves to be in a thoroughly dry condition ;
for in wet seasons it frequently happens that the sheaves
have a sufficient degree of dryness to keep safely in stacks
of five or six loads each, although they will certainly heat
if double these quantities- are put together. Judicious
farmers therefore accoDimoJata the size of their stacks to
the condition of the sheaves, au- £;rn more concerned to
get their crops secured rapidly and safely than to have
their stacks of uniform size. For the same reasons, it is
often expedient to stack portions of. the crop either in the
field where it grew or at some convenient site neareTr than
the homestead, but on the way towards it, and where two
carts will suffice to keep each stacker in work. An
incidental benefit from having the stacks in detached groups
■ is, that it lessens the risk from fire.
It is always desirable to have the stacks bmlt upon
frames or stools elevated 18 or 20 inches fronl the ground.
Besides the security from vermin thus attained, there is a
free admission of air to every part, particularly when aided
by a triangle of rough timber in the centre, which speedily
insures thorough dryness in the whole stack. When stacks
are buQt upon the ground with a mere bedding of straw
under them, the grain from the basement tiers of sheaves
is often lighter by several pounds per bushel than that from
the rest of it A fanner who has his rick-yard fully
furnished with these frames can often carry his crop without
risk — when, if bmlt on the ground, it would inevitably
heat — and have the grain in condition for market earlier
by months than in the latter case. As the stacks are built,
Young's Stack-Stool.
they are thatched without delaj For this purpose, careful
farmers provide beforehand ample stores of thatch and
straw ropes. The thatch is not elaborately drawn, but
merely straightened a little as it faUs from the thrashing-
mill, tied into large bundles, and built up into stacks,
where it gets compressed, and so lies more evenly than ii
used direct from the mill. A good coating of such thatch
secured by straw ropes, interlacing each other in chequers,
forms a secure and cheap covering, easily put on by
ordinary farm labourers, and possesses, with all its rough-
ness, an air of unpretending rustic neatness which har-
monises well with surrounding objects, and which we
greatly prefer to the elaborate ricks of the southern counties
with their shaved sides, combed thatch, and weather-cock
a-peak. Apart from its cost, the shaving of stacks is
objectionable, as they then suffer more from a beating rain
or snow-drift than when the natural roughness is' left
upon them, on the same principle that a coarse, shaggy
topeoat shoots off wet better than a smooth broadcloth.
A stout two-ply cord made of cocoa-nut fibre, or coir, is
coming into use as a substitute for straw ropes . in the
thatching of stacks.
With proper machinery propelled by steam or water, the
thrashing and dressing of grain is a simple and inexpensive
process. As grain is now universally sold with a reference
to its weight per bushel, its relative value depends much
upon its dryness and thorough freedom from chaff, dcjt,
light grain, and seeds of weeds. Farmers who are 8yat«-
maticaUy careful in the cultivation, harvestuig, thrashing,
and dressing of thuir crops, can always command ths best
prices of the day. In preparing a parcel of grain for
market, it is a good plan to measure a" few sacks very
carefully, ascertain the average weight of these, and- thea
fill every remaining sick to that weight exactly.
364
AGRICULTURE
[boot crops.
CHAPTER XII
CTTLTTVATED CE0P8 — BOOT CB0P8.
Section 1. — Potato.
The eventa of late years render it necessary to regard
this root somewhat differently than was warranted by its
previous history. Its value as an article of food, relished
alike by prince and peasant, its easy culture, its adaptation
to a very wide diversity of soil and climate, and the
largeness of its produce, justly entitled it to the high
esteem in which it was universally hold. Like many other
good gifts, it was, however, grossly abused, and diverted
from its legitimate use ; and advantage was taken of its
amazing productive powers to elevate it from the place of
an agreeable, wholesome addition to the daily food of the
community to that of " the staff of life." In Ireland and
the Highlands of Scotknd, the people, already in a pain-
fully degraded condition, and contented with the potato
as their sole food all the year round, took occasion, from
its very productiveness, under the rudest culture, to sub-
divide their lands, and marry prematurely, with reckless
improvidence, and amid ea ever-deepening degradation.
We know now, from the utter prostration and helplessness
into which this wretched population was at once thrown
by the memorable potato disease, the terrible penalty
which this abuse of "a good gift" has brought directly on
the miserable sufferers, and indirectly on the whole com-
munity. It win be well if the stern lesson, enforced by
famine and pestilence, have the effect of leading to a better
social condition. Viewed in this light, the potato disease
rnay yet prove a blessing to the nation. Its continued
prevalence, although in a mitigated form, cannot well bo
regarded otherwise, when we remember the frantic eagerness
with which the Irish peasantry replanted their favourite
root on the first indication of its returning vigour, and the
desperate energy with which they cling to it under repeated
disappointments. Apart from this speciality, the precarious
health of this important esculent is much to be regretted.
It seems contrary to analogy to suppose- that it is likely
either to be entirely lost or to manifest a permanent liability
to disease. It seems more natural to suppose that by-and-
by the disease will disappear, or that some efficient remedy
for it will be discovered. Railways afford great facilities
for transporting this bulky commodity at little expense to
great distances, and thus render the market for it available
to a wider district. Apart from disease, this facility of
transport would naturally insure its more extended cultiva-
tion. This enlarged cultivation of a crop which, to be
grown successfully, requires a soil rich in fertilising matters,
has moreover been rendered practicable by the facilities
which the farmer now has of obtaining guano and other
portable manures.
The varieties of the potato, whether for garden or field
culture, are exceedingly numerous, and admit of endless
increase by propagating frr"T< seeds. It would serve no
useful purpose to enumerate here even a selection from the
sorts in use in different parts of the country. In Messrs
Lawson's Sj/nopsis of the Vegetable Products of Scotland a
description of 175 kinds is given, to which the reader is
referred for particulars. When the crop is grown for cattle
food, bulk of produce will be the primary consideration;
but for sale or family use, flavour, keeping quality, and
handsome appearance, will be particularly attended to.
Exemption from disease is now a momentous consideration,
whatever the use for which it is grown. There is this
difficulty, however, connected with selections on the score
of healthiness, that while in each season since the disease
broke out certain varieties have escaped, it is observed
from year to year that the exempted list varies, certain
ydnds tiiat _ had been previously, healthy . becoming as
obnoxious to disease as any, and othere in a great measure
escaping that had suffered much before. Indeed, certain
parties, from observing that diseased tubers left in the
ground have produced healthy plants in tho following
season, have been induced purposely to plant diseased
potatoes, and with good results. This, however, is probably
due to tho mere fact of their being kept in the earth.
In field culture the potato is frequently grown oh a
portion of the fallow break ; but its appropriate place in
the rotation is that usually assigned to beans, with which,
in an agricultural point of view, it has many features in
common, -and in lieu of which it may with advantage be
cultivated. As the potato requires to be planted as early
in spring as the weather will admit of, thus leaving little
opportunity for cleaning the land, and as its mode of
growth forbids any effective removal of root-weeds by after
culture, it is peculiarly necessary to have the land devoted
to this crop cleaned in autumn. Winter dunging facilitates
the planting, and is otherwise beneficial to the crop by
producing that loose and mellow condition of the soil in
which the potato delights. The quality of the crop is also
believed to be better when the dung is thoroughly incor-
porated with the soil, than when it is applied in the drill
at the time of planting. A liberal application of manure
is necessary if a full crop is expected. The rank growth
thus induced renders it, however, more obnoxious to the
blight, and hence at present it is more prudent to aim
rather at a sound crop than an abundant one, and for this
purpose to stint the manure. When it is applied at the
time of planting, the mode of procedure is the same as that
which wiU presently be described in the section on turnip
culture. The potato sets are prepared a few days before
they are expected to be needed. Tubers about the size of
an egg do well to be .planted whole ; and it is a good plan
to select these when harvesting the crop, and to store them
by themselves, that they may be ready for use withoct
further labour. The larger tubers are cut into pieces
having at least one sound eye in each, although two are
better. It ia of great consequence to have seed-potatoes
stored in a cool and dry pit, so that if possible they may
be prepared for planting before they have begun to shoot.
If there has been any heating in the pit, the potatoes are^
found to be covered by a rank crop of shoots, which aro
necessarily rubbed off, and thus tho most vigorous eyes
are lost, and much of the substance which should have
nourished the young plant is utterly wasted. A sxifficient
number of dormant eyes are no doubt left, but from the
comparatively exhausted state of the tubers, these produce
stems of a weaker and more watery character, and more
hable to disease than those first protruded. To avoid
these evils, gardeners aro at pains to invigorate their seed
potatoes and husband their whole powers for early and
vigorous growth by greening them in autumn, storing them
in a cool place with a current of air passing through it,
and then in early spring exposing them to light on a floor,
whence they are carefully removed and planted with their
short green shoots unbroken. Neither the greening nor
the sprouting under cover and in the light can ordinarily
be practised on the scale on which the field culture of the
potato is conducted. But the important feature in it, viz.,
so treating potatoes intended for seed that the crop shall be
produced from the first and most vigorous shoots, and that
these shall obtain the full benefit of the natural pabulum
stored up for their use in the parent tuber, should be care-
fully considered and imitated if possible in field culture.
The report of the meeting of the Edinburgh Botanical
Society, on 8th January 1852, bears that "Professor
Simpson communicated the results of some experiments
made by himself and Mr Stewart relative to the growth of
alpine plants after having been kept artificially covered^
:eoot ceops.j
•with snow in an ice-house for many months. Seeds and
plants when kept in this way during winter, and then
brought into the warm air of summer, germinate and grow
with great rapidity. Mr Stewart had also made experi-
ments with animals, and he found that the chrysalis so
treated produced a moth in eleven days after being brought
into the atmosphere, while another chrysaUs of the same
moth did not do so for three or four months after. In
arctic regions the rapid growth of plants during the short
summer was well known. Professor Simpson alluded to
the importance of similar ejcperiments being made on the
different kinds of grain. He referred to the rapidity of
harvest in Canada and other countries where the cold lasted
for many months, and he was disposed to think that if
grain was kept in ice-houses during the winter, and sown
in spring, there might be an acceleration of the harvest"
The suggestion for the treatment of seed corn is cer-
tainly deserving of trial; but the known difficulty of hinder-
ing the premature germination of potato sets in the ordi-
nary method of storing them seems to point to them as the
peculiarly appropriate subjects of Such an experiment.
Potato drills should not be less than 30 inches wide, nor
th6 sets less than 10 or 12 inches apart in the rows. The
usual practice is to take the seta to the field in sacks, which
are set down at convenient distances for replenishing the
baskets or aprons of the planters. When a large breadth
is to be planted, a better way is to have the sets in carts,
one of which is moved slowly along in front of the planters.
A. person is seated in the cart, who has by him several spare
baskets which he keeps ready filled, and which are handed
to the planters in exchange for empty ones as often as
required This greatly economises the time of the planters,
and admits of a greater amount of work being accomplished
by them in a day. Single-bout drOls are quite sufficient,
so far as the success of the crop is concerned So soon as
the young potato plants are fairly above ground, the drUl-
grubber should be set to work and followed up without
delay by hand-hoeing. Mr Wallace, North Berwick Mains,
a most successful cultivator of potatoes, has for many years
taken off all the shoots, save one, from the potato sets as
they appear above ground, and the prunings are used in
filling up blanks; the result has been that the produce of
the solitary stem is both larger and of more equal size and
quality than when the shoots are all left. A turn of the
horse-hoe and another hand-hoeing after a short interval
are usually required, after which the common practice is
to earth up the rows by the double mould-board ploughs.
There is reason to beUeve that this latter practice usually
does harm rather than good. It no doubt prevents the
uppermost tubers from getting greened by exposure to the
light, but it is believed that the injury inflicted on the
roots which spread into the intervals betwixt the rows far
more than counterbalances any benefits that result, or have
been supposed to result, from this earthing up. After the
plants are a foot high, a slight stirring of the surface to
keep down weeds is all the culture that is admissible con-
sistently vrith the well-doing of the crop.
When the crop is matured, which is known by the decay
of the tops and the firmness of the epidermis when the
tubers are forcibly mbbed by the thumb, advantage is
taken of every dry day in harvesting the crop. With small
plots, the fork is certainly the most efficient implement for
raising the tubers ; but on the large scale, when expedition
is of great consequence, they are always unearthed by the
double mould-board plough. Alternate rows are split open
in the first instance, and then the intervening ones, as
the produce of the first is gathered When a convenient
breadth has thus been cleared, a turn of the harrows is
given to uncover such tubers as have been hid from the
gleaners at the nr«t going ovir. Tbi-; vfc-l — ~ow very
AGRICULTURE
305
generally accomplished by means of a bulking-plough
divested of its wings, and having attached to its sole a
piece of iron terminating in radiating prongs. This being
worked directly under the row of potato plants, unearths
the tubers, and spreads them on the surface by one opera-
tion. The potatoes are gathered into baskets, from which
they are emptied into carts and conveyed at once to some
dry piece of ground, where they are piled up in long narrow
heaps and immediately thatched with straw. The base of
the heaps should not exceed a yard in width, and should be
raised above the surface level rather than sunk below it, as
is very usually done. As the dangers to be guarded against
are heating and/rorf, measures must be taken with an eye
to botL The crop being put together in as dry and clean
a state as possible, a good covering of straw is put on, and
coated over two or three inches thick with earth, care being
taken to leave a chimney every two yards along the ridga
By thus keeping the heaps dry and secure from frost, it is
usually possible, even yet, to preserve potatoes in good
condition till spring. Such diseased ones as have been
picked out at the gathering of the crop can be used for
feeding cattle or pigs. The fact that pigs fatten appa-
rently as well on diseased potatoes when cooked by
steaming or boiling, as on sound ones, is certainly a very
important mitigation of this dreaded calamity. There are
several varieties of the potato, such as " yams," " lumpers,"
"mangel-wurzel potato," &c., which, although unfit for
human food, are much relished by cattle, and which, from
their abundant produce, healthiness, and great fattening
quality, are well deserving of being more generally cultivated
for the purpose of being used in combination with turnips
and other substances in the fattening of cattle. The turnip
crop of recent years has been nearly as much diseased as
the potato crop, and as one remedy against " fingers-aud-
toes" in the former is to let longer intervals of time inter-
vene before their recurrence in the same field, and as it
has been ascertained that an acre each of beans, potatoes,
and turnips will produce more beef than three acres of
turnips alone, it is worthy the consideration of those con-
cerned whether it would not be prudent to substitute a
crop of these coarser potatoes for a portion of their turnip
crop on fields or parts of fields that have borne diseased
turnips in previous rotations. Eight tons cer acre is a
good crop of potatoes.
Section 2. — Tximips.
The introduction of turnips as a field crop constitutes
one of the most marked epochs in British agriculture. To
the present day no better criterion exists by which to
estimate its state in any district, or the skill of individual
farmers, than the measure of success with which this or
other root crops are cultivated. We have already, in our
section upon fallowing, described in detail the process of
preparing the soil for drilled green crops. Referring the
reader to what is there said, we now proceed with our
description of turnip culture.
Previous to the introduction of bone-dust and guano,
farm-yard dung formed, in the majority of cases, 'the only
available manure for the turnip crop. It was almost in-
variably formed into heaps in the field to which it was to
be applied, and repeatedly turned, as great stress was laid
on having it well rotted The introduction of these invalu-
able portable maniu-es has, however, not only immensely
extended the culture of the turnip, but has materially
modified the course of procedure. ' On the first introduc-
tion of bone-dust the practice was to use the fold-yard
dung as far as it would go, and to apply bone-dust alone,
in quantities of from sixteen to twenty bushels per acre,
to the remainder of the crop. Guano, too, for a tims WM
osed to some extent on the tome orinciple; bu'. now it is
3G6
AGRICULTURE
[root ckops.
most satisfactorily proved tlut whereaa very good crops of
turnips can be obtained by manuring either with dung
alone, at tho rate of from fifteen to twenty tons jjcr acre,
or bonea alone, at the rate of si^ctccn to twenty bushels, or
guano alone, at tho rate of three or four cwL, much better
crops can bo obtained by apj>lying to each acre ita propor-
tion of each of these kinds and quantities of manures. A
portion of the bones is now usually applied in the form of
Buperphoaphate of lime; and as thia substance, and also
guano, have a remarkable power of stimulating tho growth
of tho turnip in its earliest stage, forcing it to the state fit
for thinning from ten to fourteen days earlier than hereto-
fore, there is now no occasion for tho dung being in the
advanced state of decomposition that was formerly found
necessary. When farm-yard dung alone was used, it
behoved to be in a soluble state, ready to furnish nourish-
ment to tho plant from the beginning. Eut in bringing it
to that state a considerable loas is sustained by fermentation,
and ita bulk is so much reduced that it becomes difficult to
distribute evenly tho allowance which would be available
for each acre, in order to give the whole crop a share of it
Thiff, however, it is. most desirable to do, as good farm-
yard manure contains in itself the whole elements required
by the crop; and hence an ailditionol reason for tho pkns
of applying farm-yard dung which have already been
noticed. If that mode during the previous summer has
been applied in autumn to the lea before ploughing for
oats, as fur as it will go, and another portion of the con-
templated turnip break dunged before tho winter furrow,
with all that has been made up to that time, and the future
accumul.itions up to April formed into heaps, to bo appUed
in the drills for the latest sowings, the manures produced
on the farm may bo made to go over nearly tJhe whole
breadth under root crops.
In proceeding to sow those portions that were dunged
before the oat crop and on the stubble, ail that is required
is to form the drills, and apply the guano or bones, or
murture of both, by hand. In doing this, ten or twelve
drills are set out the evening before, that aU may be ready
for a good start The light manure is taken to the field
in carts, which are nnyoked at convenient distances for
replenishing the aprons of the young persons (one for each
plough) or the machine by which it is distributed along
the drills. The sowers of the manure being started on the
outside drills, the ploughmen proceed to open fresh ones
inside in going, and to cover in the manure by reversing
the first formed ridgelets as they return. Tbe seed machine.
Bowing two rows at a time, follows close up to the ploughs,
and thus the work goes rapidly on, each plough getting
over from 2^ to 3 acres a-day. When farm -ard dung is
applied at the time of sowing, the process is the same,
except that the drills must be opened somewhat deeper,
and that the dung-carts, followed by an adequate number
of spreaders, precede the sowers of the light manures. In
filling the dung-carts, one able-bodied labourer is required
for each plough employed in drilling; and where these
amount to throe, six spreaders are required to distribute
it evenly along the drills. In some districts the double-
breasted plough is used in forming the drills and covering
in the dung. In the hands of a skilful ploughman that
implement does certainly make neater work to look at; but
so far as the success of the crop is concerned, the common
Bwing-plough is preferable, for in covering in with it the
earth is made to run over the top of the ridgelet, by which
means the clods fall into the hollgw, ^ud the finest of the
mould is left on the top, where the seed is to be deposited.
With the double mould-board this cannot so well be done,
and the consequence is, that a groove is formed on tlie top
of the ridgelet, in which the smaU dry clods, carried up by
the tail of the mould-board, are left, forming tie worst
possible bed for the eeed. In parching weather it -is usual
to pass a li^t roller over the drills immediately after
sowing, to rutain the moisture and insure germinatioiu
Tho seed is deposited near the surface, half an inch of
mould being a sufficient covering. Tho quantity sown is
2 Dj per acre of globe or yellow turnip seeds, and 3 to 4
ft) of swedes. Care must bo taken that tho seed is freidi,
so as to have a vigorous and thick phint Thick sowing
increases the difficulty of thinning out the plants, but il
hastens their growth, and diminiihcs the risk of failure
from the depredations of the turnip beetle. The time of
sowing in the south of Scothind extends from the begin-
ning to the end of May for swedes, and thence to the
middle of June for yellows and globea. A partial BO«-ing
of yellow or globe is, however, made by careful stuck-
masterB before sowing the swedes, to bo ready for use by the
end of August or beginning of September, when pasturage
fails. Sowings of early varieties, such as tho stubble turnip
and certain yellow kinds, ore also made after winter tares
or other catch crops, until the middle of J»ly; but in Scot-
land they cannot be sown later than this with advantage,
unless for the production of a crop of seed. The average
weight per acre of swedes may bo stated at 18 tons, and
of turnips at 22 tons, but double these rates have
occasionally been obtained. Recent experiments go to
show that with liberal manuring and early sowing, the
weight of the crop is considerably increased by thinning
out the plants at wider intervals than has hitherto been
customary. The usual practice in Scotland has been to
sow in ridgelets 27 inches apart, with 9 or 10 inches be-
twixt the phnts. Recent experiments establish the fact
that, with 15 inches from plant to plant, much larger bulbs
and a greater acreable produce are obtained. As it is
ascertained that in the case of swedes the largest bulbs
are also the best in quality, it is of the greater consequence
to allow them ample room.
The thinning is commenced as soon as the rough leaf is
fairly developed. Previous to this operation tho horse-hoe
is worked betwixt the rows for the double purpose of
destroying weeds and facilitating the operation of thinning
This operation is sometimes still farther facilitated by
using Huckvale's machine, which slaps out the rows so as
to leave tufts of plants at regular distances apart The
singling of the plants is performed by the hand-hoo. The
young persons by whom this work is usually performed
advance in echelon with their backs to the untouched work,
the steadiest and most expert worker leading the band.
This arrangement insures a uniform rate of progress, scvea
the finished work from being trodden upon, and keeps the
workers closely under the eye of the steward. This thin-
ning of the rows, so as to leave single plants at regular
intervals of 12 to 15 inches apart, is accomplished by an
alternate thrusting and drawing motion of tho hoe, which
a little practice enables the workers to perform with such
precision that very rarely do they either make a gap or
leave double plants, and still more rarely do they require
to stoop down to disentangle them with their fingera
Three of these workers- can usually thin an acre in a day.
With ordinary care on the part of the overseer, there is no'
great difficulty in getting the plants left single at proper
intervals ; but it is very difficult to get the hoers trained
to select and leave only the stoutest plants. And yet so
important is this, that, all other things being equal, a
difference of two to three tons per acre in the rate of pro-
duce has bean ascertained to result on comparing rowB
that had been thinned by a person who took pains t«
select and leave the best plants, with others on which they
had been left indiscriminately. When the plants have
rallied after the thinning, and begun to grow rapidly, the
usual practice has been to turn a furrow from either aide
r.ooT CEors.]
AGRICULTURE
367
of them' into the middle of the interval by a one-horse
plough, and then to level this down by a txim of the horse-
hoe.' "A great improvement on thia practice is to use
Tennant's grubber instead, adjusted for drill work in the
manner already described. By thus using a strong imple-
ment drawn by two horses, the soil in the intervals betwixt
the rows can be stirred a foot deep if required, without
any risk of hurting the young plants, and this, too, is
accomplished by a single operation. A second hand-hoeing
is then given, whifih usually completes the after culture.
The nature of the soil will generally determine the mode
of consuming the crop. On all loose, dry soils, feeding off
by sheep is the most profitable plan ; whereas on deep,
strong loams, it is advisable to withdraw the whole produce,
and have it eaten by cattle, as, unless in very favourable
weather, when even a fourth is fed ofiF by sheep, the extra
manuring does not compensate to the after crops for the
injury which they usually sustain from the treading and
poaching. On the poorest class of Ught soils the whole
crop should, if possible, be consumed where it grows by
sheep ; but on those of a better description, a third, a half,
or two-thirds ffay be withdrawn for the feeding of cattle,
according to circumstances. Whatever the proportion left
on the ground, care is to be taken to regulate the intervals
so as to distribute the treading and droppings of the sheep
as equally as possible over the field.
The management of the turnip crop so as that it may
be supplied to the live stock in the best possible condition
during the entire season, is a point of the greatest import-
ance. The portion that ia to be used as cattle food is
removed from the ground as soon as the crop is suffi-
ciently matured, and before the time when drenching
rains and severe frosts may ordinarily be looked for. The
best way of preserving turnips is by storing in broEid flat
heaps, not exceeding 20 inches deep, on some dry and
.sheltered situation, open to the sun, and covering them
with a good coating of straw. It takes less labour to put
them together in this way, and less straw to cover them ;
and being less exposed to frost and parching winds, they
retain their juices much better than when stored in long
narrow heaps. The pulling of swedes preparatory to stor-
ing ia much facilitated by passing under them a sharp
share, and so cutting across the tap-roots without displacing
the bulbs. The thatch of the corn-stacks that are thrashed
in autumn is usually reserved for covering turnip heaps:
After 1st November it is well to make diligent use of
every favourable hour in thus securing the turnip crop.
The portion to be fed off by sheep must necessarily be
treated in a different manner. What is to be used after
Christmas can be very readily defended against frOst by
earthing up in the drills with the common plough. But
as what is to be consumed by the young thocp must be
pulled and trimmed at any rate, in order to be sliced, the
best way is to throw the turnips" into heaps at' regular
distances, and cover them with a thin coating of earth. By
this means the turnips are kept from running to stems,
and the sheep get them clean and fresh, whatever the state
of the weather.' The same end is secured by opening a
trench by a bout of th« common plough, into which the
turnips from two drills on either side are laid in regular
order with their tops uppermost, and the earth turned
over upon them by reversing the course of the plough.
When wanted for use they are again unearthed by means
of the plough. The feeding qualities of turnips are so
seriously impaired by exposure to frost, even when they
' During the unuauftlly wet winter of 1852-53 a large quantity of
tufDlpe and awedea Intended for cattle food waa stored In Ihla way.
The trimming and storing was carried on every dry day, and the
carting postponed until the occurrence of frost or drought admitted
tf It* being done without Injury to the land.
escape actual destruction, that the expense of securing
them by one or other of these methods ia always amply
repaid. In very mild winters, again, storing is equally
effective in preventing the virtues both of the turiiipa and
the soil from being wasted by the pushing of the seed stems.
The turnip is Uable in the early stages of its growth to
the attacks of various insects. The most formidable of
these enemies is the turnip beetle^ which frequently settles
upon the plants as soon as they appear above ground in
such numbers as totally to destroy the whole of them. The
best way of guarding against these nimble adversaries is
to endeavour, by careful preparation of the soil, liberal
manuring, and thick seeding, to secure a thick plant and
rapid growth ; for whenever the rough leaf is expanded the
risk from this quarter is over. From time to time the
young turnip plants are assailed by the larvae of certain
butterflies and moths, which sometimes appear in such num-
bers as to cause serious alarm, but ordinarily their attacks
occasion but a slight check to the growth of the crop.
A far more formidable evil is the disease called " fingers
and toes," which, although long known, seems to be steadily
extending, and has been wider spread and more virulent
since 1851 than in previous years. This truly formidable
disease sometimes shows itself by the time that the plants
are ready for thinning, but more usually it ia about the
stage when the second hoeing is given that unmistakable
indications of its presence are observed. The crop appears
in high health, and is making rapid growth, when suddenly,
under hot sunshine, numbers of the plants are seen to droop
with flaccid leaves ; and examination being made, it is found
that the disease has already made serious progress. In
some cases it is chiefly confined to the tap-root, which is
distorted with knobby excrescences. In others, the roots,
present a thickened, palmated appearance, giving rise to the
popular name for the disease, " fingers and toes;" while in.
others the lateral roots expand into glandular-looking tubers,
which frequently appear partially above ground at distances
of several inches from the central stem. For a time aU
these forms of the excrescences present a- smooth healthy
looking skin, yielding no trace of the presence of insects of
any kind, either externally or internally. By-and-by the
skin cracks over the excrescences, which speedily assume a
gangrenous appearance. Indeed, the whole symptoms pre-
sent a striking analogy to cancer in the animal system.
By the time that the healthy plants are approaching near
to maturity, the most diseased ones have usually lost all
resemblance to turnips, and there remains on the land a
substance like rotten fungus. In very bad cases whole
acres together are found in this state, with here and ther©
a sickly distorted turnip still showing a few green leaves.
At other times a few orJy of the plants are wholly destroyed ;
the field, to a casual observer, looking not much amiss,
though a closer inspection proves that the general crop is
of stunted growth, with few plants entirely free from the
disease. Such partially diseased roots* are not absolutely
rejected by sheep, but they are evidently unpalatable and
innutritions, while the crop as a whole is more speedily
consumed than its general appearance would lead one t<j
expect. When this disease appears on farms that have
previously been exempt from it, it is usually confined for
a year or two to small patches, which, however, in the
absence of remedial measures, steadily and rapidly extend,
not only on the recurrence of a turnip crop on the same
fields, but over the other parts of the farm. Indeed, there
are not wanting indications of its being projiagated by
contagion; as, for instance, when tainted roots are carted
into pastures, and the disease shows itself most in those
places where they have been consumed, when, in ooone of
rotation, the field comes afterwards to bear a turnip mop.
\Vhen they are constimcd by cottle in fold-yards, the dang
368
AGRICULTURE
[boot cBopa
maj be the medium of contamination, on the supposition
tliat this conjecture is well-foundei Ploughing land Lt a.
■wet state evidently aggravates the disease. We know of
one instance where a strip down the middle of a field was
ploughed in autumn while soaked by rain, on which wet
ploughed portion the turnips were evidently more diseased
than over the rest of the field. In another instance which
came under our personal observation, a ditch running along
part of the top of a field of upwards of 50 acres, was
scoured in spring, and the mud spread back over the head-
land. The whole field was, in the same season, sown with
turnips, which proved an excellent crop, entirely free from
^' fingers and toes," with the exception of that portion of
headland on which the mud was spread, where every plant
was diseased. Although wholly in the dark as to the
nature and propagation of this disease, it is well to know
that the judicious application of lime is a certain remedy.
In order, however, to its eflicacy, it must be applied in a
powdery stale after the autumn ploughing, and immediately
incorporated with the soil by harrowing; or else, as a com-
post with earth, spread on the lea before breaking up for oats.
We know from experience that a very moderate dose (say
four tons of unslaked shells to the acre) applied in this
-way will suffice to prevent the disease. It is on light soils
that its ravages are most frequently experienced, and to
these heavy doses of lime are unsuitable. Indeed, whether
for promoting the general fertility of soUs, or for warding
ofif the attacks of this disease, moderate applications of
lime every twelve years or so seem preferable to heavier
dressings at longer intervala The name " fingers and
toes" is not unfrequently applied to a distinct disease
to which the turnip, in common with the cabbage and other
coleworts, is liable — namely anbury or club root. When
the knobby excrescence which is found on plants aflfected
by anbury is broken up, it is found to encase a white
maggot, whose presence is the obvious cause of the mis-
chief. We have seen young cabbages which had begun to
droop from clubbing, when puUed up, freed from the
parasite, and replanted, regain healthy growth and come to
prosperous maturity. In the case of the " finger and toe,"
the most careful investigation, aided by the microscope,
has hitherto failed to detect any insect cause for this
disastrous malady.
Sect ion 3. — Mangel- Wu rzel.
This root has been steadily rising in estimation of late
years. It is peculiarly adapted for those southern parts of
England where the cHniate is too hot and dry for the suc-
cessful cultivation of the turnip. A competent authority
declares that it is there easier to obtain 30 tons of mangold
than 20 tons of swedes, and that it is not at all unusual
to find individual roots upwards of 20 lb in weight. In
Scotland it is just the reverse, it being comparatively easy
to grow a good crop of swedes, but very dilficult to obtain
20 tons of mangold. This plant is very susceptible of
injury from frost, and hence in the short summer of Scot-
land it can neither be sown so early nor left in the ground
so late as would be requisite for its mature growtL These
difficulties may possibly be got over eithe;- by the selection
of hardier varieties or by more skilful cultivation. Its
feeding quality is said to be nearly equal to that of the
swede; it is much relished by live stock — pigs especially
doing remarkably well upon it; and it has the very im-
portant property of keeping in good condition till mid-
summer if required. Indeed, it is only after it has been
some months in the store heap that it becomes a palatable
and safe food for cattle. It is, moreover, exempt from the
-attacks of the turnip beetle. On all these accounts, there-
fi^fe, it is peculiarly valuable in those parts of Great Britain
where the summer is usually hot and dry — conditionB of
climate which ore favourable to the mangold and peculiarlv
unfavourable to the turnip.
Up to the act of depositing the seed, the processes of pre-
paration for mangold are identical with those described foi
the turnip; winter dunging being even more appropriate for
the former than for the latter. The ridgeleta being formed
28 inches apart, and charged with a liberal allowance of
dung and guano, the seeds are deposited along the top, at
the rate of about 4 fti per acre. The common drilling
machines are easily fitted for sowing its largo rough seeds,
wliich should be sovra from the 10th to the 25th April
The after culture is also identical with that of the turnip.
The plants are thinned out at distances of not less than 1 6
inches apart Tjansplanting can bo used for filling up of
gaps with more certainty of success than in the case of
swedes. But wo find it much more economical to avoid
such gaps by sowing a little swede seed along with the
mangold. Several varieties of the plant are cultivated —
those in best repute being the orange globe, the long j/ellow,
and the long red. This crop requires a heavier dressing of
manure than the turnip to grow it in perfection, and is
much benefited by having salt mixed with the manure at
the rate of 2 or 3 cwt. per acre. The crop requires to bo
secured in store heaps as early in autumn as possible, as it
is easily injured by frost. The following graphic descrip-
tion of this process is by Mr Morton of Whitfield ■.^—
" The mode of horvestinff our root crop which we have adopted
for several years is this : We Tet the lifting, cutting off the leaves
and the roots, and putting the roots into the cart — at so much per
acre, according to the weight of the crop — to one man, who gets
other men to join with him in the work and share in the profits ;
and the arrangement I require to be adopted is, that the one-horse
carts, which I employ to haul the roota, shall be constantly
employed, and I require from 16 to 20 loads or tons of roota to be
filled hourly. The number of carta required is according to the
distance of the field from the store ; thus the distance from the
middle of the field to the store being 15 chains, four carts aro
required ; 22 chains require iive carta ; and 30 chains require seven
carta.
** The mode of lifting the roots. — Five men ore employed to pull
up the roots ; each man pulls up two rows ; standing between the
rows, he takes with his left hand a root from the row on his left
side, and with his right hand a root from the row on his right side,
and pulling both up at the same time^ places them side Dy side,
across the row where he pulled up the roots with his right hand, so
as to have the tops lying in the space between the two rows he has
pulled up ; the next man takes the two rows at the right hand of
the Last two rows we have just described, and be, with each of his
hands, pulls up a row, and places them on the line of the row which
ho has pulled up with his left hand, with the root end fying towards
the rout end of the first row, so that we have now four rows of roots
lying close together in two rows, side by side, with their leaves on
the outside of each of these rows, and the roots of each row nearly
touching each other ; and every four rows, when growing, are tliu-s,
when pulled, laid in two rows, root to root, occupying not more
than 27 inches. Now, as the next four rows are lifted in the same
way, and placed in like manner, we have a space unoccupied of
three times 27 inches, or 6 feet 9 inches between each double row of
roots, for the cart to go between them (viz. , this double row of bulbs
after they have had the leaves and roots cut ofif), to carry off the
bulbs to the store. After the five men who are pulling the roots
there follow ten women or boys, with knives made of pieces of old
scythes, who, with repeated blows, cut off the leaves and roots
without ever moving one of them with their hands ; this is constant
but not hard work, and it requires ten active women or boys 'o
keep up with the five men pulling.
" Imniediat<'ly on the heels of the cutters follow the carts
between the two double rows of bulbs as they he, having theii
leaves and roots cut off; and a man, one of the principals of the
gang, and nine young active boys and girls, throw up the bulbs &-
fast as they can into the cart, the man speaking to the horte t**
move forward or stop as they clear the ground ; when one cart it
full, an empty one has been brought by one of the boys who drive
the carts, and placed immediately behind the full one ; eo that, as
he moves off with the full cart, the man calls the horee with the
empty cart to move forward, and they proceed to throw the roots
into the cart as fast as they did into the one that has Jufit gone off
the field.
" The pulling of the roots and the filling of the carts being the
principal work, one of the leaders is in each of these departments of
XUOT CHOPS.]
AURICULTUKE
369
the work ; so that, bj his example, he shows those with him how
he wishes them to work, and thus the work proceeds with the
utmost regularity and despatch ; 20 cart-loada are hourly filled in
the fields and delivered in the store ; 180 to 182 loads of 22 cwt.
and 23 cwt. each in a day of nine hours ; thus a cart-load is filled
every three ndnutes by 10 pairs of hands, whicli are pulled by five
pairs of hands, and the leaves and roots cut off by 10 pairs of hands
— in all 25 pairs of hands, men, women, and boys. This has been
repeatedly done in a day.
*' The stores are made of posts and rails, enclosing a space 9 feet
apart and 44 feet high, and of any length, tf the space will admit,
and as near to where they are to be consumed as possible. The
posts are 5 feet apart, let into the ground 18 inches, and 4^ feet
above, with five rails above, 4 or 5 inches wide, nailed to the inside
of the posts ; and each of these stores is 3 feet apart. I have 14 of
them, about 70 feet long each, which is sufficient to Store from 1000
to 1200 tons of balbs."
The heaps are carefully thatched, and the spaces tetwixt
them filled with straw to keep out frost.
It is believed that in many cases crops of turnip and
mangold could be more cheaply stored by means of the
portable railway than by carts, and with less injury to the
land. This is especially the case with clay soils and in
wet seasons. In using it, eight drills of roots are trimmed
and laid in two rows, as Mr Morton describes ; the rails
are shifted between the pairs of rows in succession; and
the roots are pitched iato light trucks, which a man
pushes before him to the headland, where the contents
are discharged by tipping. Being there heaped up and
thatched, the roots are carted'to the homestead as required.
Section 4. — Carrot.
This root, though so deservedly esteemed and univer-
sally grown in gardens, has not hitherto attained to general
cultivation as a field crop. This is owing chiefly to certain
practical difficulties attending its culture on a larger scale.
Its light feathery seeds cannot easily be sown so as to
secure their regular germination; the tardy growth of the
young plants, and the difficulty of discriminatijg between
thorn and weeds makes the thinning a troublesome affair;
the harvesting t)f the crop is comparatively expensive; and
it is only on sandy and light loamy soils, or those of a
peaty character, that it can be grown successfully. The
increasing precariousness in the growth of potatoes, turnips,
and clover, and the consequent necessity for a greater
variety of green crops, entitle the carrot to increased atten-
tion as a field crop. Its intrinsic qualities are, however,
very valuable, especially since the introduction of tlie white
Belgian variety. On light soUs it is alleged that larger
crops of carrots can be obtained than of turnips, and with
less exhaustion of their fertility, which is explained as
arising from the greater depth to which the carrots descend
for their nourishment. This root is eaten with avidity by
all kinds of farm stock. Horses,, in particular, are very
fond of it, and can be kept in working condition with a
considerably smaller ration of oats when 20 lb of carrots
are given to them daily. It can also be readily kept to an
advanced period of spring when stored with ordinary care.
The mode of culture is very similar to that already de-
scribed for mangel-wurzel. A usual practice is to prepare
the seed for sowing by mixing it with moist sand, and
turning the mass repeatedly for several days until germina-
tion begins, when it is sown by hand at the rate of 6 lb
per acre of the dry seeds, in a seam opened by the coulters
of the com or turnip driU, according as it is wished to have
it on the flat or on ridgolets. Some prefer merely to rub
the mixture of seeds and sand or mould betwixt the palms,
until the seeds are thoroughly separated from each other,
and so divested of their hairs as, when mixed with sand, to
run from a drilling machine. It is of the utmost importance
to secure seeds of the previous year's growth, as if older
their germination cannot be depended upon. Much care is
also needed in saving the seed only from selected roots, as
carrots have a decided tendency to degenerate. The white
Belgian variety is certainly the best for farm use, not only
from the weight of crop, but from its growing more rapidly
in its earliest stage than other approved sorts, and stowing
a broader and deeper coloured leaf, which can more easily
be discriminated from weeds, and thus admitting of the
earlier use of the hoe. When the sowing and first hoeing
and thinning of the crop are got over successfully, the after
culture of the crop is very simple ; all that is needed being
the occasional use of the horse and hand hoe to keep down
weeds. The fork must be used in lifting the crop. The
greens are then cut off and given to yotmg stock or cows,
and the roots stored in long narrow heaps, exactly as mangold.
Fifteen tons per acre is an average crop, although on suit-
able soils, with liberal manuring and skilful cultivation,
double the weight is sometimes obtained. Those who in-
tend to cultivate this crop statedly will do well to raise
their own seeds from carefully-selected roots. Unless
genuine and fresh seed is sown, failure and disappointment
can scarcely be avoided
Section 5. — Parsnip,
This plant bears so close a resemblance to the carrot, and
its culture and uses are so similar, that they need not be
repeated. It can, however, be cultivated successfully over
a much wider range of soils than the carrot, and, unlike
it, rather prefers those in which clay predominates. It is
grown extensively and with great success in the Channel
Islands. The cows there, fed on parsnips and hay, yield
butter little inferior, either in colour or flavour, to that
produced from pasture. About 10 lb of seed are required
per acre. It requires, like that of the carrot, to be steeped
before sowing, to hasten germination, and the same care is
needed to have it fresh and genuine. It should be sown
in April The roots, when matured, are stored like carrots.
Section 6. — Jerusalem Artichoke.
. This root, although decidedly inferior to the potato i n
flavour, is yet desei-ving of cultivation. It grows freely in
inferior solLi, is easHy propagated from the tubers, and
requires little attention in its cultivation. When once
established in the soil, it will produce abundant crops for
successive years on the saii;e sjiot. It is sometimes planted
in woods to yield shelter for game, for which purpose it is
admirably fitted, as it grows freely under the shade of trees,
and jdelds both food and covert. In properly-fenced woods
it might yield abundant and suitable food for hogs, which
could there root it at their pleasure, without damage to
anything. Where they had mast along with these juicy
tubers, they would undoubtedly thrive apace. After they
bad grubbed up what they could get, enough would be left
to reproduce a crop for successive seasons. Such a use of
this esculent seems well deserving of careful trial
CE0P3 ANALOGOUS TO DRILLED EOOT CE0P3.
{Sections 7, 8, 9.)
There are several crops which, under a strict classifica-
tion, should be noticed among forage crops rather than here,
but which, in an agricultural point of view, are so closely
analogous to drilled root crops that we regard this as the
suitable place in which to notice them.
Section, 7. — Cahbag'^.
On strong ricn soUs large crops of very nutritious food
for sheep or cattle, and of a kind very acceptable to them,
are obtained from the field culture of the Drumhead cab-
bage. A seed-bed is prepared in a garden, orchard, or other
sheltered situation, about the second week in August, either
by sowing in rows 12 inches apart, and thihning the plants
L — Al
370
AGRICULTURE
[grasses.
about 3 inches in the rows, or broadcast in bed*. Ab early
in Bpring as the land on which the crop ia to be grown
is dry enough for being worked, let it be thoroughly
and deeply stirred by one or more turns of the grubber.
Assuming that a liberal dressing of dung has been put into
it at the autumn ploughing, 3 or 4 cwt. of guano are now
scattered evenly over the surface and ploughed in by a deep
square furrow. A lot of plants being brought from the
seed-bed, a band of planters, each provided with a dibble
and a piece of rod 27 inches long, proceed to insert a
row of plants the length of the rods apart in each third
plough-seam, the result of which is that the plants stand in
regular rows 27 inches apart every way, and can afterwards
be kept clean by horse and hand hoeing like any other
drilled green crop. Cabbages are much in repute with
breeders of rams and prize sheep, which fitten rapidly on
this food. Cabbages are usually drawn off and given to
sheep on their pastures, or to oattle in bjTes and yards ;
but they are also- fed off, where they grow, by sheep, in the
same way as turnips. It is an exhausting crop when
wholly drawn off, and on this account is sometimes grown
•with advantage on spots greatly enriched by irrigation with
sewage or otherwise, and where the succeeding grain crop
is expected to suffer from over-luxuriance, the cabbages
being grown, as the phrase goes, to " take the shine out of
it" In favourable circumstances, from 30 to 40 tons per
acre of this nutritious crop may be obtained. From what
has been said it is evidently not adapted for extensive field
culture ; but on most farms a few acres might be grown
annually with great advantage. It is a peculiarly suitable
food for either sheep or cattle during the autumnal tran-
sition from grass to turnips.
Section 8. — Rape.
This plant is peculiarly adapted for peaty soils, and is
accordingly a favourite crop in the fen lands of England,
and on recently reclaimed mosses and moors elsewhere. Its
growth is greatly stimulated by the ashes resulting from
tie practice of paring and burning. In these cases it is
sown broadcast ; but when such soils are brought into a
regular Course of tillage, it is drilled, and otherwise treated
in the same manner as turnips. As we shall consider its
culture under t^ie head of " Oil-producing Plants " (chap,
xiv. sec. 5), we shall only say further here, that its highly
nutritious leaves and steins are usually consumed by folding
sheep upon it where it grows, and that there is no green
food upon which they fatten faster. Occasionally it is
carried to the homestead, and used with other forage in
carrying out the system of soiling cattle.
Section 9. — Kokl-Rabi.
This plant has been frequently recommended to the
notice of farmers of late years. Like mangold, it is better
adapted than the turnip for strong soils and dry and warm
climates. It may be either sown on drills in the same
manner as the turnip, or sown in a seed-bed and afterwards
transplanted. The latter plan is expensive, if it is desired
to cultivate the crops to any extent ; but is commendable
for providing a supply of plants to make good deficiencies
in the rows of other crops, or when a small quantity only
is wanted. By sowing a plot of ground in March in some
sheltered comer, and transplanting the crop early in May,
it is more likely to prosper than in any other way. Cattle
and sheep are fond of it, and it is said not to impart any
unpleasant flavour to milk. We have seen a few trials of
it in Scotland as a field crop ; but, from whatever cause,
the weight of food produced per acre was greatly less than
from the mangolds and swedes growing alongside of it For
further information about this plant, the reader is referred
to the Book of the Farm, vol ii. p. 87 ; Hewlett Davis's
Farming Ettayt, p. 90 ; LawBon's Synopti* of the TegaahU
Products of Scotland, div. ii. p^ 109. Lawson says that
the pulp or flesh of kohl has the same taste as the leaves
of the cabbage, and hence its adaptation as food for milch
cows.
CHAPTEB YTTT,
OULTTVATZD CE0P8. — EESBAOB AND FORAGE C&OPB.
Section 1. — Grasses, <te.
Under this general heading we propose to include what
we have to say concerning the grasses, whether natural or
cultivated, and those other crops which are grown expressly
for the sake of the cattle food yielded by their leaves and
stems.' This kind of farm produce is either consumed
where it grows by depasturing with live stock, or mowa
and given to them in a green state under cover, or dried
and stored for after use. It thus embraces the cultivation
of these crops, and their disposal, whether by grazing,
soiling, or haymaking. Following this method, we shall
first of all briefly describe the cultivation of those pasture
and forage crops which are of best repute in British
husbandry.
Tillage lands are now everywhere cropped according
to some settled rotation, in which the well-recognised
principles of the alternate husbandry are carried out accord-
ing to the actual circumstances of each locality. With
rare exceptions, such lands at stated intervals bear a crop
of the clovers or cultivated grasses. As thete are usually
sown in mixture, especially when intended for pasturage,
the resulting crop is technically called "seeds." As it is
of importance to have the land clean and in good heart
when such crops are sown, they usually foUow^e grain
crop which immediately succeeds the fallowing process.
Being for the most part of a lower habit of growth, these
can be sown and grown along with white com crops
without injury to either. When the latter are harvested,
the former, being already established in the soil, at once
occupy it, and grow apace. By this arrangement there is
therefore secured an important saving both of time and til-
lage. Barley being the crop amongst which the seeds of the
clovers and grasses are most frequently sown, and amongst,
which, upon the whole, they thrive best, it is customary to
sow these small seeds at the same time as the barley, and
to cover them in with a single stroke of the commou
harrows. This is erroneous practice, both as regards the
time and manner of sowing these small seeds. We have
already mentioned, in the proper place, that barley should
be sown as early in March as possible. Now, if the clovers,
(fee., are sown as early as this, they are almost certain to
get so forward as both to rob«the barley of its due share of
nourishment, and, when it is reaped, to bulk so largely in
the sheaves as to retard their drying, and aggravate the
risk of their being ill harvested. It is found, too, that
if there be plants enough, the clovers stand the winter
better, and ultimately yield a better crop, when, at the
reaping of the grain crop, they are puny-lookiag than y/hea
they are very strong. It is better, therefore, to delay the
sowing of the nmall seeds till the end of April o.- beginning
of May. As to the manner of covering them in, we have to
remark that the smallnp-sa of these seeds and their mode
of germinating alike require that they receive only the
very slightest covering of soil This important fact is so
well illustrated in the following table, which exhibits the
results of some carefully-conducted experiments, reported
to the Highland Society by Mr Stirling of Qlenbervie,
that we shall here quote it : —
" Coltmm I. contains the acientifio oameaL
Column II. contains the average weight of tha seeds per bushej
in pounds.
(JRASSE-I.]
A G R 1 G
U L T U R E
371
Colonm III. containj the average nninter of aseds in one ounce.
Oolunm IV. ahown,- in inches, the depth of cover at whJch the
greatest numbflr of aeeda brairded. - . '
Column -T. showg, in inchea, the depth of cover at which enly
about h jf the number of seeds bTairded. ■- ^
Column Tl. ahows, in inches, the least depth of COTS' at which
none of the seeds brairded.
L
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Agrostis stolonuera, . ■
IS
500,000
0 to
i
4to }
1
vulgaris,t. . . .
12
425,000
."••
Aira csespitoaa, . . .
14
132,000
0 to
4
.^^},
^1
Alopecurufl pratensis, .
AnuLoxanthom odora-
tum, ....
S
76,000
0 to
4
1 toli
2J
6
71.000
0 to
4
1 toli
2
Arrhenathemm avena-
7
21,000
ito
3
14 to If
4
ceum, . . '. .
Brachypodium sylva-
ticum, . ■ . . f
10 .
16,500
0 to
i
ito }
2
Cynosurus cristatus, .
26
28,000
Dactylis glomerata,
glomerata gigantea^
12
40,000
0 to
i
ftol
'i\
10
34,000
Elymus arenario^ . .
11
2,320
1 tolil
2 to2i
i
genicuiatus, . . .
12
2,300
Kestuca duriuscula,
10
39,000
0 to
i
1 to 1
'i\
elatior, ....
14
20,500
0 to
i
1 toli
2J
elatior giganlea, ,
13
17,500
0 to
i
UtolJ
3
heterophylla, . .
12
33,000
0 to
1 toli
.2i
gigantea ■
16
8,600
ovina, . . .
14
64,000
0 to
i'toi
2
ovina (enuifolia, .
15
80,000
*
pratensis, . . .
14
26,000
0 to
Jtol
24
pratensis loliacea, .
15
24,700
rubra, ....
"10
39,000
...
Glyceria aquaticn, . .
13
68,000
ito
|tol
'i\
fluitans, ....
15
33,000
Holcus lanatns, . . .
7
95,000
Ito
ftol
24
mollis
6
85,000
Lolium italicum, . .
15
27,000
0 to
1 toli
3J
perenne, ....
Milium effuaum, . .
18-30
15,000
ito
Utoll
1 to i
34
25
80,000
ito
1\
Phalaris arundinacea, .
48
4?,000
...
Pbleum pratense, . .
44
74,000
0 to
jtol
i
Poa nemoralia, . . .
15
173,000
...
...
nemoralis umper-
virms, . . .
16i
133,000
0 to
i
ito 4
1
pratensis, . . .
13
243.000
trivialis, ....
15
217,000
0 to
4 to 5
i'i
Paamma arundinacea, .
15
10,000
itol
14 to IS
4
Trisetum flavescens, ,
54
118,000
0 to
i
|tal
2
Achillea Millefolium, .
30
200,000
ito
4
ito i
14
Cichoriom Intybus
(chicory), . . .
32
21,000
Lotus comiculatus,
62
28,000
0 to
i
■ ito i
14
major
64
61,000
Medicago lupulina,
63
16,000
0 to
i
jtol
U
sativa, ....
60
12,600
Onobrychis sativa, . .
26
1,280
Jtol
2 to2i
4}
Petrosalinom sativum.
41
12,800
Plantago lanceolata, .
52
16,600
ito
litoli
24
Poterium Sanguisorba
(bumet), . . .
25
3,320
4to
Utolj
4
TrifoUum filiforme,
65
64,000
0 to
ito 4
u
bybridum, . . .
63
45,000
0 to
4to \
u
pratense, ....
64
16,000
0 to
IJtoU
2
pratense permTU, .
64
16,000
0 to
litoli
2
repens, ....
65
92,000 10 to
4to J
14
"The results in the three last columns of the preceding table were
ohtained by sowing the seed in finely-sifted dark loam, which was
kept moist throughout the process of germination, to which is
attributable the circumstance of so many of the sorts vegutating boat
(as shown in Column IV.) without covering, and under full exposure
to the light. The combination of such favourable circnmatances
of soil and moisture can, however, seldom bo calculated upon in
field Bowing, therefore a covering of mould for the seeds, however
alight, is always advisable. But it will be seen, by the results in
Column VI., that a great number of seeds must bo inevitably lost
from over-depth of covering, unless the ground be in all cases care-
fully prepared and pulverised before Bowing either the natural or
artificial grasses, " *
From this if is evident that to scatter these tiny seeds
over a cloddy surface, and ■ then to harrow it, may more
'' ICsrton's Cyctojadia of Ajric\dtwrt-^tA\'it " Qrisses," ToL L p. B99.
aptly be called burying than sowing them. The f611owiDg
is a more rational mode of proceeding ; — When these seed^a
are to be sown among winter wheat, it is expedient tc
begin by using the horse-hoe (supposing the wheat to have
been drilled), as well to loosen the surface and produce &
kindly bed for the seeds as to destroy weeds. In the case
of broadcasted wheat, a turn of the harrows secures the
same end. In the case of the more recently sown barley
all that is needed is to smooth the surface with the one-
horse roller. Over the ground thus prepared the small
seeds are distributed by a broadcast sowing-machine,
which covers at once a space of 15 or 18 feet in width.
The covering is then effected by simply rolling with the
smooth roller, or by dragging over the surface the chain-
harrow, which may either be attached to the sowingTmachine
or to a separate frame ; or by using Cambridge's or CrosskiU'a
roller, with a very light chain harrow attached to it. On
clay soils the chain-web is to be preferred; but on loose
soils CrosskiU's roller imparts a beneficial firmness, and,
with its tail-piece of chain-web to fill up the indentations,
gives an accuracy of finish which rivals the neatness of a
newly-raked garden plot. We have long regarded this
covering in of grass seeds as the most important use to
which CrosskiU's valuable implement is put. 'The only
drawback to it is, that it makes a heavy demand on the
horse-power of the farm at a pressing season. As it can
only be worked in dry weather, it is advisable, when the
laud is in trim, to work it double tides by means of a relay
of horses. This mode of procedure is aUke applicable to
the^owing of mixed clovers and grasses, and to that of the
clovers alone, and is the course usually pursued in sowing
for one or two years' " seeds."
When it is intended to lay down arable land to grass
for several years, or to restore it to pennanent pasture or
meadow, it is always advisable to sow the seeds without a
com crop. This doubtless involves an additional cost at
the outset, but it is usually more than repaid by the en-
hanced value of the pasture thus obtained. To grow tho
grasses well, the soil should be pulverised to the depth of
3 or 4 inches only, and be full of manure near the surface.
There is no better way of securing these conditions than
by first consuming a crop of turnips on the ground by
sheep folding, and then pulverising the surface by means
of the grubber, harrow, and roUer, without ploughing it.
Much diversity of practice exists in regard to the kinds
and quantities of seeds used in sowing down with a grain
crop. In Scotland from 2 to 4 pecks of ryegrass seeds,
vrith from 10 to 14 K) of those of red, white, alsike, and
yellow clovers, Ln about equal proportions, is a common
allowance for an acre. A pound or two of field parsley ia
occasionally added, or rather is substituted for an equal
weight of clover seeds. The natural grasses are seldom
sown, and only when the land is to be laid to permanent
pasture. In England ryegrass is in much less repute than
in Scotland, the clovers being there ■ very generally sown
unmixed, and always in larger quantities than we have
ju.st named — 20 It) per acre being a common allowance.
There can be Uttle doubt that •both these plans are
•faulty.
When a good natural pasture is carefully examined, it is
found to consist of an amazing number of different grasses
and other plants. Not only does a natural pasture contain
a great variety of herbage at any one time, but it has its
plants which replace each other at different seasons; and
some also which are prominent only in wet years and others
in dry ones. The provision thus made for affording at all
times such a variety of food as is at once grateful and whole-
some to the animals whfch browse on it, and for keeping
the ground fully occupied under every diversity of seasons
and weather, is truly admirable, and the study of it well
372
AGRICULTURE
[0EAS6E3.'
fitted to interest and instruct the nusbandman. The
importance of this subject is beginning to be appreciated
by agriculturists; as one proof of which we now see our
leading seedsmen regularly advertising for sale an extensive
list of glasses and other pasture plants. Most of them
also, for the guidance of their customerB, point out the
kinds and quantities per acre which are appropriate for
diversity of soils and other circumstances. We refer, as an
example of this, to the manual of Messrs Lawson of Edin-
burgh, who have devoted much attention to this subject
The following Tables will be found useful : —
" I.— For Alteenati! Hpsbandbt.
For 1 yMT'i Hiy For 1 year"* Hay
Forlyear'iHay. and and
1 y6«r"a Paahire. 3 years" Paature.
n> n> n
LaUum italicum 8 9 8
pcrenno 18 38 18
"Dactylia glomorata — 2 2
Phlcum pretense 12 2
Medicogo lupulina — 1 1
Trifolium hybridum 12 8
pratenso 8 4 S
pratonae perenno — 2 4
repena 2 4 4
39
44
44
" For sheep pastures it will often be fi ind advantageona to add
from 2 to 4 K) per acre of parsley seed to the above mixtures ; and
for pastures in certain upland districts established practice will jus-
tify the ir.troduction of an additional pound or two of yellow clover
(ifedicago lupulina), together with from 2 to 3 tb of ribgrass
(Flantago lanaolala). And for very heavy as well as for peaty
Boils, 1 to 14 lb of Phleum pratcMe mav be added advantageously,
both for hay and pasture.
" II. — Foe Pekmakent 1 asthue, No. I.
It.
Alopecums pratensis 2
Dactylis glomerata , 6
Festuca duriuacula 2
elatior 2
pratensis ...
£olinm italicum...'..
perenne 8
Phleum pratense 2
Poa nemoralis sempervirens 2
trivialis „ 3
Medicago lupulina 1
Trifolium pratense 1
perenne 3
repena 6
46
" In certain cases the following additions to Table II. may be
loade — namely, 1 to 2 lb each of Fisiuca ruhTa and Poa pratensis
on dry sandy soils ; 1 lb of A:hiUea Millefolium^ and 1 to 2 lb
of Petrosalinum sativum in sheep pastures ; 2 lb chicory {CicJuyrium
Intybus) m cattle pastures, 6 or 10 lb of Oriohrychis sativa and 4
to 6 lb of Poterium Sanguisorba (bumet) in dry calcareous soils.
When a crop of hay is taken the iinit year, both the ryegrasses
{Lolium) may be increased by a third ; and 2 lb of Trifolium pra-
tense added. Also ^ to I lb per acre of Anlhoxanthv/n odoraium
when occasional crops of hay are to be taken." ^
When land has been thus sown for a pennsnent pasture,
care should be taken not to allow a sheep to set foot upon
it for the first tivo years, for if these inchistrious nibblers
are allowed to crop the tender clover seedlings before they
are fuUy established in the soil, they are certain to remove
the crovm from most of them, and thus ruin the pasture at
the very outset. Innumerable instances of failure in the
attempt to obtain good permanent pastures are entirely
owing to this premature grazing by sheep. The first growth
should therefore bo mown, care being taken to do so before
any of the grasses have flowered. Then roll repeatedly,
and stock with young cattle only until the second season
18 over.
Having described the means to oe used for obtaining
• Morton's CycUipadia of Africvltun — article " Grasses," voL L
P- 1000.
good pastures, let tis now consider how to use them pr(v
fitably. The art of grazing embraces tb i practical solution
of two important problems, viz., \it. How to obtain the
greatest amount and best qxiality of herbage from any-given
iiasture; and Id, How to consume this herbage by live
stock BO as to make the most of it. The grazier has ever
to keep in view what is best for his Tand and what is best
for his stock; and must take his measures throughout the
entire season with an eye to both thise objects. As regards
the first of them, experience yieldj the following maxima
for his /[,'uidance : —
Never to stock his pasttires in pring until genial weather
is fairly established.
Never to allow the grasses to run to seed, nor parts of a
field to be eaten bare, and others to get rank and coarse.
Duly to spread about the droppings of the cattle, to
remove stagnant water, and to extirpate tall weeds.
Some time about midsummer to make a point of having
the pasture eaten so close that no dead herbage 9r " fog-
gago " shall be left on any part of it.
In what more immediately concerns the welfare of the
live stock he is in like manner taught in stocking his
pastures —
To adapt the stock, as regards breed, size, condition, and
numbers, to the actual capabilities of the. pasturage.
To secure to the stock at all times a full bite of clean,
fresh-grown, succulent herbage.
In moving stock from field to field to take care that it
be a change to better fare — not to worse.
Pasturage consists either of natural herbage or of " seeds."
In the south-eastern counties of Scotland there is little
good old grass; all the really fertile soils being employed
in arable husbandry, with the exception of small portions
around the mansions of landowners. The pasturage
consists, therefore, for the most part of the cultivated
clovers and grasses. Comparatively few cattle are there
fattened on grass; the object of graziers being rather to
stock their pastures with young and growing animals, and
to get them into forward condition for being afterwards
fattened upon turnips. The grazing season is there also
much shorter than in England, old grass seldom affording
a full bite for a well-conditioned bullock before the middle
of May, or later than the middle of September. It is
quite otherwise in England, various parts of which abound
with old grass lands of the very richest 'description, on
which oxen of the largest size can be fattened rapidly.
These, in many cases, admit of being stocked towards the
end of April, and under judicious management continue to
yield excellent pastiuage for half the year. When stocked
with cattle in fresh condition, two sets or " runs " are not
nnfrequently fattened in such pastures in the same season.
These grass-fed cattle begin to come to market early in
July, and for four or five months thereafter constitute the
chief supplies of beef in our marketa
Cattle already well-fleshed are alone suitable for turning
into these rich old pastures. When tbia is attended to,
and care taken not to over-stock the pastures until they
yield a full bite, the progrefs of the oxen will usually be
very rapid. It is now customary to hasten this progress
by giving about 4 tti of oilcake to each beast daily.
The dust and crumbs being sifted out, the bits of cake
'are strewn upon the clean sward, from whence they are
quickly and carefully gleaned by the cattle. This is
usually a profitable practice. It brings the beasts forward
rapidly, improves their appearance and handling, and,
besides enriching the land, admits of about twelve per cents'
more numbers being fed upon a given acreage. These
choice old pastures are usually occupied in combination
with others of inferior quality. The most forward lot of
cattle havifvg been fattened and sold off from the lormerj
•QBASSES.]
AGRICULTURJ^
373
they are ready to receive a fresh stock. If it is con-
templated to get them also fattened before the expiry of
the season, they are not put on the best land instantly on
the first lot being sold ; but a crowd of sheep or -store-
beasts being turned upon it for a few days, the existing
herbage is cleared off, and the pasture {Anglice) "laid in "
or (Scottice) " hained," until a fresh clean growth fits it
for receiving a suitable aumber of the best cattle from the
other pastures. It is inexpedient to graze sheep promis-
cuously with cattle on these best lands, as they pick out
the sweetest of the herbage, and so retard the fattening of
the oxen. Neither do we approve of having horses among
such cattle ; not so much from their interfering with their
pasturage as from thft disturbance which they usually cause
by galloping about. This does not apply to the drsught^
horses of a farm, which are usually too tired and hungry
when turned out from the yoke to mind anything but food
and rest, but it is better thrift to soil them; and frolic-
some, mischievous colts are unsuitable companions for
sedate, portly oxen. In favourable seasons, the grass often
grows mora rapidly than an ordinary stocking of cattle can
consume it, in which case they select the best places, and
allow the herbage on some parts to get rank and coarne. If
these rank places are neglected until the herbage gets dry
and withered, the finer plants die out, the coarser-growing
grasses usurp the ground, and the pasturage is injured for
future years. To check this evil in time, these neglected
places should be mown, and the grass either brought to
the homestead for soiling, or left to dry where it grew ; in
which state the cattle will eat up most of it, and be the
better for it, especially if their bowels are unduly relaxed
by the succulence of the growing herbage. The remarks
now made apply equally to all old pastures employed for
the fattening of cattle,' although not of the first quality.
AH that is required is, to observe a due proportion between
the capabilities of the pasturage and the breed and size of
the cattle. A pasture that will fatten a fifty-stone ox may
be quite inadequate for one of seventy, and the hardy
Galloway or West Highlander will thrive apace where the
heavier and daintier shorthorn could barely subsist.
With the exception of the best class of rich old pastures,
grass is usually consumed to greater profit by a mixed stock
of sheep and store cattle than by one kind of animals only.
This holds true both as regards the natural herbage of
pastures or water meadows, and cultivated grasses, clovers,
or sainfoin. When old pastures and mixed " seeds " are
grazed chiefly by sheep, the same rules apply that have
already been noticed in connection with cattle. The herbage
should if possible • be fuUy established in a growing state,
and so far advanced as to afford a full bite, before the
pasture is stocked iu spring. If the sheep are turned into
it prematurely, their close nibbling hinders the plants from
aver getting into a state of rapid growth and productiveness,
and the necessity imposed upon the stock of roaming over
the whole field, and keeping long^afoot before they can
glean enough to appease their appetite, is prejudicial
aUke to them and to their pasture. The prudent grazier
endeavours to avoid these evils by having stores of
swedes or mangolds to last until the fuU time at which he
may reckon on having good pasturaga In distributing
the flocks to different fields, the best pasturage is allotted to
those that are in most forward condition. It is advan-
tageous to have the pastures so subdivided that one portion
may be double stocked while another is rested. By fre-
quently removing the stock from the one portion to the
other the herbage of each by turns gets time to grow and
freshen, and is more relished by the sheep, and more whole-
some than when the whole is tainted by their uninterrupted
occupation of it. In the case of clover, trefoil, sainfoin,
and water-meadows, this principle is yet more fully carried
out by folding the flock and giving them a fresh piece
daily. The crop is thus eaten- close off at once in daily
portions, and the plants being immediately thereafter left
undisturbed, and receiving over the whole area their due
share of the excrements of the flock, grow again more
rapidly than when subjected to constant browsing under a
system of promiscuous grazing. This plan of folding sheep
upon such crops has the same advantages to recommend it
as soiling, only that it is cheaper to shift the fold daily
than to mow and cart home the forage and carry back the
manure. In the case of water-meadows it is the practice
to irrigate them afresh as each crop of grass is fed off.
This is attended with considerable risk of the sheep getting
tainted with rot, which must be guarded against as much
as possible. In the first place, it is well to give thsm a
daily allowance of bran, beans, or cake, and salt ; and
besides this, to put on this land only such sheep as are
nearly ready for the butcher. They wUl thus fatten very
rapidly, and be slaughtered before there is time for harm
to ensue.
The modes ot grazing whicn we have now aesoribed are
appropriate for sheep in forward condition. The poorer
pastiires are usually stocked with nursing ewes and leaa
sheep bought in from higher grazings. Lambs, both befor^i
and after weaning, require clean pastures, and of course
frequent changes.^ If kept on tainted pastures, they are
certain to become subject to diarrhoea, to be stinted in
their growth, and to have their constitution so weakened
that many of them wiU die when afterwards put upon
turnips. To avoid these evils, they must be frequently
moved from field to field. A sufficient number of store
cattle must be grazed along with them, to eat up the tall
herbage and rank patches avoided by the sheep. After the
lambs are weaned, the ewes require to fare rather poorly
for a time, and can thus be made use of to eat up the worst
pasturage, and the leavings of the young and fattening
sheep. When the latter, with the approach of autumn,
are put upon aftermath, clover stubbles, rape, cabbages,
or turnips,' their previous pastures should in succession be
thickly stocked by the ewes and other store stock, so as to
be eaten bare and then left to freshen and get ready
for the ewes by rutting-time, when they require better-
food. In depasturing sheep on poor soils it is usually
highly advantageous to give them a daily allowance of
grain or cake in troughs, which must be shifted daily, so as
to distribute the manure regularly over the land. Bj' means
of this auxiliary food sheep can be fatte-iicd on lind the
herbage of which would not alone sufSce for the purpose.
It adrnits also of a larger number of sheep being kept per
acre, and of the "jasturage being fed off more closely than
could otherwise be done. The produce of poor siliceous
soils, both in grass and after crops, is much increased by
the additional manuring and treading which the con-
sumption of such extraneous food upon them occasionci.
It is always advantageous to have pastures provided
■with a shed, under which the stock can find shelter from
sudden storms, or from the attacks of insects and the
scorching rays of the summer's sun. When such sheds are
regularly strewed -with dried peat or burnt clay, much
valuable compost for top-dressing the pasture can b»
obtained. The dung ot the cattle, thus secured and applied,
benefits the pastures more than that which is dropped
upon it by the animals. Such clots require to be spread
about from time to time
The temperate climate of Britain is so peculiarly favour-
able to the growth of the grasses and other pasture plants,,
and to the keeping of live stock -with safetj? in the open
fields for a large part of the year, that the pr.u.tice ot con-
suming these crops by depasturing, as already described,
has hitherto been decidedly preferred to soilin/. One con.-
'M4
A O R I C U L T U K E
[ORASSES.
ecqucncc of this is, that torage crops have oeen compara-
tively neglerfted. There ifl now, however, a growing
conviction araong agriculturists that it is more convenient
to keep neat cattle and horses, during sununer, in-yards or
loose boxes, and to feed them with succulent forage, mown
and brought to them daily as it' is needed, than to turn
them adrift to browse in the fields. The pasturing plan
is preferred by many because it involves the least labour,
and is alleged to be more healthful to the animals. In
behalf of the soiling plan it is urged that a given space of
ground under green crop keeps nearly twice as much stock,
when its produce is mown and consumed elsewhere, than
when it is constantly nibbled and trodden upon ; that
housed cattle being exempted from the vicissitudes of the
■vfeathcr, the attacks of insects, mutual disturbance, and
the labour of gathering their food, eat less and yet fatten
more rapidly than they do at pasture; that more good is
gotten of their excrements when mixed with litter and
trodden down under cover, than when dropped about in the
open fields ; and that land from which' a green crop has
been mown, when ploughed up, is freer of weeds and
(other thiqgs being equal) bears a better corn-crop than
that which has been pastured It is a further recom,men(^
ation to the soiling plan that it admits of oilcake or meal
being administered along with green food with a precision
and economy that is unattainable in the pasture fields.
There being so many and such cogent reasons in favour of
the practice of soiling, we may warrantably anticipate that
it will in future be much more generally adopted. It is
proper, however, to notice that the success of this system
is absolutely dependent on the following conditions : — The
green food must be mown and brought home at least ttvice
a-day, owing to the rapidity with which it ferments when
put together ; it must be given to the stock not less than
four times daily, and only in such quantity at each feed as
they can eat clean up in the interval betwixt meals ; they,
must have constant and ample supplies of pure water and
of fresh litter ; and, in particular, matters must be so
arranged' that there shall be an unfailing supply of green
forage of the best quality through the entire season. This
is accomplished either by successive cuttings of one kind
of crop from the same ground — as of irrigated meadow or
Italian ryegrass — or by a combination of such crops as
naturally come to maturity in succession, or are made to
do so by a sequence of sowings. From what has been said
it is obvious that soiling can only be carried out successfully
with a moderately good soil and climate, a liberal use of
manure, and skill and foresight on the part of the farmer.
With these, however, its results will usually be highly satis-
factory. It is peculiarly adapted for clay soils, on which
the culture of root crops is attended with much difficulty,
ind Tvhere there is, therefore, abundance of litter for use
in summer, and much need for the soilin^g system to get
it ccuverted into good manure.
Section 2. — Natural Meadow Grass.
In proceeding to notice the crops most usually cultivated
in Britain for green forage we shall begin with natural
meadow grass. In the south-western parts of England
abundant crops of grass are obtained by irrigation with
water alone. Our remarks will here, however, be re-
stricted to those situations where sewage from towns or
villages is available. Wherever a few scores of human
families are congregated together, and have their dwellings
properly drained and supplied with water, there is an
opportunity for manuring a considerable extent of meadow
with the sewage-water accruing from them thnughout the
year. The celebrated meadows in the environs of Edin-
burgh are interesting illustrations of the value of such
water for irrigating purposes, and of the astonishing bulk
of npn herbage which can be obtained in the course of a
year from an acre of land thus treated. From the thick-
ness of the crop in these meadows, and the rank luxuriance
of its growth, the grass must be cut before it exceeds ten
inches in height, as otherwise ,Jhe bottom gets blanched
and the grass rots out The mowing begins usually in
April and continues till November, so that by fitly pro-
portioning the head of stock to the extent of meadow,
and having the latter arranged in plots to be mown in
regular succession, soiling can be practised throughout the
season by the produce of tlie meadow alone. This practice
is necessarily limited to situations where sewage-water is
available. The following excerpts from a paper read before
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts in January 1867 On
tltf Collection, Removal, and Disposal of the Jiefuse of the
City of Edinhurr/h, by Charles Macpherson, C.E., burgh
engineer, to which the society's silver medal was awarded,
will explain this system and exhibit its results: —
" Tho waters of the Craigentimiy Bum, the Lochrin Bum, the
Jordan Bum, and the Brought«n Bum, are used m irrigating part
of the lands adjoining the course of the respective streams. The
waters of the Craigentuiny Bum are used for irrigating about 250
acres; Lochrin Bum, about 70 acres; Jordan Bum, about 11 acres;
and Broughton Buru, about 5 acres — being 336 acres in all irrigated
by tho water flowing In these four natural outlets for the drainage of
Edinburgh.
"Tho area within the city draining towards the Craigenhnny
Bum — to the meadows irrigated by the waters of which I shaLl
confine these remarks — is about one square mile and a half in extent
From this district there flows about 20 cubic feet of spring-water per
minute ; the surplus rainfall being the non-absorbea portion of 24
inches per annum; and the sewage from a population of 95,S89
persons, according to the census of 1861, with a water supply of say
25 gallons per head. Of this population about 00,000 have the use
of water-closets ; and excrementitious matter from about 15,000 or
20,000 of the remainder finds it3 way to the sewers connected with
the bum at the rate of about 265 feet per minute of sewage.
" Various kinds of soil are irrigated. The subsoil of the part of
the meadows nearest the city is peat, with loam over it near th«
course of the bum ; while to the northward it is naturally sand, but
the sand has been taken away, and the ground made up with rubbish
of buildings, Ac, dressed oH' with soil. Further down the course
of the stream the soil is reddish clay, or loamy clay, or sandy clay ;
while at the part of the Figgate "Whins adjoining the sea-shore it is
pure sand, with a coating of rich loam, var}'ing from 1 inch to 4 or
5 inches deep, entirely derived from repeated applications of the
sewage, no soil having been ever sjiread over the sand. The deeper
soil 13 nearest the channels* for conveying the sewage to the land.
The meadows on the farm of Lochend, at Kestalrig, and at Craigen-
tinny, have a elope transversely to the course of the stream, varying
from the steepest part, 1 in 25, which is of small extent, to about 1
in 50, which is the slope of the greatest part of these meadows.
The Fixate ^^^lins were artificially levelled to allow of irrigation.
" It IS important to remark that the land {except the sand at the
Figgate ^^^lins) has been drained thoroughly to a depth of 4 feet
below the surface It was found that with shallower drains the
sewage was drawn ofT by the drain, leaving the lower part of the
ground without irrigation. At the Figgate Whins the sewage soakj
into the sand, and oozes out upon the sea-shore.
" The kinds of grasses grown are Italian ryegrass and meadow
grass. The ryegrass requires to be resowT> every third year ; but the
meadow grass has not required resowing, not even on the Figgate
Whins, which were sown about forty years ago, when the ground
was first irrigated. Opinions differ as to which grass is best adapted
for the purpose ; but rj'egrass eeems to produce the heavier cropa.
The imgated ground is let off in small plots or squares for the
season to the highest bidder. The grass is cut by the tenant as
required, so that the annual yield of any particular plot haa never
been accurately ascertained ; but an average crop is considered to be
from 30 to 40 tons per acre, in fbur cuttings. The first cutting
takes place at the beginning of April, and the last at the end of
September, the let of the ground expiring at Ist October. The
time of cutting the intermediate crops depends upon the wants of
the tenant
**The whole grass is eaten by about 3100cow»^the number previous
to the cattle plague — in Edinburgh, Newhaven, Leith, and Portobello ;
but after the fourth crop is cut sheep are turned on some parts of
the ground about the beginning of Iiovember, and rem*n for about
a fortnight should the weather be favourable. The sheep do not
seem to thrive, however, although the food is plentiful The grass
has been found most suitable for feeding cows — the attempts to use
it for feeding other wnimflU having been found not to answer, and
GKASSES.]
AGRICULTURE
375
the cost of converting it into hay being proTed to be sucli as to
Tender the process unprofitable.
' " The price paid for the plots varies considerably, the best being
known to bring £40 per acre, while others are as low as £15 or £20.
Last season, owing to the cattle plague, the former high prices could
not be obtained. The best land produces the heaviest crop ; but on the
Fig^ite Whins, mere irrigated sand, the first crop is earlier in the
Btason — a matter of such consequence that, although the annual
yield is less, the rent paid for these plots ia about as high as for the
plolo producing the heavier crop. The rental of the Kggate Whins
jjrevious to the irrigation was, I have been informed, about 203. per
acre ; while, when irrigated, parts have been let for soine years at
£40 per acre. The only works having been the levelling of the
saniv hillocks and formation of channeb for the -sewage — neither
of tii'em very costly operations — and the annual outlay being small,
the increased annual value of that land may be stated at not much
less than the diUerence between the two sxuns.
" It might be an interesting speculation to consider how far the
«ost of the works necessary for collecting and removing the sewage
from the district of the city draining towards Craigentinny might
have been defrayed by the advance of rent obtained by the disposal
■of the sewage in irrigating the land along the course of the stream.
The cost of the whole sewerage works (including many of the branch
dr.i.ius) constracted within the district in the city which is drained
to the Craigentinny Burn, may he stated at £96,000.. Assuming
that the annual rent of the 250 acres irrigated waa £5 per acre on
an average previous to being laid out for irrigation, while the rent
was raised to £25, then the difference, £20 per acre, is the annual
value of the iri-igation. There being 250 acres, gives £5000 as the
.return, or upwards of 6 per cent, on the cost of the sewers.
" The produce of the various irrigated meadows round Edinburgh
is sufficient to supply the present demand for grass ; necessitating
ajay further application of the sewage to some other kind of crop,
■unless a more extensive market is obtained for the grass produced."
Section 3. — Italian Ryegrass.
Italian ryegrass can be cultivated over as wide a range
■of 30U3 and climate as any forage crop which we possess,
and its value for soiling is every day getting to be more
generally appreciated. When first introduced, and indeed
until very recently, it was chiefly sown in mixture with
other grasses and clovers for pasturage, a purpose to which
it is well adapted from its early and rapid growth in spring.
Its true function, however, is to produce green food for
soiling, for which purpose it is probably unrivalled. It is
in connection vrith the system of irrigation with liquid
manure that its astonishing powers have been most fully
developei When grown for this purjioae it is sown lq
April, on land that has borne a grain crop after turnips or
summer fallow. If sown with a grain crop as thickly as
is requisite, it grows to nearly the height of the grain, and
both are injured. A Hberal dressing of farm-yard dung
is spread upon the stubble in autumn, and immediately
ploughed in. In the end of March or beginning of April
the land is prepared for the seed by being stirred with the
. grubber and then weU harrowed. The seed, at the rate
of 4 bushels per acre, is then • sown in the way already
described for clover and grass seeds. When tie liquid
manure system is practised, the crop is watered as soon aa
the young plants are about an inch high, and so rapid is
its growth in favourable circumstances that a cutting of 10
tons per acre has in some cases been obtained six weeks after
Bowing. When there is no provision for supplying liquid
manure, a top-dressing of guano, nitrate of soda, soot, or the
first two articles mixed, is appUed by hand-sowing, care
being taken to give this dressing when rain seems at hand
or has just fallen. A similar top-dressing is repeated after
each cutting, by which means three cuttings are ordinarily
obtained from the same space in one season. A very
groat qiuntity of stock can thus be supported from a very
limited extent of ■-round. This grass is also found to be
very grateful to the palates of horses, cattle, and sheep,
which all thrive upon it. Though so very succulent, it
docs not produce purging in the animals fed upon it. It
is peculiarly suitable feeding for milch cows, as appears
.from the published account at Canning ParL Such results
as those obtained by Mr Kennedy and others are not to
be expected unless under similar conditions ; but on good
loams, clean and in good heart, and under such treatment aa
is described at the beginning of this section, as large crops
of this grass as of red clover may be reckoned on, Tvith at
least equal feeding powers, and with a degree of certainty
which the farmer cannot now entertain in regard to the hXiet
crop. If it is regularly mown when the ear begins to show,
and care taken never to allow the seed to form, it ia
fully ascertained that this grass will grow abundantly for
a second year, with the advantage of being ready for use very
much earlier than in its first season. It is sometimes sown
in autumn, but those who have had the fiHlest experience in
its cultivation give a decided preference to spring sowing,
either after a grain crop which has followed a green crop
or fallow, or at once after turnips. It is of great import-
ance to get fresh and genuine seed. That directly imported
from Italy yields the best crop when otherwise good. A8
a proof of the fondness of sheep for this grass, it has been
observed that when it had been sown in mixture with red
clover and cut for hay, sheep, on being turned into tho
aftermath, eat down the Italian ryegrass in preference to
the clover.
Section 4. — Crimson Clover.
Crimson clover, though not hardy enough to withstand
the climate of Scotland in ordinary winters, is a most
valuable forage crop in England. It is sown as qmckly as
possible after the removal of a grain crop at the rate of 18
B) to 20 lb per acre. It is found to succeed better when
only the stirface of the soil is stirred by the scarifier and
harrow than when a ploughing is given. It grows rapidly
in spring, and yields an abundant crop of gre§n food,
peculiarly palatable to Uve stock. It is also suitable for
making into hay. Only one cutting, however, can bo
obtained, as it does not shoot again after being mown.
Section 5. — Red Clover.
This plant, either sown alone or in mixture with ryegrass,
has for a longtime formed the staple crop for soiling; and
so long as it grew freely, its power of shooting up again
after repeated mowings, the bulk of crop thus obtained, its
palatableness to stock and feeding qualities, the great
range of soib and climate in which it grows, and its fitness
either for pasturage or soiling, well entitled it to this pre-
ference. Except on certain rich calcareous clay soils, it
has now, however, become an exceedingly precarious crop.
The seed, when genuine, which imfortunately is very often
not the case, germinates as freely as ever, and no greater
difficulty than heretofore is experienced in having a full
plant during autumn and the greater part of winter ; but
over most. part of the country, the farmer, after having his
hopes raised by seeing a thick cover of vigorous-looking
clover plants over his field, finds to his dismay, by March
or April, that they have either entirely disappeared, or are
found only in capricious patches here and there over the
field. No satisfactory explanation of this clover failure
has yet been given, nor any certain remedy, of a kind to
be applied to the soil, discovered. One important fact is,
however, now well established, viz., that when the crop-
ping of the land is so managed that clover does not
recur at shorter intervals than eight years, it gro^^•8 •n-ith
much of its pristine vigour. The knowledge of this fact
now determines many farmers in varying their rotation so
as to secure this important end. At one time there was a
somewhat prevalent belief that tho introduction of beans
into the rotation had a specific influence of a beneficial kind
on tho clover when it came next to be sown ; but the true
explanation seems to be, that tho beans oporato favour-
ably only by tho incidental circumstance of almost nocos-
37G
AGRICULTURE
[fobage cBopa
sarily lengthening the interval betwiit the recurrences of
clover.
When the four-courae rotation ia followed, no better
plan of managing this process has been yet suggested than
to sow beans, pease, potatoes, or tares, instead of clover,
for one round, making the rotation one of eight years
instead of four. The mechanical condition of the soil
seems to have something to do with the success or failure
of the clover crop. We have often noticed that head-lands,
or the converging line of wheel tracks near a gateway at
which the preceding root crop had been carted from a field,
have had a good take of clover, when on the field generally
it had failed. In the same way a field that has been much
poached by sheep while consuming turnips upon it, and
which has afterwards been ploughed up in''an unkiudly
state, w^ill have the clover prosper upon it, when it fails
in other cases where the soil appears in far better condition.
If red clover can bo again made a safe crop, it will be a
boon indeed to agriculture. Its seeds are usually sown
along with a grain crop, any time from 1st February to
May, at the rate of 12 tt) to 20 lb per acre when not com-
bined v.'ith other clovers or grasses.
Italian ryegrass and red clover are now frequently sown
in mixture for soiling, and succeed admirably. It is, how-
ever, a wiser course to sow them separately, as by substi-
tuting the Italian ryegrass for clover, for a single rotation,
the farmer not only gets a crop of forage as valuable in aU
respects, but is enabled, if he choose, to prolong the in-
terval betwiKt the sowings of clover to twelve years, by
sowing, as already recommended, pulse the first round,
Italian ryegrass the second, and clover the third.
These two crops, then, are those on which the arable-
land farmer mainly relies for green forage. To have them
good, he must be prepared to make a liberal application of
manure. Good farm-yard dung may be applied with
advantage either in autumn or spring, taking care to cart
it upon the land only when it is dry enough to admit of
this being done without injury. It must also be spread
very evenly so soon as emptied from the carts. But it is
usually more expedient to use either guano, nitrate of soda,
or soot, for this purpose, at the rates respectively of 2 cwt.,
1 cwt., and 20 bushels. If two or more of these substances
are used, the quantities of each will bo altered in proportion.
They are best also to be applied in two or three portions
at intervals of fourteen to twenty days, beginning towards
the end of December, and only when rain seems inuninent
or has just fallen.
■When manure is broadcast over a young clover field,
and presently after washed in by rain, the effect is identical
with that of first dissolving it in water, and then distribut-
ing the dilution over the surface, with this difference,
namely, that the first plan costs only the price of the guano,
(fee, and is available at any time and to every one, whereas
the latter implies the construction of tanks and costly
machinery.
Section 6. — Vetclies.
Vetches are another very valuable forage crop. Being
indigenous to Britain, and not fastidious in regard to soil,
they can be cultivated successfully under a great diversity
of circumstances, and are well adapted for poor soils. By
combining the winter and spring varieties, and making
several sowings of each in its season at intervals of two
or three weeks, it is practicable to have them fit for use
from May till October, and thus to carry out a system of
soiling by means of vetches alone. But it is usuaUy more
expedient to use them in combination with grass and clover,
b«ginning with the first cutting of the latter in May,
taking the winter vetches in June, recurring to the Italian
iresrraas or clover as the second cutting is ready, and
afterwards bringing the spnng vetches into use. Each
crop can thus be used when in its best state for cattle food,
and so as gratefully to vary their dietary.
Winter Vetchea. — There is no botanical difference between
winter and spring vetches, and the seeds being identical
in appearance, caution is required in purchasing seed to
get it of the right sort Seed grown in England is found
the most suitable for sowing in Scotland, as it vegetates
more quickly, and produces a more vigorooj plant than
that which is home-grown. Aa the great inducement to
cultivate this crop is the obtaining of a supply of nutritiouB
green food which shall be ready for use about the Ist May,
and so as to fiU up the gap which is apt to occur bet\rixt
the root crops of the previous autumn and the ordinary
summer food, whether for grazing or soiling, it is of the
utmost importance to treat it in such a way that it may
be ready for use by the time mentioned. To secure this,
winter tares should be sovra. in August if possible, but
always as soon as the land can be cleared of the precediug
crop. They may yield a good crop though sown in October,
but in this case will probably be very little in advance of
early-sown spring vetches, and possess little, if any, advan-
tage over them in any respect The land on which tl.oy
are sown should be dry and well sheltered, clean, and in
good heart, and be further enriched by ploughing into it
from 12 to 15 loads of farm-yard manure. Not less than
3J bushels of seed per acre should be sown, to which some
think it beneficial to add half a bushel of wheat. Eye is
frequently used for this purpose, but it gets reedy in the
stems, and is rejected by the stock. Winter beans are
better than either. The land having been ploughed rather
deeply, and well harrowed, it is found advantageous to
deposit the seed in rows, either by a drilling-machine or
by ribbing. The latter is the best practice, and the ribs
should be at lea.st a foot apart and rather deep, that the
roots may be well developed before top-growth takes place.
As soon in spring as the stato of the land and weather
admits of it, the crop should be hoed betwixt the drills, a
top-dressing at the rate of 40 bushels of soot or 2 cwt of
guano per acre applied by sowing broadcast, and the roller
then used for the double purpose of smoothing the surface
so as to admit of the free use of the scj-the, and of pressing
down the plants which may have been loosened by frost
It is thus by early sowing, thick seeding, and Uberal
manuring, that this crop is to be forced to an early and
abundant maturity. May and June are the months in
which winter vetches are used to advantage. A second
growth will be produced from the roots if the crop ia
allowed to stand ; but it Ls much better practice to plough
up the land as the crop is cleared, and to sow turnips upon
it After a full crop of vetches, land is usually in a good
state for a succeeding crop. When the whole process has
been well managed, the gross amount of cattle food yielded
by a crop of winter vetches, and the turnip crop by wliich
it is followed in the same summer, will be found consider-
ably to exceed what could be obtained from the fullest crop
of turnips alone, grown on similar soil, and with the same
quantity of manure. It is vain to sow this crop where
game abounds.
Spring Vetches, if sown about the 1st of March, ^\-ill be
ready for use by 1st July, when the winter vetches are just
cleared off. To obtain the full benefit of this crop, the
land on which it is sown must be clean, and to keep it so
a much fuller allowance of seed is required than is usuclly
given in Scotland. When the crop is as thick set as it
should be, the tendrils interwine, and the ground is covered
by a solid mass of herbage, under which no weed can
live. To secure this, not less than 4 bushels of seed per
acre should be used if sown broadcast, or 3 bushels if in
drUls. The latter plan, if followed by hoeing, is certainly
FORAGE CE0P3.J
the best ; for if the weeds are kept in check until the crop
is fairly established, they have no chance of getting up
afterwards. With a thin crop o-f vetches, on the other
hand, the land is so certain to get foul, that they should at
once be ploughed down, and something else put in their
place. As vetches are in the best state for use when the
seeds begin to form in the pods, repeated sowings are
made at intervals of three weeks, beginning by the end of
February, or as early in March as the season adtnits, and
■continuing tOl May. The usual practice in Scotland has
been to sow vetches on part of the oat break, once ploughed
from lea. Sometimes this does very well, but a far better
plan is to omit sowing clover and grass seeds on part of
the land occupied by wheat or barley after turnips, and
having ploughed that portion in the autumn to occupy it
with vetches, putcing them instead of " seeds " for one
revolution of the course.
When vetches are- grown on poor soils, the most pro-
fitable way of using them is by folding sheep upon them,
a practice very suitable also for clays, upon which a root
crop cannot safely be consumed in this way. A different
course must, however, be adopted from that followed when
turnips are so disposed of When sheep are turned in
upon a piece of tares, a large portion of the food is trodden
down and wasted. ' Cutting the vetches and putting them
into racks does not much mend the matter, as much is Still
pulled out and wasted, and the manure unequally dis-
tributed over the land. To avoid those evils, hurdles with
vertical spars, betwixt wiliich the sheep can reach with head
and neck, are now used. These are set close up to the
growing crop along a considerable stretch, and shifted for-
ward as the sheep eat up what is within their reacL
This requires the constant attention of the shepherd, but
the labour is repaid by the saving of the food, which being
always fresh and clean, does the sheep more good. A
modification of this plan is to use the same kind of hurdles,
but instead of shifting them as just described, to mow a
swathe parallel to them, and fork this forward within reach
of the sheeff as required, repeating this as often during
the day as is found necessary, and at night moving the
sheep close up to the growing crop, so that they may lie for
the next twenty-four hours on the space which has yielded
food for the past day. During the night they have such
picldngs as have been left on the recently-mown space, and
80 much of the growing crop as they can get at through the
spars. There is less labour by this last mode than the
othar, and having practised it for n^iny years we know
that it answers well. This folding upon vetches is suitable
cither for finishing off for market sheep that are in forward
condition, or for recently-weaned lambs, which, after five
or six weeks' folding on this clean, nutritious herbage, are
found to take on more readily to eat turnips, and to thrive
better upon them, than if they had been kept upon the
pastures all the autumn. Sheep folded upon vetches must
have water always at command, otherwise they will not
prosper.
As spring-sown vetches are in perfection at the season
•when pastures usually get dry and scanty, a common
practice is to cart them on to grass land and spread them
out in wisps, to be eaten by the sheep or cattle. Jt is,
however, much better either to have them eaten by sheep
■where they grow, or to cart them to the homestead,''
Section 1. — Beam.
The common field bean has not hitherto been recog-
nised as an available forage plant. Mr Mechi lias, we
believe, the merit of first showing its great value for this
purpose. In the hot di-y summer of 18C8, when pastures
utterly f.nilcd. and men were at their wits' end how to keep
their stock in life, he had recourse to hit bean crop, thcu at
AGRICULTURE
,377
its full growth, and its green pods filled with soft pulse.
His plan of using it was, to'mow_ the needed quantity
daily, pass it through a chaff-cutter, and then setfd it out
in troughs to his sheep in their pastures, and to his cattle
in their stalls. ' The quantity of green food per acre yielded
by a full crop of beans when used Lq this way is very great,
and probably exceeds that of any other cro,p we grow. Aa
Mr Mechi observed, on first announcing his practice, " no
farmer need to be at a loss for food for his live stock who
has a crop of beans at command." We know that many
farmers avaOed themselves of this seasonable hint with
the very best results. That pre-eminently successful
grazier, Mr WiUiam M'Combie, M.P., Till3rfour, has, in his
instructive pamphlet, shown how useful it is to have a
few acres of mixed beans, peas, and tares ready to give to
cattle in forward condition in the month of August, by
laying down to them daily on their pastures a. supply of
this very palatable and nourishing forage. By this ex-
pedient they make rapid progress at a s.eason when they
would lose the condition they had already gained if left
dependent on the then faUing pasturage. W'e can testify
from experience that we never have our ca'ttle make such
rapid progress on any kind of food as when thus supplied
with green pulse on autumn pastures.
Section 8. — Mustard.
After a crop of vetches has been consumed, if the season
is too far advanced to admit of turnips beii;g sown, it ia
not unusual to take a crop of white mustard or crimson
clover.
By means of the crops now enumeratea, the practice of
soiling can be carried out in all cases where it is practicable.
There are other valuable crops of this kind, several of
which we shall now describe ; but their culture is either
limited by their requirements in regard to soil and climate,
or attended with too great expense to admit of their com-
peting with those already described.
Section 9. — Sainfoin.
This very important forage plant would be well entitled
to a more prominent place in our list but for the circum-
stance that it is only on dry calcareous soils that its
excellences are fully developed ; and to these, accordingly,
its culture may be said to be confined. In aU the chalk
districts of England sainfoin occupies an important place
in the rotation of crops. Referring to the chalky downs
round Ilsley in Berks, Mr Caird says : — " About a tenth
part of the land is kept under sainfoin, in which it remains
for four years, being each year cut for hay, of which it
gives an excellent crop. A farmer having 40 acres of
sainfoin sows out 10 acres and breaks up 10 acres
annually. This goes regularly over the whole farm, the
sainfoin not returning on the same field for considerable
intervals, and when its turn comes round the field receives
a rest of four years from the routine of cultivation. It
is then ploughed up in spring, and sown with oats on
one furrow, the crop of which is generally excellent, as
much as 80 bushels an acre not being uncommon." ' The
seed, at the rate of 4 bushels per acre, is drilled in
immediately after barley or oats has been sown, working
the drUl at right angles to its course when it deposited the
grain. It is frequently pastured for one or more years
before being mown either for green forage or for hay. It
is sometimes allowed to stand for eight or ten years, but
the plan described in the above quotation is the mor&
a]iproved one. A variety called <jia7it sainfoin has been
introduced by Mr Hart of Ashwell, Herts. As compared
with the comnioli sort it is more rapid in its growth in
* Caini's Eh'jUsK AyricuU'irc^ p. P4
48
578
AGRICULTURE
[rOUAOE 0KOF£,
ipring, and Btill more so after the first and second cuttings.
Throe cuttings for hay, and one of these ripening the seed,
have bee^i yielded by it in one year, and a good oddish
after oU. The yield from it in the first year after sowing
is large in compariaon with the common sainfoin, from its
attaining maturity much sooner ; but for the same reason
it Ls thought judicious to breai it up after three years,
while still in vigour.
Section 10." — Lticeme.
Lucerne is much cultivated as a forage crop in Franco
and other parts of the continent of Europe, but has never
come into general use in Britain. It is, however, frequently
met with in small patches in districts where the soil is
very light, with a dry subsoil. Its thick tap-roots penetrate
very deeply into the soil ; and if a good cover is once
obtained, the plants will continue to yield abundant cuttings
of herbage for eight or ten years, provided they are statedly
top-dressed and kept free from perennial weeds. In
cultivating lucerne, the ground must first be thoroughly
cleaned, and put into good heart by consuming a turnip
crop upon it with sheep. In March or April, the surface-
soil having first been brought .to a fine tilth, the seed, at
the rate of 10 lb per acre, is sown in rows 15 to 18
inches apart As soon as the plants appear they must be
freed from weeds by careful hoeing and hand-weeding,
repeated as occasion requires. Little produce is obtained
from them the first season, and not a very heavy cutting
the second; but by the third year two or more abundant crops
of herbage will bo produced, peculiarly suitable for horse-
feed. It is the slow growth of the plants at first, and the
difficulty of keeping them free from weeds on those dry
soils which alone are adapted for growing lucerne, that
have deterred farmers from growing it more extensively
than has hitherto been done. We have grown it success-
fully in Berwickshire on a muiry soil resting on sandstone
rock, in an exposed situation, at an elevation of 400 feet
The time to cut it is, as with clover and sainfoin, when it
IS in full flower.
Section, 11. — Chicory, dc.
Chicory, hurnet, cow-parsnip, and prickly eomfrey, ali
known to be palatable to cattle and yielding a large bulk
of produce, have probably been less carefully experimented
with than their merits deserve. Although they have long
figured in such notices as the present, or in occasional
paragraphs in agricultural periodicals, they have never yet,
that we are, aware of, been subjected to such a trial as
either conclusively to establish their claim to more extended
culture, or to justify the neglect which they have hitherto
experienced.
Section 12. — Gorse or Whin.
Notmthstanding its formidable spines, the young shoots
of this hardy evergreen yield a palatable and nutritious
winter forage for horses and cattle. To fit it for this
purpose it must be chopped and bruised to destroy the
spines. This is sometimes done in a primitive and laborious
way by laying the gorso upon a block of wood and beating
it with a mallet, flat at one end and armed with crossed
knife-edges at the other, by the alternate use of which it
is bruised and chopped. There are now a variety of
machines by which this is done rapidly and eflicieutly, and
which are in use where this kind of forage is used to any
extent. The agricultural value of this plant has often been
over-rated by theoretical writers. In the case of very poor,
dry soils, it does, however, yield much valuable food at a
season when green forage is not otherwise to be had. It
is on. this account of importance to dairymen; and to
them' it ha-i this further recuniineudatiou, that cows fed
apon it give much rich milk, which is free f^om any
Unpleasant -flavour. ' To turn it to good account, it ciust
be sown in drills, kept clean by hoeing, and treated as a
regular green crop. If sown in "ilarch, on hind fitly pro-
pared and aftenvards duly cared for, it is ready for use
in the autumn of the following year. A succession of
cuttings of proper age is obtained for several years from
the same field. It is cut by a short stout scythe, and must
be brought from the field daily ; for when put in a heap
after being chopped and bruised it heats rapidly. It ia
given to horses and cows in combination with chopped
hay or straw. An aero will produce about 2000 faggots
of green two-year-old gorse, weighing 20 lb each.
This plant is invaluable in mountain sheep-walks. The
rounded form of the furze bushes that are met with in
such situations shows how diligently the annual growth,
as far as it ia accessible, is nibbled by the sheep. The
food and shelter aflforded to them in snow-storms by.
clusters of such bushes is of such importance that the
wonder is our sheep farmers do not bestow more pains to
have it in adequate quantity. Young plants of whin are
so kept down by the sheep that they can seldom attain to
a profitable size unless protected by a fence for a few years.
Section 13. — Tuasac Grcui.
The tussao grass of the Falkland Islands has of lat«
years attracted considerable attention as a forage plant
From its gigantic growth^ even in those uiigeuial regions,
and the txtraordinary relish manifested for it by horses
and cattle, sanguine hopes were entertained that it was to
prove a truly valuable addition to our present list of forage
plants ; but the attempts hitherto made to introduce it in
Britain have not been of a very encouraging kind. The
only successful cases have been in the Orkneys and ia
Lewis. Messrs Lawson of Edinburgh, who have given
much attention to it, say — " Our own experience leads to
the conclusion, that locaHties vrithin influence of the sea
spray, the soil being of a peaty nature, are without doubt-
the best adapted for the growth of the tussac; and in such
places it is Ukely to be of great service, as few other
nutritive grasses will exist there. In our own experi-
mental grounds it does not thrive well; which may
perhaps be accounted for by the nature of the soil, which
ia Hght and dry. Regarding its value as a forage plant,
we have before us an analysis made, at our request, by
Professor Johnston, the results of which show that ' the
tussac grass ought to be very nutritive.' Propagation, ia
the absence of seed, is easily effected, under favourable,
circumstances, by subdivision of the roots."
We have thus noticed all the more important of our
forage crops of ascertained value. Additions will probably
be made to them from time to time, especially from the
increased attention now bestowed on green crops of all
kinds. It has lately been suggested that maize and also
lupins, although unfit for our climate as grain crops, might
with advantage be tried as forage plants.' Both are
successfully grown for this purpose in Germany. Being
unable to withstand frost, they should be sown not earUer
than May. The maize requires a deep rich soil; the
lupins again are said to do best on light siliceous soils.
Both should be sown in rows 15 to 18 inches apart, and
seeded at the rate of 2 bushels per acre. A trial which
we made with lupins (both the blue and the yellow sorts)
in 1858, on a light moorland, proved a total failure.
Section 14. — Haymaking.
Having spoken of the cultivation and use in a green
state of herbage and forage crops, it remains to describe
the process by which they are preserved for use in a dry
state, or made into hoy. On every farm a supply of good.
HAY.]
AGRICULTURE
37<)'
hay, adequate to the wantg ot its own hve stock, ia, or at
least ought to be, statedly provided. This is no doubt
an expensive kind of food, but on the other hand it is
highly nutritious, and conduces much to the healthfulness
of the animals fed upon it. Many a valuable farm horse
is annually sacrificed to a false economy in feeding him
solely on innutritions straw or ill-gotten hay. The
owners of such stock would do well to consider that the
death of a horse yearly, and the impaired health and
condition of the whole stud, more than counterbalance
any saving that can be effected by using bad fodder instead
of good. But the great consumption of hay is by the
numerous horses constantly required in this country for
other purposes than farm labour. In the vicinity of towns
hay is therefore a staple agricultural product, and hay-
making an important branch of rural economy. It is one
in the practice of which English farmers generally excel
their brethren north of the Tweed. In the counties near
the metropolis, in particular, this process is conducted with
admirable skili
In converting the grasses and forage plants into hay,
the object is to get quit of the water which they contain,
amounting to nearly two-thirds of their weight, with the
least possible loss of their nutritive qualities. In order to
this the crops must be mown at'that stage of their growth
when the greatest weight of produce with the maximum of
nutritive value can be obtained; and then it is necessary
80 to conduct the drj-ing process that the inspissated juices
shall not Jae washed out and lost by external wetting. A
simple and sufficiently accurate rule for determining the
first point is to mow when the plants are in full flower. -If
this stage is exceeded, both the quality ot the hay and the
amount of the.foggage or aftermath are seriously impaired.
It follows from this that mowing should be commenced
somewhat earlier than the stage indicated, otherwise, before
the whole can be cut the last portion will have exceeded
the proper de^ee of ripeness. By cutting a part too soon
a sUght loss of weight is incurred, which, however, is
compensated for by a better aftermath; whereas if part ia
allowed to mature the seeds, there is a loss of weight,
quality, and aftermath. - Haymaking, to be done weU, must
be done quickly, and in order to this a full supply of
labourers is indispensable. As a good mower can cut on
an average an acre in a day, as many must be engaged as
can overtake the extent of crop while it is in the best state
for cutting. It is of great importance, too, to have the
grass cut close to the ground. A loss of from 5 to 10
per cent, on the gross produce is frequently incurred by
unskilful or careless mowers leaving the sward too high.
Now that efficient mowing-machines can be had, this work
can be performed with a celerity and accuracy hitherto
nnattainable. To admit of accurate and expeditious mow-
ing, whether by scjthe or machine, care must be taken, at
the proper season, to remove aU stones and other obstruc-
tions, and to make the surface smooth by rolling.
Confining our attention, in the first place, to ijatnral
meadow grass, let us glance at the process as conducted by
those who are most proficient in it. The mowers having
commenced their work at sunrise, the haymakers, in the
proportion of two m^n and three women to each mower, so
soon as the dew is off, shake out the swathes evenly ever
the whole ground, until they have overtaken as much as
they can get into cocks the same day. 'This q\;antity they
now turn and toss about as frequently as possible, getting
it, before evening, either into a compact windrow, or
forming it into very small cocks. «Next day these cocks
are again opened out, and as much more of the grass in
awathe as can be overtaken, all of which is anew subjected
to- the same repeated turnings, and again, as evening
approaches, secured from dew and rain by windrowing
and cocking; thai which is driest being put into larger
cocks than on the previous day. If the weather is hot and
parching, that which was first cut is by the fourth day
ready for the stack, and is immediately carried. A large
rick-cloth is drawn over the incipient stack until more hay
is in condition to be added to it, and then, if weather
favour, the whole process, from mowing to stacking, for a
time goes on simultaneously, and is speedily completed.
As the building of the stack proceeds, its sides are, by
pulling, freed from loose hay, and straightened: and when
completed it is thatched with the least possible delay. If
the weather prove showery, the grass is left untouched in
the swathe until it begins to get yellow on the under side,
in which case it is usually turned over without opening out
until weather again favour. To produce fine hay, care
must be taken to secure from dew or rain by cocking
before nightfall all that has been spread out during the
day — never to touch it until dew or wet is off — to shake
all out so thoroughly as that the whole may be dried alike
— and never to suffer it, after being tedded out, to lie so
long as to get scorched on one side. When these operations
are conducted successfully, the hay is of a fine hght-green
colour, delightfully fragrant, and retains its nutritious
matter unimpaired. To accomplish this in our variable
climate much skill and energy, and an ample command
of labour, are necessary.
The cost and labour of this process are now, indeed,
much reduced by the use of machinery, consisting of-
mower, tedder, and rake, by means of which a man and
pair of horses can do the work of ten scythemen, and
another man and horse can toss, turn, and draw into
windrows as much grass as could be overtaken in the
same time by fifteen people. The hay-tedder, moreover,
shakes out the grass more thoroughly than it can be done
by hand. After the hay is gathered into rows, horse labour
is also sometimes employed to coUept it into heaps by
means of a sweep, that is, a piece of plank with a rope
attached to each end of it, by which a horse draws it
along on edge, while two lads hold it down, and the hay is
thus pushed forward in successive portions, which are
then by hand labour made into orderly cocks. The yield
of meadow hay ranges from 1 to 2 tons per acre, and the
cost of making it is about 10s. per ton. In London hay
is brought to market in trusses, each weighing 56 lb,
36 of which are called a load. In cutting up a stack
these trusses are removed from it in compact cubes, which
are then neatly secured by bands of tVIsted hay.
In converting the cultivated forage crops, such as clover
(either pure or mixed with ryegrass), sainfoin, lucerne, or
vetches, into hay, the procedure varies considerably from
that pursued with the natural grasses. A considerable
part of these plants consists of broad tender leaves, which,
when scorched by the sun, become so dry and brittle that,
on the least rough handling, they fly into dust, aud are
totally lost. These crops, therefore, do not admit of being
shaken asunder and tossed about like the natural grasses,
a circumstance which unfortunately forbids the use of
the tedding-machine in getting them. The swathes are
accordingly left untouched until they have got slightly
withered on the upper side, after which they are turned
several times with as little breaking up as possible ; made
up first into small cocks, opened out again, gently turned,
and made into larger cocks, which as speedily as possible
are carried and stacked. These crop."* can be stacked with
safety in a very green state by mixing with them frequent
layers of clean dry straw, by which the redundant juices
are absorbed, and injurious heating prevented. The straw
thus impregnated acquires a flavour which renders it palat-
able to cattle ; but it is advisable, when this practice is
adopted, to cut the whole into chaff before using it as fodder.
380
AGRICULTURE
[klax.
When it ia desired to save the seeds of Italian or
common ryegrass, the crop, after being mcrwn, ia allowed to
lie for a day or two in swathe, and is then neatly gathered
into sheaves, bound, and stocked, precisely like a crop of
oats. When sufBciently dried, the seed is cither thrashed
out in the field, the straw stacked like other hay, and the
seed spread thinly over a granary floor, and turned several
times doUy until it ia dry enough to keep in a bin or
in sacks ; or the sheaves are built into small round stacks,
which stand until the seed is wanted, when it ia thrashed
out by machinery like grain.
Of late years wo have frequently secured considerable
quantities of useful hay by mowing seeds that had been
pastured by sheep in the early part of the season. In July
we run the mowing-machines over such fields, taking care
to set the cutting-bar high enough to leave the fresh-grown
herbage untouched, and to remove only that of older and
taller growth. The mown stuff ia loft untouched for two
or three days ; is then drawn together by the horse rake,
and put into cocks for a short time, or carted at once to
the rick-yard as weather permits. In this way much
herbage that would otherwise go to waste is converted
into useful winter fodder, and a fresh-grown clean pasture
secured for lambs or other stock.
CHAPTER XIV.
CtTLTIVATED 0E0P8 CE0P8 OF LIMITED OULTITATION.
Under this head we shall notice a variety of crops which,
however valuable in themselves, and important to the
farmers of particular localities, are, from one cause or other,
not adapted for general cultivation
Section 1. — Flax.
Flax is probably the most important of these crops. In-
deed, from the rapid growth of our linen trade, the growing
demand for linseed and its products, and the fitness of the
soil and climate for the successful growth of flax, it is not
without cause that its more extended cultivation has been
so strenuously urged upon our farmers, and that influential
societies have been organised for the express purpose of
promoting this object. Viewed merely as an agricultural
crop, the cultivation of flax is exceedingly simple, and
could be practised as readily and extensively as that of the
cereal crops. The difficulty is, that before it can be
disposed of to any advantage, it must undergo a process of
partial manufacture ; thus there is required not only an
abundant supply of cheap labour, but such an amount of
skill and personal superintendence on the part of the farmer
as is incompatible with duo attention to corn and cattle
husbandry. If a ready and remunerative market were
available for the fibre in its simple form of flax straw, this,
in combination with the value of the seed for cattle feeding,
would at once hold out sufficient motive to our farmers to
grow it statedly and to any required extent. Until this
is the case, its culture cannot extend in the corn-growing
districts of Great Britain.' In Ireland and parts of the
Highlands of Scotland, where there is a redundant popula-
tion much in want of such employment as the flax crop
furnishes, and where the climate is suited for its growth,
it is highly desirable that its culhire should extend, and
probable tiat it will do so. Flax prospers most when
grown upon land of firm texture resting upon a moist
BubsoQ. It docs well to succeed oats or potatoes, as it
requires the soil to be in fresh condition without being too
rich. Lands newly broken up from pasture suit it well, as
these are generally freer from weeds than those that have
been long under tillage. It ia usually inexpedient to apply
manure directly to the flax crop, as the tendency of thia is
to produce over-luxuriance, and thereby to mar the quality
ot the fibre, on which its value chiefly depends. For the
same reason it must be thickly seeded, the effect of this
being to produce tall slender 'sterna, free from branches.
The bnd having been ploughed in autumn, is prepared for
sowing by working it with the grubber, harrow, and roller,
until a fine tilth is obtained. On the smooth surface the
seed ia sown broadcast by hand or machine, at the rato of
3 bushels per acre, and covered in the same manner aa
clover seeds. It is advisable immediately to hand-rake it
with common hay-rakes, and thus to remove all stones and
clods, and to secure a uniform close cover of plants.
When these are about 3 inches long the crop must be
carefully hand-weeded. Thia ia a tedioua and expensive
process, and hence the importance of sowing the crop on
land as free aa possible from weeds of all kinds. To obtain
flax of the very finest quality the crop must be pulled as
soon aa the flowers fall, but in the improved modes of
steeping, whether by Schenck'a or Watt's patent, the value
of the fibre ia not diminished by allowing the seeds to
mature. It must not, however, be allowed to become dead
ripe, but should be pulled whenever the seeds appear, on
opening the capsule, to be slightly Brown-colourei The
pulling requires to be managed with much care. It is
performed by men or women, who seize a small quantity
with both handa and pull it by a alight jerking effort The
important point to be attended to is to keep the butts even
as successive quantities are seized and t\vitched from the
ground. When a convenient handful has been pulled it ia
laid on the ground, and the next parsdlel to it at a foot or
so apart. The next handfuls are laid across these, and so
on until a small pile is made, after which another is begun.
After lying in this position for a few days, the seed-vessels
or bolla are separated from the flax by lifting each handful
separately and pulling the top through a ripple or iron
comb fixed upon a piece of plank. Aa many of these
handfuls as will make a small sheaf are then laid very
evenly together, and bound near both ends with bands
formed of a few stems of flax. These sheaves are set up
in stooks, and when dry enough to keep without heating
are stacked and thatched until an opportunity occurs of
disposing of the flax straw. Sometimes the flax is bound
into sheaves and stooked as it is pulled, and treated exactly
like a grain crop. In this case the seed is separated from
the straw by passing the head of each sheaf between iron
rollers. The only objection to this plan is that the bolla of
separate sheaves get so entangled in each other as to render
it exceedingly difficult to handle them in carrying the crop,
and in building and taking down the stacks, without die-
arranging the sheaves and wasting much straw and seed.
It would be tedious to enter here into a minute detail of
the ordinary method of separating the flax fibre from the
woody part of the stem. Suffice it to say that in the
ordinary practice the sheaves or beets of flax straw are
immersed in a pit or pool filled with clear soft water. The
sheaves are kept under water by laj-ing boards upon them
loaded with stones to keep them down. Here the flax
undergoes a process of fermentation by which the parts at«
separated. About nine or ten days are usually required for
this purpos<^, but this is much influenced by the temperature^
A good deal of skill and close watching is required to know
exactly when it has been watered enough. The flax is now
taken from the pit and evenly spread upon a smooth, clean,
recently-mown meadow, where it lies for about' ten days
more, receiving several turnings the while. When the
retting, as this is called, ia perfected, the flax is carefully
gathered up when perfectly dry, and again tied into sheaves,
in wlych state it ia stored under cover until the breaking
and scutching can be overtaken.
All this necessarily requires much skilful watching and
nice maninulation, — more, aa we have already said, than is
HOPS.]
AGRICULTUKE
381
compatible with the other avocations ot an extensive fanner.
There are, however, improved modes of accomplishing this
preliminary manufacture of flax which, wherever estab-
lished, pave the way for the growth of flax as an ordinary
field crop. For these see article Flax
The extent of flax cultivation in Ireland is considerable,
but the acreage has been gradually diminishing during
late years. In 1864 it reached the maximum, 301,693
acres; next year it fell to 251,433. Since 1869 it has
steadily declined, there being 229,252 acres in flax crop
that year, and only 122,003 in 1872.
Hemp, although at one time very generally grown in
Great Britain, is now so rarely met with that it is unneces-
sary to enter into details of its cultivation.
Section 2. — Hops.
The hop IS an important crop in several of the southern
counties of England. Although an indigenous plant, it
was originally brought into England for cultivation from
Flanders in 1525. It is cultivated to a considerable extent
in Belgium, Bavaria, in the United States of America, and
more recently in Australia. Hops, as is well known, are
chiefly used for preserving and imparting a peculiar flavour
to beer. Probably the only parts of the hop flower which
enter into the composition of the beer are the seeds, and
the yellow glutinous matter which surrounds the outer in-
teguments of the seed, and lies at the bottom of the petals.
This yellow matter (technically termed the condition of the
hop) has an intensely bitter taste, and emits a peculiar and
very agreeable aroma, which, however, is extremely volatile ;
and hence the necessity for close packing as soon as possible
after the hops are dried. When kept over a year, much
of thisi aroma flies off, and hence new hops are indispensable
in brewing the first kinds of beer. Several varieties of the
hop are cultivated in England. Of these, the Famham
and Canterbury vihitebines and goldings are esteemed
the finest These are tall varieties, requiring poles of
from 14 to 20 feet. The grapes, so called from grow-
ing in clusters, and of which there are several varieties
of various quality, require poles from 10 to 14 feet long.
Jones's, adapted for lighter and inferior land, requires
these but 8 to 10 feet. The colegates are a hardy and
late-ripening variety, which grow best on stiff soils ; and
the Flemish redbine, only cultivated from its less UabHity
than the other to be attacked by the aphis or black blight
The Jiop is a very exhausting crop for the land, requir-
ing to be planted only on the most fertile soUs, and to have
them sustained by freq lent and large dressings of manure
rich in nitrogen. Hops are principally cultivated in the
counties of Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Hants, Worcester, and
Hereford, and to a more limited extent in Essex, Suffolk,
and Nottingham. The best quality of hops are grown at
Farnham in Kent, upon the outcrop of the upper greensand
formation, from whence the phosphatic nodules or coproUtes
now so well known in the manure market are obtained.
In 1871 the land under hop cultivation in Great Britain
measured 60,030 acres; in 1872 it amounted to 61,927
acres, of which there were in Kent 37,927, in Sussex 9738,
and in Hereford 6106 acres.
In forming a new plantation, the ground Boon after Michaelmas
13 trenched to the depth of 18 inches, if it has previously been
in meadow or old pasture, taking care not to bury the surface-soil
above half that depth. Subsoil-ploughing will suffice with land
that is in tillage. If the land is wet, drains are made &om 4 to
6 feet deep, laid with pipes, and a foot of broken stones over tbera,
to prevent the roots of the hops from obstructing the pipes. The
distance between the drains is determined by the necessities of each
case. Perfect draining is essential to the success of the crop ; and the
hops are planted in squares or triangles at equal distances, varying
from 6 to 7 feet, according to the fertility of the soil and the
greater or less luxuriant habit of growth of the variety selected.
Tile plants ue raised by auttiog off the Uven or shoota of the pre-
ceding year, which are beddul out during the month of March iu
ground previously prepared, and in the succeeding autumn become
what are called nursery plants or bedded sets. Early in November
these are planted, one, two, or three being used for a hill according
to the strength of the plants. Care must be taken to introduce a
sufficient number-of ■male plants, six hills to the acre being deemed
sufficient The presence of these is found to induce earlier matu-
rity, and to improve both the quality and weight of the crops.
The ground must at all times be kept free from weeds and have a
good depth of pulverised aoU. From the first, a stick, 6 feet high
or 80, is placed to each bill, to which all the young bines, as they
shoot out during summer, must be tied. A liberal dressinc' of
sujperphosphate of lime and guano is in June hoed in around each
hiU, which is repeated in July, under which treatment 2 or 3 cwt
of hops is obtained the first year, in addition to a crop of mangolds,
turnips, or potatoes, grown in the intervals between the hilla. On
newly broken up ground lime is applied the following spring.
When a plantation has been establisned, the annual routine of
culture begins in autumn, as soon as the crop has been gathered,'
when the hanlm is stripped from the poles, and stored away as a
substitute for straw. The poles are stacked or piled in quantities
of 400 or 500, at regular distances on the ground. During winter
they are sorted and repointed when required, and new ones substi-
tuted for those that are broken or decayed ; this work and the
carrying on of manure being accomplished in frosty weather. The
ground is dug over by the fork at this season. In March the earth
is removed from the plants by a beck or pronged hoe till the crown
is exposed, that the plant may be pruned. Immediately after this
the poles are set, the length and number of these for each bill
depending upon the kind ot hops and amount of growth anticipated.
They are fixed into holes made for them by a hop-bar. As the
season advances, the ground is hoed and again dug or stirred by li
nidget or scarifier drawn by a horse. Early in May the bines or
young shoots, as soon as long enough, are tied to the poles with
rushes or bast This tying is repeated several times as the bines
get higher, and has even to be done by s-tep-ladders. In June > the
hops are earthed up or hilled, at which time weak plants get a
dressing of guano. Throughout the summer weeds are destroyed as
they appear, and the soil kept loose by the nidget or the hand-hoe. If
poles are blown over by high winds, they are immediately replaced.
The picking of the hops usually begins about the second week in
September, and furnishes ample employment for several weeks to
the entire population of the districts, and to a large infiux of
strangers ; men, women, and children all engaging in it. The
hop-pickers are arranged into companies, and are supplied with
baskets or bins, holding 7 or 8 bushels each, which are gauged
with black lines inside to save the trouble of measuring. Each
company is tmder the superintendence of a hop-bailiff, whokeeps an
account of the earnings, &c. Under him are several men called
pole-pullers, whose duty it is to supply the pickers with poles of
hops, and to assist in carrying the picked hops to the carts. They
use an iron lever called a hop-dog in pulling up the poles. The
hops are picked, one by one, into the bins, care l^ing taken that no
bunches, nor leaves, nor mouldy hops, are included. The hops are
dried in kilns or oast-houses, on floors of haircloth. Great improve-
ments have been made of late years in the construction of these oasts.
Much nice discrimination is required in 'managing the drying so as
to produce the best quality of hops. As soon as they are removed
from the kiln they are packed into pockets, which during the
process are suspended from a hole in the floor, and the hops trwiden
mto them by a man. This is now done more accurately by
machines, in which a piston presses the hops into the pockets.
Hop-growing is a hazardous speculative business, the return at times
being very great and at other times not covering expenses. This
arises from the liability of the hop to the attacks of insects, but more
especially to blight and mould. The blight is caused by innumer-
able hordes of th^ Aphis humuli, which sometimes destroy the plants
altogether. The mould is a parasitical fungus. It is believed that
a means has at last been discovered of checking the ravages of these
assailants, by enveloping each plant separately in a light covering,
and subjecting it to the fumes of tobacco in the case of blight and
to a cloud of powdered brimstone in the case of mildew. In blight
years it ususily happens that some grounds altogether escape, in
which case the returns from them are enormous, owing to the
enhanced price.
Section 3. — Sugar-Beet.
The Silcsian white beet has long been cultivated in
various states of continental Europe for the production of
sugar, and in several of them is now a staple product ef
very great value and importance. After several abortive
attempts to introduce this industry into our own country, it
seems at last to have obtained a firm footing in England,
through the enterpn'se and perseverance of Mr James
382
A G 11 I C U L T U R E
[aUCAR-BEET.
Duncan, sugar-rcfiner, of Mincing Lane, London, who five
years ago erected the necessary buildings and machinery
at Lavenham, in Suffolk. Through the kindness of Mr
Duncan wo are enabled to submit to our readers the follow-
ing details regarding this most interesting enterprise.
The sugar factory at Lavenham was erected in 18C8,
although not completed until February 18G9. Mr Duncan
had first of all contracted with various farmers in that
neighbourhood to grow beet for him at the price of 203.
per ton of clean roots, delivered at his factory, with the
option to the growers of receiving back tho resulting pulp
at 123. per ton, if removed as made. Mr Duncan also
procured from the continent the necessary supplies of
seed of the best sort, and furnished the growers with in-
structions as to tho proper modo of cultivatidn. In grow-
ing mangolds farmers try to grow the largest possible weight
per acre, and for this purpose they manure heavily, and
give the individual plants ample space. This will not do in
the ca.se of sugar-beet, as it is found that small roots are
richest in sugar, and that 2 J lb each is tho best size to
aim at. The endeavour, therefore, must be to have the
roots small individually, and yet to secure a good weight
per acre. As the part of the bulb that grows above ground
contains very little sugar, a further object is to have as
little of it exposed to light as possible. All this is accom-
plished by sowing tho crop in rows about 16 inches apart,
end leaving tho plants close to each other. If all is well
managed, the crop should yield from 15 to 20 tons of
cleaned roots per acre. The delivery of the roots at the
factory begins about the end of September, when they are
carted direct from the field as they are pulled. The exi-
gences of wheat-sowing and other field labour at that
season induce the growers to store a considerable part of
their beet crop at home, and to deliver it at the factory
from time to time as they can overtake this heavy cartaga
The roots lose weight rapidly when kept in clamps, to
cover which a little extra price is given as the season
advances. The convenience of the growers is rtuch fur-
thered by this arrangement ; but it sometimes results in
irregular supplies, and consequent loss to the manufacturer.
Omng to the extreme drought of 18C8 the beet was
late in being sown, and the crop was small, amounting
only to 1200 tons; but it was exceedingly rich in sugar.
The follonHng season was moist, and the yield per acre good,
but the area under crop was small, and the total quantity
delivered at the factory about 3000 tons. The year 1870
was again an extremely hot and dry one, with a gross
produce of -1500 tons, which yielded 12 per cent, of syrup.
The produce in 1871 was 6000 tons, yielding 10 per
cent, of syrup, and that of 1872 exceeded 7000 tons of
very good roots ; but the wetness of the season and strikes
among the labourers so protracted the factory work, that
instead of being completed in December it was prolonged
until March, and the percentage of sugar was smaller than
it ought to have been. The particidars of this last crop
are as follows. Th6 total weight of clean roots from 571
acres was —
Delivered fresh from the fields,
Clamped by growers at their farms,
2370 tons.
64P5 „
Of the 571 acres, S9
115
bv
by
61 by
21 -1
7855 „
2 growers averaged 17 tons per acre.
147
10
33
18
15
62
by 26
16
IS
14
18
12
n
10
9
s
So tbat with a total average of 13| tons per acre, two-thirds
01 the crop averaged 15 tons, and the remaining third only
9J tons. The proportion of feeding pulp has been Urge
in 1871 and 1872, — both having been moist seasons, — and
has been 22 per cent, of the weight of the roote. In
1870 it was only 19 per cent. The details of the disposal
of the pulp from crop 1872 are also interesting. Of 1236
tons of pulp purchased by nine farmers —
£97 tons were taken by one,
826 „ by another,
116 ,, by another,
95 ,, by another, not a grower of beet
In addition to these quantities sold, about 500 ton»
were stored at the factory, where at the same time about
100 tons of crop 1871 were still on hand, and in excellent
condition. To this latter fact we can add our own testi-
mony, having been favoured by Mr Duncan with a sample
of it after it had been eighteen months in store, when we
found it perfectly sweet and good, retaining unimpaired
the taste and smell of fresh beet-root. The mode of storing
the pulp is very simple. On a piece of dry ground a trench
is dug out about 7 feet wide and 1 foot deep. Into this
trench tho pulp is firmly trodden by tho feet of the
labourers, and gradually drawn to a point, precisely as is
done in storing roots. The whole is then covered with
earth to the depth of 12 inches; and thus stored, the pulp
keeps well for two or three years. In using it, a thin crust
from the outsides is rejected. In Germany and Austria
tanks of brick-work are iised to economise space, but not
in France or Belgium. Three tons of this jmlp are esti-
mated to be equal in feeding value to one ton of good hay.
Hitherto farmers give the preference to fresh-made pulp ;
but Mr Duncan regards this as quite a mistake, as in his
own practice he finds that pulp a year old is a better feeding
material than when newly made. In 1872 he fattened 50
cattle on pulp three years old, and in the summer of 1873
he had 60 cattle consuming the surplus o{|the previous
season. These cattle (27 yearlings and 33 two-year-olds)
consumed daily 35 cwt. of pulp and 4 cwt. of cut chafiE
(of hay and barley straw) mixed together. The older
beasts received daily in addition 7 fl> each of bean-meal, on
which ration they made good progress. To meet the cart-
age difficulty, Mr Duncan contracted that year (1873)
with one grower to perform the haulage of 2000 tons of
beet roots a distance of 5 miles by a traction engine.
Several joint-stock companies have been formed for
prosecuting this industry, but Mr Duncan's is tl^e only
factory as yet in actual operation. It is known also that
Mr Lawes and Dr Gilbert have for several years been
engaged in extensive experiments on sugar-beet, and with
most succe.ssful results.
The manufacture of sugar from beet-root has attained to
very great dimensions on the continent of Europe. It is
known that from the crop of 1872 there has been produced
1,025,000 tons of sugar, worth £24 per ton, and 250,000
tons of molasses, worth X3 per ton, and that new factories,
some of them on a gigantic scale, are now in course of
erection. A most important fact connected with this
rapidly-extending industry is that the erection of a sugar
factory is immediately accompanied by an improvement in
the agriculture, and an increase in the value of the land,
of the surrounding district In many places farmers gladly
contract to supply beet-root at ISs. per ton for ten years,
on condition that they receive back pulp in fair proportion
to the quantity of root supplied by them. Russia pro-
duces the finest quality of beet, instances being known in
which the roots yielded 10 per cent, of loaf-sugar. There
are good grounds for concluding that Russia will at no
very distant date take a prominent place as a sugar-
producing countiy.
There seems at present a reasonable prospect that the
SEEDS.]
A G R I C; U L T a R E
383
cultivation of sngar-beet will be adopted in various parts
of our own country. It has already been prdved that the
beet grown in -the south-eastern counties of England is
richer in sugar than that produced in the north of France.
.And it seems well-worth while to ascertain, by careful ex-
periment, whether in certain parts of Scotland, such as the
Lothians, Fife, and the carses, sugar-beet could not with
advantage be substituted for the precarious and exhausting
potato crop. The repeal of the sugar-duty would give a
great stimulus to this enterprise, and should be pressed for
in the interest of our native agriculture.
Seclion 4. — Chicory {for its Roots),
The very extensivn and constantly increasing consump-
tion of the roots of chicory as a substitute for coffee, renders
it now an agricultural crop of some importance. The soils
best adapted for its growth are deep friable loams. The
process of cultivation is very similar to that required for
the carrot, excepting only that it is not sown earlier than
the first week of May, lest the plants should run to seed.
When this happens, such plants must be thrown aside
when the crop is dug, else the quality of the whole will
bo injured. About- 4 lb of seed is the quantity to
sow per acre, either broadcast or in rows. The latter is
undoubtedly the best mode, as it admits of the land being
kept clean, and yields roots of greater weight. , The crop is
ready for digging up in November. A long stout fork is the
best implement for this purpose. In using it, care must
be taken to get out the roots entire, not only for the sake
of the roots, but to lessen an inconvenience attendant on
the culture of this plant, namely, that the fragments left in
the soD grow amongst the after crops, and are as trouble-
some as weeds. The roots, when dry, are carefully washed,
cut into thin slices, and kiln-dried, when they are fit for
the coffee-grinder. From 1 to 1 ^ tons per acre of the dried
rcot is an average produce.
Section 5. — Oil-yielding Plants.
Various plants are occasionally cultivated in Britain for
the sake of the oil. which is expressed from their ripened
seeds. We have already noticed the value of fiax-seed for
this purpose, although the fibre is the product which is
chiefly had in view in cultivating it. The plants most
commonly sown expressly as oil-yielding crops are — rape
(Brassica Napui), colza (Brassica campestris olei/era), gold
of pleasure [Camelina sativa), and the poppy {Papaver
tomniferum). Rape is the plant most frequently and ex-
tensively grown for the production of oil. The colza is
said to yield better crops of seed than the other species.
This plant is much cultivated in Flanders for this purpose.
In Great Britain it seems rather on the decline. It is
chiefly on rich alluvial sods that this crop is grown. For
a ae«d-crop rape is sown in June or July, precisely in the
manner already described for turnips. - The young plants
are thiiined out to a width of 6 or 8 inches apart, and
afterwards kept clean by hoeing. The foliage may be
eaten down by sheep early in autumn, without injuring it
for the production of a crop of seed. In spring the horse
and hand hoe must be used, and the previous appUcation
of 1 or 2 cwt. of guano will add to the .'productiveness
of the crop. It suits well to lay down land to clover or
grass after a crop of rape or turnip seed, and for this pur-
pose* the seeds are sown at the time of giving this spring
culture. • The crop must bo reaped as soon as the seeds are
observed' to acquire a light brown colour. The reaping is
managed precisely as we have desccibed in the case of
beans.-- As the crop, after being reaped and deposited in
separate handfuls on the- ground, very soon gets dry enough
for thrashing, and as the seed is very ea.sily shed after this
ia the oifie, tjlia process must besperfurmed as rapfdly as
possible. Sometimes it is conveyed to the thrashing-mill
on harvest carts, on which a cloth is stretched to save the
seeds knocked out in the loading and unloading, but mora
usually the flail is used on temporary thrashing-floors pro-
vided in the field by spreading down largo cloths. Tho
crop is^.gently. lifted from the ground and placed, heads
innermost, on a blanket which two persons grasp by the
corners, and carry to the thrashing-floors. A large number
of people are required to push this process through rapidly,
for unless the crop is quickly handled, a great loss of seed
ensues. The seed is immediately spread thinly upon a
granary floor, and frequently turned until dry enough to
keep in sacks, when it is cleaned and disposed of. Ou
good soil and in favourable seasons the yield sometimes
reaches to 40 bushels per acre. The haulm and husks
are either used for litter or burned, and the ashes spread
upon the land. It makes good fuel for clay-buruing.
Section 6. — Seeds of Agricidtural Crops.
In the case of seed-corn it is customary for farmers
either to select from the best of their own growth, to ex-
change with or purchase from neighbours, or, if they wish
a change from a different locality, to employ a commission-
agent to buy for them. In all districts there are careful
farmers who, by occupying land that produces grain of
good appearance, and being at pains to have good and pure
sorts, are stated sellers of seed-corn, and manage in this
way to get a few shillings more per quarter for a part of
their produce. It is therefore only in the case of new and
rare varieties that professional seedsmen ordinarily deal in
seed-corn. There are, however, other field crops, such as
clovers, grasses, turnip, mangold, carrots, winter vetches,
&c., the seeds of which, to a large extent, pass through the
hands of seedsmen, and the growing of which is restricted
to particular districts, and is in the hands of a limited
number of fanners. Thes^ seed crops are sometimes very
remunerative to the grower ; but are hazardous ones for
farmers to attempt at their own risk.* The only safe course
is to grow them at a stipulated price, to the order of soma
thoroughly respectable seedsman, and to hold to the prcf-
duction of the particular kind or kinds which he requires.
This applies in a less degree to the clovers, and to tho
more commonly cultivated grasses, than to the other seeds
just referred to. Such an arrangement is beneficial to all
concerned.
We have already described (chap, xiii sec. 13) the mode
of saving the seeds of Italian or common ryegrass ; and as
other grasses are managed in the same way, it is unneces-
sary to say more regarding.them.
It is only in the southern parts of England that ctover
is grown for the sake of its seeds. * When it is meant to
take a crop of seed, the clover is fed off with sheep, or
mown early in the season, and then allowed to produce its
flowers and ripen its seeds. This preliminary- eating of
cutting over causes the plants to throw up a greater
number of seed-stems, and to yield a fuller and more equally
ripening crop. The crop is mown when (he seeds are seen
to be matured. In the case of white clover tho cutting
takes place while the dew is upon the crop, as working
amongst it when dry would cause a loss of seed. "After
mowing and turning the crop, the ground is raked with
close-toothed iron rakes, to catch up loose heads. 'The
thrashing is a twofold process — first the seiiaration of the
heads or cobs from tho stem, called " cobbing, '^'and then
of the seeds from the husks, called " drawing.'.' »v This was'
formerly accomplished by a laborious and tedioVkT process
of thrashing with flails, but it is now done by machinery.'
In favourable seasons tho yield is about 6 or j6. bushels
(of 70 lb each) per acre.
' Turnip seed is the uezt iuos> impurtonk crop of this kind
384
A G R I C U L T U R E
[live 8T0CK-
From the strong tendency in the best varieties of turnips
and swedes to degenerate, and the readiness with which
they hybridise with each other, or with any member of the
family Brassica, no small skill and pains are needed to
raise seed that can be depended upon to yield roots of the
best quality. Turnip seed is saved either from selected
and transplanted roots, or from such as have been sown
for the express purpose, and allowed to stand as they grow.
The first plan, if the selection is made by a competent judge,
is undoubtedly that by which seed of the purest quality is
obtained. But it is an expensive way, not only from the
labour required in carrying it out, but from the yield of
seed being generally much lcss>than from plants that have
not been disturbed. Professional seed-growers usually re-
sort to a compromise by which the benefit of both plans is
secured, viz., by selecting with great care and transplant-
ing a limited number of bulbs, and saving the seed obtained
from them to raise the plants which are to stand for their
main seed crop. The latter are carefully examined when
they come into bloom, and all plants destroyed the colour
of whose flower varies from the proper shade. Turnips
that are to bear seed are purposely sown much later in the
season than when intended to produce cattle food, as it is
found that bulbs about 1 tt) weight are less liable to be
injured by frost or to rot before the seed is matured, than
those of larger size. The management of a turnip-seed
crop, both as regards culture and harvesting, is identical
with that of rape for its seeds, which has already been
described.
Mustard. — Both the white and brown mustard is culti-
vated to soma extent in various parts of England. The
former is to bo found in every garden as a salad plant ;
but it ha.s of late been coming into increasing favour as a
forage crop for sheep, and as a green manure, for which
purpose it is ploughed down when about to come into
flower. The brown mustard is grown solely for its seeds,
which yield the well-known condiment. When white mu.".-
tard is cultivated for its herbage, it is sown usuaDy in
Jidy or August, after some early crop has been removed.
The land being brought into a fine tilth, the seed, at the
rate of 12 Bb per a«*e, is sown broadcast, and covered in
the way recommended for clover seeds. In about six weelcs
it is ready either for feeding off by sheep or for ploughing
down as a preparative for wheat or barley. White
mustard is not fastidious in regard to soiL When grown
for a seed crop it is treated in the way about to be de-
scribed for the other variety. For this purpose either kind
requires a fertile soil, as it is an exhausting crop. The
seed is sown in April, is once hoed in May, and requires
no further culture. As soon as the pods have assumed a
brown colour the crop is reaped and laid down in handfuls,
which lie until dry enough for thrashing or stacking. In
removing it from the ground it must be handled with great
care, and carried to the thrashing-floor or stack on cloths,
to avoid the loss of seed. The price depends' much on its
being saved in dry weather, as the quality sufl'ers much
from wet. The yield varies from 20 ta 30 bushels
per acre, and the price from lOs. to 20s. per bushel It
is chiefly grown on rich alluvial soils in the south-eastern
counties of England. This great evil attends its growth,
that the seeds which are unavoidably shed in harvesting
the crop remain in the soil, and stock it permanently with
what proves a pestilent weed amongst future crops.
Market Gardening. — In Essex and Kent no inconsider-
able extent of land is annually occupied in growing the
seeds of the staple crops of our kitchen and flower gardens.
Wholesale seedsmen contract with farmers to grow these
seeds for them at a stipulated price.
The growth of fruits and of culinary vegetables is in
Tarioua ports of Oreat Britain^ iuiportant^ depaxtmout of
farming — for the scale on which it is conducted allies it
quite as much to agriculture as to horticulture. In the
counties contiguous to London thousands of acres are
occupied in growing vegetables and in producing fruit
Very large numbers of persons find employment in these
market gardens. The system of cultivation pursued in
them is admirable. The soil is trenched two spits -deep
for nearly every crop ; it is heavily manured and kept
scrupulously clean by incessant hoeing. Whenever a crop
is removed, some other suited to the season is in.stantly put
in its place, and not an inch of ground is suffered to be
unproductive. A young farmer, bent on knowing hia
business thoroughly, could not occupy a fewjnonths to better
purpose than by placing himself under one of these clever
market gardeners.
Kent has long been peculiarly celebrated for its orchards.
The best of them are on the borders of the groensand for-
mation, or ragstone as it is provincially called. Apples,
pears, plums, cherries, and nuts are produced in immense
quantities. The filbert plantations alone are said to
occupy 6000 acres. An abundant and cheap supply of
fruit and vegetables for the inhabitants of our towns is
undoubtedly an important object, and is likely to occupy
increased attention wherever a suitable soil and exposure,
with facility of carriage by railway, are combined. In
Cornwall and in the Channel Islands the cultivation of
brocoli and early ' potatoes is an. important and growing
industry.
CHAPTER XV.
LIVE STOCK — HORSES.
The breeding and rearing of domesticated animals has
ever been a favourite pursuit in Great Britain, and has
been carried to greater perfection than any other department
of rural affairs. In no other country of similar extent can
so many distinct breeds of each class of these animals be
found — most of them excellent of their kind, and admirably
adapted to the particular use for which they ere designed.
Observing the usual order, we notice first Horsu.
Section 1. — Breeds.
Here we shall confine our attention to those breeds which
are cultivated expressly for the labours of the farm ; for
although the breeding of saddle-horses is chiefly carried
on by farmers, and forms in some districts an important
part of their business, it does not seem advisable to treat
of it here. It is a department of husbandry requiring such
a combination of fitness in the soil, climate, and enclosures
of the farm, of access to first-class stallions, and of taste
and judgment on the part of the farmer, that few indeed
of the many who try it are really successful The morale
too of the society into which the breeding of this class of
horses almost necessarily brings a man is so unwhole-
some, that none can mingle in it freely without experienc-
ing to their cost that " evil communications corrupt good
manners." We have noted it as a fact of peculiar signifi-
cance, in this connection, that of the few men who really
make money by this business, scarcely one desires to see it
prosecuted by his sons.
The immense size and portly presence of the Englith
hlaclc horse entitle hini to priority of notice. This brf«d is
widely diffused throughout England, though found chiefly
in the midland counties. It is in the fens and rich pas-
tures of these counties that the celebrated dray horses of
London are bred and reared. These horses are too slow
and hea-vy for ordinary farm-work, and would not be bred
but for the high prices obtained for them from the great
London brewers, who pride themselves on the great size,
majestic bearing, and fine condition of their team horses.
The breeders of these horses employ brood maras and jouiij
HORSES.]
AGRICULTURE
385
colts exclusively for their farm-work. The colts are highly
fed, and worked very gently until four year? old, when
they are sold to the London brewers, often at very great
prices. The same breed is largely used in England for
ordinary farm labour, although not found of such gigantic
proportions as in those districts where they are bred for
the special destination just referred to. Although very
docile, their short step, sluggish gait, large consumption of
food, and liability to foot lameness, rencjer them less pro-
fitable for ordinary farm-work than the breeds about to be
.mentioDed.
The Sufffllk Punch is a well-marked breed which has
long been cultivated in the county from which it takes its
name. These horses are, for the most part, of a sorrel,
bay, or chestnut colour, and are probably of Scandinavian
origin. They are compact, as their name imports, hardy,
very active, and exceedingly honest pullers. . These horses
at one time were very coarse in their form and rather slow ;
but they have now been so much improved in form and
action that we find them the chief prize-takers at recent
exhibitions of the Ro^al Agricultural Society.
The Cleveland Bays are properly carriage-horses; but
still in their native districts they are largely employed for
field work. Mr MUburn says — " The Cleveland, as a pure
breed, is losing something of its distinctiveness. It is
running into a proverb, that ' a Cleveland horse is too stiil
for a hunter, and too light for a coacher ;' but there are
still remnants of the breed, though less carefully kept dis-
tinctive than may be wished by advocates of purity. Still,
the contour of the farm-horses of Cleveland has the light-
ness, and hardiness, and steadiness of the breed; and it
is singular that while the lighter soils have horses more cal-
culated for drays, the strong-land farmer hjs the compact
and smaller, but comparatively more powerful animal"
In the north-eastern counties of England, and the ad-
jacent Scottish borders, compact, clean-legged, active horses,
of medium ^ize, with a remote dash of blood In them, are
generally preferred to those of a heavier and slower kind.
One needs only to see how such horses get along at turnip-
eowing, or with a heavy load in a one-horse cart, to be
convinced of their fitness for the general work of a farm.
The Clydesdale Horses are not excelled by any cart br,ced
in the kingdom for general usefulness. They belong to the
larger class of cart-horses, sixteen hands being an average
height. Brown and bay are now the prevailing colours.
In the district whose name they bear the breeding of them
for sale is extensively prosecuted, and is conducted with
much care and success. Liberal premiums are offered by
the local agricultural societies for good stallions. Horses
of this breed are pecuUarly distinguished for the free step
with which they move along when exerting their strength
in cart or plough. Their merits are now so generally
appreciated that they are getting rapidly diffused over the
country. Many small farmers in Clydesdale make a
business of raising entire colts, which they either sell for
stallions or send into distant counties to serve for hire in
that capacity.
In the Highlands of Scotland, a breed of hardy and very
serviceable ponies, or " garrons, " as the natives call them,
are found in great numbers. In their native glens they
are employed in tillage, and although unfit for stated
farm-work in the low country, are even there often used in
light carts for work requiring despatch rather than great
power. Similar ponies abound in Wales.
Section 2. — Breeding of Cart-Horsei.
In breeding cart-horses regard must be had to the pui-
pose for which they are designed. If the farmer contem-
plates the raising of colts for sale, he must aim at a larger
(rame than if he simply wishes to keep up his own stock i
1—14
of working cattle. These considerations Tioll so Uv guide
him as to the size of the mares and staUions which he
selects to breed from ; but vigorous constitutions, perfect
freedom from organic disease, symmetrical form, and' good
temper are qualities always indispensable. Nothing is
more common than to see mareE used for breeding merely
because, from lameness or age, they have ceased to be
valuable for iabo.ir. Lameness from external injury is, of
course, no disqualification : but it is mere folly to expect
valuable progeny from unsound, mis-shapen, ill-tempered,
or delicate dams, or even from really good ones, when their
vigour has declined from age. A farmer may grudge to
lose the laboor of a first-rate mare for tv^o or three months
at his busiest season ; but if he cannot make arrangements
for doing this, he had better let breeding alone altogether ;
for it is only by producing horses of the best quality that
it can be worth his while to breed them at aJL It is
always desirable that both sire and dam should have arrived
at maturity before being put to breed.
The head of the cart-horse should not be large, at least
not heavy in the bones of the face and jaws, nor loaded
with flesh. Full development of brain is, indeed, of great
importance, and hence a horse somewhat wide between the
ears is to be preferred. Prick ears and narrow forehead
have by some been reckoned excellences, but we have so
invariably noticed such horses to be easily startled, given
to shying, and wanting in courage and intelligence, that
we regard such a form of head as a defect to bo avoided.
The eye should be bright, full, and somewhat prominent,
the neck inclining to thickness, of medium length, and
slightly arched, and the shoulders oblique. Upright
shoulders have been commended as an advantage in a horse
fo' draught, it being alleged that such a form enables him
to throw his weight better into his collar. It should be
remembered, however, that the horses which display the
greatest power in drawing heavy loads are characterised
by muscular vigour and nervous energy rather than mere
weight of carcase ; and these qualities are more usually
found in connection with the oblique shoulder than the
upright one — not to mention that this form is indispensable
to that free and full step so necessary in a really useful
farm-horse.
" Tlie back should he straight and broad, the ribs weil arched,
and the falsa ribs of due len^n, eo as to give the abdomen capacity
and roundness. The tail should be well set out, not too drooping,
and the quarters should be full and muscular. Tbe horse should
girth well, and have his height in his body rather than in his. legs,
so as to look less than measurement proves him to be. The forelegs
should be strong, and flat below the knee, and by no means round
and gummy either before or Khind, neither should they have white
hair ebout them, nor much hair of any colour. Tbe hocks should
be broad in front, and neither too straight nor too crooked, nor yet
cat-hammed. All diseases of this joint, whether curbs, spavins, or
thorougupins, are sufficient grounds for rejecting a horse. The feet
are a matter of very much importance. The tendency of many
heavy horses is to have thin horn and flat feet A stallion possess-
ing such feet is exceedingly objectionable. Plenty of horn is s
recommendation, and the feet had better be too large than too
sraall. The brood mare should possess as many of the points now
enumerated as possible. If the mare is small but symmetrical, we
may very properly select a large stallion, provided he has good
action. If, on the other hand, the mare is large and has a tendency
to coarseness, we should select a middle-si2ed hor'^e of symmetric^
appearance. " '
Sixteen hands is a good height for a farm-horse. Except
for very heavy land, we have always had more satisfaction
from horses slightly below this standard than above it
We have repeatedly put a well-bred saddle mare to a
cart-horse, and have invariably found the produce to prove
excellent farm-horses. The opposite cross, betwixt a cart-
mare and blood stallion, is nearly as certain to prove un-
gainly, vicious, and worthless. These horses are generally
^Morton'* Cycloptrdia of Agriculture — article "noree."
3H<5
AGRICULTURE
much atroijger than their appearance moicates, have great
powers of endurance, and can be kept in prime working
condition at much less cost than bulkier animals. It is on
muscular power and nervous energy that the strength of
animals depends, and this, therefore, should be sought after
in the farm-horse rather than mere bulk.
Cart-mares *ould not foal earlier than May. Provided
they are not unduly pu.shed or put to draw heavy loadsj
they may be kept at work almost up to their time' of foaUng,
and are thus available for the pressing labours of spring.
It is of importance, too, that the pasture should be fresh
and the weather mild ere their nursing duties begin.
Mares seldom require ossistance in bringing forth their
young, and although it is. well to keep an eye upon them
when this event is expected, they should be kept as quiet
as possible, as they arei.impatient of intrusion, and easily
disturbed in such circumstances. A sheltered paddock
with good grass, and where tliere are no other horses, is
the most suitable quarters for a piare that has newly foaled.
There must be no ditch or pond in. it, as young foals have
a peculiar fatality for getting drowned in such places. A
mare, in ordinary condition, receives the stallion on the
ninth or tenth day after foaling, and with a greater cer-
tainty of conceiving than when it is delayed until she is
again in heat. If the mare's labour can at all be dis-
peniRd with, it is desirable to have her with her foal for
two months at least. She may then be put to easy work
with perfect safety, so that she is not kept away from the
foal longer than two or three hours at a time. When the
foal has got strong enough, it may even bo allowed to follow
its dam at her work, and to get suck as often as it desires
it. Towards the end of September foals are usually
weaned, and are then put under cover at night, and receive
a little com, along with succulent food. Good hay, bran,
carrots, or swedes, and a few oats, must be given regiilarly
during the first winter, with a warm shed to Ue in, and an
open court for exercise. At weaning it is highly expedient
to put a cavasiu on colts, aiid lead them about for a few
times. A few lessons at this early age, when they are
easily controlled, saves a world of trouble afterwards.
Before being turned to grass in spring, they should, on the
same principle, be tied up in stalls for a week or so. It'b
customary to castrate colls at a year old. Some, indeed,
advise its being done a few weeks after birth, when, of
course, the pain to the animal and risk of death are less.
It must, however, be borne in mind that this early emascu-
lation will probably ensure a skranky neck, whereas a
natural tendency to this defect can in good measure be
remedied .by deferring the operation. We have seen a
puny colt much improved in figure by being left entire
until he was two years old. By giving good pasture in
summer, and a liberal allowance of hay, roots, and oats in
winter, colts may with safety, and even benefit, be put to
moderate work in their third spring, Some time before
this is done they should be put through a short course of
training, to use them to the bit, and make them quiet and
haiTdy. Many good cart-horses are ruined for want of a
little timely attention in this way. When they have got
familiar with the harness, they should be yoked to a log of
Wood, and made to draw that up and down the furrows of
a fallow field, until they become accustomed to the restraint
and esertion, after which they may with safety be put to
plough alongside a steady and good-tempered horse, and,
what is of equal conseqaence, under the charge of a steady,
good-tempered ploughman. As they should not have more
than five houis' work a-day for the first summer, it is
always an advantage to have a pair of them to yoke at the
same time, in' which case they take half-day about, and
do a full horse's work betwixt them. With such moderat*
Work and generous feeding their growth will be promoted.
[live stock —
By midsummer, the press of field labour being over, it U
advisable to turn the striplings adrift, and let them enjoy
themselves in a good pasture until after harvest, when they
can again be put to plough. Horses should not be required
to draw heavy loaded carts until they are five years old.
When put into the shafts earUer than tliis they frequently
get strained and stiffened in their joints. On every farm
requiring four or five pairs of horses it is highly expedient
to have a pair of young ones coming in annually. This
enables the farmer to be provided against contingencies, and
to hav» his stable occupied at all times with horses in
their full vigour, which go through their work with spirit,
and never falter for a little extra pushing ia emergencies.
Section 3.-
-Feeding and General Management of
Farm-IIorse>.
As there is true economy in employing only the best
quality of horses, and these in their prime, so also is there
in feeding them uniformly well, and looking to their com-
fort in all respects. The following quotation from the
Tramactions (for October 1850) of the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society of Scotland, describes the practice of some
of our most experienced farmers in this particular : —
"The system of fetding I adopt is as foUowa : — From the middlti
of October till the end of ilay my horses get one feed of Bteained
food and two feeds of oats daily, with the best oat or wheat strnw
for fodder. 1 never give bean straw unless it has been seemed in
fine condition, having often seen the bad etfects of it, partly owing,
I think, to its long exposure to the weather. In our vanable cliuwite,
and from the quantity of sand which adheres to it, I use it generally
for Utter. The 8t«amed food used is well washed Swedish turnips
and potatoes in equal proportions, mixed with sifted wheat-chatf.
In those years when we had a total loss of potatoes Swedish turnip
alone was used, but not with the same gowl effect as when mixed
with potatoes. This year, having plenty of diseased potatoes in a
firm state, I give a larger proportion of potatoes than turnip, and
never upon any occasion give oat husks, commonly called meal-
seeds, having often seen their injurious effects. At five o'clock in the
morning each horse gets 6 tb weight of bruised oats, at noon the
same quantity of oats, and at half-past seven P.M. 47 lb weight of
steamed food. 1 find that it takes 62 lb weight of unateamed
potatoes and turnip to produce 47 lb steamed ; to each feed of
steamed food, 4 oz. of common salt are added, and mixed up with
one-fourth part of a bushel of wheat-chaff, weighing about 1^ lb,
8 greater quantity of wheat-chaff than this having generally too laxa-
tive an etlect. Kach horse eats from 14 tb to 18 lb of fodder during
the twenty-four hours, besides wliat is required for Utter. In spring
I sometimes give a mixture of bruised beans and oats, instead of oats
alone ; from June to the middle of October those horses that are
required for the working of the green crop, driving manure, and
harvest-work, are fed with cut gi'ass and tares in the house ; and
about 7 tb of oats each day, given at twice, increasing or decreasing
the quantity according to the work they have to do ; and 1 turn out
to pasture only those horses that &re not required until the busy
season. I disapprove of horses that are regularly worked being
turned out to grass, and exposed to aU the changea of our vanable
cUmate, as I believe it to be the origin of many diseaaes. By this
mode of feeding the horses are always in fine sleek condition, and
able for their work. I have acted upon this system for the last fifteen
years, have always had from 16 to 20 horses, and during that
period I have only lost 7 horses, 3 of them from accidental causes ;
and I attribute this, in a greafc measure, to the mode of feeding, and
in particular to the steamed food."
The treatment of horses differs somewhat in other places
from that now detailed. In Berwickshire, for example,
they are usually turned to pasture as soon as the mildness
of the weather and the forwardness of the pasture admit of
it. While employed in carrying the crop, their fodder
consists largely of tares, and afterwards till Martinmas they
are fed on hay. From this date oat and bean straw, with
8 or 10 B) of raw swedes to each per diem, is substituted till
the 1st of March, when, with the recurrence of harder labour,
hay is again given till the return of ther grazing season.
During three-fourths of the year they receive about 16 tti
of oats per diem, in three separate feeds. From the close
of turnip-soM-ing until- harvest, oats are either withheld or
given only when ji harder day's work occurs. The practice
VOL I.
AGRICULTURE
PLATE Y
W.
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-^s?
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§IEI®1.1'-]II®IS.KI1® IBUJILIL
'iC-.'i '.. PHCZNIX
£red bifaltd rhc properfif of&TCrtsp HatrkAtiL Nof^humie^la/ut
Wbme^ lyi /352 of Oie First Fnzes go'cri by [/le /i^uudoiral Socuues
of Ert^lo/Ld ScotlctJtd ^Irdand.
,vi) jW^,
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CHAWTY.
iffna^ i^ and Ui^ Proper ti/ of ST Booth WarhLhy Yorksjurtr
ENCYCLOPEDIA eRITANNlCA. NINTH (DlTIOK.
CATTLE.']
AGRICULTURE
387
of bruising the whole of the oats given to horses, and also
of chopping their hay, is now very prevalent. By giving
a few pounds of chopped hay with each feed of bruised
oats, and oat-straw in the racks, during the whole of the
winter half-year, horses are kept in better condition and
at no more expense than by giving them straw alone for
half the period, and hay aione the other half. We are
persuaded, also, that unless horses are stripped of their
shoes and turned adrift altogether for a summer's run,
soiling in boxes or sheds, with an open yard, is preferable
to grazing. Hay and oats ought undoubtedly to constitute
the staple fare of farm-horses. Without a liberal allowance
of suitable and nourishing food, it is impossible that they
can perform the full amount of work of which they are
capable, or be sustained for any length of time in robust
kealth. When alleged very cheap plans of feeding horses
are inquired into, it is usually found that the amount and
quality of the ■ work performed by them is in fitting pro-
portion. In this, as in so many other things, cheapness
and economy are not convertible terms. The true way to
economise the horse-labour of a farm is to have only good
and well-fed animals, and to get the greatest possible amount
of work out of them.
CHAPTER XVI
LIVE STOCK CATTLE.
Section 1. — Breeds — 1st, Heavy Breeds.
As our limits do not admit of even a brief notice of all
those breeds of cattle for which Great Britain is so famous,
we shall restrict our remarks to some of the most important
of them. Without entering upon curious speculations as
to the origin of these breeds, we proceed to notice them in
the order suggested by their relative importance in practical
agriculture. The large lowland cattle thus claim our first
attention, and amongst them we canjiot hesitate in assign-
ing the first place to the
Short-fwrns. — It appears that from an early date the
valley of the Tees possessed a breed of cattle which, in
appearance and general qualities, were probably not unlike
those quasi short-horns which abound in various parts of
the country at the present day. By the time that the
Messrs Colling came upon the field it is evident that
there were many herds around them in which considerable
improvement had already been effected, and that they com-
menced their memorable efforts in cattle-breeding with
exceedingly hopeful materials to work upon. But in their
masterly hands these materials seemed at once 'to acquire
an unwonted plasticity ; for in an incredibly short time
their cattle exliibited, in a degree that has not yet been
excelled, that combination of rapid and large growth with
aptness to fatten, of which their symmetry, good temper,
mellow handling, and gay colours are such pleasing indices
and accompaniments, and for which they have now acquired
a world-wide celebrity. It was by judicious selection in
the first instance, and then by coupling animals of near
affinity in blood, that they so developed and stereotyped
these qualities in their cattle as to entitle them at once to
take rank as the progenitors of a new and well-marked
brec^. These Durham, Teeswater, or Short-horn cattle, as
they were variously called, were soon eagerly sought after,
and spread over the who'e country with amazing rapidity.
For a time their merits were disputed by the eager aH-
vocates of other and older breeds, some of which (such as
the long-horns, one© the most numerous breed in the
kingdom) they have utterly supplanted, while others, f-uch
as the Herefords, Devons, and Scotch polled cattle, -lave
each their zealous admirers, who still maintain their lupe-
riority tn the younger race. But this controversy 1.. jiean-
whilo getting practically decided in favour of thi short-
horns, wjiich constantly encroach upon their rivals even in
their headquarters, and seldom lose ground which they once
gain. Paradoxical as the statement appears, it is yet true
that the very excellence of the short-horns has in many cases
led to their discredit. For many persons desiring to
possess these valuable cattle, and yet grudging the cost of
pure-bred bulls, or being ignorant of the principles of breed-
ing, have u.'sed worthless cross-bred males, and so have filled
the country with an inferior race of cattle, bearing indeed
a general resemblance in colour, and partaidng in some
measure of the good qualities of short^horns, but utterly
wanting in their peculiar excellences. By ignorant or pre-
judiced persons the genuine race is nevertheless held
answerable for the defects of the mongrels which usurp
their name, and for the damaging comparisons which are
made betwixt them and choice specimens of other breeds.
That the short-horn breed should spread as it does, in spite
of this liinderance, is no small proof of its inherent ex-
cellence, and warrants the inference that whenever justice
is done to it, it will take its place as the one appropriate
breed of the fertile and sheltered parts of Great Britain.
This desirable consummation has hitherto been retarded by
the scarcity and high price of pure-bred bulls. We are
quite aware that bull-breeding, as hitherto conducted, ia a
hazardous and unremunerative business, notwithstanding
the great prices sometimes obtained for first-dass animals.
We are of opinion, however, that it might be conducted in
such a way as to be safer and more profitable to the breeder,
and more beneficial to the country at large, than it has
hitherto been. Tliere is at present a large and growing
demand for good yearling short-horn bulls, at prices ranging
from £25 to j£50. With a better supply both as to quality
and numbers, this demand would steadily increase, for we
have long observed that there is no want of customers for
really good animals at such prices as we have named.'
When higher prices than these are demanded, farmers' who
breed only for the production of beef feel that they are
beyond their reach, and are fain to content themselves with
lower-priced and inferior animals. We are glad, therefore,
that it is a steadily increasing practice for breeders of short-
horns to dispose of their young bulls by an annual auction
sale on their own premises ; or for a number of breeders to
concur in offering their lots for sale on the same day at
some central auction mart. The good effects of this in-
creasing supply of well-bred bulls are becoming apparent
in the improved quality of the cattle now brought to our
markets.
A gr^at stimulus has been given to the breeding of high-
class short-horns by the extraordinary prices which of late
have been obtained for animals of certain favourite arid
fashionable strains. To illustrate this we give the follow-
ing particulars of the four principal sales of the year
1872:—
The Iste Mr Pawlet'a . herd of 60 animals averagefl £195 18 7
Mr G. Bowly's . . „ 30 „ 163 1 9
Earl of Dunmore's . . ,,54 „ 242 18 9
Messrs Harward k Downay's ,, 61 ,, 253 8 2
It is said that the operations of one enterprising Canadian
breeder — Mr Cochran of Hillburst — have had a powerful
effect in determining these extraordinary -market rates for
short-horns of the choicest tj-pe. One cargo, including
forty short-horn bulls artd heifers, and choice specimens of
Cotswold sheep and Berkshire pigs, taken out by this
gentleman in 1870, is said to have cost him £1. '5,000.
American breeders of short-horn cattle have now established
a herd-book of their own, and have been so successful in
their efforts that already they have made numerous sales to
English breeders at long price-s. While we write, accounts
h.-ive come of the anlc by .luction, on 10th September 1873,
of the herd of Mr Campbell of New York Mills, near
388
AGRICULTURE
[UVB STOCK —
Utica, when lOS'animala realised $380,000. Of theao 10
were bought by British breeders, 6 of which, of the Duchess
family, averaged $24,017, aud one of them, " Eighth
Duchess of Geneva," was bought for Mr Pavih Daviea of
Gloucestershire at the unprecedented price of £8120.
Choice specimens of these cattle are now also being sent in
large numbers to our Australian colonies and to varioua
parts of the continent of Europe. Indeed, it may be said
of them, that, like our people, they are rapidly epreftding
over the world.
As already hinted, the Hertford is the breed which
in England contests most closely with the short-hor.ns
for the palm of excellence. They are admirable grazier's
cattle, and when of mature age and fully fattened, pre-
sent exceedingly level, compact, and massive carcaaija of
excellent beef. But the cows are poor milkers, and the
oxen require to be at least two years old before being put
up to fatten — defects which, in our view, are fatal to the
claims which are put forward on their behalf. To the
grazier who purchases them when their grovrth is somewhat
matured they usually yield a good profit, and will generally
excel short-horns of the same age. But the distinguishing
characteristic of the latter is that, when properly treated,
they got sufficiently fat and attain to remunerative weights
at, or even under, two years old. If they are kept lean
until they have reached that age their peculiar excellence
is lost. From the largeness of their frame they then cost
more money, consume more food, and yet do not fatten
more rapidly than bullocks of slower growing and more
compactly formed breeds. It is thus that the grazier fre-
quently gives his verdict in favour of Herefords as compared
with short-horns. Even under this mode of management
short-horns will usually yield at least as good a return a.s
their rivals to 'the breeder and grasier conjointly. But if
fully fed from their birth so as to bring into play their
peculiar property of groydng and fattening simultaneously,
we feel warranted in saying that they will yield a quicker
and better return for the food consumed by them than
cattle of any other breed. Unless, therefore, similar
qualities are developed in the Ilcrefords, we may expect to
see them more and more giving place to the short-horns.
These remarks apply equally to another breed closely allied
to the Herefords, vii., the
N'orth Devons, so much admired for their pleasing colour,
elegant form, sprightly gait, and gentle temper, qualities
which fit them beyond all other cattle for the labour of the
field, in which they are still partially employed in various
parts of England. If it could be proved that ox-power is
really more economical than horse-power for any stated part
of the work of the farm, then the Devons, which form such
admirable draught oxen, would be deser\-ing of general
cultivation. It is found, however, that when agriculture
reaches a certain stage of progress, ox-labour is inadequate
to the more rapid and varied operations that are callad
for, and has to be superseded by that of horses.
Scotland possesses several indigenous breeds of heavy
cattle, which for the most part are Hack and hornless,
such as those of Aberdeen, Angus, and GaUoway. These
are all valuable breeds, being characterised by good milking
and grazing qualities, and by a hardiness which peculiarly
adapts them for a bleak climate. Cattle of these breeds,
when they have attained to three years old, fatten very
rapidly, attain to great size and weight of carcase, and
yield beef which is not surpassed in quality by that of any
cattle in the kingdom.
The cows of these breeds, when coupled with a short-
horn buU, produce an admirable cross-breed, which com-
bines largely the good qualities of both parents. The
great saving of time and food which is effected by the
earlier maturity of the cross-breed has induced a very
extensive adoption of this practice in all the north-eaftem
counties of Scothind. Such a system is necessarily inimical
to the improvement of the pure 'native brceda; but when
cowB of the cross-breed are continuously coupled with p.ire
short>hom bulls, the progeny in a few generations- become
assimilated to the male parent, and are charactensed by
a peculiar vigour of constitution and excellent milking
power in the cows. With such native breeds to work upon,
and this aptitude to blend thoroughly vath the short-horu
breed, it is much more profitable to introduce the latter in
this gradual way of continuous crossing than at once to
uubstitute the one pure breed for the other. The cost of
the former plan is much less, as there needs but the pur-
chase from time to time of a good bull ; and the risk is
incomparably less, as the stock is acclimatised from the first,
and there is no danger from a wrong selection. The
greatest risk of miscarriage in this mode of changing the
breed is from the temptation to which, from miilaken
economy, the breeder is exposed of rearing a crosa-bred
bull himself, or purchasing a merely nominal ahort-horo
bull from others.
From this hurried review of our heavy breeds of cattle
it will be seen that wa regard the short-horn as incom-
parably the best of them all, and that we anticipate its
ultimate recognition as the breed which most fully meets
the requirements of all those parts of the country where
grain and green crops are successfully cultivated.
2d. — Dairy BreC'U.
The dairy breeds of cattle next claim our attention, for
although cattle of all breeds are used for this purpose, there
are several which are cultivated chiefly, if not exclusively,
because of their fitness for it. Dairy husbandry is pro-
secuted under two very different and well-defined classes of
circumstances. In or near towns, and in populous mining
and manufacturing districts, it is carried on for the purpose
of suppljing families with new millr In the western half
of Greai Britain, and in many upland districts, where the
soil aud climate are more favourable to the production of
grass aud other green crops than of corn, butter and cheese
constitute the staple products of the husbandman. The
town dairyman looks to quantity rather than quality ot
milk, and seeks for cows which are large milkers, which
are long in going dry, and which can be readily fattened
when their daily }-ield of milk falls below the remunerative
measure. Large cows, such as short-horns and their crosses,
are accordingly his favourites. In the rural dairy, again,
the merits of a cow are estimated by the weight and quality
of the cheese or butter which she yields, rather than by the
mere quantity of her milk. The breeds that are cultivated
expressly for this purpose are accordingly characterised by
a less fleshy and robust build than is requisite in grazier^s
cattle. Of these we select for special notice the Ayrshire,
the Suffolk dun, and the Jersey breeds.
The Ayrahires, by common consent, now occupy the very first
rank as profitable dairy cattle. From the pains ■which have beea
taken to develop their milk-yielding power it is now of the highest
order. Persons who have been conversant only with grazing cattla
cannot but be surprised at the strange contrast between an Aj-rahire
cow in full milk and the forma of cattle which they have been osed
to regard aa moet perfect Her wide pelvis, deep flank, and enor-
mous udder, with its small wide-set teats, seem out of all proportion
to her fine bone and slender foreqoartera. As might be expected,
the breed possesses little merit for grazing porposes. Very naeful
animals are, however, obtained by crossing these cows with a short-
horn bull, and this practice is now ratiier extensively pursued in th«
west of Scotland by farmers who combine dairy husbandry with the
fattening of cattle. The function of the Ayrshire cattle is, however,
the dairy. For this they are unsurpassed, either as respects the
amount of produce yielded by them in proportion to the food which
they consume, or the faculty which they possess of converting th«
herbage of poor exposed soils, such as a hound in their DAtive district
into butter and cheese of the best quality.
VOL. J
AGEICULTTJEE
PLATE VL
<l^.
mm
M
• MIJILJLb IH!]ElS.IEff(D)]l.III) IBIM
^r«i iy rfU Sigla, Mim"" ihilarlaf Ta2iot.
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EWE & LAME. SOUITIlISeWM IIRISIE]]])
Ccffied ^ pfntiisswn (hm. Frafa^Lams desijyXum, of breeds </ J)omAsaa3Uif /ir^^/nnk.
'l|eCi'-.V.-i
[NCYC1.0P>tOIA BRITftNNlCA. NINTH EDITION
CATTLE.]
AGRICULTURE
389
The county of Suffolk h&s for centuries been celebrated for its
dairy produce, which is chiefly obtained from a polled breed of cattle,
the prevailing colour of which is dun 6r pale red, from which they
ve Known aa the Suffolk Duivs. They have a strong general resem-
iLmce to the' Scotch polled cattle, but nevertheless seem to be
indigenous to Suffolk. They are ungainly in. their form and of
little repute with the grazier, but possess an undoubted capacity of
yielding a large quantity of rnillc in proportion to the food which
they consume. They^ are now encroached upon by, and will pro-
bably give place to, the short-horns, by which they are decidedly
excelled for the combined purposes of the dairy and the fattening
stall.
The breeds abeady referred to are those to which professional
dairymen give the preference, but the cattle of the Channel Islands,
of which the Jersey may be regarded as the type, are so remarkable
for the choice quality of the cream and butter obtained from their
rather scanty yield of milk, that they are eagerly sought after for
private dairies, in which quality of produce is more regarded thnn
quantity. The rearing of neifers for the English market is of an- h
importance to these islands that very stringent regulations have
been adopted for insuring the purity of their peculiar breed. These
cattle in general are utterly worthless for the purposes of the
grazier. The choicer epeeimens of the Jerseys have a certain deer-
Eke form which gives them a pleasing aspect. The race, as a
whole, bears a striking resemblance to the Ayrshires, which are
alleged to owe their peculiar eicellencea to an early admixture of
Jersey blood.
Zd, — Mountain Breeds.
The mountainous parts of Great Britain are not leas favoured than
the lowlands in possessing breeds of cattle peculiarly adapted to the
exigencies of the climate.
'fhe Kyloes or West Highland cattle are the most prominent of
this group. They are widely diffused o\' ' the Highlands of Scotland,
but are found in the greatest perfection in the larger Hebrides. Well-
bred oxen of this breed, when of mature growtn, and in good con-
dition, exhibit a symmetry of form and noble bearing which is
unequalled by any cattle in the kingdom. Although somewhat
slow in arriving at maturity, they are contented with the coarsest
fare, and ultimately get fat where the daintier short-horns could
barely exist. Their hardy constitution, thick mellow hide, -and
shaggy coat, x>eouliarly adapt them for a cold humid climate and
coarse pasturage. Fewer of these cattle are now reared in the
Highlands than formerly, owing to the lessened number of cottars
and small tenants', the extension of sheep husbandry, and latterly from
the excessive multiplication of deer forests. Large herds of cows are,
however, kept on such portions of farms as are unsuited for sheep
walks. The milk of these cows ia very rich, but as they yield it in
small quantity, and go soon dry, they are unsuited for the dairy, and
are kept almost solely for the purpose of suckling each her own calf.
The calves are generally housed during their first winter, but after
that they shift for themselves out of doors all the year round.
Vast droves of these cattle are annually transferred to the lowlands,
where they are in request for their serviceableness in consuming
profitably the produce of coarse pastures and the leavings of daintier
stock. Those of a dun or tawny colour are often selected for
grazing in the parks of the aristocracy, where they look quite as
picturesque as the deer with which they are associated. Indeed,
they strikingly resemble the so-called wild cattle that are carefully
preserved in the parks of several of our nobility, and like them are
probably the descendants of the cattle of the ancient Britons. This
view is confirmed by the strong family likeness borne to them by
the
Welsh cattle, which is quite what might be expected from the
many features, physical and historical, which the two provinces have
in common. Although the cattle of Wales, as a whole, are obviously
of common origin, they are yet ranged into several groups, which
owe their distinctive features either to peculiarities of soil and
climate or \o intermixtiire with other breeds. The Pembrokes may
be taken as the type of the mountain groups. These are hardy
cattle, which thrive on scanty pasturage and in a humid climate.
They excel the West Highlanders in this respect, that they make
good dairy cattle, the cows being peculiarly adapted for cotta-'ers'
purposes. When fattened they yield beef of excellent quality.
Their prevailing and most esteemed colour is black, with deep orange
on the naked parts. The Aiiglesea cattle are larger and courser
than the Pembrokes, and those of Merioneth and the higher districts
are smaller, and inferior to them in every respect. The county of
Glamorgan possesses a peculiar breed, bearing its name, which has
long been in estimation for combined grazing and dairy purposes.
It baa latterly been bo much encroached upon by Herefords and short-
horns that tlicre seems some likelihood of its becoming extinct,
which will be cause for regret, unless pains are taken to occupy
its nlaco with cattle not inferior to it in dairy qualitit-s. ■ We con-
clude this ra])id review of our native breeds by noticing the most
4iJi;iiilir of thom all, viz..
The Shetland cattle which ar« the most diminutive in the world.
The carcaae of a Shetiana cow, when fully fattened, scarcely eiceedj
in weigh'" that 'of a long-wooUed wether. These little creatures are,
however, excellent milkers in proportion to their size; they are very
hardy, are contented with the scantiest pasturage, come early to
matur y, are easily fattened, and their beef surpasses that of all
other breeds for tenderness and delicacy of flavour. The diminutive
cows of this breed are not unfrequently coupled with short-horn
bulls,;, and the progeny from such apparentiy preposterous unions
not only possess admirable fattening qualities, but approximate in
buU to their sires. These curious and handsome little creatures,
ap -irently of Scandinavian origin, are so peculiarly fitted to the
ci- lumstances of their bleak and stormy habitat, that the utmost
pftins ought to be taken to preserve the breed in purity, and to
improve it by judicious treatment.
Section 2. — Fann Managemerd of Cattle,
We shall now endeavour to describe the fann management
of this valuable class of animals, under the heads of breedi-ngy
■ rearing J fattening y and dairy management. The proceedings
of tJiose engaged in the breeding and rearing of cattle for
the production of beef are, however, largely determined by
the character of the soil and climate -of particular districts
and farms. The occupiers of all comparatively fertile soils
carry forward to matiirity such animals as they breed, and
dispose of them directly to the butcher. Those who are
less fortunately, circumstanced in this respect advance their
young cattle to such a stage as the capabilities of their
farms admit of, and then transfer them to others, by whom
the fattening process is conducted. It cannot be too
strongly impressed upon those who engage in this business '
that it never can be profitable to breed inferior cattle ; or
(however good their quaUty) to suffer their growth to be
arrested by cold or hunger ; or to sell them in a lean state.
In selecting a breeding stock of cattle, the qualities to be
aimed at are a sound constitution and a symmetrical form,
aptitude to fatten, quiet temper, and large milk-yielding
power in the cows. As all these qualities are hereditary,
cattle are valuable for breeding purposes not merely in pro-
portion as they are developed in the individuals, but
according to the measure in which they are known to have
been possessed by their progenitors. A really good pcjdi-
gree adds therefore greatly to the value of breeding-stock.
It is doubtless important to have both parents good- but
in the case of ruminants, the predominating influence of
the male in determining the qualities of the progeny is bo
well ascertained, that the selection of the bull is a matter
of prime importance. We are able to state, from ample
personal experience, that by \xsing a bull that is at. once
good himself and of good descent, a level and valuable lot
of calves can be obtained from very indifferent cows. It is
indeed miserable economy to grudge the 'price of a good
bulL Coarse, mis-shapen, imthrifty cattle cost just as much
for rearing and fattening as those of the best quality, and
yet may not be worth so much by £3 or £4 a-head when
they come ultimately to market. The loss which ia
annually sustained from breeding inferior cattle is far
greater than those concerned seem to be aware of. It is
impossible to estimate this loss accurately, but from careful
observation and inquiry we are confident that it amounts
to not less than SOs. a^head on one-half of the fat cattle
annually slaughtered in Great Britain. If this be so, it
follows that without expending a farthing more than is
done at present on food, housing, and attendance, the profit
which would accrue from using only the best class of bulla
would be equivalent to an advance of la. jier stono in the
price of beef as regards half of the fat bullocks brought to
market. This profit could, moreover, ba secured by a vei^
moderate outlay j for if properly gone about, tlie best claa^
of bulls might be emjdoyed without adding more than 3b.
or 48. a-hoad to the price of each calf reared. We may
surely anticipate that such a palpable source of profit will
not continue to be neglected by the breeders of cattle.
There are many instances in which landlords would find it
390
AGRICULTURE
much for their interest to aid their tenantry in at once'
procuring really good bulla. Cattle shows and prizes are
naeful in their way as a means of improving the cattle of
a diBtrict, but the introduction of an adequate number of
bulls from herda already highly improved is the way to
accomplish the desired end cheaply, certainly, and speedily.
We must here protest against a practice by which short-
horn bulls are very often prematurely unfitted for breeding.
Their tendency to obesity is so remarkable that unless they
are kept on short commons they become unwieldy and
unserviceable by their third or fourth year. Instead, how-
ever, of counteracting this tendency, the best animals are
usually " made up,"^ as it is called, for exhibition at cattle
shows or for ostentatious display to visitors at home, 'and
the consequence is, that they are ruined for brewing pur-
posea We rejoice to see that the directors of our national
agricultural societies are resolutely setting their faces
against this pernicious practise. It is needful certainly
that all young animals, although intended for breeding
stock, should be well fed, for without this they cannot
attain to their full size and development of foroL But
when this is secured, care should be taken, in the case of
all breeding animals, never to exceed that degree af flfsh
vhich is indispen.sable to perfect health and vigour. Tfaa
frequent occurrence of abortion or barrenness in- high-
pedigreed herds seems chiefly attributable to overfeeding.
The farmer who engages in cattle-breeding with the view
of turning out a profitable lot of fat beasts annually, will
take pains first of all to provide a useful lot of cows, such
as will produce good calves, and if well fed while gtvir^g
milk will yield enough of it to keep two or three calves
a-piece. That he may be able to obtain a suflScient supply
of good calves he will keep a really good bull, and allow
the cottagers residing on the farm or in its neighbourhood
to send their cows to him free of charge, stipulating only
that when they have a calf for sale he shall have the first
ofi'er of it.
Cows are an expensive stock to keep, ana it is therefore
of importance to turn their milk to the best account. It is
poor economy, however, to attempt to rear a greater number
of calves than can be done justice to. Seeing that they
are to be reared for the production of beef, the 'only pro-
fitable course is to feed them well from birth to maturity.
During the first weeks of calf-hood the only suitable diet
is unadultered milk, warm from the cow, given three times
a-day, and not less than two quarts of it at each meal.
By three weeks old they may be taught to eat gooi hay,
linseed cake, and sliced swedes. As the latter items of
diet are relished and freely eaten, the allowance of rnill.- is
gradually diminished untO about the twelfth week, when
it may be finally withdrawn. The linseed cake is then
given more freely, and water put vrithin their reach. For
the first six weeks calves should be kept each in a separate
crib ; but after this they are the better of having room to
frisk about. Their quarters, however, should be well
sheltered, as a comfortable .degree of warmth, greatly
promotes their growth. Daring their first summer they
do best to be soiled on vetches, clover, or Italian ryegrass,
with from 1 lb to 2 B) of cake to each calf daily. \STien
the green forage fails, white or yellow turnips are substi-
tuted for it A full allowance of these, with- abundance
of oat straw, and not less than 2 Bt) of cake daily, is the
appropriate fare for them during their first winter. Swedes
Trill be substituted for turnips during the months of spring,
and these again will give place in due time to green forage
or the best pasturage. The daily ration of take should
never be ivithdrawn. It greatly promotes growth, fattening,
and general good health, and in particular is a specific
a^inst the disease called blackleg, which often proves so
£atal to young cattle. Young cattle tliat hav.i been skil-
^LIVK STOCK—
fully managed upon the system which we have now
sketched, are at 18 months old already of great size, with
open horns, mellow hide, and all those other features which
indicate to the experienced grazier that they will grow and
fatten rapidly. This style_of management is not only the
beat for those who fatten as well as rear, but is also the
most profitable for those who rear only.
We have already stated that in Scotland comparatively
few cattle aro fattened on pasturage. An increasing
number of fat beasts are now prepared for market during
the eumn^er months by soiling on green forage ; bnl it is
by means of the turnip crop, and during the winter months,
that this branch of husbandry is all but exclusively con-
ducted in the northern half of Great Britain. But a few
years ago the fattening of cattle on Tweedside and in the
Lothians was conducted almost exclusively in open courts,
with sheds on one or more sides, in which from two to
twenty animals were confined together, and fed on turnips
and straw alone. Important changes have now been in-
troduced, both as regards housing and feeding, by means
of which a great saving of food has been effected. Under
the former practice the cattle received as many turnips as
they could eat, which, for an average-sizfed two-year-old
bullock, was not less than 220 lb daily. The consequence
of this enormous consumption of watery food was, that for
the first month or two after being thus fed the animals
were kept in a state of habitual diarrhoea. Dry fodder
was, indeed, always placed within their, reach ; but as long
as they had the opportunity of taking their fill of turnips,
the dry straw was all but neglected. By stinting them to
about 100 ft of turnips daily, they can be compelled to
eat a large quantity of straw, and on this diet they thrive
faster than on tiimips at will A better plan, however, is
to render the fodder so palatable as to induce them to eat
it of choice. This can be done by grating down the tur-
nips by one or other of the pulping-machines now getting
into common use, and then mixing the grated turnip with
an equal quantity, by measure, of cut straw. Some persons
allow the food after being thus mixed to lie in a heap for
two days, so that fermentation may ensue before it is given
to the cattle. There is, however, a preponderance of
evidence in favour of using it fresh. To this mesa can
conveniently be added an allowance of ground cake, whether
of linseed, rape, or cotton seed, and of meal of any kind of
grain which the farmer finds it most economical at the
time to use. The ground cake and meal are, in this case,
to be thoroughly mixed with the pulped turnip and cut
straw. The same end can be accomplished by gi^nng a
moderate feed (say 50 ft) of sliced roots twice a-dey, and
four hours after each of these meals, another, consisting of
out straw, .cake, and meaL In this case the chaff and
farinaceous ingredients should be mixed and cooked by
steam in a close vessel ; Or the meal can be boiled in an
open kettle, with water enough to make it of the consistency
of gruel, and then poured over the chaff, mixed thoroughly
with it, and allowed to lie in a heap fo,r two or three hours
before it is served out to the cattle. From 2 to 4 ft of
meal, ic, a-head per diem is enough to begin with. But
as the fattening process goes on it is gradually increased,
and may rise to 7 or 8 ft during the last month before
sending to market It is advisable to mix with the cooked
mess about 2 ounces of salt per diem for each bollock.'
An important recommendation to this mode of preparing
cattle food is, that it enables the farmer to use rape-cake
freely ; for when this article is reduced to a coarse powder,
and heated to the boiling point, it not only loses its acrid
qua;litie3, but acquires a smeU and flavour which induce
cattle to eat it greedily. Moreover, if the rape-seeds should
have been adulterated vrith those of wild mustard . liefore
going to thfi crushing-mill (as not unfrequentiy happens),
BHBEP.]
AGRICULTUKE
391
and a cake is th«B produced which in its raw state ia
poisonoua to cattle, it has been ascertained that boiling
deprives such spurious cake of its hurtful qualities and
renders it safe and wholesome. As rape-cake possesses
fattening elements equal to those of linseed-cake, and can
usually be bought at half the price, it is well worth while
to have=IEeour3e to a process by which it can so easily be
rendered a palatable and nourishing food for cattle.
Fattening cattle are usually allowed to remain in the
pastures to a later date in autumn than is profitable. The
pressure of harvest work, or the immature state of his
turnip crop, often induces the farmer to delay housing his
bullocks until long after they have ceased to make progress
on grass. They may still have a full bite on their pastures ;
but the lengthening nights and lowering temperature lessen
the nutritive quahty of th^ herbage, and arrest the further
accumulation of fat and flesh. The hair of the cattle begins
also to grow rapidly as the nights get chilly, "and causes
them to be housed with rougher, coats than are then ex-
pedient. To avoid these evils the farmer should early in
August begin to spread on the pasture a daily feed of green
forage, consisting of vetches, peas, and beans grown in
mixture in about equal proportions, which if well podded
and full of soft pulse, supplies exactly the kind of food
required to compensate for the deteriorating pasturage.
Early in September cabbages and white globe turnips should
be given on the pasture in lieu of the green forage. After
ten days or so of this treatment they should be transferred
to their winter quarters. For the first two months after
they go into winter quarters they make as good progress on
yellow turnips as on any kind of roots ; for the three
following months well stored swedes are the best food for
them ; and from the beginning of March until the end of
the season, mangolds and potatoes, in the proportion of
four parts of the former to one of the latter. The chaff
of wheat, oats, or beans, if tolerably free from dust, is quite
as suitable as cut straw for mixing with the pulped roots
and cooked food. The addition of a smaU quantity of
chopped hay, or of the husks of kiln -dried oats, to the
other food, usually induces cattle to feed more eagerly. In
short, the animals must be closely watched, and occasional
variations made in the quantity and quality of the food
given to particular individuals or of the general lot as their
circumstances may require. Besides the food given in the
manger it is desirable that each animal should receive a
daily allowance of fresh oat straw in a rack to which he
has access at pleasure.
A better appreciation ot tne efifects of temperature on the
animal economy has of late years exerted a beneficial influ-
ence upon the treatment of fattening cattle. Observant
fanners have long been aware that their cattle, when kept
dry and moderately warm, eat les3 and thrive faster than
under opposite conditions. They accounted for this in a
vague way by attributing it to their greater comfort in such
circumstances. Scientific men have now, however, showed
us that a considerable portion of the food consumed by
warm-blooded animals is expended in maintaining the
natural heat of their bodies, and that the portion of food
thus disposed of is dissipated by a process so closely an-
alogous to combustion that it may fitly be regarded as so
much fuel The fat which, in favourable circumstances,
is accumulated in their bodies, may in like manner be
regarded as a store of this fuel laid up for future emer-
gencies. The knowledge of this fact enables us to under-
stand how largely the profit to be derived from the fattening
of cattle is dependent upon th« manner in which they
are housed, and necessarily forms an important element in
determining the question whether yards, stalls, or boxes
arc best, adapted for this p^irpcst. A really good system
of hoUsing must combine the folio King conditions : —
ist. Facilities for supplying food and litter, and for re-
moving dung with the utmost economy of time and labour;
2d, Complete freedom from disturbance ;
3d, A moderate and unvarying degree of warmth j
4th, A constant supply of pure air ;
5th,, Opportunity for the cattle havin" a slight degree
of exercise ; and
6th, The production of manure of the best quality.
We have no hesitation in expressing our opinioij that
the whole of these conditions are attained most fully by
means of weU-arranged and well-ventilated boxes. Stalls
are to be preferred where the saving of litter is an object,
and yards for the rearing of young cattle, which require
more exercise than is suitable for fattening stock. These
yards are now, however, in the most impRved modem
homesteads, wholly roofed over, and thus cofEbine the good
qualities of both yard and box.
CfiAPTER XVn
LIVE STOCK SHEEP.
When Fitzherbert so long ago said, " Sheep is the most
profitablest cattle that a man can have," he expressed an
opinion in which agriculturists of the present day fuUy
concur. But if this was true of the flocks of his time,
how much more of the many admirable breeds which now
cover the rich pastures, the grassy downs, and the heath-
clad mountains of our country. Their flesh is in high
estimation with all classes of the community, and con-
stitutes at least one-half of all the butcher meat consumed
by them. Their fleeces supply the raw material for one of
our most flourishing manufactures. They furnish to the
farmer an important source of revenue, and the readiest
means of maintaining the fertility of his fields.
Section 1. — Breeds.
The distinct breeds and sub-varieties of sheep found in
Great Britain are very numerous. We have no intention
of describing them in detail, but shall confine our observa-
tions to those breeds which by common consent are the
moat valuable for their respective appropriate habitats.
They may be fitly classed under three heads — viz., the heavy
breeds of the plains, those adapted for downs- and similar
localities, and the moimtain breeds.
\st. — Heavy Breeds.
Of the first class, the improved Leicester! are still the
most important to the country. They are more widely
difi'used in- the kingdom than any of their congeners.
Although, from the altered taste of the community, their
mutton is less esteemed than formerly, they still constitute
the staple breed of the midland counties of England.
Leicester rams are also more in demand than ever for
crossing with other breeds. It is now about a century
since this breed was produced by the genius and persever-
ence of Bakewell, in whose hands they attained a degree
of excellence that has probably not yet been exceeded bj
the many who have cultivated them since his day. The
characteristics of this breed are extreme docility, extra-
ordinary aptitude to fatten, and the early age at which they
come to maturity. The most marked feature in theii
structure is the smallness of their heads, and of their bones
generally, as contrasted with their weight of carcase. They
are clean in the jaws, with a full eye, thin ears, and placid
countenance. Their backs are straight, broad, and flat,
the ribs arched, the belly carried very light, so that they
present nearly as straight a line below as above; the chest
is wide, the skin very mellow, and covered with a beautifuj
Seece of long, soft wool, which weighs on the average from
0 to 7 lb. On good soils and under careful treatmant
392
AGRICULTURE
these sheep are currently brought to weigh from 18 to 20
R> per quarter at 1 4 months old, at which age they are now
usuaUy slaughtered At this ago their flesh is tender and
juicy ; but when feeding is carried on till they are older and
heavier, fat accumulates so undulv as to detract from the
palatableness and market value of the mutton.
£.n«/rw.— These were at one time very large, unRainly animals,
mth an immense fleece of very Ioiir wool. By crossing them with
the I^iccstera the character of the breed has been entii-ay changed
and very greatly for the bett.;r. It is now, in fact, a sub-variely of
the Leicester, with larger frame and heavier fleece than t)ie pure
breed. Their wool, however, retains its distinctive characteri'itics—
vi7.., gieat length of stai>le, an unctuous feeling, and, in particular
a brightness or lustre which addi largely to its value. Sheep of
this kinl are reared in immense numbers on the wolds and heatlis of
Lincolnshire, and are sold when about a year old in the wool, and in
very for\vard condition, to the graziers of the fena and marshes, who
ultimately bring them to very great weights.
CotfuioUls, sometimes called Glo'sters or New Oxfords, are also
large and long-woolled sheep, with good figure and portlv pait
Oreat Improvement has been cfl"ected in this breed during the last
30 years, m consequence of wliich they are rfsing rapidly in public
estimation. The qualities for which they are prized are their hardi-
ness docility, rapid growth, aptitude to fatten, and the great weight
to which they attain. Their chief defect is that they yield mutton
somewhat coarse in the grain and with an undue preponderance of
fat But in addition to their great merits as a pure breed they are
especially yalu-ible for the purpose of crossing with Downs and other
short-wooUed sheep. Of this we shaU speak more particularly when
we come to notice the Cross-ireeds.
Tearwaters. — nui breed, found formerly in the vale of the Tees
used to have the reputation of being one of the largest and heaviest
of our native breeds. They had lighter fleeces than the old Liucolns
but greater aptitude to fatten. Like them, however, they have been
so blended with Leicester blood as to have lost their former charac
tcnstics. A3 now met with, they constitute simply a sub-varietv
of tnc latter breed. ■'
■The A'cnto or Ron^ruy Marsh Sheep, are another distinct long-
woolled breed which have much in common with the old Lincoln!
although they never equalled them either in the weight or quality
of their fleece. They too have been much modified by a lar/e
infusion of Leicester blood ; but as their distinctive qualities fit them
well for a bleak and humid habitat, there is now an aversion to risk
these By further crossing. As they now exist they are a great
iniprovement upon the old breed of the Kentish marshes ; and this
in the first instance at least, was the result of crossing rather than
selection. "
id. — Dovm and Forest Breeds.
The breeds peculiar to our chalky downs and other
pasture-s of medium elevation next claim our notice.
SoxUhdoimf--S<it long after Robert BakeweU had begun, with
admirable ski.l and perseverance, to bring to perfection his celebrated
l.eicesters, which, as we have seen, have either superseded or totally
alterwl the character of all the heavy breeds of the country, another
breeder, Jtr John Ellmau of Glj-nde, in Sussex, equal to BakeweU
in jud,(rmcnt, perseverance, and zeal, and wholly devoid of his
Illiberal j.rejudice .and narrow selfishness, addressed himself to the
ta.sk of improving the native sheep of the do«-ns, and succeeded in
bringing thera to as great perfection, with respect to early maturity
and latt.-riog power, as they are perhaps susceptible of. Like
LakewcH, he early began the practice of letting out rams for hire
Ihese were soon eagerly sought after, and the qualities of his
improved flock bc^Gg rapidly communicated to others, the whole rare
or down .^heep h-as more or less become assimihated to their standard
these improved Southdowns have, in fact, been to aU the old forest
and other fine-wooUed breeds what the Leiccsters have been to' their
congeners. Many of them have entirely disappeared, and others
only survive m those modifications of the improved Southdown
type which are to be found>in particular localities. These down
sheep possess certain weU-marked features which distinguish them
from all other breeds. They have a close-set fleece of fine wool
weighing, when the anim.als are well fed, about 4 lb • their facel
and legs arc of a duskT- brown colour, their neck sbghtly arched
their limbs short, their carcase broad and compact, their offal lieht'
and their buttocks very thick and square behind. They are less
impatientof folding, and suffer less from a pasture bein» thickly
stocked with thena than any other breed. It is in connection with
tbis breed that tne practice of folding as a means of manuring the
asiJ IS so Largely carried out in the chalk districts of Endand It is
wen ascertained that the injury done to a flock by this practice
exceeds the benefit conferred on the crops. Now that portable
manures are so abundant, it is to be hoped that this pernicious
practice of using sheep as mere muck machines will be everywhere
Abandoned '
[live .stock —
These sheep arc now usually classed u Suaux Downs and Bamp.
ihire Dovms, the former being the most refined t)-pe of the claw,
both 0.1 regards wool and carcase, and the lattir, as compared with
them, having a heavier fleece, .tronger bone, and somewhat coarser
and larger frame.
■ 7^" f-l?^'']}" ,"';"?• "■>"« partaking of the general character-
istics of the Southdown, is so much heavier both [in fleece and
carcase, and is altogether so much more robust an animal, that it now
claims to bo ranked as a separate breed. The qualities just referred
to as distmguishing it from other downs seem, however to be the
result of selection rather than of crossing with other breeds and thua
the bliropshire sheep, while a pure down, is yet of so distinct a
type from the high-bred "Southdown," that it is wcU entitled to be
recognised as a distinct and very valuable breed, as has been done
by the Koyal Society, which now assigns it a smarate class at iu
annual meetings. Shropshire rams are eagerly sought after, and
many breeders of eminence in that county have now their annual
sales of those animals.
These breeds are peciUiarly adapted for aU those parts of England
where ow grassy hills occur, interspersed with, or in proximity to
arable land. In such situations they are prolific, hardy, and easily
lat .ened at an early age. It is to their peculiar adaptotion for cross-
ing with the long-woolled breeds thot they are indebted for their
recent and rapid extension to other districts. .
i)OT-j«(j.— This breed has from time immemorial been naturalised
m the county of Dorset and adjacent parts. Thev are a whitcfnced.
homed breed, with fine wool, weighing about 4 ft per fleece. Th.y
are a hardy and docile race of sheep, of good size, and fair quality
of mutton But the property which distinguishes them from every
other breed in Great Britain is the fecundity of the ewes, and thiir
readiness to receive the male at an early season. Thev have
even been known to yean twice in the same year. Being, in addition
to this, exceUent nurses, they have long been in use for rearing
house lamb for the London market. For this purpose the rams are
put to them early in June, so that the lambs are brought forth in
October, and are ready for market by Christmas. But for this
peculiarity, they would ere now have shared the fate of so manv
other native breeds, which have given place cither to the Leicestcra
or bouthdowns, according to the nature of the pastures. So long
however, as the rearing of early house lamb is found profitable there
13 a sufficient inducement to preserve the Dorset breed in their parity
as they are unique in their property of early yeaning.
3(/. — Mountain Breeds.
^^"^"'^■—^^ ^^ approach and cross the Scottish border we find
a range of hills covered with coarser herbage than the chalky downs
of the south, and wnth a climate considerably more rigorous. Here
tho Southdown sheep have been tried mth but indiflerent success.
1 his however, is not to be regretted, seeing that the native Cheviot
breed rivals them in most of their good qualities, and possesses in
addition a hardihood equal to the necessities of the climate. This
breed besides occupying the grassy hills of the border counties, is
now found in great force in tlie north and west Highlands of Scot-
Land, in the counties of Sutheriand and Caithness, where they
were introduced by the late Sir John Sinclair, they have thrived
amazingly, and in the hands of some spirited breeders have attained
to as great perfection as in their native district. During the la.st
^0 years tins breed lias undergone very great improvement in size
figure, WL-ight of fleece, and aptitude to fatten. In proof of this it
13 enough to mention that Cheviot wether Iambs are now in 'the
border counties brought to market when weaned, and are transfemd
to tlie low country graziers, by whom they are sent fat to the butcher
at sixteen months old, weighing then from 16 to 18 lb per qnarter.
ihi3 IS particularly the case in Cumberland, where Cheviot lambs
are preferred to aU other breeds by the low-country fam/ers, by
whom they are managed with great skill and success. It is not at
all unusual with them to realise an increase of from 20s. to 25s per
head on the purchase price of these lambs, after a hvelvemonths
keep I his fact is peculiarly interesting from the prMif which it
affords of a hitherto unsuspected capacity in Cheviots, aSl probablv
in other upland breeds, to attain to a profitable degree of fatness and
weight of carcase at almost as early an age as the lowland breeds
when the same attention and liberal feeding is bestowed upon them
There IS no breed equally weU adapted for elevated pastures, con-
sisting of the coarser grasses with a mixture of heath ; but when-
ever from the naUire of the soil or greater elevation, the heaths un-
naistakably predominate, a still hardier race is to be preferred, viz.-
The-Blaek/aced or Heath £r«rf._They are accordingly found on
w '°°'"'f^"'°"» P»rts "f Yorkshire, Lancashire, CumVriand, and
Westmoreland ; over the whole of the Lammeraiuir range, the upper
part of Lanarkshire, and generally over the HigUands of Scotland.
Both male and female of this breed have horns, which in the former
are veij large and spirally twisted. The face and legs are black or
specked with black, with an occasional tendency to this colour on
the fleece ; but there is nothing of the brown or 'russet colour which
distinguishes the down breeds. The choicest flocks of these sheep
TOL. I.
AGEICIILTURE
PLATE Vn.
j
(DIHIISVIIO'ir EWIE
^r«:£ iy. oTi^ cfc Properly oFW Thomas £Uuia..UynJhop,^.Raxburghshirt.
TME IBM-SIS-IFASIlin) ffiEMia IBMEIEID)
One Year Old.
Jirrd by UTThomas RobrTtson, Broom/fa CbuM/ offeeiles
C-prnt ly irrmssutn mm J'rvfea^rlMi iesmflun rf trrels of ni::MKB,,iatl .liundU
VOL. I.
AGRICULTURE
PLATE Vrrr
;.'.!. /I'lv,,!
-4
v:^nat.jc'ia5-;tii^«'c>i^'=«5^-^
*^?^i;'^^-^''
LEU CIS SIT IE a K.AKI
>i^'^j>'^fm
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ILEHGESIflSIR EWIS
iHCrCLOP^OIA BRITAMNICA. NINTH [OITION
SHEEP.]
AGRICULTURE
393
are found in Lanarkshire and in the Lammennuirs, where consider-
able pains are now bestowed on their improvement. Their chief
defects are coaraeness of fleece and slowness of fattening until their
growth- is matured. In most flocks the wool, besides being open
and coarse in the staple, is mi.xcd with kemp3 0r hairs, which detract
from its value. .Rams with this defect are now carefully avoided
by the best breeders, who prefer those with black faces, a mealy
mouth, a slight tuft of fine wool on the forehead, horns flat, not
very large, and growing well out from the head, with a thickset
fleece of long, wavy, white wool. Greater attention is now also being
paid to their improvement in regard to fattening tendency ; in which
respect we do not despair of seeing them brought nearer to a par
with other improved breeds. "Whenever this is accomplished we
shaR possess in the breeds now enumerated, and their crosses, the
means of converting the produce of our fertile plains, grassy downs,
tough upland pastures, and heath-clad mountains, into wool and
mutton of the best quality, and with the utmost economy of which
the circximstances admit.
In the higher grounds of Cumberland, and also in "Westmoreland,
Lancashire, and parts of Yorkshire, two varieties of the heath breed
of sheep are found, viz., Herdwicks and Lonks — which, vvithageneral
resomblance to the blackfaced Highland breed, differ from it in
having a close-set fleece of fine soft wooh They are sometimes de-
scribed by saying that they have " the fleece of a Cheviot on the car-
case of a Highlander ;" but the Herdwicks are so small, and both
breeds are so inferior to the blackfaced in aptitude to fatten, that
they are losing ground in their native districts, where the blackfaces
are spreading rapidly, being in great repute for breeding crosses to
long-wooUed rams.
ith. — Cross-Breeds,
We have tLus enumerated the most important of our
pure breeds of sheep, but our list would be defective "were
■we to omit those cross-breeds ■which are acquiring increased
importance every day. "With the extended cultivation of
turnips and other green crops there has arisen an increased
demand for sheep to consume them. Flockmasters in
upland districts, stimulated by this demand, happily be-
thought them of putting rams of the improved lovr-country
breeds to their Cheviot ewes, when it was discovered that
the lambs produced from this cross, if taken to the low-
country as soon as weaned, could be fattened nearly as
quickly, and brought to nearly as good weights, as the
pure low-country breeds. The comparatively low prime
cost of these cross-bred lambs is a farther recommendation
to the grazier, svho finds also that their mutton, partaking
at once of the fatness of the one parent and of the juiciness,
high flavour, and larger proportion of lean flesh of the
other, is more generaUy acceptable to consumers than any
other kind, and can always be sold at the best price of the
day. The ■wool, moreover, of these crosses, being at once
long and fine in the staple, ia peculiarly adapted for the
manufacture of. a class of fabrics now much in demand, and
brings in consequence the best price of any British-grown
■wool. The individual fleeces, from being close set in the
pile, weigh nearly as much as those of the pure Leicesters.
On all these accounts, therefore, these sheep of mixed blood
have risen rapidly in pubbo estimation, and are produced
in ever-increasing numbers. This is accomplished in several
■waysj. The occupiers of uplying grazingsin some cases
keep part of their evi'e flock pure, and breed crosses from
another part. They seU the whole of their cross-bred
lambs, and get as many females from the other portion as
keeps up the number of their breeding flock. , This system
of crossing cannot be pursued on the most elevated farms,
as ewes bearing these heavier crossed lambs require bettor
fare than -n-hen coupled ■with rams of their own race. The
surplus ewe lambs from such high-lying grazings are an
available source of supply to those of a lower range, and
are eagerly sought after for this "purpose. Others, howevct,
take a bolder course. Selecting a few of the choicest pure
Cheviot ewes which they can find, and putting these to a
first-rate Leicester ram, they thus obtain a supply of cams
of the first cross, and putting these to ewes, also of tie first
cro8s;,manage in this^way to have their entim flock half-
bred,- and to go on continuoual.y with their own stock
■without advancing beyond a first cross. They, however,
never keep rams from such crossed parentage, but always
select them from the issue of parents each genuine of their
respective races. We know several large farms on which
flocks of crosses bet'wixt the Cheviot ewe and Leicester ram
have been maintained in this way for many years with
entire success ; and one at least in which a similar cross
■with Southdo^wn ewes has equally prospered. Many, how-
ever, prefer buying in females of this first 6ros3, and
coupling them again with pure Leicester rams. In one or
other of these ways cross-bred flocks are increasing on
every side. So much has the system spread in Berwick-
shire, that whereas, in our memory, pure Leicesters were
the prevailing breed of the county, they are now confined
to a few ram-breeding flocks. The cross-breed in best
estimation in England is that bet'wixt the Cotswold and
Southdo'wn, which is in such high repute that it is ■virtually
established as a separate breed under the name of Oxford
Do^wns. In Scotland the cross bet'iviit the Leicester ram and
Cheviot ewe is that which seems best adapted to the climate
and other conditions of the country, "and is that accordingly
which is most resorted to on farms a portion of which is in
tillage. On higher grounds a cross betwixt the Cheviot ram
and blackfaced ewe is in good estimation, and has been
extending considerably in recent years. This crosa-breed
seems to equal the pure blackfaced in hardiness, and is of
considerably greater value both in fleece and carcase.
This cross-breed is known by the name .of Halflanys. As
in the case of the Lei.iedtpr-Cheviot ewes, flocks are main-
tained by using rams of the cross-breed.
Section ^.^Management of Lowland Sheep,
As the management of sheep is influenced mainly by th%
nature of the lands upon which they are kept, we shall
first describe the practice of Lowland flockmasters, and
afterwards that pursued on Highland sheep-walks.
On arable farms, where turnips are grow n and a breeding
stock of sheep regularly kept, it is usual to wean the lambs
about the middle of July. "When this has been done, the
aged and faulty ewes are drafted out, and put upon good
aftermath or other succulent food, that they may bo got
ready for market as soon as possible. In many districts it
is the practice to take but three crops of lambs from each
ewe. A third part of the breeding flock — -vie., the four-
year-old ewes — is thus drafted oflf every autumn, and theii
places suppUed by the introduction of a corresponding
number of the best of the ewe-lambs of the preceding year's
crop. These cast or draft ewes are then sold to the occu-
piers of richer soils in populous districts, who keep them
/or another season to feed fat lambs. Such parties buy in
a fresh stock of ewes every autiunn, and, as they phrase it,
"feed lamb and dam." In other cases the e^nes are kept
as long as theii" teeth continue sound, and after that they
are fattened and sold to the butcher directly from the farm
on which they have been reared. When the ewes that are
retained for breeding stock have been thus overhauled, they
are put to the worst pasture on the farm, and ran rather
tliiekly upon it. Attention is necessary, for some days
after weaning, to see that none of them suffer from gorging
of the udder. When it appears very turgid in any of them,
they are caught and partially milked by hand ; but usually
the change "to poorer pasturage, aided by their restlessness
and bleating for want of their lambs, at once arrests the
flow of milk. The time of admitting the ram is regulated
by the purpose for ■which the flock is kept, and by the date
at which fresh green food -can be reckoned upon in spring.
When the produce is to be disposed of as fat lambs, it is
of course an object to have them early ; but for a holding
stock, to be reared and fattened at fourteen to sixteea
3;)4
AGRICULTURE
[live stock —
inontli3 old, from 20th September to 20th October, accord-
ing to the climate of the particular locab'ty, is a usual time
for admitting rams to ewes. A few weeks before this
takes place the ewes are removed from bare pasture, and
put on the freshest that the farm affords, or, better still, on
rape ; failing which one good feed of white turnips per
diem is carted and spread on their pastures, or the ewes
are folded for part of the day on growing turnips. The
rams are turned in amongst them just when this better
faro has begun to tell in their improving appearance, as it
is found that in such ciicumstances they coroo in heat
more rapidly, and with a greatly increased likeliliood of
conceiving twins. On level ground, and with moderate-
sized enclosures, one ram suffices for sbtty owes ; but it is
bad economy to overtask the rams, and one to forty owes
is better practice. Sometimes a large lot of ewes are kept
in one flock, and several rams, at the above proportion,
turned among them promiscuously. It is better, however,
when they can be placed in separate lots. The breasts of
the rams are rubbed with ruddle, that the shepherd may
know what they are about Those who themselves breed
rams, or others who hire in what they use at high prices,
have recourse to a dififeront plan for the purpose of getting
more service from each male, and of knowing exactly when
each ewe may be expected to lamb ; and also of putting
each ewe to the ram most suitable to her in point of size,
figure, and quality of flesh and fleece. The rams in this
ca.'jo are kept in pons in a small enclosure. What is techni-
cally called a teaser is turned among the general flock of
ewes, which, on being seen to be in heat, are brought up
and put to the ram that is selected for them. They are
then numbered, and a note kept of the date, or otherwise
a common mark, varied for each successive week, is put on
all as they come up. The more usual practice is to mark
the breast of the ram with niddlc, as already described, for
the first seventeen days that they are among the ewes —
that being the time of the periodic recurrence of the heat
— and then to use soot instead. 'When lambing-time
draws near, the red-rumped ewes, or those that conceived
from the first copulation, are brought into the fold, and
the remainder after the lapse of the proper intervah If
all goes on well, six weeks is long enough for the rams to
remain with the flock. The ewes are then put to more
moderate fare, taking care, however, not to pinch them,
but to preserve the duo medium betwixt fatness and
poverty. Under the first-mentioned extreme there is
great risk of losing both ewe and lamb at the time of
parturition ; and under the second, of the ewe shedding
her wool, and being unable to nourish her lamb properly
either before its birth or after. When there is a consider-
able breadth of grass-land, the ffrit or in-lamb ewes are run
thinly upon it so long as the weather continues moderate.
As the pasturage fails or winter weather sets in, they
receive a daily feed of turnips or hay, or part of both. In
districts where the four-course rotation is pursued, and
wheat sown after seeds, there is a necessity for keeping the
ewes wholly on turnips and chopped hay or straw. In
this case they are made to follow the fattening sheep, and
to eat up their scraps, an arrangement which is suitable
for both lots. A recently-introduced practice is better
still — namely, to feed the ewes at this season on a mixture
of one part by measure of pulped turnips or mangel-wurzel
to two of chopped straw, which is served out to them in
troughs set down in their pastures. From the large
quantity of straw which ewes are thus induced to eat, they .
can be allowed tP take their fill of this mixture, and be
kept in a satisfied and thriving state with a very moderate
allowance of roots. As their time to lamb draws near, the
mess should be made more nourishing by adding to it
ground rape-cake, bean-meal, and bran, at the rate of i
from ^th to |d of a pound of each of these articlea to each
ewe daily.
The i>eriod of gestation in the ewe is twenty-one weeks.
No lambs that are born more than twelve days short of
this period survive. Before any lambs are expected lo
arrive a comfortable fold is provided, into which either tlie
entire flock of ewes, or those that by their markings aro
knpwn to himb first, are brought every night This fold,
which may either be a permanent erection or fitted up
annually for the occasion, is provided all round with
separate pens or cribs of aize enough to accommodate a
single ewe with her lamb or pair. The pasture or turnip
fold to which the flock is turned by day is also furnished
with several temporary but well-sheltered cribs, for the
reception of such ewes as Iamb during the day. It is of
especial consequence that ewes producing twins be at once
consigned to a separate apartment, as, if left in the crowd,
they frequently lose sight of one lamb, and may refuse to
own it when restored to them, even after a very short
separation. Some ewes will make a favourite of one lamb,
and wholly repudiate the other, even when due care has
been taken to keep them together from the first In this
case the favourite must either be separated from her or 6rf
muzzled with a piece of network, to prevent it from getting
more than its share of the milk in the shepherd's absence.
Indeed the maternal affection seems much dependent on
the flow of milk, as ewes with a well-filled udder seldom
trouble the shepherd by such capricious partialities. As
soon as the lambs have got fairly afoot, their dams aro
turned with them into the most forward piece of seeds, or
to rape, rye, winter-oats, or water-meadow, the great point
being to have abundance of succulent green food for the
ewes as soon as they lamb. Without this they cannot yield
milk abundantly, and without plenty of milk it is im-
possible to have good lambs. It is sometimes necessary to
aid a lamb that has a poor nurse with cow's nulk. This is
at best a poor alternative ; but if it must be resorted to,
it is only the milk of a farrow cow, or at least of one that
has been calved six months, that is at all fit for this pur-
pose. To give the milk of a recently-calved cow to a young
lamb is usually equivalent to knocking it on the head.
Ewe milk is poor in butter, but very rich in curd, which
is known to be also in a measure the character of that
of cows that have been long calved and are not again
pregnant We have found the Aberdeen yeUaw bullock
turnip the best for pregnant and nursing ewes. Mangel-
wurzel is much approved of by the flockmasters of the
southern counties for the same purpose. It is of impor-
tance at this season to remove at once from the fold and
pens all dead lambs, and filth of every kind, the presence
of putrefying matter being most hurtful to .the flock.
Should a case of pherperal fever occur, the shepherd must
scrupulously avoid touching the ewe so affected ; or if he
has done so, some one should take his accoucheur duties
for a few days, as this deadly malady is highly contagious,
and is often unconsciously communicated to numbers of
the flock by the shepherd's hands. Unnecessary inter-
ference with ewes during parturition is much to be depre-
cated. When the presentation is all right, it is best to
lea\e them as much as possible to their natural efforts.
When a false presentation does occur, the shepherd must
endeavour to rectify it by gently introducing his hand after
first lubricating it with fresh lard or olive-oil. The less
dogging or disturbance of any kind that ewes receive during-
pregnancy the less risk is there of unnatural presentations.
As soon as lambs are brought forth the shepherd must
give them suck. When they have once got a bellyful, anc^
are protected from wet or excessive cold for two or three
d^ys, there is no fear of their taking harm from ordinary
weather, provided only that the ewes have plenty of suit-
BHEEP.]
AGRICULTURE
395
able food Lamts s^re castrated, docked, and ear-marked,
with least risk when about ten days old. Ewea with lambs
must have good and clean pasturage throughout the sum-
mer.,, For this purpose they must either be run thinly
among cattle or have two or more enclosures, one of which
may always be getting clean and fresh for their reception
as the other gets bare and soiled. We have not found any
advantage in allowing lambs yeaned in March to run with
their dams beyond 20th July. A clover eddish or other
perfectly clean pasture is the most suitable for newly-
weaned lambs. Such as abound in talk, as it is. called in
Scotland — that is, rank herbage growing above the drpp-
pings of sheep or other animals — are peculiarly noxious to
them. Folding upon rape or vetches suits them admirably,
BO that fresh supplies are given regularly as required.
Sheep, when folded on green rye or vetches, require a good
deal of water, and will not thrive unless this ia supplied to
them.
All sheep are liable to be infested with certain vermin,
especially " fags " or " kaids " {MelopJiagus ovinus) and
lice. To rid them of these parasites various means are
resorted to. Somo farmers use mercurial ointment,
which is applied by parting the wool, and then with the
finger rubbing the ointment on the skin, in three or four
longitudinal seams on each side, and a few shorter ones on
the neck, belly, legs, &c. Those who use this salve dress
their lambs with'it immediately after shearing their ewes,
and again just before putting them on turnips. More
frequently the sheep are immersed, all but their heads, in
a bath in which arsenic and other ingredients are dissolved.^
On being Ufted out of the bath, the animal is laid o'n spars,
over a shallow vessel so placed that the superfluous liquor,
as it is wrung out of the fleece, flows back into the bath.
If this is done when the ewes are newly shorn, the b'quor
goes farther than when the process is deferred until the
lambs are larger and their wool longer. It is a good practice
to souse the newly-shorn ewes, and indeed the whole flock
at the same time, in a similar bath, so as to rid them all
of vermin.'
As turnips constitute^tht staple winter fare of sheep, it
ia necessary to have a portion of these sown in time to be
fit for use in September. Young sheep always show a
reluctance to take to this very succulent food, and should
therefore be put upon it so early in autumn that they may
get thoroughly reconciled to it while the weather is yet
temperate. Rape or; cabbage suits admirably as tran-
sitionary food from grass to turnips. When this trans-
ference from summer to winter fare is well managed, they
usually make rapid progress-^Juring October and November.
Some farmers recommend giving the hoggets, as they are
now caUed, a daily run off from the turnip-fold to a neigh-
bouring pasture for the first few weeks after their being
put to this diet. We have found it decidedly better to
keep them steadily in the turnip-fold from the very first.
WTien they are once taught to look for this daily enlarge-
ment, they become impatient for it, and do not settle quietly
to their food. If possible, not more than 200 Should be
kept in one lot. The youngest and weakest sheep should
also have a separate berth and more generous treatment.
Turnips being a more watery food than sheep naturally
feed upon, there is great advantage in giving them from
the first, aloflg with turnips, a liberal allowance of clover
hay cut into half-inch chaff. When given in this form, in
suitable trough^ and in regular feeds, they will eat up the
whole without waste, and be greatly the better for it. To
" * The Diercurial and arsonicaV salvoa and washes commonly in use
are believed often to have a hurtful eilect on the health of the flocks
to which tiiey are , applied, and have sometimes caused very serious
losses. Having used Macdougall's dip (a preparation of carbolic acid)
for many years, we can testify to its efficacy aud safety,,
economise the hay, equal parts of good oat straw may be
cut up "with it, and will be readily eaten by the flock. A
liberal supply of this dry food corrects the injurious effects
which are so often produced by feeding sheep on turnips
alone, and at the same time lessens the consumption of the
green food. We believe also that there is true economy in
early beginning to give them a small daily allowance, say
\ lb each, of cake or cora-. This is more especially desir-
able when sheep are folded on poor soil. The extraneous
food both supplies the lack of nutrition in the turnips and
fertilises the soil for bearing succeeding crops. An im-
mense improvement has been effected in the ■tvinter feeding
of sheep by the introduction of machines for slicing turnips.
Some careful farmers slice the whole of the turnips used
by their fattening sheep, of whatever age ; but usually the
practice is restricted to hoggets, and only resorted to for
them when their mUk-teoth begin to fail. • In the latter
case the economy of the practice does not admit of debate.'
When Mr Pusey states the difi"erence in value between
hoggets th^t have had their turnips sliced and others that
have not, at 8s. per head in favour of the former from this
cause alone, we do not think that he over-estimates the
benefit. Those who slice turnips for older sheep, and for
hoggets also as soon as ever they have taken to them, are,
we suspect, acting upon a sound principle, and their ex.
ample is therefore likely to be generally followed. There
is no doubt of this at least, that hoggets frequently lose
part of the flesh which they had already gained from the
slicing of the turnips being unduly delayed. By 1st
December their first teeth, although not actually gone,
have become so inefiicient that they require longer time
and greater exertion to feed their fill than before ; and
this, concurring with shorter days and colder weather,
operates much to their prejudice. When the slicing is
begun, it is well to leave a portion of growing turnips in
each day's fold, as there are always some timid sheep in a
lot that never come freely to the troughs ; and they serve,
moreover, to occupy the lot during moonlight nights, and
at other times when the troughs cannot be instantly re-
plenished. As the sheep have access to both sides of the
troughs, each will accommodate nearly as many as it is
feet in lengtL There should therefore be provided at least
as many foot-lengths of trough as there are sheep in the
fold. The troughs should be perpendicular at their outer
edges, as the sheep are less apt to scatter the sliced tiimips
on the ground with this form than when they slope out-
wards. It is expedient to have a separate set of similar
troughs for the cake or grain and chopped fodder, which
it is best to use mixed together.
As the season when frost and snow may be expected
approaches it is necessary to provide in time for the flock
having clean imfrozen turnips to eat in the hardest weather.
To secure this, care must be taken to have always several
weeks' supply put together in heaps and covered %vith earth
to a sufficient thickness to exclude frost. The covering
with earth is the only extra cost incuired from using this
precaution, for if slicing the roots is practised at all, it
necessarily implies that the roots must be pulled, trimmed,
and thrown together, and this .again should be done in
such a way as to insure that the dung and urine of the
sheep shall be equaUy distributed over the whole field.
This is secured by throwing together the produce of 18 or
20 drills into small heaps, of about a ton each, in a straight
row and at equal distances apart. ror\ time it will suffice
to cover these heaps with a few of the turnip leaves and a
spadeful of earth here and there to prevent the leaves from
boing,» blown off. This arrangement necessitates the
regular moving of the troughs over the whole ground.
As the heaps are stript of their covering special care must
be taken, to scatter the tops well about, otherwise there
:vM
AGRICULTURE
[trra STOCK —
will be corrcBponding rank spota In the grain crop that
follows.
On light dry soils it is iisually most profitable to con-
sume the whole turnip crop where it grows by shoop, and
to convert the straw of the farm into dung by store cattle
kept in suitable yards, to which a daily allowance of
rape or cotton cake is given, with wholesome water eon-
stantly at their command. IBut it may at times oe more
profitable to use young sheep instead of cattle for this
purpose, and it is quite practicable to do so. In tlie winter
of 1865-06, in consequence of the prevalence of rinder-
pest, we had recourse to this expedient with entire success.
A lot of 200 hoggets was put into two contiguous yards,
of a size which ordinarily had accommodated 15 cattle each ;
the hoggets were fed on hay cut into chaff, which was
served to them in troughs so placed as to be protected from
rain. Along '-B-ith this chaff they received 2 lb each daily
of mixed cakes and grain, and a constant supply of water.
A covered passage by which the yards communicated was
coated vrith quicklime, which was stirred up daily and
added to twice a-weok. Care was taken to drive the whole
lot of sheep over this limed passage once every day, with
liberty to them to pass and repass as much as they hked
at all times. The yards were kept clean by being thinly
covered over with fresh straw every day. By this means,
and by an occasional paring of the hoofs when seen to be
necessary, their feet were kept perfectly sound. In other
respects they throve well, and the death-rate was -inusually
small
To clear the ground in time for the succeeding grain crop
a portion of the turnip crop is usually stored on some piece
of grass or fallow, where the flock is folded until the pas-
tures are ready to receive them. As the date of this varies
exceedingly, it is well to lay in curuipa for a late season,
and rather to have some to spare than to be obliged to stock
the pastures prematurely. If corn or cake has been given
in the turnip field, it must bo continued in the pasture.
Hoggets that have been well managed ivill be ready for
market as soon as they can be shorn, and may not require
grass at alL They usually, however, grow very rapidly on
the first flush of clovers and sown grasses, especially vi-hen
aided by cake or corn. When the soU is of poor quality,
it is ospedient to continue the use of such extra food duiing
summer. The best sheep are generally sent to market first,
and the others as they attain to a proper degree of fatness.
Store sheep or cattle are then purchased to occupy their
places until the next crop of lambs is weaned.
Lowland flocks are for the most part shorn in May,
although many fat sheep are sent to market out of theu-
wool at a much earlier date. Indeed railway transit has
made it practicable to forward newly-.'ihorn sheep to market
80 quickly that there is now little risk of their suffering
from exposure to bad weather, and accordingly few fat
sheep are now sent to market rou^h after the 1st of April.
But in the case of nursing ewes and stcro sheep of all
kinds it is highly inexpedient to deprive them of their
fleeces untQ summer weather has fairly set in. Accordingly,
the latter half of ilay and the first haU of June are, in
average seasons, the best shearing time, beginning with the
hoggets and ending with the ewes.
This practice of shearing a portion of the flock so early
as AprO renders it necessary to make a change on that mode
of sheep-Ti-ashing so well described by the author of the
Seasons. Artificial washing-pools are accordingly now pro-
vided by damming up some small stream of clean water.
The bottom is paved and three sides faced with bricks
set in cement, with a sluice to lot off the foul water
when necessary. The most accessible side of the pool is
formed of strong planks, securely jointed, behind which
the men engaged in washing the sheep stand dry, and ac-
complish their work much in the way that a washer-
woman does hers at her tub. A sloping passage at the
upper end of the pool allows the sheep to walk out, one
by one, as they ore washed. One such pool lb often made
to accommodate several neighbouring farms
Section 3. — Management of Mountain Sheep.
We have already taken notice of the extent to which
Cheviot sheep have of late years been introduced in the
Highlands of Scotland. Many of the immense grazinge
there are rented by farmers resident in the south of Scot-
land, who only visit their Highland farms from time to
time, and intrust the management of their flocks and
shepherds, which rival in numbers those of the ancient
patriarchs, to an overseer, whose duty it is to be constajitly
on the grounds, to attend in all respects to the interests of
his employer, see his orders carried into effect, and give
him stated information of how it fares with his charge.
The following pertinent remarTcs we quote from an
extensive and experienced Highland sheep-farmer : —
" The management of flocks in the Highlands is much the same
as on high ana exposed farms in the higher districts of Roxburgh-
shire, Dumfriesshire, and Selkirkshire, as regards the ewe hirsels ;
the ewe lambs either not beiug weaned, or that only for eighi or
ten days, so that they mav continue to follow their mothers. Th«
wether lambs are sent to the wether ground about the beginning of
August, and herded on the part of it considered most adapted for
their keep till about the middle of October, when they are sent to
turnips mostly in Ross-shire, where they remain till the middle of
March or bednning of ApriL This is one of the heaviest items of
expense in Highland fanning, amounting to fully- 48. per head ;
and thus, upon a farm equally 8toc':ed with ewes and wethers, adds
just about one-third to the rental of the farm. On the return of
the wether hogs they are put to particular parts of the wether
ground, at large amongst the other ages of wether stock, where
they remain until drawn out when three years old at the usual
BeasoD to send to market ; with this exception, that the year follow-
ing (when they are dinmonts), the smallest of them, those that are
not considered capable of wintering at home, say to the extent of
two or three to the score, are again drawn out and sent with the
hogs to turnips.
"Mr Sellar, in his Report of the County cf Sutherland, give*
a very minute and detailed account of the mode of management aa
practised on his farms. This, however, does not apply to extensive
West Highland farms, which have no arable farms attached, no
fields to bring in the diseased or falling-olf part of the stock to, nor
is it ever practicable to shift any part of the stock to different parts
of the farm from that on which they have been reared."
Sheep Farming on the hills drained ly the Tweed.
UntU quite a recent date the grassy hills enclosing the
upper vaDoy of the Tweed and its numerous tributaries
were stocked almost entirely with Cheviot sheep, and the
highest and most heathery portions of the Lammermuir
hills with the blackfaced breed. Since about the year
1850, under the stimulus of a growing demand and rapidly
advancing price for crcss-bred lambs, a great change of
practice has been going steadily on. Formerly, on such
hiU-country farms, cultivation of the soil was restricted to
a very small scale indeed, but latterly it has been extending
up the valleys and hill-sides at a rapid rate. Largo areas
of rough natural pasture are yearly being converted into
fields, which are well enclosed by substantial stone waUs, and
by draining, liming, and the hberal application of portable
manures, are made to produce luxuriant crops of turnips,
oats, and the cultivated clovers and grasses. As this pro-
cess of reclamation goes on, half-bred sheep (Leicester-
Cheviots) are substituted I'or pure Cheviots, the lambs of
this cross breed being at weaning-time worth from lOs. to
153. more per head than Cheviots, their fleeces heavier by
2 a each as well as more valuable per lb, and the draft
ewes also more valuable in about the same proportion as
the lambs. These half-bred sheep must be kept almost
exclusively on the reclaimed lands, which, however, will keep
about double the number of this more valuable breed of
SHEEP.}
AGRICULTUKE
397
sheep than they did of the less valuable when in their
natural iinreclaimed state. When the lowost-l.-Ang and kind-'
liest soils, of such farms have thus been improved and
devoted to the keeping of half-bred sheep, the higher and
poorer parts are often unfit for keeping Cheviot ifheep, and
are stocked with the hardier blackfaced breed. ' Cheviots
we in consequence rather at a discount at present as com-
pared with a period still recent.
The general management of these hiU-country half-bred
flocks does not differ materially from those of the plains.
They require generous feeding, and being prolific and good
nurses, they pay well for it. The oats grown on such
farms are disposed of most profitably when consumed by
the flock.
We begin our description of the management of strictly
hill flocks "with autumn, and assume that the yearly cast of
lambs and aged ewes has been disposed of, and only as
many of the ewe lambs retained as are required t(>ikeep up
the breeding stock. A former, practice was to keep these
ewe lambs or hoggets by themselves on -the best portions
of the respective walks, or rakes as they are called on the
Borders. INow, however, they are kept apart from their
dams only as long (eight or ten days) as suffices to let the
milk dry up ; whereupon they are returned to the flock or
hirsel to which they belong, and at once associate again
each with its own dam. The hoggets, under tho guidance
of the ewes, are thus led about over the ground, according
to varying seasons, and under the promptings of an instinct
which far surpasses the skill and care of the best shepherd.
The latter, indeed, restricts his interference chiefly to keep-
ing his flock upon their own beat, and allows them to dis-
tribute themselves over it according to their own choice.
When thus left to themselves each little squad usually selects
its own ground, and may be found, the same individuals
about the same neighbourhood day after day. This plan
of grazing the hoggets and ewes together has been attended
■n-ith the best results. There are far fewer deaths among
the former than when kepf separate, and being from the
first used to the pasturage and 'acquainted with the ground,
they get inured to its peculiarities, and grow up a healthy
and shitty stock, more easily managed and better able to
cope with trying seasons than if nursed elsewhere, and
brought on to the ground at a more advanced age. Each
hogget and its dam may be seen in couples all through the
winter and spring, and with the return of summer it is a
pretty sight to see these family groups grown into triplets
by the addition to each of a little lamb.
As the autumn advances, the floclonaster makes hi2
preparations for smearing or bathing. The smearing
material is a salve composed of tar and butter, which is
prepared in the following manner : — Six gallons of Arch-
angel tar and 50 lb of grease-butter are thoroughly incor-
porated, and as much milk added as makes the calve work
freely. This quantity suffices for 100 sheep. This salve
destroys vermin, and by matting the fleece is supposed to
add to the comfort and healthiness of the sheep. It adds
considerably to the weight of the fleece, but imparts to it
an irremediabje stain, which detracts seriously from its
value per lb. A white salve introduced by Mr Ballantjme
of Holylee is now in repute on the borders. It is prepared
as follows: — 30 lb butter, 14 ffj rough turpentine, and
3 B) soft soap are melted and mingled in a large pot ;
2 B) soda and J lb arsenic are then dissolved in a gallon
of boiling water, and this, along with 12 gallons more of
cold water, is intimately mixed with the other ingredients,
and yields enough for dressing 100 sheep at the rate of
a quart to each. Some persons, believing tho arsenic
an unsafe application, substitute for it half-a-gallon of
tobacco juice. Instead of tho rough turpentine, some
ako use half-a-gill of spirit of tar for each shedp; this
ingredient being mixed in each qnart-potful at the time
of appUcation.
In applying these salves, the sheep are brought to the
homestead in daily detachments, according to the number of
men employed, each man getting over about sixty in a day.
A sheep being caught and laid upon a stool, the wool is
parted in lines running from head to tail, and the tar salve
spread upon the skin by taking a little upon the fiqgers
and drawing them along. In using the white salve each
shepherd has a boy assistant who pours the liquid salve
from a tin pot with a spout, while hs holds the wool apart.
This white salve destroys vermin, and is believed to nourish
the wool and to promote its growth. Of late years the
practice of dipping has largely been substituted for salving
or pouring." It is practised as already described in the case
of low-cotmtry flocks, save only that with large flocks it jg
expedient to have it performed at some central and other-
wise convenient part of the grounds. Instead of a movable
tub and dripping board of wood, it is better to have a fixed
one bmlt cf concrete, or bricks set in cement, with a paved
dripping pen large enough to hold 50 sheep in each of its
two divisions. Ihe other requisites are a boUer to supply
hot water for dissolving the dipping stuif, a pipe to convey
cold water to the bath, and a wa^te pipe to empty it -for
cleansing. This salving or dipping must all be accomplished
before the 20th November, about which time the rams are
admitted to the flock. Before this is done another pre-
liminary is required. As the ewe hoggets graze with the
flock, it is necessary to guard them from receiving the male,
for which purpose a piece of cloth is sewed firmly over their
tails, and remains tmtil the rams are withdrawn. This is
called hreekhig them. On open hilly grounds about forty
ewes are sufficient for each ram. To insure the vigour and
good quality of the flock, it is necessary to have a frequent
change of blood. To secure this by purchasing the whole
rams required would be very costly, and therefore each
flockmaster endeavours to rear a home supply. For this
purpose he purchases every autumn, often at a high price,
one or two choice rams from some flock of known ex-
cellence, and to these he puts a lot of his best ewes, care-
fully selected from bis whole flock; These are kept in an
enclosed field until the rutting season is over, and after
receiving a distinctive mark are then returned to their
respective hirsels. From the progeny of these selected
ewes a SiuScient number of the best male lambs is reserved
to keep up the breeding stock of the farm. The rams are
withdrawn from the flock about 1st January, and are then
kept in an enclosed field, where they receive a daily feed of
turnips.
Except in heavy falls of snow and intense frosts, the
flocks subsist during the entire season on the natural
produce of their pastures. It is necessary, however, to be
provided for such emergencies both as regards food and
shelter. For this purpose each shepherd has at suitable
parts of his beat several stclls or artificial shelters, such as
are described at p. 402, and beside each of them a stack of
hay from which to fodder the flock when ftquired. So
long as the sheep can get at heather or rushes by scraping
away the snow with their feet they will not touch the hay,
but when the whole surface gets buried and bound up,
they are fain to take to it. The hay is laid out in handfuls
over the snow, twice a day, if need be. The hay should,
however, be administered with caution, and never to a
greater extent than is absolutely necessary. ■ Whenever
there is a lull in the storm, the shepherd should use his
utmost endeavour to movo the flock out from their shelter
to the nearest piece of rough heather or ground from which
the wind has drifted off the snow, and where tho sheep can
by scraping uith their feet get at their natural food. This
should be done not merely to economise hay, '<" '"■icaufle
398
A G Ft 1 C U L T {J R E
it is found Ihat alieep inTamUy come tLrcugh the hard-
ships of winter in better condition when thus encouraged
to shift as much as possible for themselves, than when fed
to the full on hay, and allowed to keep to their shelter all
the day.
Much vigilance, promptitude, and courage, are required
on the port of shepherds io these wild and stormy districts
in getting their flocks into places of safety on the breaking
out of sadden sn6w-8torms, and tending them skilfully
there.
In spring advantage' is taken of any dry weather that
occurs to set fire to the roughest portions of the old
heather and other coarse herbage, and this being thus cleared
off, a fresh young growth comes up, which yields a sweeter
pasture to the flocks for several succeeding years. Careful
shepherds are at pains to manage the muir-buming so as
to remove the dry effete herbage in long narrow strips,
and thus to secure a regular intermixture of old and
young heatL
The lambing season is one of much anxiety to the
master ; and to his shepherds and their faithful sagacious
dogs it is one of incessant toil They must be a-foot from
" dawn till dewy eve," visiting every part of their wide
range several times a-day, to see that all is right, and
to gi\-o assistance when required. The ewes of these
hardy mountain breeds seldom require man's assistance in
the act of parturition, but stUl cross presentations and
difficult cases occur even with them. Deaths occur also
among the newly-dropt lambs, in which case the dam is
taken to the nearest stell, and a tftin-Umb (of which there
are usually enough to sen'e this purpose) put iu the dead
one's place. . The dead lamb's skin is stript off, and
wrapt about the living one, which is then shut up beside
the dara in a small crib or pank, by which means she is
usually induced in a few hours (and always the sooner the
more milk she has) to adopt the supposititious lamb. As
the lambing season draws to a close, each shepherd collects
the unlambed ewes of his flock into an inclosure near his
cottage, and examines them one by one to ascertain which
are pregnant. To the barren ones he affixes a particular
mark, and at once turns them again to the hiU, but the
others are retained close at hand until they kmb, by which
means he can attend to them closely with comparatively
little labour. The lambs are castrated and dpcked at
from 10 to 20 days old. For this and for all sorting and
drafting purposes an ample fold and suit of pens, formed
of stout post and rail, are provided on some dry knoll con-
venient foiv each main division of the flock. To this the
flock is gently gathered, and penned off in successive lots
of 10 or 12, taking care that|reach lamb has its own dam
with it before it is penned, and to do this with as little
dogging and running as possible. The male lambs of the
pure blackfaced breed, when designed to b« kept as wethers,
are not castrated until they are eight or ten weeks old,
partly because when this is done sooner their horns have a
tendency to get so crumpled as to grow into their £yes, and
partly because a bold horn is thought to improve the
appearance of an aged wetter.
On these elevated sheep-walks shearing does not take
place until July. It cannot, in fact, be performed until
the young wool has begun to grow or rise, and .so admit of
the shears working freely betwixt the skin and the old
matted fleece. The sheep are previously wa-shcd by causing
them to swim repeatedly across a, pool with a gentle
current flowing through it. They are made to plunge in
from a bank raised, either naturally or artificiailly, several'
feet above the surface of the water. This' sousing and
Bwimming in pure water cleanses the fleece far more effect-
ually than could te supposed by persons accustomed only
to the mode pursued in arable districts. Shearing takes
\lXT& -STOOK—
place three or four days after washing, and in the interim
muoh vigilance is required on the part of the ahopherd to
prevent the sheep from rubbing themselves imder banks of
moss or earth, and so undoing the washing. In the caaa
of blackfaced flocka washing is now sot unfrequently
altogether dispensed with, b^ause the greater weight of
unwashed wool more than counterbalances the difl'erence in
price betwixt washed and unwashed fleeces. -Each man
usually shears about 60 sheep a-day. It is neither
practicable nor expedient to shear these mountain sheep so
closely as the fat denizens of lowland pastures. For this
operation each shearer is provided with a low-legged sparred
stool, having a seat at one end, or with a bench built of
green turf. These are arranged in a row close in front of a
pen, in which the unshorn sheep are placed. The shearers
being seated, each astride his stool or bench, with their
backs to the pen,* a man in it catches and hands over a
sheep to each of them. The sheep is first laid on its back
upon the stool, and the wool shorn from the under parts,
after which its legs are bound together with a soft woollen
cord, and the fleece removed, first from the one side and
then from the other, by a succession of cuts running from
head to tail The fleeces are thrown upon a cloth and
immediately carried to the wool-room, where, after being
freed from clots, they are neatly wrapped, up and stored
away. Before the shorn sheep are released each receives
a mark or huiit by -dipping the owner's cypher in melted
pitch, and stamping it upon the skin of the animal. To
discriminate different ages and hirsels, these marks vary in
themselves or are affixed to different parts of the sheep.
Once or twice a year aU stray sheep found upon the farms
of a well-defined district are brought to a fixed rendezvous,
where their marks are examined by the assembled shep-
herds, and each 'is restored to its proper owner.
Weaning takes place in August or early in September.
A sufficient number of the best ewe lambs of the pure
breeds are selected for maintaining the flock, and are
treated in the way already noticed. With this exception,
the whole of the lambs are sold either to low-country
graziers or as fat lambs to the butcher. The wether
lambs usuaDy go to the former, and the ewe kmbs of the
cross betwixt blackfaced ewes and Leicester rams to the
latter. These ewes being excellent nurses, make their
lambs very fat in favourable seasons, in which case thsy
are worth more to kill as lambs than to rear. Immediately
after the weaning, the ewes which have attained mature
age are disposed of, generally to low-country graziers, who
keep them for another year, and fatten lamb and dam.
To facilitate the culling out of these full-aged ewes, each
successive crop of ewe lambs receives a distinctive ear-
mark, by which all of any one aee in the flock can be at
once recognised.
S^diaa i.—Wool.
Wool is such an important part of the produce of ow
flocks that it seems proper to offer a few remarks upon
it before leaving this subject, although it will fall to be
considered under its proper heading. We here insert with
much pleasure the followiiig communication received from
the late John Barff, Esq., of Wakefield : —
'* T willinj^ly giv« jnn a reply tn your varions inquiries regftrding
wool, a.<i far as T ain nhlp. As to thfl kinds grown in the variooj
oonnt.ipji of thfi United Kingdom, this T rjinnot fully afiswer, as there
ar^ pome conntifta' woola which have no* rome much binder my
injipection ; but generally 1 may remark that wherever the turnip
can -be cultivated and has been introduced^ the Leicester, Lincoln-
shire, Cotj^wold,^and the half-breds from Pown and Cheviot, are
to be fouud ; and in the same counties, in several inatanoe.i. you
have BeveraJ kinds, if we except Lincolnshire and Leicist^Tshire,
which have entirely the long-wool sheep. The great bulk •also o?
Tork, Warwick, Oxford, Cambridge, Oloucoafer, Northampton,
and KuttLT'rr''am shires, have this description of sheep, but tliey
COATS.]
A G R I C U
have also Downs and half-breii. Kent has its own sheep, called
Kents ; the wool beine much finer than the real long-wool sheep,
running in quality and weight of fieece between the latter and the
Down, something like' your half-breda from Cheviot ewes by
Leicester rams. They have somewhat of a similar sheep in Devon,
Cornwall, Hereford, and Shropshire, but the quality in the two
former counties scarcely so fine as the two latter, or the Kent wools.
Norfolk has the original Down and the half-bred ; Surroy, Suffolk,
Ess(K, Sussex, and Hampshire are nearly all Down wools, though
in these counties, upon some of their best lands, where they can
cultivate the turnip, the half-bred are being introduced ; and I
need scarcely say to you, the Leicester sheep, as well as half-breds
and Cheviots, are to be found in Durham, Northsmberland,
Berwickshire, Roxburghshire, Lothians, and other parts of Scotland
where the turnip is cultivated ; and in those parts where it is not,
and on the hills, the Cheviot and blackfaced prevail. The black-
faced are used for low padding cloths, carpets, and horse-rugs. The
Down wools were formerly aU used for cloths and flannels ; but
now, from the improvement in worsted machinery, oce-tliird is used
for worsted yarns and goods ; and as the portion suitable for comb-
ing purposes is more valuable for this purpose than for cloths or
flannels, the grower aims at getting it as deep-stapled as possible ;
and this has led to a great increase in the weight of the fleece, but
at the same time a deterioration in the quality. The Leicester,
Lincolnshire, and half-bred, and Cotswolds, as well as the Kents
and Devons, are entirely used for worsted yarns and goods ; and a
very small portion of the wools imported come in competition with
them. The nearest approach is a bttle imported from Holland and
Denmark ; but they partake more of your cross from a blackfaced
ewe by a Leicester ram. Tiio Irish wools are either the long-
woolled sheep similar to the Leicester, the mountain sheep similar
to your Cheviot, or the small Welsh sheep. The Irish wpols are
generally open-haired, and have not the richness of the Leicester or
our English, and are not so much esteemed or valuable as English
wool of apparently the same quality by Jd. to Id. per tb. Richness
of handle is now very desirable, as there is a demand for what are
called glossy yams, which wools fed on pasture or good new seeds
only can produce, and which cannot be obtained from' the wools
grown on chalk or hard lands, such as our midland counties— viz.,
Oxford, Bedford, and Northampton — generally produce.
** In every fleece of wool there are two or three qualities — not
more than two or three in the blackfaced, four or five in the long-
wooUed sheep, five or six in the half-bred, and seven or eight in a
Down fleece ; and I may say every fleece undergoes this sorting or
separation before being put into any process of manufacture. Of
course the more there is of the best quality in any fleece the more
desirable and valuable the fieece is ; in blackfaced, to be free from
dead hair or kemps ; and we find in all the other wools that the more
close the staple and purly the wool, the more it yields of the finer
qualities, whilst the open-haired makes more of the lower quality.
The breeder should therefore, in selecting his tups with a view to
good wool, choose them with a close purly staple. A great deal of
the excellence, however, of wool depends upon the nature of the
soil on which the -sheep are fed. Upon the chalk and sandy hard
lands we always find the worst qualities of wool of its kind, whilst
the best comes from the rich good lands, where there is plenty of
old grass or seeds. Thus the wools of Roxburghshire, as a general
rule, are better than Berwickshire or lK)thian ; Leicester, Lincoln-
shire, Nottingham, and Warwickshire, superior to Oxford, Cam-
bridge, Bedford, or Northampton ; and in Downs, Sussex and Surrey,
bettor than Essex and Norfolk, from their downs being more grassy
and the land better. The principal quality required in wool is a
rich soft handle, as such is always found to improve in every pro-
cess it is put through in the various stages of its manufacture,
whilst the wools grown on chalk or hard lands, aud which have a
hard bristly handle, got coarser as they progress in the manufacture.
" With regard to the salves or baths used for destroying vermin,
we do not know what kinds are used in the difl'orent localities, but
of those used with you we dislike the spiri!) of tar and tobacco.
Wilson of Coldstream's dip appears to answer, and one called
liallautyne's, used in Selkirkshire ; but in all these a great do.ll
depends upon their being properly attended to, and being put on at
the proper season. If put on in the autumn, we don't perceive tliat
thoy have been used, and whenever we have to make a complaint |
on this head, we find it arises from the baths having been used in
spring."
CHAPTER XVIir.
UVE STOCK — GOATS, ifcc.
Section l.-^GocUs.
Goats never occupied an iraportant place among tlio
domeaticated animals of the British Lslands, and, with the
ezcoptiou of Ireland, their nvunbera have been constantly
L T U R E 399
diminishing. By the stlrtistieal returns it appears that in
1871 there were 232,892 goats in Ireland, which in
1872 had increased to 242,310. The value of goat's milk,
as a source of household economy, is much greater than is
usually supposed. This is so weU shown by Cuthbert W.
Johnston, Esq., in an article in the Farmer^ Magazine, that
we shall quote from it at some length.
" The comfort derived by the inmates of a cottage from a regular
supply of new milk need hardly be dwelt upon. Every cottager's
wile over her tea, every poor parent of a family of children fed
almost entirely on a vegetable diet, will agree with mo that it is
above aU things desirable to be able to have new milk as a varia-
tion to their daily food of bread and garden vegetables. The
inhabitant of towns and of suburban districts, we all know, is at the
mercy of the milk dealer ; the milk he procures is rarely of the beat
quality, and under the most favourable circumstances he receives it
with suspicion, and his family consume it with sundry misgivings
as to its wholeaomenesB.
"Having personally experienced these difficulties, and having
about three years since commenced the attempt to supply my
family with goat's milk, and as our experience is cheering, I desire
in this paper to advocate the claims of the nulch goat to the
attention of the cottager, and the other dwellers in the suburban
and niral districts.
" Few persons are perhaps aware of the gentleness and playful-
ness of the female goat— how very cleanly are its habits, how readily
it accommodates itself to any situation in which it is placed
Confined in an outhouse, turned on to a common or into a yard,
tethered on a grass plat, it seems equally content. I have found it
readily accommodate itself to the tethering system, fastened by a
leathern collar, rope, and Iron swivel, secured by a staple to a
heavy log of wood. The log is the best (aud this with a smooth
even surface at the bottom), because it can be readily moved* about
from one part of the grass plat to another. The goat, too, uses the
log as a resting-place in damp weather. The goat should be fur-
nished with a di"y sleeping-place, and this, in case of its inhabiting
open yards, can bo readily furnished ; anything that will serve for
a dry dog-kennel wLU be comfortable enough for a goat.
"The milk of the goat is only distinguishable from that of the
cow by its superior richness, approaching, in fact, tho thin cream
of cow's milk in quality. .The cream of goat's milk, it is true,
separates from the milk with great tardiness, and never so eom-
pletely as in the case of cow's milk. This, however, is of little
consequence, since the superior richness of goat's milk renders the
use of its cream almost needless. The comparative analysis of milk
of the cow and goat will show my readers how much richer the
latter is than that of the former ; 100 parts of each, according to
M. Regnault, gave on an average —
Cow. Goat.
Water. 8<-7 82 6
Butter ■lO iS
Sugar of milk and soluble salts 5'0 46
Caseine (cheese), albumen, and insoluble salts, Z'6 9'0
So that, while the milk of the cow yields 12-6 per cent, of solid
matters, that of the goat produces 17 per cent., goat's milk yield-
ing rather more butter, ratbor less sugar of milk, but considerably
more caseine (cheese) than that of the cow.
" It must not be supposed that the taste of the milk of the goat
differs in any degree from that of tho cow ; it is, if anything,
sweeter, but it is quite devoid of any taste which might very
reasonably bo supposed to be derivable from the high-flavoured
shrubs and herbs upon which the animal delights to browse.
"Tho amount of the milk yielded by the goat varies from two
quarts to one quart per day ; it is greatest soon after kidding time,
and this gradually decreases to about a pint per day, a quantity
which will continue for twelve months. 1 his is not a large supply,
it is ti-ue ; but still it is- one which is available for many very useful
purposes ; and be it remembered that when mixed with more than
its own Ijidk of lukowaim water, it is then in every respect superior
to tlie milk supplied by the London dairymen.
" In rogai'd to the best variety of goat to be kept, I would recom-
mend the smooth-haired kind, which are quite devoid of boards or
long hair. In this opinion 1 am confirmed by an experienced
correspondent, Mr W. 11. Place of Hound House, near Guildford,
who remarked, in a recent obliging communication — 'I found that
the short-haired goats with very little beards wore the beat
milkers ; but fiom these I seldom had more than four pints a-d«y
at the host (I should say threo pints were the average), and this
quantity decreases as the tinio tor kidding approaches (the goat
carries her young 21 to 22 weeks). They should not be fed too
well near the time of kidding, or you will lose the kids. In winter
I gave them hay, together wiLh mangel-wurzel, globe and Swedish
turnips, carrots, and sometimos a few oats, and these kept up their
milk as wc41 as anything, but of course il was most abundant wlteu
400
A G R I C LI L T IT K E
[UVE STOCK —
they could get frosh graas. The milk I always found excellent,
but 1 never had a sufficient qoantity to induce me to attempt mak-
ing butter except onco, oa an experiment : my cook then made a
little, which was easily done in a little box-chum ; the butUjr
proved very good. 1 found the flesh of the kids very tender and
delicate. '
** I nan add little to Hr Place's information as to their food ;
mine have generally fed out of the same rack as a Shetland pony,
with whom they are on excellent terms. The pony throughout the
oummor is soiled with cut grass, and I notice that the goats pick
out tlio sorrol, sow thistle, and all those weeds which the pony
rejects.
*' la the garden (if thoy are, by any ch&nce, allowed to browse),
I notice that thoy select the roso-troca, common laurels, arbutus,
laurestiima, and tlio laburnum. Of culinary vcgntables they prefer
cabbies and lottucoa ; thoy also bito pieces out of the tubers of the
potato. Thoy carefully pick up the loavea, whether green or
autumnal, of timber trees ; of thosa thoy prefer those of the oak
and elm, and delight in ocorna aad oak-applea. We are accustomed
to collect and store the acorns for thorn against winter ; spreading
the acornfl thinly on a dry floor, to avoid the mouldiness which
follows the sweating of acoma laid in a heap. As I have before
rcrftarked, none of these oatringent subiitances alTcct the taste of
their milk ; and 1 may hore observe that, with ordinary gentleness,
there is no more difficulty, if so .much, in milking a goat than a
cow.
"The ho>goat engendcra at a year old. The she-goat can produce
when BdVfln months old. She generally yeans two kids. The
manure of the goat is perhaps the most powerful of all our domestic
animals.
*'Such are tho chief facts which I have deemed likely to be
useful in inducing tho extended keeping of the milch goat. It is
an animal that, 1 feel well assured, may be kept with equal ad-
vantage by tho cottager and the dwellers in larger houses. It is
xiaoleaa to compare it with the cow, or to suppose that tho goat can
supplant it in situations where tho cow can do readily kept ; but in
the absence of pastures, and in places where there is too little food
for cows, I feci well convinced tliat, with ordinary care and atten-
tion, and a modtrato friTnness in overcoming the prejudices of those
unaccustomed to the goat (and unless these are found in the owner,
live stock never are profitable), the value and the comfort of a
milch goat are much greater than is commonly known.
"Tho waste produce of a garden is oiceediJigly useful in the keep
of a goat. By them almost every refuse weed, all the cuttings and
clearmgs which fcr» wheeled into the rubbish-yard, are carefully
picked over and consumed. To them the trimmings of laurels and
other evergreens, pea-haulm, and cabbage stalks, &c., are all grate-
ful variations of their food. In winter a little sainfoin, hay, or a
few oats, keeps them in excoUont condition. In summer, tho
mowings of a small grass-plot, watered with either common or
sewage water, will, with the aid of the refuse garden produce, keep
a goat from the end of April until October."
Section 2. — ffogs.
Although occupying a less prominent place in the estima-
tion of the farmer than the oi and sheep, the hog is never-
theless an animal of great value. He is easily reared,
comes rapidly to maturity, is not very nice as to food;
coDsuming offal of all kinds, and yields a larger amount of
flesh in proportion to his live weight and to the food which
he has con&unicd,s than any other of our domesticated
animals whose flesh is used for food. To the peasantry
he is invaluable, enabling tho labouring man to turn the
scraps even from his scanty kitchen, and from his garden
or allotment, to the best account. On such fare, aided by
a little barley or pollard, he can fatten a good pig, and
supply hia family with wholesome animal food at the
cheapest possible rate.
The breeds of swine in Great Britain are niimeroa3,<iand so exceed-
ingly blended that it is often impossible to discriminate or classify
thorn properly. Tho ori^niial breeds of the ccuntry seem to be two,
viz., " The old English, Hog," tall, gaunt, very lung in the body,
with pendent ears and a thick covering of bristles. The represen-
tatives of t.hi.q old breed are found chi^y in the western counties of
England, especially in Lancashire, Yorksh,ire, and Cheshire, where
hogs of immense size are still reared, but greatly improved as com-
pared with their ancestry. Their bones are smaller, their hair finer
and thinner set, their skin thinner and with a pink tint, the ears
still pendulous but much thinner, tho carcase much thicker, and
their propensity to fatten greatly increased. This large br^ed is
exco6<ungly prolific, and the sows are exoellent nurses, it being
i^uite (lommos for *iiem to farrow and rear &om 12 to 18 pigs at
each litter. They are somewhat tardy in arriving at maturity, aul
do not fatten readily until that is the case. After sixteen monthft
old they, however, lay on flesh r^ry rapidly, grow to very great
weights, and produce hams of excellent quality, with a lar^e pro-
portion of lean flf:«h in them. The Berkshire and Ilampahire ho^
seems originally to hare been from the same stock, but by sonw
early croas acquired the uiicker carcase, priek-eora, shorter limba^
and earlier maturity of growth, by which thty are characteriaed.
The other native breed is found in the I/ightaTtds and hlanda of
Scotland. They are very sToal], of a dusky brown colour, wita
coarse bristles along the spine, and prick-c&ra. They are exceed-
ingly hardy, and subeist on tho jtoorcst faro, being often left to rang*
about without shelter, and support themselves as they best can on
the roots of plants, sLell-fish, ccaweed, and dead fish cost up by
tho tide.
The improved breeds now so abundant have been obtained b^
crossing these old races with foreign hogs, and chiefly with th^
CJiinege and Neapolitan. Our modem \uhiu breeds, with prick-eara,
short limbs, fine bone, delicate white flesh, and remarkable pro-
pensity to fatten at an early age, are Indebted for these quaUtiea
to the Chinese stocks. The improved blaeJe hretda, of vhich tha
I^sex may be selected as the type, and which possess the qualitiea
just enumerated in even a greater degree, are a cross from th»
Neapolitan. Thoy are choractenscd by their very small muzzle^
fine bone, black colour, and soft skin nearly destitute of hair.
They can be brought to profitable maturity at from eight to twelve
montlio old, the white breeds at &om twelve to sixteen montha.
Both kinds are peculiarly suitable for producing small pork to b*
used fresh, or for pickling. The floeb of those smaller breeds pn^
duces, however, excellent bacon when used in that manner, and at
less cost than that of the larger breeds, for this reason, that it i»
only from the flesh of a hog that has reached maturity that bacon
of the first quality can be produced ; and as these nave reached
that point at an ago when the others are but ready for beginning
the fattening process, it follows that the carcase of tho former, in' a
state fit for curing, is produced at less cost than that of the latter.
Sows of the Neapolitan breed and Its ci-osseo are better mothers and
nurses than the Chinese. Both kinds require peculiar care to pre-
vent^e pregnant sow from becoming hurtfully fat. Unless kept
on poor and scanty fore they inevitably become uaeleas for the
purpose of breeding. The Berkshire hog combines tho good quali-
ties of the larger and smaller breeds already referred to, so happily,
that he deservedly enjoys the reputation of being aa profitable a
sort for the farmer as can be found. With proper treatment he
arrives at maturity at about sixteen months old, yields a good
weight of carcase for the food which he has consumed, F.nd hie
flesh is well adapted for being used either cs fresh meat, pickled
pork, or bacon, according to the age at which he is elaugntbred.
A very profitable hog is also obtained by coupling sows of the larger
breeds with males of some of the smoUer races.
It too frequently happens that less care is bestowed on
the breeding of pigs than of the other domesticated
animals.
From the early age at "which they begin to breed ther^
is need for constant change of the male, to prevent the
intermingling of blood too near akin. These animals, too,
are exceedingly sensitive to cold, and often suffer much from
the want of comfortable quarters. Whether fx)r fattening
hogs, or sows with young pigs, there is no better plan than
to lodge them in a roomy house with a somewhat lofty
thatched roof, the floor being carefully paved with stone or
brick, and the area partitioned off into separate pens, each
furnished with a cast-iron fee ding- trough at the side nest
the dividing alley, and with adequate drainage, so that the
litter in them may be always dry. The period of gestation
with the sow is tiizteen weeks, and as her pigs may be
weaned with safety at sii weeks old, she usually farrows
twice in the year. In this climate it is desirable that her
accouchement should never occur in the winter months.
It is a common arrangement to have a pig-ahed so placed
that the store piga lodged in it can have access to the
cattle-courts, where they grub amongst the litter, and pick
up scattered grains that have escaped the thraahing-mill,
and fragments of turnips and other food dropped by the
cattle. On such pickings, and the wash and offal from
the farm kitchen, aided by a few raw potatoes, Swedes, or
mangold, and in summer by green vetches, a moderate
number of store pigs can be got into forward condition,
and afterwards fattened very quickly, by putting theui
VOL. I.
AGRICULTURE
PLATE IX.
'-^w^^^^V.-
1 '-.v^'l'V'i' • I
,:jiSfi5S^:;
. iic.^r.^L^:iT ItAIRSH ISI^EH'
Ewe m her secotd Qeece
£red by M^Bislwp of LosetJuim. House- S^-nz.
find In/ and (Ju /hipcrOf ol JTtlSijtw. YorisAue
PO0LTRY.J
into pens and improving their fare. There is no cheaper
way of fattening hogs than by feeding them on boiled or
stearned potatoes, mashed and mixed with a portion of
barley or pease-meal. When barley-meal a'one is used, it
should be muced -with cold water, and allowed to soak for
twelve hours before being given to the hogs. A few
morsels of coal should be frequently thrown into their
troughs. These are eaten with evident relish, and conduce
to the health of the animals.
An interesting account of the most approved methods
of cutting up, curing, and disposing of carcases of pork, is
given in the Journal of the Ror/al Agricultural Society,
voL xi, p. 585.
Section 3. — Poultry,
is a class of stock deserving more attention than farmers
generally give it. There are, indeed, fejv farm-yards un-
tenanted by fowls of some sort, and few homesteads with-
out a poultry-house. It is rare, however, to meet with
an instance where the breeding and management of poultry
is conducted with the care and intelligence so frequently
bestowed on other kinds of live stock. Now, if poultry
is kept at all, whether for pleasure or profit, it is surely
worth while to use rational means for securing the object
in view. To have good fowls, it is necessary to provide
a dry, warm, well- ventilated house, in which they may
roost and deposit their eggs. This house must be kept
clean, and its tenants regularly supplied with abundance
of suitable food. Constant and careful attention is also
absolutely indispensable. On farms of the lesser sort,
this duty is usually undertaken by the farmer's' wife or
daughters. It vdVi, however, in most cases be better
to entrust the entire charge of the poultry to some elderly
female servant, who shall give her undivided attention
to it.
The kinds of poultry most suitable for a farm-yard are
the common fowls, geese, and ducks. Turkeys and giiinea-
fowl are difficult to rear, troublesome to manage, and less
profitable than the other sorts. Of the common fowl there
are now many excellent and distinct breeds. The Cochin
China or Shangkae is the largest breed we have. They
are hardy and very docile ; their iiesh is of good quality
when young ; their eggs, of a buff colour, arc comparatively
small but excellent in flavour, and are produced in groat
abundance. The hens resume lajing very soon after hatch-
ing a brood ; sometimes so soon as three weeks. They are
the more valuable from the circumstance that their principal
laying season is from October to March, when other fowls
are usually unproductive. The Dorkings, of which there
are several varieties, as the speckled, the silver, and the
v/hite, are not excelled by any breed for general usefulness.
The hens are peculiarly noted for their fidelity in brooding,
and their care of their young. The Spanish fowls are very
handsome in their plumage and form, have very white and
excellent flesh, and lay larger eggs than any ether breed.
The Polish and Dutch every-day layers are peculiarly
suitable where eggs rather than chickens are desired, as
the hens of both these breeds continue to lay for a long
time before showing any desire to brood.
It is to be recommended that, except in situations where
a good price can be got for chickens, the return should be
sought for chiefly in eggs.
A suitable stock of fowls being selected, pains must be
taken to preserve their health and other good qualities by
breeding only from the best of both sexes, and these not
too near akin. A very simple plan for securing this is to
select a cock, and not more than six or eight hens, of the
best that can be got, to entrust these to the care of some
neighbouring cottager, whose dwelling is sufficiently apart
to prevent intercourse with other fowls, and then to use
AGRICULTURE
401
only the eggs from these selected fowls for the general
hatching. There are many advantages in such a course.
The whole stock of fowls can thus be had of uniform
character and superior quality. If it suit the fancy ot
object of the owner, hia fowls may be of several distinct
breeds without any risk of their intermingling ; the select
breeding stocks can be kept up by merely changing the
cock every second year, and not more than one cock to
thii'ty hens need be kept for the general stock, as it is no
consequence whether their eggs are impregnated or not
Besides having the run of the barn-door, cattle-courts,
and stack-yard, fowls are greatly benefited by having free
access to a pasture or roomy grass-plot. If the latter is
interspersed with evergreen shrubs so much the bettei, as
fowls delight to bask under the sunny side of a bush,
besides seeking shelter under it from sudden rain. Their
court should also be at all times provided with clean water,
and a heap of dry sand or coal-ashes, in which they wallow,
and free themselves from vermin. To keep them in pro-
fitable condition, they require, besides scraps from the
kitchen and refuse of garden stufTs, etc., a daily feed of
barley or oats at the rate of a fistful to every three or four
fowls. In cold weather they are the better of having
some warm boiled potatoes thrown down to them, as also
chopped liver or scraps of animal food of any kind. There
is an advantage in having the poultry-house adjoining to
that in which cattle-food is cooked in winter, as, by carry-
ing the Hue of the furnace up the partition-waU, the fowls
get the benefit of the warmth thus imparted to their roost-
ing-place. Saw-dust, dried peat, or burnt clay, are suitable
materials for littering poultry-houses, and are preferable to
straw. By strewing the floor with such substances two or
three times a week, each time carefully removing the pre-
vious application, and storing it vrith the mingled drop-
pings of the fowls under cover, a valuable manure can be
secured. When 100 common fowls, a score of geese,
and a dozen or two of ducks are kept, the quantity and
value of the manure produced by them, if kept by itself
and secured ffom the weather, will surprise those who
have not made trial of such a plan.
Of late years the breeding of poultry has in various
parts of the kingdom become quite a passion. Kot only
have many separate treatises been published entirely de-
voted to this subject, but every agricultural periodical now
bears evidence to the popularity of this pursuit.
Section 4. — Treatment of Live Stock voider Disease.
Time was when every such treatise as the present was
expected to contain a description of the diseases to which
the domesticated animals are most subject, and instructions
for their treatment under them. But now that farriery is
discarded and veterinary medicine is taught in colleges,
the handling of such a subject is obviously beyond the
province of a practical farmer. A few general observations
is all, therefore, that we offer regarding it. The province
of the stockmaster obviously is to study how to prevent
disease, rather than how to cure it. For this end lot him
exercise the utmost care, first, in selecting sound and
vigorous animals of their respective kinds, and then in
avoiding those errors in feeding and general treatment
which are the most frequent causes of disease. AVhen
cases of serious disease occur, let the best professional aid
that is available be instantly resorted to ; but in aU those
cases which farmers usually consider themselves competent
to treat we advise that they shoidd trust rather to good
nursing, and to the healing power of nature, than to that
indiscriminate bleeding and purging which is so commonly
resorted to, and which in the majority of cases does harm
instead of good.
402
AGRICULTUKE
CHAPTER XIX.
IMPEOVEMENT OF WASTE LANDS.
Nohnthstanding the great progress which agriculture
has made, and the immense amount of capital, energy,
and skill which for generations has been brought to bear
upon the improvement of our soil, there are still large
portions of the surface of our country lying in their natural
state, and usually classed under the head of Wcute Landt,
in contradistinction to those which are under tillage, or have
at some time been subjected to the plough. Of this (so
called) waste land but a limited portion is absolutely
unproductive. Much of it is capable of being converted
into arable land, and doubtless will in course Of time be
so dealt with, but in the meantime this class of waste
lands, and very much more that will never be tilled, is of
great and steadily increasing value as sheep-walks. Even
for this purpose most of it is susceptible of great im-
provement, and would well repay it These lands are
comprised under the following descriptions: — \st. Those
hilly and mountainous parts of Great Britain which, from
their steep and rugged surface and ungenial climate, are
unfit for tillage ; 2rf, Those which lie uncultivated owing
to natural poverty of soil, its wetness, or the degree to
which it is encumbered with stones ; Zd, Bogs and mosses ;
Alh, Lands so near the sea-level as to be more or less
liable to be submerged ; and bth, Blowing sands.
Section 1. — Improvement of HigMying Sheep Pastures.
The lands referred to under the first of these heads are
of very great extent, embracing the whole of the mountain-
*ous parts of Scotland and Wales, and much of the high
grounds in the north of England and south of Scotland.
These high grounds afi"ord pasturage for innumerable flocks
of sheep of our valuable mountain breeds. The business
of sheep-fanning has received a great stimulus of late years
trom the ever-growing demand for sheep to consume the
green crops of arable districts. These upland sheep-walis
are accordingly rising in value, and their improvement
is becoming every day of increasing importance. The im-
provement of these hill grazings embraces these leading
features, viz., drainage, shelter, and enclosure. UntQ of
late years our hill flocks were peculiarly liable to the rot
and other diseases arising from the presence of stagnant and
flood water upon their pastures. Many grazings that had
at one time an evil reputation on this account now yield
sound and healthy sheep, solely from the care with which
they have been drained. To guard against the pernicious
effects of flooding, the courses of brooks and runnels, which
in heavy rains overflow their grassy margins, are straight-
ened, deepened, and widened, to such an extent as is
required to carry off all flood water without allowing it to
overflow. Some grounds are naturally so. dry that this is
all that is required to render them safe. But in general
the slopes and hollows of hilly grounds abound with springs
and deposits of peat, and with flats on which water stag-
nates after rain. On well-managed grounds such places are
covered with a network of open drains or shallow ditches,
about 30 inches wide at top and half as many deep, by
which superfluous water is rapidly carried off. The cutting
of these drains costs from 8s. to 10s. per 100 rods (of six
yards each). In pastoral districts there are labourers who
are skilled in this kind of work, and to whom the lajnng
out of the lines is frequently entrusted, as well as the exe-
cution of the work. On very steep places they are careful
to avoid a run directly down the declivity, as a strong
current of water in such circumstances gutters the bottom
. of the drain, and chokes those below with the debris
thus produced; but with this exception the drains are |
always run straight down the greatest slope of the ground. |
[improvement of
When such drains have been properly mndo, it is neces-
sary to have them statedly overhauled and kept in good
order.
Next in importance to drainage is good and sufficient
shelter. This, in the absence of natural coppices- of birch
or hazel, is provided by means of clumps and belts of fir
plantation. These should always bo of such extent that
the trees may shelter each other as weU as the sheep.
Trees planted in a mass always shoot up faster than in
narrow strips, and restrain the snow-drift which passes
through the latter. A shepherd who knows the ground
well should always be consulted about the sites of such
plantations. The conditions requisite arc, that the soil be
such as trees will grow in ; that it be bo far removed from
any brook, ravine, or bog, as to be accessible to the flock from
all sides ; that there bo rough herbage, such as heather,
gorse, or rushes, near at hand, which the sheep may be
able to get at in deep snow ; that it be contiguous to the
sheep-walk, and placed so as to afford defence against the
most prevalent winds. A less costly shelter is formed by
building what are called tielts, which consist of a simple
dry-stone wall enclosing a circular space twenty yards or
so in diameter, with an opening on one side ; or forming a
cross, in one angle of which the sheep find shelter from
whatever point the wind blows. A haystack is a necessary
adjunct to such defences.
It is a further point of importance to have sucn grazings
surrounded with a ring fence, consisting either of dry-
stone walls, turf walls with wire a-top, or a simple wire
fence. This prevents trespass ; and the sheep having
freedom to range, without watching, up to the boundary,
more of them can be kept on the ground than when they
are ever and anon turned back by the shepherd. These
needful and inexpensive improvements are now generally
attended to over the wide pastoral districts of the Scottish
border counties. In the remote Highlands they are still
much neglected. There are, however, few agricultural im-
provements which yield so quick and certain a return.
Section 2. — Reclaiming of Moor Lands.
The improvement of the second class of these unre-
claimed lands is now much facilitated by the readiness with
which portable manures can be obtained for them. Drain-
ing and enclosing here necessarily demand the first atten-
tion. In some cases the land is so encumbered with stones
that careful trenching of the whole surface is the only way
of getting rid of them. In the north of Scotland many
thousands of acres formerly useless have been converted
into valuable arable land by this means.
In nearly all parts of the country there are extensive
tracts of this muiry soil, producing only a scanty and
coarse herbage, which are susceptible of remunerative im-
provement We are happy in being able to submit to the
reader the following detailed account of a successful
instance of this, kindly furnished to us by George A Grey,
Esq. of Millfield Hill, Northumberiand :—
" It is said that 'necessity is the mother of invention.' I was
told by some of my friends that 1 had eiven too high a price for this
estate, and that it would be a dearer farm to me now than when I
rented it from Lord Grey. To overcome this opinion or fact, I
thought of several plans of making it more remunerative, and
decided on that which I am now about to describe.
'* On the high part of the farm, at an elevation of from 400 to 500
feet above the sea, I had upwards of 100 acres of moorland of a poor
description, which had never been under the plough. This consisted
of short heath, bilberry bushes, and dry white bent grass, and a soft
dry deep moss, delightful as a Turkey carpet tmder foot, and excel-
lent excursive ground for old hunters, with a small portion of apratty
grass and rushes in the damp hollows. The soil is of a free turnip
and barley loam on the rotten whinstone. By planting on the west
side, and in some places suitable for shelter, I reduced the quantity
to about 100 acres. ITua I divided into three fields of about 3S
acres each.
WASTE LANDS.]
AGRICULTURE
403
** lly great dread was the length of time which such a rough dry
gui-face would require to decompose suiEcicntly to allow of cultivation,
having seen heathery moors in many parts of Scotland lying for two,
three, and four years before crops could be obtained, owing to the
great cover of coarse vegetation preventing the furrow from lying
over, and keeping the land so open and dry through summer that if
a braird of corn or green crop was obtained, it would wither away
in dry weather.
"I had heard of paring and burning, but knew nothing of the
process. I, however, obtained the necessary information very much
from Mr Langlands of Bewick, who had practised it to a consider-
ol'le extent. With what I saw there I was so much pleased that I
determined to proceed at once.
** 1 also saw Mr Langlands's work done by a paring-plough, such
as is used in the south of England, with a wide plate to cut a fuirow
of 10 or 12 inches in width. On tho point of this is an upright
piece of steel, which cuts and divides the heath, — tho mould-board
turns the furrow over flat on its back, and from end to end of the
lauding the furrows. lay side by side like planks from a saw-mill, and
wcro about half an inch in thickness.
'* I must, however, remark, as a caution to others against falling
into the same error as I did, that this land had been in tillage at
some former time, and was in ridges with a regular surface, so that
when the plough was set, it cut the whole furrow at a uniform depth,
and was drawn by two horses with ease, and at an expense of about
eight shillings per acre.
" I got this plough, and gave it a fair trial, but from my land
never having been laid smooth, it cut one part as thin as was wished,
and the next yard perhaps six or twelve inches thick, which caused
a great extra expense in diying, lifting, and burning, and wasted
more soil than was necessary or desirable. Also my land having a
great deal of small whinstone below the turf, the steel plate frequently
got injui'ed and broken. It was therefore with great reluctance laid
ar-ide, and the ordinary method of paring by hand adopted, which is
slower and much more expensive, but very perfect. It saves soil
and cheapens the burning operation, the paring being so thin when
tha heath, &c., was divided, that light could be seen through the
8ol, which was only held together with the roots and fibres.
" 1 began with No. 1 field in July 1349. I let the paring and
burning to a company at 25s. per acre, but they made low wages,
and after getting more than their work came to, gave up the job.
I then got some experienced hands to pare, and paid them the usual
wages, at that time 93, per week, and gave them their food, say IBs.
per week, the work being very hard. The total cost of this
averaged me 243. 9d. per acre. A portion of the top part of No. 1
wa3 Isft undone owing to the lateness of the season. This was dry
bcnty tiuf. It was ploughed in the common way, and grow no oats
in 1850. It was again ploughed and much harrowed and rolled,
and sown with the remainder of the field in 1851 with rape, and has
grown only a few plants at wide distances. It is still in such a^ry
undecoraposed state that although it is on the high part of the
field where sheep draw to lie, I do not expect that it will grow a crop
of corn next year ; while a portion which was paled do>7n the middle
of it grew ^ood com and rape,
*' A portion of No, 2 field was also ploughed in the ordinary way.
This was moist land, growing shorter and sweeter grass than any
other. It grew a very thin irregular crop of oats in 1850, not within
three-quarters per acre of the pared land, but is now (1861) bearing
a good crop of ozts, that field being a second time in oat crop. To
return :
*' I h.ad a fair crop of rape in the autumn of 1849 on a consider-
able portion of No, 1, where it was sown in tolerable season daring
all August ; after that it appeared to be too late. All was, however,
ploughed up at once to secure the aahes, and was well harrowed and
sown with oats in the spring of 1850. The pared land turned out
to be much too thickly sown at four bushels per acre. Com tillers
BO much on such land that in some paita it prevented it from
coming to maturity. I have since sown much thinner, say three
bashels per acre, and even in some degree I find the same fault, thcro
being from five to eight stems from one root. My crop of 1850
turned out to be 30 bushels per acre, but it was on the point of being
cut when the high wind in August devastated this district, and
that lying high and fully exposed to the wind suffered most severely.
I should say it was not below siz quarters per acre, and the quality
of the grain good.
" In June and July 1850 I pared No. 3 by the same hands who
finished my work the previous year. I let the hm'ning of it to an
Irishman at 23. 6d. per acre, binding him to bum it closely piled up
in good-sized heaps like hay-cocks, to prevent the escape of the ashca
in tlie Bbape of smoke into the atmosphere.
*'This, with the paring, cost me on 36 acres lOs. 6d. per acre. I
got 20 acres of it ploughed and sown with white turnips, broadcast
ill July and Adigust. I had a close nice crop, though the roots were
Binall, which kept a large flock of sheep for several weeks. This
Lad tiic good eflect of treading down the land and making it plough
up better for oats.
"Noa. 1 and 2 were limed at the rate uf 7 looda per aero. In
June 1851 No. 1 was sown broadcast with rape, by mixing 4 lb. of
rape seed with one bushel of oat shellings for an acre, and sowing
thein out of a grass-seed machine. The crop is very close and fine,
and has kept twenty scores of sheep from an early day in August to
this date (September 27th);
** No. 2 in 1851 was again sown with oats, which proved a very
fine crop, as also did No. 3. The produce was about nine quarters
per acre . The oats are very thiok and tall, and have very long, large
heads, and the grain is plump and good; the stalks being strong, the
crop is not lodged so as to injure the yield. I estimate it at cer-
tainly 7i quarters per acre, but shall calculate it at 6 quarters.
*• I sow on that land the sandy oat, being early, not liable to
lodge nor to shake in moderately high winds, although it was not
proof against that of 1850.
*' Previously to breaking up I drained with pipes all the land
which required drying, of which I shall give a statement, along with
the expenses and profits of the whole.
"The result shows that if I had, some years ago, wnen prices of
grain were good, done as a tenant what I have done now, I should
have been amply repaid by the first or second crops, and have had
my farm for the remainder of a twenty-one years' lease worth fully
£100 a year more than when I began.
"The result of my experience is, that I neither agree with the
generality of Scotsmen nor with many Southerns. The former
are of opinion that burning wastes the vegetable matter, which
should be kept to decompose and enrich the soil, not considering
that at once the land receives a rich dressing of ashes quite eaual to
two quarters of bones, or 4 or 5 cwt. of the best guano ; and that,
during the several years which such a slow process would reqxiire to
take place, the land might bo much more enriched by growing and
having eaten upon it fine crops of rape and turnip, and by producing
heavy com crops, which would in a much shortor space be returned
to it in the shape of manure ; and also that by the process of burn-
ing the land is freed from the larvce of insects; such as grubs, slugs,
wireworms, &c. &c., which are engendered among the rough grass,
and fostered for a length of time under the rough, dry, 'undecom posed
turf ; to say nothing of the length of time which the speculator is
kept out of a large amount of capital and interest, instead of having
the former returned with the latter after the first or at most the
second year.
" The latter, again (the Englishmen), are too much in the habit
of repeating the operation of burning, even after the land -has
lain in grass only for a few years, when it might as well be ploughed
and cultivated without such expense, thereby unnecessarily reducing
the soil, there not being the same difliculties to be overcome nor
the same advantage to be gained from it.
'* I should certainly burn all land with a rough harsh surface,
and should as .certainly plough and sow all land with a sweet grassv
face upon it,
y "In my opinion there are few farms in this coimtry which do not
contain certain portions of land capable of remunerative improvement,
and I have shown that such improvement is quite within the scope
of a tenant with a lease, without which no man can farm well, at
least in the Northumbrian system. Would it not be better, then,
for landlords, tenants, and the country generally, were tenants to
employ labourers on works so spsedily remunerative to themselves,
rather than run to their landlord whenever they feel tho screw, and
askfor abatement of rent, or to be allowed to plough out some piece
of valuable old grass, or othenvise cross crop their land, with a
view of obtaining some temporary advantage, but in the end to tho
inevitable injury of all concerned? (Signed) "G. A. Grey.
"Mill field Hill, Dec. 1, 1851."
From a statement of outlay and returns appended to tho
above paper it appears that the profits on the three fields
were respectively £50, 123. 5d., X84, 19s. 3d,, and-£39,
23. Gd., from ■which, however, there falls to be deducted
tho expense of fencing (£35), leaving a gross profit of
XI 39, Us. 6d.
Section 3. — Reclaimi7uj of Bogs.
The reclamation of extensive bogs, or deposits of peat,
is a more arduous undertaking, reqxuring a considerable
expenditure of capital and longer time before a return is
obtained from it. The extent of land of this description
in Great Britain and Ireland is very great. Very exagge-
rated statements of tho profits to be derived from its
improvement have often been published, and not a few
persons have incurred Bcrious loss by rashly undertaking
this kind of work. On the other hand, when bogs ara
favourably situated with reference to a command of marl
or other calcareous matter, to assist in their decomposition
and consolidation, and of manure to enrich them, their
404
AGRICULTURE
[improvement 01^
reclamation has proved a very profitaoio speculation.' Thp
well-known instance of Chat Moss in Lancashire affords so
interesting an example of this that we shall here quote
a description of it.
"Chat Mo9% well known as that black barren swamp between
Liverpool and Manchester, contains 6000 acres, one-half of which is
in the township of Barton, and the remainder in the townships of
Bedford, Astley, and Worsloy.
'.'The principal part of this moss, which lies in Barton township,
belongs to the Tralford family, and is entailrd, but the ancestor of
the present Sir Thomas do Tratford appears to have obtained, at
the latter end of the lost century, an Act of Parliament to grant a
ninety-nkie years' lease of 2500 acres to a Mr Wakefield, who abou^
the year 1805 disposed of his interest in it to the late William
Roscoe, of literary celebrity, who spent a large sum in a fruitless
endeavour to improve it, failing in which, the leasV was sold in 1821
to other parties. J. A. Brown, Esa., of Woolden Hall, bought
1300 acres ; the lato Edward Baines, AI.P. for Leeds, purcliased the
remaining 1200 acres. The most extensive and suctessful elforts
at improving this moss Imve been made on a part of the 1200 acres
Iwught by Mr iJainos, who, besides occupying the part operated
upon by Mr Roscoe, improved a considerable breadth himself, and
let several portions to other parties, who have made considerable
progress in improving small portions. The most extensive opera*
lions, however, upon the whole, have been carried out by a comjany
to whom Mr Baines, in 1823, granted a lease of 550 acres for 63 years,
the remainder of the original term, at a nominal rent for the first
year, increasing gradually till at the end of five years the rent
attained its maximum of £165 per annum for the 550 acres. This
company, which was formed at the time the Liverpool and Man-
chester Railway was in progress of being made on the property,
consisted, amongat others, of some practical farmers, and originated
with William Reed, who for the three first years was the manager,
and resided on tins fann, which they called Barton Moss farm.
During that period 1 had the pleasure of paying my friend Reed a
visit, and of witnessing tho skill and success attending his enterprise
and vsrious experiments.
" The first operation, that of draining, had been effected by open-
ing side drains at intervals of fifty yards, into which were laid
covered ones six yards apart, at right angles with and emptying
into the open side drains.
*' The moss being in a semi-fluid st-xte, it was necessary to proceed
slowly Avith draining, taking out only one graft or depth at a time,
allowing it to remain a week or a month, according to the state of
the weather, before taking out the second graft ; this admitted of
the sides becoming consolidated, and of the second graft being taken
out without the moss closing in. It was again allowed to remain
as before till suiTiciently diy to admit of the third being removed.
" The open drains were made 3 feet wide and 3 feet 6 inches deep,
and the covered drains IC inches wide and 3 feet deep; the last graft of
the latter being only about 6 inches wide at the top, tapering to 4
inches at the bottom, and being taken out of the middle of the
cut, left a shoulder on each side. The sod or graft first taken out
had by this time become tou"h and dry, and was placed, with the
heath side downwards, in the shoulder, thus leaving tho narrow spit
at the bottom open for a depth of about 1 4 inches ; the other square
sod being put on the top, completed the drain."
"The cost of this mode of draining, including the side drains,
was about 38s. per acre. The drains first put m required to be
renewed in a few years, in consenuenco of the moss becoming so
mi*ch consolidated and reduced in height that the plough, as well
as the horses' feet, broke through the roof, although the horses were
shod ■with 'pattens/ or boards of about 10 inches square, with the
angles taken off. Tho second draining, however, was more perma-
nent, and would probably not have required renewing for many
years but for the moles, which have been very troublesome in
working down to the drains, and filling them up in various places ;
BO that the operation of draining has required to be partially renewed
in every field, and in many of them entirely so ; and thus these little
animals have been the cause of a very considerable increase in the
cost of labour. It has subsequently been found advisable to put
the under drains in at 4 yards, instead of 6 yards asunder, and the
advantage in one crop has been quite sufficient to pay the extra cost.
A two-horse engine was erected, which drives the thrashing-machine,
straw-cutter, and crusbing-mill ; and the escape-steam from it
8tea.ms the horses' food.
"Tho buildings were erected principally of timber, covered with
asphalted felt
"After draining, making roads, ana Duming off the heath plant,
the land was scarified lengthmse of the fields by an implement
with knives shaped like coulters, reversed, sharp on the convex
side, fixed in two bars, and drawn by three horses yoked abreaat.
"The tough surface was by this means cut at every four inches ;
the land WEia then ploughed across the scarifying ; a roller, sur-
rounded with knives, was next passed across the plough ; after
this the land was well harrowed till sufhciently reduced.
" From 60 to 100 cubic vards of marl were put on an acre, and
in the following aummer the land was manured, also by means of
the movable railway, at the rate of fifty tons of black Manchester
manure per acre, and planted with potatoes, which were foUowt^l
by wheat, sown with red clover and ryegraas, for mowing for on*
or two years ; then oats and potatoes, ice., aa before. 'Ifaese wei«
all flourishing crops ; the wheat in particular looked bright and
beautiful. The potatoes were sold for i'25 and £30 per acre, which
morQ than paid tho whole cost of improvement. Mr John Bell,
resident bailifl", has made many valuable experiments relative to
the improvement of raw moss, one of which uaa resulted in a dis-
covery likelv to be of considerable importance, which is, that a
mixture of lime and salt applied a while before seeding, with the
addition of a good dressing of guano, in the proportion of four torn
of lime and live cwt of salt per acre, qualifies it to produM a
crop of potatoes or oats equal to that after the anpl:cation of 60
yards of marl per acre. It is essential that the mixture should bo
spread while it is hot Mr Evens (one of the proprietors) is con-
vinced that the peat on the surface ought never to be bunied ; he
has always found that, when the hcath\sod is turned down to decay,
much better crops have been obtained than when it has been burnt
off, or than when the top has been taken away either for' fuel or
other purposes. What are termed moss-fallows, — that is, parts which
have had the moss taken off for fuel, — will never bear so good a crop
as the upper surface, however deep the moss may bo underneath.
— {Notts on the Agriculture of Lnncaahire^ with Suggestions for its
ImprovermiU, by Jonathan Binns.)
About a century ago, Lord Kames, on becoming pro-'
prietor of the estate of Blair-Drummond, in the county
of Perth, began the improvement of a large tract of worth-
less moss by a totally different process from that now
detailed. In this case the moss had acciunulated upon a
good alluvial clay soil. Instead, therefore, of attempts being
made to improve the moss itself, it was floated off piecemeal
into the neighbouring Firth of Forth. The supply of water
required for this purpose was obtained from the river Teith,
from which it was raised to tho requisite height by a
powerful water-wheel. .' Being conveyed through the moss
in channels, successive layers of peat were dug and thrown
into these channels, which were shifted as occasion required,
until the whole inert mass was removed. A thin stratum
next the clay waa biyTit, arid the ashes used as manure.
An immer':e extent of moss has thus been got rid of on
that est"*' ^ and on others in the neighbourhood, and "an
extensive nact of country, where formerly only a few snipes
and muir-fowl could find subsistence, has been converted,
as if by magic, into a rich and fertile carse of alluvial soil,
worth from X3 to £5 per acre."
Section 4. — JieclatTning of ^n Lands.
We next notice the fen lands of England. " In popular
language, the word fen designates all low wet lands,
whether peat-bog, river alluvium, or salt marsh ; but in the
great Bedford level, which, extending itself in Cambridge-
shire and five adjoining counties, is the largest tract of fen
land in the kingdom, the farmer always disting-.iishes, and
it is thought conveniently and correctly, between fen land
and marsh land. By the former they mean land partly
alluvial and formed by river floods, and partly accumulated
by the growth of peat. Such lands are almost invariably
of a black colour, and contain a great percentage of carbon.
By marsh lands they mean low tracts gained from the sea,
either by the gradual silting up of estuaries or by artificial
embankments." Low-lj'ing peat occurs in small patches in
nearly every maritime county of Britain, being usually
separated from the sea or from estuaries by salt marsh or
alluvium. There is a large extent of such land in Somerset-
shire yet but partially drained, and a still larger breadth
in Lancashire, where its improvement makes steady pro-
gress. In Kent, on the seaboard of Norfolk, on both shores
of the Humber, and stretching along the sides of its tribu-
taries, there are immense tracts of this description of land.
But these are aH exceeded in importance by the " great
level of thp fens, which occupies the south-eastern quarter
of Lincolnshire, the northern half of Cambridgeshire, and
Vaste lands.]
AGRICULTURE
i405
gpreada ho into the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Hunting-
don, and Vortliampton. Its length is about TOjniles, its
breadth from 3 or 4 to 30 or 40 miles, the -whole area being
upwards of 1060 square miles, or 680,000 acres. On the
map the fens appear like an enlargement of the Wash, and
in reality have the aspect of a sea of land, Ijnng between
that bay and the high lands in each of the above-nained
counties, which seem to form an irregular coast-line around
it." This fen country has for centuries been the scene of
dr^nage operations on a stupendous scale. The whole sur-
face of the great basin of the fens is lower than the sea,
the level varying from four to sixteen feet below high-
water mark in the German Ocean. The difficulty of drain-
ing this flat tract is increased from the circumstance that
the ground is highest near the shore, and falls inland
towards the foot of the slope. These inland and lowest
grounds consist of spongy peat, which has a natural
tendency to retain water. The rivers and streams which
flow from the higher inlands discharge upon these level
grounds, and originaUy found their way into the broad
and shallow estuary of the Wash, obstructed in all direc-
tions by bars and shifting sand-banks. These upland
waters being now caught at their point of entrance upon
the fens, are confined within strong artificial banks, and
so guided straight seaward. They are thus restrained from
flooding the low grounds, and by their concentration and
momentum assist in scouring out the silt from the narrow
channel to which they are confined. The tidal waters are
at the same time fenced out by sea-banks, which are pro-
vided at proper intervals with sluice doors, by which the
waters escape at ebb-tide. To show the extent of these
operations, it may be mentioned that the whole sea-coast
of Lincolnshire and part of Norfolk, a line of at least 1 30
miles, consists of marsh lands lower than the tides, and is
protected by barrier banks, besides which there are hun-
dreds of miles of river embankments. When this does
not provide such a drainage aa to admit of cultivation, the
water is lifted > mechanically by wind or steam TnilLn into
the main aqueducts.
The first use of steam-engines for the purpose of drain-
ing was in Deeping fen, where, in 1824-5, two, of 80 and
60 horse-power respectively, were erectud. By means of
these two engines upwards of 20,000 acres have now a
good drainage, whereas formerly forty-four wind-mills,
with an aggregate power of 400 horses, failed to keep
them sufficiently dry. The scoop-wheel of the larger
engine is 28 feet in diameter, and the float-boards are 5
feet wide. It was intended to have a " dip " of 5 feet,
but the land has subsided so much in consequence of the
draining that it seldom has a dip of more than 2 feet 9
inches. The water is lifted on an average 7 feet high.
When both engines are at work they raise 300 tons weight
of water per minute.
The soil of the fens consists for the most part of dark-
coloured peat, from 1 to 8 or 1 0 feet in depth. The surfape
in general is not pure peat, but is mixed with silt or other
Boil. Under this there is in general a stratum of brown
spongy peat, which sometimes, rests upon gravel, but for
the most part upon clay, which usually contains a portion
of calcareous matter. The removal of the water has of
course been the primary improvement ; but subsidiary to
this the rapid ameUoration and great fertility of the fen
laads are largely due to this fortunate conjunction of clay
and peat. The early practice ot the fen farmers was to
pare and "burn the surface, grow repeated crops of rape^
oats, wheat, &c., and bum again. The sulftidence of the
«oil subsequent to the draining and repeated paring and
burning, brought the surface nearer to the subjacent clay,
Tthich the 'cultivators by and by began to dig up and spread
dVet the surface. This practice is now universal, and its
continued use, together with careful cultivation and liberal
manuring, has changed a not very productive peat into one
of the most fertile soils in the kingdom. Nowhere in our
country has the industry and skill of man effected greater
changes than in the fens. What was once a dismal morass,
presenting to the view in summer a wilderness of reeds,
sedges, and pools of water, among which the cattle waded,
and in winter almost an unbroken expanse of water, is
now a fertile com land. The fen men, who formerly lived
upon the adjacent high lands, and occupied themselves with
fishing, fowling, and attending to their cattle, have now
erected homesteads upon the fen lands, divided them by
thorn hedges, and brought them into the highest state of
cultivation.
We referred at the outset to the distinction betwixt fen
land and marsh land. The following pertinent observa-
tions on the reclamation of marsh land are extracted from
■Mr David Stevenson's paper in the Highland and Agricul-
tural Society's Transactions, vol. iii., 1871.
First, In order to insure success, the space to be reclaimed must
be within the influence of water containing much alluvial matter,
and not on the shores of an open sandy estuary.
Secondly, The spaces to be reclaimed should he allowed to receive
the deposit left by the tide for as long a period aa possible, and no
attempt should be made entirely to exclude the water from them,
until they have by gradual accretion attained the level of at least
ordinary spring tides.
The first case to w^ich I shall refer is Loch Foyle, a situation
where the amount of salt water greatly preponderates over the fresh.
Extensive reclamations have been made there, and I have received
from Mr G. Henry Wiggins, of Londonderry, some notes regarding
them, from*which I extract the following interesting information: —
"After the salt water ha<t been excluded, shallow surface drains
were made with spades or forks, and in about two years ryegrass
grew pretty freely : exceptional spots remained barren for some time.
The grass was followed by oats, which improved as the salt left the
soil. Deeper draining allowed the cultivation of flax and clover ;
afterwards, on deeper draining, all ordinary crops began to grow
well — wheat, beans, ttUTiips, mangold, and carrots — hut all requunng
fully as much manure as any old upper land. These sloblands,
says Mr Wiggins, yielda^eat return for manure, but must have
manure on the lower and damper portions. Feorin grass grows well
without manure.
*' Whenever the ditches have so far drained the soil as to allow
of its becoming cracked and open to the ffir, the c. >ps begin to
increase in produce, but the full value of the soU is never known
untU thoroughly under-drained with tile or stone ; it then mostly
yields excellent crops of almost any produce, clover and ryegrass
for hay being perhaps the most profitable. Grazing the land does not
answer, except from the beginning of May to the end of September;
*after this the soil is too io\A and damp for the beasts to lie down,
and they begin to fail."
The expense of these intakes on the Foyle may be taken at
about £20 an acre to get them from the sea ; the expense of bring-
ing the land when got into cultivation will come to at least £10
more ; making a total of £30 per acre. The best lands are worth
50s- to 403. the Cunningham or Scotch acre, and the lowest and
wettest parts perhaps not more than 10s. — say 30s. round as a fair
average. To this has to be added the expense of keeping up the
banks and pumping water ; so that I believe Mr Wiggins is right
when he says that no great profit can be expected, and that these
matters are generally undertaken by hoMful and energetic enthu-
siasts, who seldom realise their expectati(fts, and afterwards fall into
the hands of other parties, who areperhaps rather more successful.
The reclamations made by the Ulverston and Lancaster Railway
in Morecambe Bay were rapidly formed by the embankment for
carrying the railway, which was made in pretty deep water. Like
the Foyle, therd is also predominance of sea-water. ^Ir G. Drewry, of
Holker in Lancashire, has favoured me with the following informa-
tion ; — "A portion of the land enclosed by the railway in 1856 was
grassed over, and the remainder was sand without any vegetation on
It. After it wad levelled it was divided into fields by open ditches
and wire fences ; the ditches had to be made very wide at the top, in
order to get them to stand. The land was ther drained with 3-inch
pipes, each drain opening into the ditch at each side of the field.
The tiles were all covered round with peat moas, to act as a filter to
prevent the sand from running into them. The sand is so fine
that without this precaution the drains would have filled up very,
nuickly. Tlie drainage is the a-eat difficulty, aa they are very apt to
till up after every Jirecaution has been taken.
'* On the portion which wa.s grassed over,' two crops of oats werx:
first 'ftken, and then it waa greon-cropped. U grew for a few years
4U(')
AGRICU LTURE
[waste LANEfS,
good crop* of whcot, beans, and clover, as wtU as Swedish turnips
luid mangolds ; but though a great quantity of manure was used,
the crops fell oIT, iind at preaent it is nearly all in grass. The
portion which raa bare sand was treated in the same way, except
as to the 6rat two crops of oats. It was ^een-cropped after it -had
been enclosed about two years. Alter the railway was made there
was no means of silting the land. The tide was entirely kept out ;
had it been admitted, this htnd would have been much inoru valu-
able and much higher — wo would then have had a better drainage
and a richer sand. That portion which was grossed over at the
time it was enclosed is still much the best.
" When land is reclaimed from the sea, the first thing to be looked
to is a good outfall for the w^ter, and, when it is possible, no doubt
it is very dcsirablo that the land should be silted up gradually.
In our case this could not be done, as the reclamation Of the laud
was a very secondary aifair."
In the district called Marshland, in Norfolk, extending
between the Ouso and the Nen ; in that called Snuth
Holland, in Lincolnshire, stretching between the Nen and
the WcUand ; northward of Spalding, and also north-east
of Koston, there is a con.siderable tract of mari;io clay soil.
In Marshland this is chiefly arable land, producing . large
crops of wheat and beans ; but in Lincolnshire it forms
exceedingly fine grazing laud. This tract lies within the
old Roman embankment by which the district was first
defended from the ocean. Outside this barrier are the
proper marsh lands, which have been reclaimed in portions
at successive periods, and are still intersected in all direc-
tions by ranges of banks. The extraordinary feature of
this tract is, that the surface outside the Roman bank ia
3 or 4 feet higher tlfan that in the inside, and the
level of each new enclosure is more elevated than the pre-
vious one. The land rises step by step as the coast is
approached,' so that the most recently reclaimed land is
often 12 or oven 18 feet higher than the lowest fen
laud in the interior, the drainage from which must
nevertheless be conveyed through these more elevated
in.-r3he3 to the sea.
Lands such as some of those which we have jtist been
describing are often greatly improved, or rather may be
said to be made, by means of a pecuUar mode of irrigation
called " warping." It is practicable only in the case of
land lying below the level of high tide in muddy rivers.
It is little more than a century since it was first practised
in England, the first instance of it being near Howden, on
the banks of the Humber. But although the practice is
comparatively new in Britain, it Las long been in use on
the continent of Europe, particularly in Italy, and is thus
described by Mr Cadell : — " In the Val de Chiana, fields
thi\t are too low are raised and fertilised by the process
called colmata, which is done in the following manner : —
The field b surrounded by an embankment to confine the
water. The dike of the rivulet is broken down so as to
admit the muddy water of the ii^h floods. The Chiana
itself is too powerful a body of water to be used for thi.q
purpose ; it is only the streams that flow into the Ghiana
that are thus used. This water is allowed to settle and
deposit its mnd upon the field. The water is then let off
into the river at the lower end of the field by a discharg-
ing course called scolo, and in French canal d/ecoulement.
The water-course which conducts the water from a river,
either to a field for irrigation or to a mill, is called yora.
In this manner a field will be raised 5i and sometimes 7 A
feet in ten years. If the dike is broken down to the bottom,
the field may be raised to the same height in seven years ; but
then in this case gravel is also carried in along with the
mud. In a field of 25 acres, which had been six years
under the process of colmata, in which the dike was broken
down to within 3 feet of the bottom, the process was seen to
be so far advanced that only another year was requisite for
its completion. The floods in this instance had been much
charged with soil. The water which comes off cultivated
land completes the process sooner than that which comes
off hill and woodland. Almost the whole of the Vol di
Chiana baa been raised by the process of colmata." *
Section 5. — Blowing Sandt.
On many parts of our sea-coasts, and especially in the
Hebrides, there occur extensive tracts of blowing sands,
which are naturally not only sterile themselves, but a source
of danger to better lands adjoining them, which in some
instances have been quite ruined by the sand deposited
upon them ]>y the winds. This mischief is effectually pre-
vented by a process beautifully simple and useful, namely,
planting the sand-banks with sea bent-grass {Arunuo
arenaria), the matting fibits and stems of which not only
bind the sand, but clothe it with a herbage which is relished
by cattle, and which, being able to resist the severest winter
weather, furnishes a valuable winter forage in those bleak
situations. The bent-grass can be propagated by seed, •
but in exposed situations it is found better to transplant
it. This operation is performed betwixt October and
March, as it succeeds best when the sand is moist and
evaporation slow.
CHAPTER XX.
OENEEAI, OBSERVATIOXB.
According to the method proposed at the outset, we
now offer a few observations on several topics connected
with our subject.
Section 1. — Of the Tenure of Land.
The extent of land in Great Britain occupied by its
owners for agricultural purposes bears a very small pro-
portion to the whole area. The yeoman class is still
numerous in several parts of England, but must have
diminished greatly from that continuous amalgamation of
small estates into large ones which has formed a marked
feature in our social history during the present century.
This change, although to be regretted on public groimds,
has had a fav.ourable influence on the cultivation of the soil,
for it almost invariably happens that a larger produce is
obtained from land when it is occupied by a tenant than
when it is cultivated by its proprietor. As a matter of
fact, the land of the country is now, with trifling exceptions,
let out to professional farmers in quantities varying from
the rood-aUotment of the village labourer to the square
miles of the Highland grazier. Farms of all sizes are
usually to be found in any district, and most important it
is that this should be the case ; but the extent of farms is
chiefly determined by the amount of hired labour employed
upon them, and the measure of personal superintendence
on the part of the tenant which the kind of husbaniry
pursued upon them calls for. We accordingly find that
in very fertile tracts, in the vicinity of towns, and in dairy
districts, they seldom exceed 200 acres ; whei-e the ordinary
alternate husbandry is practised the average ranges from
300 to 400 ; in more elevated tracts, where a portion of
natural sheep-walk is occupied along with arable land, it
rises to 800 oi' 1000; while that of the sheep grazings of
our hills and mountains is limited only by the capital of
Ithe tenant. About a century ago there occvirred in various
parts of Great Britain a similar amalgamation of small
holdings into farms of the sizes which we have now re-
ferred to as is at present in progress in Ireland. ,. This
enlargement of farms, with the employment of increased
capital in their cultivation, insures s more rapid reclama-
tion of waste lands, and general progress of agriculture up
to a certain point, than would otherwise take place. " But
as every step in advance beyond this point implies an
' Jcurr.cy in Camwlo, Italy, and France, by W. A. Cadeil, E»q.,
F.B.b.
LAND TEyrrp.E.]
AGRICULTUEE
407
increase of outlay in proportion to the extent, and thejieed
for closer superintendence, it seems likely that, in future,
the 8126 of arable farms will not. further increase, but may
rather be expected to approximate towards that which at
present obtains in suburban districts.
Farms are held either by yearly tenancy or under leases
for a specified number of years. The latter plan is that
upon which nearly the whole lands of Scotland are let ;
and it obtains also to a considerable extent in the northern
counties of England, in West Norfolk, and in Lancashire..
But with these and other exceptions, amounting altogether
to about a tenth part, the farms of England are held by
yearly tenancy, which can be terminated by either of the
contracting parties giving the other six months' notice to
that effect. This precarious tenure has been attended by
far fewer changes than a stranger might suppose, owing
to the hig'ily honourable conduct for which English pro-
prietors as a class have long been noted. On all the large
estates it is quite common to find families occupying farms
of which thoir ancestors have been tenants for generations,
or even for centuries. The mutual esteem and confidence
which usually subsist between such landlords and tenants
are undoubtedly much to the credit of both, but not the less,
has the system, as a whole, operated unfavourably for all
concerned ; for however numerous and striking the excep-
tions, it is yet the fact that under this system of tenancy-
at-wiU less capital has been invested in the improvement of
farms, less labour has been employed, and less enterprise
displayed in their ordinary cultivation, less produce has
been obtained from, them by the occupiers, and less rent
lias been rsceived for them by the owners, than in the
case of similar lands let on leases for a term of years.
These different results ensue, not because tenants with leases
are abler men or better farmers than their neighbours who
are without them, but solely bcause the one system re-
cognises certain important principles which the other
ignores. It is contrary to human nature to expect that
any body of men will as freely invest their capital, whether
in the shape of money, skill, - or labour, in a business
yielding such slow returns as agriculture, with no better
guarantee that they or their families shall reap the fruits
of it than the continued good-will of existing propnetora
or those who any day may succeed them, as they will
do with the security which a lease for a term of ye^rs
affords. It does therefore seem strange that a majority
of the farmers of Great Britain should be tenants-at-will,
and still more strange that they should be so of choice.
It is nevertheless true that a considerable portion of the
tenantry of England are even less disfiosed to accept of
leases than their landlords are to grant them. The latter
cling to the system because of the greater control which
they thereby retain over their estates, and the greater
political influence with which it invests them : the former
do so because low rents are one of its accompaniments.
Since the removal of restrictions on the importation of
foreign agricultural produce, there are indications that
neither landlords nor tenants are so well satisfied with this
system of tenancy-at^will as they once were. Not only is
the granting of leases becoming more common than it has
hitherto been, but there is a growing desire on the part of
tenants to obtain the benefit of tliat guarantee for the
realising of their capital which tenant-right affords to en-
terprising farmers who may have unexpectedly to quit their
farms. In cert.ain districts of England this claim, called
tenant-right, has been recognised bo long that, apart either
from written stipulation or statutory enactment, it has, by
mere usage, attained to something like a legal standing.
In Lincolnshire an out-going tenant can, by virtue of this
'isage, claim from his landlord or successor repayment, in
certain definite proportions, of the cost of euch ameliora-
tions of a specified kind as he mayTia-^e made during the
last years of his occupancy, and the benefits of which hie
removal hinders him from realising in the natural way.
Tenant-right is^ certainly a valuable adjunct to tenancy-
at-will, but stO] it does not meet the real exigencies of the
case.^ There are feelings inherent in man's nature which
cause him to recoil from exertions the fruits of which are
as likely to be enjoyed by a stranger as by himself or his
family. This repugnance, and its paralysing influence, is
not to be removed by a mere " right" to pecuniary com-
pensation. It is certainty of tenure — so far at least as
hua»» arrangements can be certain — which wiU reaUy
induce a farmer to throw his wlfole heart into his business.
It is accordingly to this principle that leases owe their
value, and by it also that the only weak point in them
is to be accounted for. The first years of a lease are
usually characterised by an energetic performance of various
improvements, whereas towards its close there is usually
such a withdrawing even of ordinary outlay as is unfavour-
able to the interests of both landlord and tenant. There
is at present a very generally entertained opinion that
this inconvenience would be obviated by engrafting the
system of tenant-right upon that of leases. So strongly
has the current of opinion been running in this direction
that a bill has been submitted to the legislature for the
purpose of conferring on out-going tenants a legal claim to
compensation for yertain specified investments which may
have been made by them, but of which their removal hindeft
them from reaping the benefit. This biU further provided
that in the event of a tenant having erected buildings for
his own accommodation without the sanction of his landlord,
he should have a right to remove the materials if the
landlord or incoming tenant declined to purchase them.
Through accidental circumstances this biU was withdrawn
without being discussed, but it is certain 'to be re-intro-
duced, and sooner or later to be passed. It is now admitted
on all hands that land cannot be cultivated to its full
measure of productiveness without a large investment of
capital, and that this outlay, when once incurred, cannot
be recouped for several years at the least. It is in vain,
therefore, to expect that these so much needed investments
will be made until those who should make them are secured
against having their property confiscated by a six months''
notice to quit.
It seems to be generally admitted that twenty-one years
is the proper duration for an agricultural lease. Such a
term sufiiccs to give confidence to the tenant in embarking
his capital, and secures to the landlord his legitimate
control over his prt;perty, and due participation in its
varying value. It is generally felt by tenants that the
lease or document in which their agreement with their
landlord is engrossed might with advantage be much
shortened, as well as simplified in its terms. When treating
of the succession of crops we have already expressed our
views regarding those restrictive clauses which usually
occupy a prominent place in such writings. Such restric-
tions are of course introduced with the view of guarding
the property of the landlord from deterioration ; but when
he is so unfortunate as to meet with incompetent or dishonest
tenant'!, they entirely fail to secure this object, and yet are
a hindrance and discouragement to enterprising and con-
scientious tenants. It is probable that the existence of
the laws of distraint in England and hypothec in Scotland,
which give to landlords a lien over the effects of their
tenantry in security for the payment of the current year's
rent, has had its influence in adding to the number and
stringency of these clauses, and has encouraged the practice
of letting lands by tender to the highest offerer. For the
law in question, by rendering landlords to a considerable
extent independent of the personal character and pecuniary
408
AGRICULTURE
circumstances of the occupiers of their land, has obviously
a direct tendency to render them less cautious than they
would otherwise be, and to induce them, when tempted
by the promise of high rents, to trust more to this legal
security than to the moral character, business habits, pro-
feaaional skill, and Decuniary competency of candidates for
their farms.
Section 2. — Capital required /or working a Farm.
The amount of capital that is required in order that the
business of fanning may be conducted advantageously, is
largely determined by the nature of the soil, ic, of each
farm, the system of management appropriate to it, the price
of stock and of labour; and the terms at which ita rents
are payable. In the case of land of fair quality, on which
the altomato husbandry is pursued, and when the rents
are payable as the produce is realised, £10 per acre may
be regarded as an amount of capital which will enable a
tenant to prosecute his business with advantage and com-
fort. In letting a farm, a landlord not only does a just and
prudent thing for himself, but acts as a true friend to his
proposed tenant, when he insists upon being shown that
the latter is possessed of available funds to an amount
adequate to its probable requirements.
The importance of the topics to which we have thus
referred is happily expressed by Mr Pusey, when, after
enumerating various agricultural desiderata, he says, " In
some degree none of us carry out all that is in our power ;
but want of capital and want of confidence in the tenure
of farms are, 1 suppose the two principal causes of this
omission."
Section 3. — Education of Farmers.
But the mere possession of capital does not qualify a
man for being a fanner, nor is there any virtue inherent in
a lease to insure his succe.'fs. To these must be added
probity, knowledge of his business, and diligence in pro-
secuting it. These qualifications are the fruits of good
education (in the fullest sense of that term), and are no
more to be looked for without it than good crops without
good husbandry. Common school instruction will, of
course, form the groundwork of a farmer's education ; bur
to this should be added, if possible, a classical curriculum.
It has been the fashion to ask, " Of what use are Greek and
Latin to a farmer?" Now, apart, from the benefit which
it is to him, in common with other men, to know the
structure of language, and to read with intelligence the
literature of his profession, which more and more abounds
in scientific terminology, we believe that no better discipline
for the youthful mind has yet been devised than the classical
course which is in use in our best public schools. Of this
discipline we desire that every future farmer should have
the advantage. But the great difficulty at present lies in
finding appropriate occupation for such youths between
their fifteenth and twentieth years. In many cases the
sons of farmers are during that period put to farm labour.
If they are kept statedly at it, and are made proficient in
every kind of work performed on a farm, it is a good pro-
fessional training as far as it goes. The more common
one — at least as regards the sons of the larger class of
fanners — which consists of loitering about without any
stated occupation, attending fairs and markets, and pro-
bably the race-course and hunting-field, is about the most
absurd and pernicious that can well be imagined. Such
youths are truly to be pitied, for they are neither inured
to bodily labour nor afforded the benefits of a liberal educa-
tion. It need not surprise any one that such hapless lads
often prove incompetent for the struggles of Ufe, and have
to yield their places to more vigorous men who have enjoyed
.the benefit of "bearing the voke in their youth." Unless
rOENBBAL
young men are kept at labour, eitner of mind or of body,
until continuous exertion during stated hours, confinement
to one place, and prompt obedience to their superiors
have ceased to be irksome, there is little hope of their either
prospering in business or distinguishing themselves in their
profession. Owing to the altered habits of society, there
is now less likelihood than ever of such young pemona
as we are referring to being subjected to that arduous
training to bodily labour which was once the universal
practice ; and hence the necessity for an appropriate course
of study to take ita place. Many Scottish farmers en-
deavour to supply this want by placing their sons for several
years in the chambers of an attorney, estate-agent, or land
surveyor, partly in' order that they may acquire a know-
ledge of accounts, but especially for the sake of the whole-
some discipline which is implied in continuous application
and subjection to superiors. It is also common for such
youths to be sent to Edinburgh for a winter or two to
attend the class of agriculture in the University, and
perhaps also that of chemistry, and the Veterinary College
classes. This is well enough in its way ; but there is
wanting in it an adequate guarantee that there is real
study — the actual performance of daily mental work. The
agricultural college at Cirencester appears to come more
fully up to our notion of what is needed for the professional
training of farmers than any other institution which we yet
possess. We shall rejoice tq see such opportunities of
instruction as it affords multiplied in Great Britain. After
enjoying the benefits of such a course of training as we
have now indicated, young men would be in circumstances
to derive real advantage from a residence with some ex-
perienced practical farmer, or from a tour through the best-
cultivated districts of the country. We are well aware that
what we have now recommended will appear sufficiently
absurd to the still numerous class of persons who believe
that any one has wit enough to be a farmer. But those
who are competent to judge in the case can well afford to
smile at such ignorance. They know that agriculture is at
once an art, a science, and a business ; that the researches
of naturalists, chemists, geologists, and mechanicians are
daily contributing to the elucidation of its principles and
the guidance of its practice ; and that while its pursuits
afford scope for the acutest minds, they are relished by the
most cultivated. As a business it shares to the full in the
effects of that vehement competition which is experienced
in every other branch of industry, and has besides many
risks peculiar to itself. The easy routine of the olden
time is gone for ever; and without a good measure of tact,
energy, and industry, no man can now obtain a livelihood
by fanning. It is desirable that all this should be known,
as nothing has been more common than for parents who
have sons too dull to be scholars or too indolent for trade,
to put them to farming; or for persons who have earned a
competency in some other calling to covet the (supposed)
easy life of a farmer, and find it to their sorrow a harassing
and ill-requited one.
Section i. — Farm Labourers.
The agriculture of a country must evei^be. largely
affected by the condition and character of the peasantry by
whom its labours are performed. An acute observer has
shown that in England a poor style of fanning and low
wages — that good farming and high wages, usually go
together ; and that a low rate of wages is significantly
associated with a high poor-rate. The worst paid and
worst lodged labourers are abo the most ignorant, the
most prejudiced, the most reckless and insubordinate.
The eminence of the agriculture of Scotland is due in
large measure, to the moral worth and intelligence of her
peasantry. For this she is indebted to the early establish-
..OBSERVATIONS.]
AGEICULTURE
409
■ment ot her parochial schools, and to the sterling quality ot
the elementary education which the children of her tenantry
and peasantry have for generations received in these
schools together. These schools had unfortunately become
inadequate to the increased population ; but still in the
rural districts of the Scottish lowlands it is a rare thing to
meet with a farm labourer who cannot both read and write.
Apart from higher benefits, the faciUties which the services
of such a class of labourers have afforded for the intro-
duction and development of improved agricultural practices,
the use of intricate machinery, and the keeping of accurate
accounts, cannot well be over-rated. It 13 an interesting
testimony to the value of a sound system of national
education that our Scottish peasantry should be in such
.request in other parts of the kingdom as bailiffs, gardeners,
and overseers. Recent legislation warrants the expectation
that this inestimable blessing will speedily be enjoyed by
our entire population.
The pernicious influence of the present law of settlement
.and removal upon the English labourer is now attracting
the attention which it so urgently demands. The pro-
prietors and tenants of particular parishes in various parts
of England at present combine to lessen their own share of
the burden of the poor-rate by pulling down cottages and
compelling their labourers to reside out of their bounds.
The folly and cruelty of such short-sighted policy cannot
be too strongly reprobated. These poor people are thus
driven into towns, where their families are crowded into
wretched apartments, for which they must pay exorbitant
rents, and where they are constantly exposed to moral and
■physical contamination of every sort. From these com-
fortless abodes the wearied and dispirited men must trudge
in all weathers to the distant scene of their daily labours.
One cannot conceive of a prosperous agriculture co-existing
•with such a system, nor feel any surprise that thieving,
incendiarism, and burdensome rates should be its frequent
accompaniments. It is pleasant to contrast with this close-
parish policy the conduct of some of our English nobility,
■who are building comfortable cottages and providing good
schools for the whole of the labourers upon their princely
estates.
About the middle of the 18th century, when the old
township system began to be broken up, and the land to
bo enclosed and arranged into compact farms of considerable
size, it happily became the practice in the south-eastern
counties of Scotland, and a portion of the north of England,
to provide each farm with its own homestead, set down as
near its centre as possible, and with as many cottages as
would accommodate all the people statedly required for the
work of that farm. These cottages, always placed in con-
venient proximity to the homestead, fire let to the tenant
^long with the farm as a necessary part of its equipment.
The farmer hires his servants by the year at stipulated
•wages, each family getting the use of a cottage and small
garden rent free. The fanner has thus always at hand
a staff of labourers on whose services he can depend ; and
they, again, being engaged for a year, are never thrown out
of work at slack seasons, nor are they liable to loss of wages
from bad weather or casual sickness. This arrangement
has the further advantage of the men being removed from
the temptations of the village alehouse. So successfully
has this system worked that the counties in which it pre-
vails have long had, and still have, an agricultural popula-
tion unequalled in Great Britain for intelligence, good
conduct, and general well-being.
Over a very large portion of Scotlana, and more especially
in the counties lying betwixt the Forth and the Moray Frith,
•while the arrangement of farms and mode of management
are substantially the same as those of the border counties,
there is this marked difference, that the ploughmen as a rule
Uve by themselves in bothies. They are for the most part
unmarried men, although not a few of them have -wives and
children living under the most unfavourable conditions in
distant to-wns and villages ; and so it come.s to pass, under
this bothy system, that about two-thirds of all the men
statedly employed in farm labour are shut out from all the
comforts and blessings of family life, and have become in
consequence rude, reckless, and immoral. Until a quite
recent date this system, because of its supposed economy,
was stoutly defended both by landlords and farmers ; but
its evil effects have become so manifest as to convince them
at last that the system is -HTong, and there is now in con-
sequence a general demand for more cottages on farms.
The condition of the agricultural labourers in the southern
counties of England has long been of a most unsatisfactory
character. The discontent that had long existed among
them has at last, in the summer of 1873, culminated in
wide-spread combinations and strikes for higher wages and
better terms. To a large extent the labourers have been
able to make good their demands, although at the cost of
much unhinging of old relations betwixt them and their
employers, and a great deal of mutual grudging and
jealousy. The thorough healing of chronic social maladies
is always difficult, and usually demands the patient use of
a variety of remedial measures. We venture to express the
opinion that much benefit would ensue from the adoption
in southern England of the essential parts of the border
system, viz., cottages on each farm for all its regular
labourers, yearly engagements, and a co'w's keep as part
of the wages of each family. '
Section 5. — TFhat th^ Legislature should do for Agriculture.
The further progress of our national agriculture is un-
doubtedly to be looked for from the independent exertions
of those immediately engaged in it ; but important assist-
ance might be, and ought to be, afforded to them by the
legislature, chiefly in the way of remo-ving obstructions.
What we desiderate in this respect is the repeal, or at least
the important modification, of the law of distraint and
hypothec ; the commutation of the burdens attaching to
copyhold lands ; the reformation of the law of settlement ;
the removal of the risk and costs which at present interfere
with the transference of land ; the endowment of an
adequate number of agricultural colleges, with suitable
museums, apparatus, and illustrative farms ; and the com-
pulsory adoption of a uniform standard of weights and
measures. We desire also to see the arterial or trunk
drainage of the country undertaken by government. Until
this is done, vast tracts of the most fertile land in the
kingdom cannot be cultivated -with safety and economy,
or attain to the productiveness of which they are capable.
It is the opinion ai Mr Bailey Denton, the eminent draining
engineer, that not more than three millions of acres of the
land of Great Britain have yet been drained. Our national
interests surely require that its agriculture should bo freed
from such obstructions as these, and that it should receive
the benefit of a fair share of public pro-vision, such as ia
made for training youths for the learned professions and
for the public serTice ; and of such grants as are given iu
aid of scientific research for the encouragement of the fine
arts, and for the furtherance of manufactures and commerce.
We cannot close this section -without feferring to another
grievance which has long had a most depressing effect on
the agriculture of particular districts of our country, s.ad is
now, we regret to say, spreading rapidly to all parts of it,
• For confirmation and full illustration of tho statements and
opiniona In tho above section on agricultural labourers, tho reader ia
referred to tho reporta of, and the evidence collected by, the " Com-
mission on the Employment of Children, Young Persons, and Worn™
In AgrlcultMC," In 1870.
I- — S2
410
AGRICULTURE-
[PEOGBESS.
in the eicessire preservation of game. This evil has been
greatly aggravated since that mode of sporting called the
battue has tmhappily become the fa^ibion. For this amuso-
ment a very large head of game is reckoned to be indis-
pensable, and propriotora who' engage in it are naturally
enough led to vie with each other as to who shall show
the greatest quantity of game, and report the heaviest bag,
at their respective shooting parties. All this necessarily
implies a grievous waste of farm produce, and frightful loss
to farmers whose crops are exposed to the incursions of the
privileged vermin. Worst of all, these hordes of game
present such irresistible temptation to poaching that the
rural population is demoralised by it to an alarming
e.xtcnt. So long as field sports wert in a great measure
restricted to resident landowners and their personal friends,
they were, with rare exceptions, careful not to allow their
tenants to be injured by game. Now, however, there are
multitudes of men who, having acquired wealth in business,
are eager to engage in field sports, and ready to give almost
any amount of money for the privilege of doing so. These
game tenants are often utterly regardless of the interests of
fa/'raera, and cause them both loss and annoyance. All this
is occasioning such an amount of heart-burning and aliena-
tion of feeling between different classes of society, as cannot
fan to have disastrous consoquencea A few years ago the
removal of hares and rabbits from the list of animals pro-
tected by the game-laws would, so far at least as landlords
and their tenants are conccmed, have put an end to all this
misery. The refusal of so moderate a concession has in all
likelihood sealed the fate of these oppressive laws which
have so long embittered society and disgraced our country.
Section 6. — Concluding Remarks.
On carefully comparing the present condition of British
agriculture with what it was forty years ago, the change
for the better is found to be very great indeed. But on
aU hands there are many indications warranting the an-
ticipation that the progress of discovery and improvement
iu future will be more steady, more rapid, and more general
thaiT it has hitherto been. There is not only a more general
aud more earnest spirit of inquiry, but practical men,
instead of despising the aids of science, seek more and more
to conduct their investigations under its guidance. Experi-
ments are made on an ever-widening scale and upon well-
concerted plans. Their results are so recorded and published
that they at once become available to all, and each fresh
investigator, instead of wasting his energies in re-discovering
what (unknown to him) has been discovered ^before, now
makes his start from a well-ascertained and ever-advancing
frontier. Formerly the knowledge of the husbandman con-
eisted very much of isolated facts, and his procedure was
often little better than a groping in the dark. As the
rationale of his various processes is more clearly discovered,
te will be enabled to conduct them with greater economy
and precision than he can do at present A clearer know-
ledge of what really constitutes the food of plants, and of the
various influences which affect their growth, will necessarily
lead to important improvements in all that relates to the
collection, preparation, and use of manures.
What may truly be called a revolution in agriculture is
now in the act of rapid development, in the application of
steam-power to the tillage of the soil, which is spreading
on every side. Enough has already been accomplished to
show that, under the combined influence of drainage and
eteam tillage, the clay soiU of England wiU speedily have
their latent fertility brought into play in a manner that
will mightUy augment gur supplies of home-grown bread-
corn .and butcher-meat It may indeed now be reasouaoiy
anticipated that these hitherto impracticable soils will again
take their place as our best cpm-growing lands, and that
those largo portions of the country where for a long time
our national agriculture presented its poorest aspect, may
ere long exhibit its proudest achievements.
In closing this rapid review of British Agriculture, it is
gratifying arid cheering to reflect that never was thia great
branch of national industry in a healthier condition, and
never were there such solid grounds for anticipating for it
a steady and rapid progress. The time has hardly yet gone
by wjien it was much the way with our manufacturing
and trading n^en, and our civic population generally, to
regard our farmers as a dull, plodding sort of people, greatly
inferior to themselves in intelligence and energy. Many
of them seem now, however, to be awakening to the fact
thai their rural brethren possess a full share of those
qualities which so honourably distinguish the British race.
Nay, some of them may have experienced no little surprise
when they became aware that in a full competition of our
whole industrial products with those of other nations, as at
Paris in 1855, and at similar and more recent international
expositions, the one department in which Britain con-
fessedly outstripped all her rivals was not in any of her
great staple manufactures, but in the live stock of her farms
and In her agricultural implements and machinery
Pi«i»
Litl of Flatet accompanying this Article,
No. III. Plan of Covered Homestead for a small Farm, by Mr J.
Cowie.
IV. Ground Plan of Steadine and Offices on the Home Farm
of the Earl of Southeak.
T. Shorthorn Bull and Cow.
VI. Hereford Bull, and South Down Ewe and Lamb,
V"!!. Cheviot Ewe and Bla':kfaced Heath Sheep.
VIII. Leicester Ram and Ewe.
IX. Romsey Marsh Ewe, and Sow of the Large English Breed
The following description has been supplied along with
the plan given in Plate TV. : — " It represents the ground
plan of a steading of offices recently bmlt on the home farm
of the Earl of Southesk, planned by Charles Lyall, Esq.,
his lordship's factor. It contains a powerful thrashing-
mill, com^ruiser, oil-crusher, chaff-cutter, and tumip-
slicer, all driven by a portable steam-engine ; and is amply
supplied with water for the troughs, and is lighted by gas.
It may be regarded as a model, containing as it does all
the conveniences and appliances necessary for the complete
development of the stock and implement departments. It
is calculated for an occupancy of 500 acres, and was built,
Lacluding the steam-engine, at a cost of about £5000."
This plan may very well illustrate the present state of
opinion as to whether or not cattle should be kept wholly
under cover. It gives an affirmative answer to this ques-
tion in the case of fattening cattle ; but for breeding stock
of all ages it provides accommodation in open yards. This
we consider the best arrangement ; for it is impossible in
the case of breeding stock to retain that fine coat of Ii«i''
which so enhances the good looks and value of- high-claaa
cattle without such an amount of exposure to the weather
as is afforded by open yards with covered sheds. There
is one feature in this plan which we cannot but regret,
viz., its bothy. It is indeed one of the best of its find,
having a separate sleeping-place for each-of its inmates,
and suitable arrangements for their cleanliness and coin-
fort ; but the meanest cottage in the country, inasmuch as
it admits of family life, is to be preferred to the most
perfect bothy. (j. w.)
AGRICULTURE
411
CHAPTER XXI
LAEQE AND SMALL FARMING.
No treatise on agricultnre will in these days be con-
sidered complete which does not take note of some of the
various ifiodes in which the treatment of the soil may be
affected by variations in the cultivating occupier's form of
tenure. A farm may be the property of its occupier, or
be held by him at will or on lease. According to its
extent it wiU be the subject of grande or of petite culture,
expressions which in the following pages will be Anglicised
as large and small culture or farming. If a farm be of
small size, and if its occupant be also its owner, peasant
proprietorship comes into play. If it be let, its rent may
consist of a payment of predetermined amount in money
or in kind, or may, instead of a fixed portion, be a pre-
determined proportion of the annual produce. It may be
let to one individual, singly responsible for the rent and
for all imposts, fiscal or other, and exclusively entitled to
the whole of the remaining net produce; or it may be held
in common by any number of coparceners, all co-operating in
the cultivation, and jointly and severally responsible for the
rent and other dues, and all participating in the net profits.
Each of these systems has its advocates, and of one of
them, at least, the admirers are so much enamoured as to be
unable to perceive merit in any of the rest. A judgment
upon them that would be generally acceptable is therefore
impossible, and need not be attempted here. Nothing
more will be aimed at than such an impartial estimate of
the advantages and disadvantages of each as may help an
unbiassed reader to judge for himself.
Ten:;ii".es 1 In regard to tenancy at will and to leases, little
at win ind need be added to the observations made in previous
leijt? chapters of this article. For the consideration, how-
ever, of those who insist on the undoubted fact that
in Great Britain, where tenancy at will is stiU the rule,
and leases as yet only the exception, the same families,
although liable to be ousted at six months' notice, are
nevertheless often found occupying the same land from
generation to generation, the following may be suggested
as a not improbable explanation of the landlord's non-
exercise of the power of eviction. It may perhaps be not
80 much that the farmers really confound p^' continuity
with future permanency of tenure, as that their want of
security for the future prevents their investing hberally in
improvements, and thereby bringing the land into a con-
dition calculated to attract higher bidders for its possession.
Such increase as does take place in its lettable value is
chiefly due to enhancement of the prices of produce; and
to a rise of rent proportionate to such enhancement the
old tenants readily submit rather than be removed. The
principal loser here is the landlord, whose short-sighted
policy deters his tenants from a species of enterprise the
benefit of which would eventually become principally his
own. If the tenants took the trouble to make the com-
parison, they might, it is true, deliberately prefer the mere
chance of a long series of years at a low rent to the cer-
tainty of the same low rent for a limited term, coupled with
the nearly equal certainty of a rise of rent at the end of
the term. Their gains in the former case, they might
argue, however meagre, might at least be ea.sily earned;
whereas materially to increase them in the latter case,
although perhaps possible, would be possible only at the
expense of much anxiety of mind as well as of much
extra sweat of the brow.
Larga H. Of grande culture, or large fanning, it may perhaps
fdiming be thought almost superfluous hero'to enumerate the recom-
mendations, which indeed on one condition are obvious and
incontrovertible. Provided a large farmer bs possessed ol
capital duly proportioned to the extent of his holding, and of
intelligence to employ his capital judiciously, hia husbandry
can scarcely fail to prove abundantly satisfactory. In a
"territory entirely parcelled out among fanners of this de-
scription there would, from a purely agricultural point of
view, seem little left to desire. The system certainly ap-
proaches towards the realisation of the great object of all
agriculture — that of the production of the greatest pos-
sible qiiajitity and the best possible quality of raw material
for the use of man. The distinguishing characteristic
of large culture is the scope it affords for the appli-
cation to husbandry of the great principle of division- of
labour. A well-managed large farm is indeed a factory
for the production of vegetable and animal substance.
The extensive scale on which operations are there carried
on necessitates the employment of several persons, to each
of whom some special occupation may be assigned, and
constant practice naturally increases the labourer's skiU.
Time, too, is saved which would otherwise be lost in
turning frequently from one occupation to another; and
there is also a further saving in implements, large and
small, and in draught cattle, fewer of which will suffice
for the tillage of a given area held entire than would
be needed if the same acreage were divided amongst
numerous tenants. Some, again, of the more imjrortant
of agricultural operations, and notably those of drainage
and irrigation, are in many situations incapable of being
efficiently performed except on a large scale ; and though
they may be, and often are, most efficiently performed
on the very largest scale by a combination of small land-
holders, still every such combination must necessarily
be preceded by negotiations involving indefinitely pro-
longed delay, with which a single indlvidaal, occupying
the entire tract, could at his option dispense. And
a similar remark applies to the costlier implements and
machines, in the adoption of which a^ssociations of small
farmers may slowly follow the example of individual large
farmers, but which they would not, without such example,
have themselves adopted — which, indeed, unless previ-
ously patronised by large fanners, would never have been
offered for their adoption. Probably no inventive genius,
however disinterestedly ardent, would have been at the
pains to devise a steam thrashing-machine or a steam
plough, had there not been wealthy agriculturists, some oi
whom might readUy be persuaded to risk, at their owu
cost and charges, an immediate trial of any promising
invention. Farmers of limited means, even when living
in the same neighbourhood, would have to be educated
into faith in the novel apparatus before the inventor
would get a single specimen taken off his hands
Besides, wherever large farming prevails,, large properties are itc
invariable concomitants ; and wherever it is the fashion for pro-
prietors to reside on their estates, many of them arc siue iit amuse
themselves with farming. Vei-y likely, if they wei-e to connt the
cost, they might find the amusement an expensive one. Not im-
possibly they often spend on the land as much as they get back
from it, or even more, the expenditure in that case at best producing
only its bare equivalent. But the same expenditure, unless so
applied, would as likely as not have remained utterly unproductive,
being devoted to some other amusement, or to mere parade or
luxury, from which no tangible return whatever would be possible ;
eo that its application to agricultural extravagance is virtoally a gain,
in the sense, at all events, of preventiilg toliU loss. Nor in that
sense only ; for rich fficn who take to Tamiing as a pastime arc
precisely those moat Iffiely to be forward in putting new invcntioiw
and new processes to the test of experiment ; while the cxperienco
thereby acquired, instead of being jealously concealed, is liberally
published far and wide, so becoming the property of the whole body
of farmers by profession, and scrvuig them, according to circam
412
AGRICULTURE
L^B()E AXD
•tances, u a guide to follow or a bcacob to avoid. Every odo
iatereflted in auch mattera knows how much baa been done in thij
way \.y sQcceasive Dttkea of Bedford and Portland and Marqaeaaaii
Townshend ; by the late E&rla of Leicester and Scarborough and
Earl Spencer ; and by the present Earl of Duciu and Earl Orey ; nor
are there many ways in which a landed aristocracy can better nhui
the reproach of inutility than by thus doing honour to agriculturtj
and having the honour reflected back on themselves.
As already hinted, however, it is only on condition of beinff con*
ducted with adequate capital that largo farming can succeed. True,
with deficient capital small farming could succeed no better, per-
haps indeed not so well ; but then there U much more danger of the
needful capital being wanting to a largo farmer than a small one.
Whatever, from £5 to £20, be the desirable proportion j^r acre, the
number of persons poasessing the £50 or £200 required for stocking
a form of ten acres is likely to ba everywhere many times more
than fifty-fold that of those poascsaing the £2500 or the £10,000
which a single farm of £00 acres would require. Besides, in coun-
tries abounding with fortunate individnala able to count their
pounds sterling by the thousand, promising modes of investing
such considemtile sums abound proportionally ; and even in a
country so exceptionally rich as our own, the number of capitalists
prepared to invest their thousands in farming is sadly 'below the
number of farms which would be all the better for having the same
thousands so invested. We are justified then by exr^rience in
saying, that wherever large farming is the rule, there will probably
be veiT many formers without adequate capital. Now, in agricul-
ture, inadequate capital means, among other things, insumcient
live stock and insufficient manure, and, as an inevitable consequence,
defective crops. It means, in short, imperfect cultivation.
Omall in. From these premises it would Apparently result
farms. tliat small farmers will generaUy be more nearly pro-
vided with the capital required for their business than
large ones; and such seems to be actually the fact where-
ever peculiar circumstances have not been at work as pre-
ventives. It is not indeed so in Ireland, where feudal
oppression or anarchy, alternating with alien misrule, has
in all generations made destitution the heritage of the
peasantry. Neither is it so in France, where the swarms
of petty landholders had little of either precept or example
to teach them that to employ their spare napoleons in
thoroughly cultivating the few acres they already posseas,
"would ba a much better investment of their money than
the purchase with it of an additional acre or two to be as
imperfectly cultivated as the rest. In England the sj-stem
of smaU cultivation, strictly so called, has probably ceased
to e.^t, now that amateur farming has come so much into
fashion, and that the instances have become comparatively
so numerous of men of considerable substance turning
to farming for a livelihood. It will not, however, help
us much, when endeavouring to ascertain the relative
merits of two rival agricultural systems, to contrast good
specimens of the one and bad speciipens of the other. If
we would accurately gauge their respective capabilities, we
should take them both at their best, and the comparison
here of large with small farming will accordingly be of the
former as it presents itself in England, and of the latter as
developed in Flanders. Now, in the territory first named
the average capital of occupants of 100 acres and upwards
would certainly not be understated, and would probably
be materially overstated, at £6 per acre; yet M. de
Laveleye, while giving £8 as the average for Flanders
(where the medium size of farms is but 7A acres in the
western, and no more than 5 acres in the eastern province),
adds that good fanners, judging of others by themselves,
would call that sum much too low even for an average;
and further remarks that, although a small tenant may, on
entering, have only £S an acre, the additions he is con-
tinually making to his live stock, and his continually
increasing purchases cf manure, commonly taise the £S to
jBlG before the expiration of his lease. He also informs us
that in other Belgian districts — in the Hesbayan portions
of Brabant and Hainault, whereof one-siith is occupied by
farms of 100 acres and upwards, and in the Condrusian
portion of the province of Namur, where farms oif 250
icrea and upwards are pretty numerous — a farmer's average
capital ia estimated at between X5, 128. and £.6, &s., and
between £3 and £i per acre respectively. True, as alreaily
intimated, there are certain descriptions of stock on which
the small fanner's expenditure must necessarily somewhat
exceed his rival's — ten Flemish farmers of 10 acres each
being probably obliged to keep ten horses, while an Eng-
lish farmer of 100 acres might not perhaps have occasion
for more than a pair, reducing also his number of carta,
ploughs, and the like, in "imilar proportioa But after all
reasonable deduction on this account, the bahuice of capital
remaining for the purchase and maintenance of those ammala
and materials of which no fanner ever has too many or too
much, is in general much greater in the Fleming's case than
in the Englishman's. " It would startle the F.n^lish fanner
of 400 acres of arable land," said ilr Rham forty years
ago, " to be told that he should constantly feed 100 head
of cattle, yet this would not be too large a proportion if
the Flemish system were strictly followed, a beast for every
3 acres being a common Flemish proportion, and on vrry
small occupatiom, where spade husbandry is used, the pro-
portion being still greater." " That the occupier," he pro-
ceeds, " of only 10 or 12 acres of light arable soil should
be able to maintain four or five cows may appear astonish-
ing, but the fact is notorious throughout the Waes country."
These statements are of somewhat ancient date, but are
still as applicable as ever. During a recent tour through
Belgium, the present writer visited two farms near St
Nicolas, in the Pays de Waes — the first two that came in
his way. On one, of 10 acres, he found four cows, two
calves, one horse, and two pigs, besides rabbits and poiJtry.
On the other, of 38 acres, one bull, six cows, two heifers,
one horse, and seventy-five sheep — these last, however,
being allowed, in addition to what they got on their owner's
ground, the run of all the stubblas in the commune; the
whole commtme, on the other hand, being allowed the use
of the bull gratis. A few days later the writer went ovei
a farm a few miles from Ypres. On this, of 32 acres in
extent, he counted eight cows, six bullocks, a calf eight
weeks old, and four pigs. To posseas plenty of live stock
is to possess in an equal abundance the first requisites of
sustained fertility. "No cattle, no dung; no dung, no
crop," is a Flemish adage; and the wealthiest of English
agriculturists are less prodigal of manure than the Flenush
peasantry. Mr Caird, in his instructive and interestir.g
treatise on English Agriculture, cites as something extra-
ordinary that, for a farm six miles from Manchester, manure
shotild have been bought at the rate of 1 2 or 1 3 tons an acre ;
but this, which in England passes for lavishness, might
seem more Uke niggardliness in Flanders; for there from
10 to 15 tons of good rotten dung and 10 hogsheads of
liquid from the urine tank, per acre, are quite common
sacrifices and libations to the Sterculine Saturn, and some
30s. worth of purchased fertilisers — bones, wood-ashea,
linseed-cake, and guano — are not tinfrequently superadded.
Nay, when potatoes are the crop for whose increase the
deity is invoked, 60 tons of mantire per acre are no unvisual
quantity to Lay on. The holder of the farm of 32 acres
near Ypres, just alluded to, assured the writer, in his land-
lord's presence, that, over and above what his own cattle
supply, he purchases manure to the value of no less than
£■200 annually.
One of the respects in which small culture has been admitted to
stand at some disadvantage in comparison with large is that of
division of labour ; but against whatever loas of time or ewn tnfe*
riority of skill may result &om the necessity there is for each of the
labourers engaged in the former culture to occupy himself with
a variety of operations instead of confining him^ell to one, are to be
set the additions voluntarily made to the labour employed, and also
its rjiperior heartinesa. The tillage of a small farm is executed
often entirely, and always in great measure, by the fanner himself
and the members of his ismily ; and when these have adequate
security that the entire increase of the soiL over And ab{>7e a specified
SMALL FARMING.]
AGRICULTURE
413
quantity, will belong to themselves, they -generally do their utmost
to make the increase as large aa possible. Not, indee^, always.
Industry, in common with other virtues, is greatly influenced by
example ; and small leaseholders, or even small freeholders, thinly
interspersed among numerous tenants-at-will, are much more likely
to accept as their standard of becoming exertion the habitual list-
leBsnesa of the latter than to set up an, independent standard of
their own. Where, however, small farmers are in a decided
majority, they are, unless some extraordinary circumstances are in
operation to depress their energy, sure to appear as models of diii-
genoe. Their activity is not then restricted within set hours of
work. Whenever a thing requires to be dono is with them the
proper time for doing it, and early and late, consequently — long
before the hired journeyman comes in the morning and long after
he has gone home in the evening — they may be seen afield, doing,
too, whatever they do, not only with all their might, but with all
the heed which people usually bestow on their o^ni alFairs, even
though they bestow it on nothing else. In particular, they waste
notlmig — least of all anything that can bo used as manure. Now,
there are no crops which, would not be the better for such special
attention, and there are some to which it is an almost indispensable
condition of excellence. Flax, hemp, hops, wine, oil, and tobacco
famish instances of cultare in which the individual plants require,
or at any rate abundantly repay, separate care. But such minute
attention no supervision can ensure — no rata of hire can command.
It is habitually rendered by those only who are directly interesced
in rendering it, or otherwise directly stimulated — by the small
farmer and the small farmer's wife and children all worting v.'ith
their own hands for their own behoof, and by his servants, if he
have any ; for that must be a pitiful creature indeed who, with his
employer working by his side, will let his employer work harder
than himself. Herein, then — (in the greater quantity and better
quality of work which the same number of persons will do in small
as compared with large farming) — consisting the distinctive excel-
lence of the former system, how far does this counterbalance the
superiority of large farming in regard to the saving of labour and
implements f There can be no more conclusive mode of answering
this question than by contrasting the substantial results of the two
systems, adopting as tests the respective amounts both of gross and
of net produco. Now, in England the average yield of wheat per acre
was in 1837 only 21 bushels, the highest average for any single
county being no more than 26 bushels. The highest average since
claimed for the whole of England is 32 bushels ; but this is pro-
nounced to be much too high by the best, perhaps, of all authori-
ties, Mr Caird, who gives 26^ bushels aa "the average of figures
furnished to him by competent judges in all parts of the kingdom,"
adding, as the result of his own observation, that 32 bushels, as an
average produce, is to be mot with "only on farms where both soil
and management are superior to the present average of England."
In Jersey, however, where the average size of farms is only 16 acres,
the average produce of wheat for the five years ending with 1833
was, by official investigation, ascertained to be 40 bushels. In
Guernsey, wh^re farms are still smaller, 32 bushels per acre was,
according to Inglis, considered, about the same time, "a good, but
etill a common, crop ;" knd the light soil of the Channel Islands is
naturally by no means particularly suitable for the growth of
wheat. That of Flanders, originally a coarse silicious sand, is par-
ticularly unsuitable, and accordingly little wheat is sown there, but
of that little the average yield, at least in the Waes district, is,
according to a very minute and careful observer, from 32 to 36
bushels. Of barley, a more congenial cereal, the average is in
Flanders 41 bushels, and in good ground 60 bushels ; while in
England it is probably under 33, and would certainly be over-
stated at 36 bushels. Of course the English averages are consider-
ably exceeded in particular localities — on such fanna, for instance,
aa those of Mr Paget, near Nottingham, and of Mr Stansfeld, in
the West Riding of Yorkshire, wheat crops of 46 bushels per acre
being not extraordinary, and of 56 bushela not unknown ; but these
excoptional cases may be more than matched in Guernsey, where
the largtist yield of wheat per acre, in each of the three years ending
with 1847, was proved to the satisfaction of the local agricultiuai
society to have oeen not less than 76, 80, and 72 bushels respec-
tively. Of potatoes, 10 tons per ace would anywhere in England,
even on the rich "warn lands" bordering the tidal affluents of the
Hnmbcr, be considerca a high average crop ; but iu Jersey the
average is reckoned^ at 15 tons, and near Tamise, in eastern
Flanders, Mr Rham round a cultivator of 8 acres of poor land rais-
ing nearly 12 tons from one of them. Clover, again, "the glory of
Flemish farming," "is nowhere else found in such perfect Inxari-
anoo" as in Flanders, where it exhibits "a vigour and weight of
produce truly surprising," especially when it is discovered "that
such prodigious crops are raised from 6 tb of seed per acre." Most
of the other green crops, and also most of the root crops, grown in
Flanders deserve to bo spoken of in similar terms ; and to the
extraordinary number of cattle fed upon those green and root crops
roforenr.e has already been made. If any rdianre may be placed on
Lho^o statistics, it cannot, however startling at first hearing, be too
much to affirm that in the Channel Islands and in Flandera the
average of gross produce is greater than in England by fully ono-
fourth, or say by the equivalent of 9 bushels of wheat per acre.
Gross produce, however, ia not the only thing to be
considered, for there is no doubt that on equal areas
amall farming employs more hands than large ; and it
might bfi that the entire produce of a small farm was not
more than sufficient to feed the extra mouths. 'This
would not necessai'ily be an evil, unless on the assump-
tion that the condition of agricultm-al labourers is neces-
sarily so wretched that an. increase in their ntimber is
tantamount to an increase of wretchedness. Possibly,
however, the extra produce might be less than sufficient
to feed the extra mouths, so that the quantity of net pro-
duce remaining available for sale to the non-agricultural
portion of the community would be diminished ; and, if
this were really the fact, it might be conclusively con-
demnatory of email farming. JSTor, to prove that it is
nbt the fact, wUl it suffice to urge that land, when divided
among numerous occupants, commonly fetches a much
higher rent than when united into a few extensive Lold-
ings-r-that whereas, for example, 30q. an acre would in
England be considered a fair and even a high rate for
middling land, it must bo very middling land indeed
which in Guernsey will not let for at least £4, while in
Switzerland, another territory of petite culture^ the average
rent is £6. For these higher rents might be the results
of an incident, not of culture, but of tenure — of that
excessive competition for land which is unhappily a too
frequent accompaniment of amall farming. Neither will
it suffice to show that, although the agricultural popula-
tion of a minutely -divided territory is always far denser
than that of one of large farms, certain territories of the
former description are nevertheless among those which
maintain the largest manufacturing and commercial popu-
lation— Belgium, for instance, being second to England
alone in that respect, and Switzerland and Rhenish
Prussia being Likewise cases in point. For it may obvi-
ously be replied that the no u- agricultural classes of a
community need not be entirely dependent for food on
home .produce, but may derive part of their supplies from
abroad, and it may generally be impossible to ascertain
what is the proportion imported. This objection does
not, indeed, apply to the Channel Islands ; and Mr W. T.
Thornton has, in a new edition of his Flea for Feasant
Froprietors, been at considerable pains to prove that in
Guernsey two, and in Jersey four, non-agricultural inhabi-
tants are maintained on the produce of every acre and
a half of cultivated land, whereas 'in England only one
such person is so fed- Be this as it may, a preferable, or
at any rate more generally applicable, teat is the propor-
tion between the extra production of small farming and
the consumption of the extra labourers tberein employed.
Now, in Flanders and in the two principal Channel
Islands the agricultural population is about-four times aa
dense as in England, being at the rate of about one person
fur every 4 acres, instead of one for every 17; but causo
has also been shown for believing that in Flanders and in
the same islands the average produce of the soil ia greater
than in England by the equivalent of 9 bushels of wheat
per acre, or of 153 bushels for every 17 acres. But 153
bushels, or say 19 quarters, of wheat is much more than
three persons — and these not all adult males, but, moro
likely, a man, a woman, and a child — would consume,
even if it were supplied to them, and there were nothing
else for them to oat, and is fully three times as much as
three such persons of the farm labourers' class in any part
of Europe have the means of procuring. After deduction,
therefore, of their consumption, there would still remain
available for sale to non-agriculturists, from the produce of
414
AGRICULTURE
[labie akd
17 acres under aniRlI culture, the equivalent of nearly 100
bushels of wheat more than could be spared for the same
purpose from an equal extent of land under a largo farmer.
These conclusions are not put forward as more than
roughly approximate, nor, indeed, in the present disgrace-
fully defective state of British agricultural statistics, are
ony but rough approximations on the subject possible.
But, unless very wide indeed of the truth, they must be
acknowledged to furnish adequate reason why rural
magnates should not engross all our praises, and why the
honest agricultural muse should reserve a share of com-
mendation for small leasebolding farmers also.
Po«aimt IV. And while so much can bo said for small leaseholders,
pro- it is obvious that every one of the arguments adduced in
prietors. favour of that class applies with rcdoabled force to small
freoliolders cultivating their own freeholds. A peasant
proprietor, whose whole produce belongs to himself, is
of course richer than he would be if he had to pay rent
— can more easily bear the expenses of cultivation, of
procuring proper implements and manure, of drainage and
irrigation, and of the keep of live stock. SmaD lease-
holders, as a class, lay out more money on their land, in
proportion to its extent, than large occupiers; but a small
freeliolder has more money to lay cut than a leaseholder
of ihe same degree, and has besides stronger motives for
la;ang it out on improvements. " A small proprietor," says
A.dam Smith, " who knows every part of his little terri-
■tory, who views it with all the affection which property,
espcciilly small property, naturally inspires, and who, upon
that account, takes pleasure not only in cultivating but in
adorning it, is generally of all improvers the most indus-
tnoui, the most intelligent, and the most successful" It
might have been added, that he is likewise the most enter-
prising. He need not carefully calculate whether his outlay
will be fully recovered by him within a certain term of years;
he has only to consider whether the increased value of his land
will be equal to fair interest on the sum which the improve-
ments will cost. He does not require that the principal
should ever be returned. He is satisfied to sink it for ever
in his own land, provided that, in that safest of all invest-
ments, it promise to yield a perpetual annuity equal to
what would be its annual increase in another employment.
»Vgain, the peasant proprietor has the strongest possible
incentives to diligence. A man never works so well as
when paid by the piece ; but even then, the more he is
paid, the better he works. The small leaseholder, not less
than the small proprietor, is paid in proportion to his
labour; but the latter is paid at a higher rate, for he takes
to himself the whole fruit of his labour, while the former
must content himself with part. The proprietor, too,
knows that, so long as his labour continues equally pro-
ductive, his remuneration will remain the same ; while
that of the tenant, though augmented soljsly by his own
exertions, may be diminished at the expiration of his lease.
Besides, many niral operations yield no profit until after a
long lapse of time; and the annual profit of others is so
tmall that the enjoyment of- it in perpetuity is requisite to
recompense the labour expended. Such operations are
seldom undertaken except by proprietors. No tenant would
think of planting an orchard such as Arthur Young saw
near SauTO on a tract consisting " eceniingly of nothing
but bare rocks;" or, as in the mountains of Languedoc,
would " carry earth in baskets on the back to form a
garden where nature had denied it ;" or would enclose
and till fields and gardens on a " wretched blowing sand
naturally as white as snow." But, as Young exclaims,
" give a man the secure possession of a bleak rock, and he
will turn it into a garden !" There is " no way so sure
of carrying tillage to a mountain-top as by permitting
the neighV.turing villagers to acquii-e it in property. The
magic 01 property turns Band to gold." It m^ perhaps
be objected that the gold does not repay the cost of trans-
mutation, and that therefore the labour expended upon it
has been wasted; and no doubt a monied speculator, who
should engage in such alchemy with hired labour, might
never recover the amount of his outlay. But — and hers
comes a conclusive answer to those who, instead of admir-
ing such achievements, condemn them as mere waste of
power — the peasant who performs them on his own account
performs them with labour which would otherwise b*
valueless at that particular time. When the hired journey-
man has earned his day's wages, and gives himself up
to rest or amusement, the little landowner ia content to
recreate himself by turning to some lighter work. It is
sufficient amusement for him to weed or water his cabbages,
or to train or prune his fruit-trees; and, in wet or wintry
weather, when outdoor work is scarce worth paying for,
and when the day-labourer must often remain idle because
no one will employ him, then it is that the independent
cottager builds up terraces on the steep hillside, or lays
the site of a garden among rocks. It is, in short, one prime
excellence of peasant proprietorship that it stirs into
activity labour which otherwise would not have been
exerted — in other wordsj would not have existed, and the
fruits of which, consequently, however insignificant, are
at any rata all pure gain.
The pastoral tribes, by which most civilised countries were
originally occupied, have almost invariably been followed, either
immediately or after a certain interval, by a race of peasant pro-
prietors. The revolution has taken place at differeut stages of
national progress, but scarcely an instance can bo mentioned in
which it has not occurred sooner or later. In territories of very
small extent, very barren or much intersected by mountains, rivers,
or other naturp.l barriers, it has commonly been coeval with the
first appropriation of land by individuals. In audi situations, the
original tribes of nomad herdsmen must necessarily have been
small for want of pasture ; and the same cause must have prevented
any individual from acquiring very great numbers of cattle, and
from very greatly surpassing ma companions in wealth and power.
All must have been nearly equal in rank ; and, whenever a pai-tidon
of their common territory was resolved upon, every one, no d< ubt,
made good his claim to a share. On the other hand, in couj 'ries
containing abundance of good pasture, separate tribes might ea pand
indefinitely, and the cattle of single proprietors be counter! by
thousands and tens of thousands. Great wealth would then imply
grt-it disparity of rank, and rich herdsmen woidd have many poor
retainers entirely indebted to their bounty, and consequently entirely
devoted to their service. Such dependanta, when the community
passed from a migratorv and pastoral to a stiti(7nary and agriculturr.!
condition, could put forward no pretensions on their own beh&lX
Their I'elation to their masters would remain the some as before,
or rather woxdd be exchanged for a more etriiigeut form of bondage.
From servants they would become serfs, and the duty a.'isigned
to them wo\Ud bo tliat of tilling their masters* fields, as they had
previously tended his herds. In the course of ages, however, they
would imperceptibly acquire some important privileges. Hesiding
for many successive generations on the lands allotted to them for
their own subsistence, and paying to their lord always the same, or
nearly the same, portion of the produce, they would come at length
to be regarded as conditional proprietors of their respective holdings,
or as perpetual lessees at a quit and almost nominal rent. Their
proprietary title, although at first merely prescriptive, would be
eventually legalised ; and thus it is that from villeins and serfs has "
descended a progeny no less respectable than F.ngliab copy-holders
and German bauers.
V. In one or other of these ways almost every country Metaya?*
on the face of the globe which has passed regularly through
the various stages that separate barbarism from civilisa-
tion, has been at some period, as many are still, occupied
iu great measure by peasant proprietors. In those
countries, however, in which peasant proprietorship has
been evolved from serfdom, there must have been, iater-
mingled n-ith the lands held by servile tenure, others, not
less extensive, in the immediate occupation of a rural
aristocracy. These seijrnorial domains would long con-
tinue to be cultivated bj' the serfs or slaves of their re-
spective owners, but as feudal and domestic slavery feU
SMALL FAEMIXG.]
AGKTCULTUKE
415
into desuetude, the landlords, in order to get their lands
tilled, would be reduced to the necessity of holding out
inducements to free husbandmen to lend their assistance.
In England, -where, thanks to the comparative security
enjo^od by industry, plebeians of some substance were
already not rare, it might suffice to offer tenancies for
terms of years or -for lives; but, in those continental
countries in which feudal misrule had given way. only to
be replaced by monarchical tyranny, it was generally
necessary for the landowner, who desired that his farms
should be tolerably stocked, to stock them himself. Hence
arose a system which, having never existed in England, has
no Eiigliah name, but which in certain provinces of Italy
and France, where it was once almost universal, and is still
very common, is called mczzeria and metayage^ or halv-
ing— the halving, that is, of the produce of the soil between
landowner and landholder. These expressions are not,
however; to be understood in a more precise sense than
tbafe in "Which we soraetimes talk of a larger and a smaller
half. They merely signify that the produce is divisible in
certain definite proportions, which must obviously vary
with the varying fertility of the soil and other circum-
stances, and which do in practice vary so much that the
landlord's share is sometimes as much as two-thirds, some-
times as little as one-third. Sometimes the landlord
supplies all the stock, sometimes only part — the cattle
and seed perhaps, while the farmer provides implements ;
or perhaps only half the seed and half the cattle, the
farmer finding the other halves — taxes too being paid
wholly by one or the other, or jointly by both.
Now, with whatever virtue a system like this may be condition-
ally credited, it plainly can have no virtue at aU except on con-
dition of its being believed to be permanent. The mitayer must
have full confidence that the landlord, although authorised by law,
will bo prevented by respect for custom, from increasing his exac-
tions ; hut even on this condition the system is open to the
serious objection, that the metayer will deem it his interest to lay
out on the land as little as possible, if anything, of his own, except
labour. If in England, previously to tithe commutation, a farmer
was discouraged from spending money on improvements by the
knowledge that the parson woiUd claim one out of every ten ad-
ditional sheaves of corn or pounds of butter produced in conse-
quence, what chance is there of a metayer risking a similar expendi-
ture, wliile knov/ing that the landlord's share of the consequent
produce would be a moiety or more instead of a tenth ? In this
p.irticular, metayage closely resembles' English tenancies'at will,
which practicaUy render it almost equally incumbent on the land-
lord to bear the entire expense of all costly improvements, and over
•which md'tayago, in another and nearly allied particular, possesses a
marked advantage. Although the metayer may, for one very cogent
reason — a reason, however, likely to be somewhat counteracted by
belief, whether well or ill founded, in the fixity of his tenure — be
reluctant to use in his business any capital of his own, he will, for
the converse of that same reason, be anxious to make the most of
the capital entrusted to him by his landlord. He is hfs landIord*a
Partner, entitled to a moiety or thereabout in his landlord's gains,
t is his interest, then, to get the most out of the land that can be
brought out of it by means of the landlord's stock. Virtually,
indeed, he is himself, in a qualified sense, a peasant proprietor, pos-
sessing in a minor degree all the stimulants to diligence, heedful-
ncss, and thrift, incidental to that character ; and there can scarcely,
therefore, be inherent in his constitution any such incurable vice
as would warrant his being condemned a jmor-L Equally with
other people he is entitled to bo judged by his behaviour. As to
this the testimony of experience is very conflicting. English
WTitcra who see nothing of mdtayage at home, and may be suspected
of looking with not wholly unprejudiced eyes at what they see of it
abroad, v/ere, xmtil Jlr J. S. Mill adopted a different tone, unani-
mous in condemning it. They judged it, however, by its appear-
ance in France, where it has never worn a very attractive aspect.
In that country every form of agriculture atill retains many of the
traditions of the ante-lievolutionary period, and metayage, in par-
ticular, labours under great difiicultics in conscnuence. Under the
ancien r6ginie not only were all direct taxes paid Ly the metayer, the
noble landowner being exempt, but tlioso taxes, being assessed accord-
ing to the visible produce of the soil, operated as penalties upon all
endeavours to augment itn productiveness. No wonder, then, if
the miStayer fftncied that his interest lay less in e.\erting himsflf to
augment the total to be divided betwcva himseU and hia landlord,
than m studying how to defraud the latter of part of his rightfid
sliare ; nor any great wonder either if he has not yet got entirely-
rid of habits so acquired. Kather would it be strange if he had,
especially when it is considered that he still is, as his predecessora
were foimerly, destitute of the virtual fixity of tenure without
which metayage cannot reasonably be expected to prosper. French
metayers, in Arthur Youngs time, were J* removable at pleasure,
and obliged to conform in all things to the will of their landlords,"
and 90 in general they are still. Yet even in France, according to
M. de Lavergne, although "metayage and extreme rural poverty
usually coincide," there is one province, Anjou, where the contrary
is the fact, as it is also in Italy. Indeed, to every tourist who has
passed through the plains of Lombardy with hiia eyes open, the
kiiovdedge that mrUayage has for ages been there the prevailing
form of tenure ought to suffice for the triumphant vindication of
metayage in the abstract. Its perfect compatibility with the most
flourishing agriculture muut bs clear to any one who, noting the
number and populousness of the cities in the Lombard provinces,
is at the same time aware how much of agricultural produce those
provinces, export and how little they import. An explanation of
the contrasts presented by metayage in different regions is not far
to seek. M(5tayage, in order to be in any measure worthy of com-
mendation, must be a genuine partnership, one in which there is no
sleeping partner, but in the affairs of which the landlord, as well
as the tenant, takes an active part. If he do this, he canoct
be an absentee. He must be on the spot to judge when and what
advances are required from him, and to watch ov1;r' their proper
application ; to that end conferring habitually with the metayer,
and taking as well as giving counsel on the subject, as on one in
which both are equally concerned. This exhibition of common
interest on one side is sure to beget it, if previously wanting, on tb i
other ; feelings of mutual attachment insensibly spring up, acd
the sjiirit which governs the mutual relations becomes cue of friendly
and almost afi"ectionate association. Such is, or at any rat.3
used to be, the state of affairs in Piedmont, in Lombardy, and in
Tuscany ; and wherever the same description applies, the results of
in^tayage appear to be as eminently satisfactory, as they are de-
cidedly the reverse wherever the landlord holds himself aloof,
contenting himself, as it were, with putting out his stock to usur}',
and never intervening except to carp at tho smallness of tho returns.
Instead of community, there is then conflict,. of interests. Anta-
gonism takes the place of association. The landlord gri'dges tha
scantiest advances, and even of those the farmer does his beat to
cheat the soil, which, starved by them who ought to feed it, leaves
them to starve in return.
_ On the whole, and according to preponderance of testimony,
metayage must perhaps be admitted to he everywhere showing a
tendency to degenerate after the above fashion; yet even so, the
worst that need be said of it is, that it is becoming an anachronism ;
this, moreover, being perhaps a reproach less to itself than to the
age in which we Uve. It is the present generation of mankind who
are chiefly to blame if the ties which anciently Unked together
employers and employed in more or less kindly fellowship, are now-
a-days, in agriculture as in other departments of industry, visibly
decaying, and if each section of the agrarian class, bidding the othera
keep their distance, prefers to perform its own functions separately,
and without more of^ natural intefcourse than business obligations,
arranged beforehand, render indispensable. But whenever, from
whatever cause, landowners have come to be regarded by landholders
as mere receivers of rent, metayage cannot possibly thnve, and it is
accordingly dying out, even in the quarters to which it has hitherto
appeared most congenial. Even in the Milanese, where the ndnute
and assiduous attention to details which metayers, next after peasant
proprietors, can best be depended on for bestowing, is in especial de-
mand for sericulture and viticulture, metayage is undergoing changes
whit;h M. de Laveleye {Economic Rurah de la Lombardie) describt.3
as fallows : —
*' The primitive conditions of contract which fixed, according to
local and traditional usage, the cultivator's share, are daily more
and more departed from. For a considerable time past, in the parts
about Como and llilan, to the anangement for sharing by halves,
which now applies only to plantation crops, grasses, aud cocoons,
has been added a clanso providing for the annual payment of a
determinate quantity of corn; and, as this quantity is settled no
longer by local custom, but by the demands of the proprietors and
tho offers of intending tenants, it follows that mdtayage is losing its
character of fixity, and falling tmdcr the law of increase which
governs farming rent. The clause in question is continually be-
coming more and more of a habit; and, even where it has not yet
been adopted, the ancient contract has undergone other and not less
rcgretablo modifications. Tho higli price of commodities, particu-
larly of silk, having markedly augmented the profits of the m(5ta.
yera, the landlords nave availed themselves of this circumstance to
introduce new stipulaLiuns— sometimes taking more than half of
tho cocoons, sometimes claimiug a quantity oT mulberry leaves to
sell for their owti profit, sometimca taking tithes first and thea
halving the residue. AU this 13 done with the same ftim uid the
416
A G K 1 C U L T U K E
Agricul-
tural 00-
eperation.
nmo result, the ato bsing to eccuro to tho landlorJ tho whole
benefit of contmually rising prices, the result thtit of dejtriving the
neUiyer of the aecurity which tho primitive kgrcomcut gave Dim,
and of aubjecting him to all the aiaadrantagea of a leo^'holdcr
without any of the lattcr'a compcuaations."
VL The plan of industrial partnorships, wherever it has
hod a fair trial, has inTariably been attended by the hap-
piest results; but it has hardly yet been fairly tried in
farming, where, however, its application would in one
respect be comparatively easy. In most other kinds of
business, to determine to the satisfaction of both parties
concemsd how much, if any, of extra profits had been duo
to extra zeal on the part of the employed, might be an
operation of some difCculty; but there need never be any
doubt whether the crops of a given acreage were or were
not above the average, or what, therefore, if any, was the
surplus in which, according to the agreement, the employed
were entitled to participate. That farmers woiJd risk but
little and only occasional loss, and in the long run would
be sure to gain considerably, by pemvitting their labourers
to share with them in a sui-plus which the labourers would
have by voluntary exertion to create before they could
share in it, may perhaps to an indifferent bystander seem
a self-evident proposition. Farmers in general, however,
may long be prevented from recognising its truth by an
intervening haze of traditional prejudice, which must first
be cleared away, and the removal may occupy so much
time that not improbably another and more advanced form
of agricultural co-operation, not needing the fanners' con-
currence, may in tho mean time come into vogue.
Intermingled with the multitudinous peasant proprietary
of France are not only a much larger number of well-to-do
country gentlemen than is commonly supposed, but also a
not inconsiderable sprinkling of rurni magnates, who, even
beside English dukes, might well pass for extensive land-
owners. Among these latter are representatives of some
of the oldest and noblest French families — men rejoicing
in the grand historic names of Rochefoucauld, Noailles,
Luynes, Montemart, D'Usez, and the like — who having at
the restoration been partially reinstated in the domains
of which the first revolution had despoiled them, dis-
appeared, on the second exjmlsion of the Bourbons, from
court and office, and, returning to their country seats, be-
took themselves, under the Orleanist dynasty and second
empire, to the unprovement gf their estates. A difficulty
■which here confronted them was that of finding tenants
possessed of capital enough for any but very small farms,
and this they have latterly endeavoured to obviate by
devising, vmder tho name of metayaac par groupes^ an ex-
panded modification of a discredited tenure. This consists
in letting a considerable farm, not to one mCiayer, but to
an association of several, who work together for the general
good, under the supervision either of the landlord
himself, or of a manager or bailiff of his appointment.
This plan is by no means tho novelty it may perhaps
appear, its near counterpart having >vithin the present cen-
tury existed in some singular patriarchal communities
— Jaults, Guittards, and Garriotts (see Thornton On
Labour, 2d edition, pp. 488-90), in Nivemais and Au-
vergne, and still existing among the massari of the sub-
alpine districts of northern Italy. Its merit consists in its
tendency to excite among the associates the generous
emulation and other healthy stimulating and controllin"
influences of co-operative fellowship; but as yet it has
scarcely bean long enough in operation to show very deci-
cively how it is likely to work. In the event of its proving
a marked luoctas, it may become the etarting-pofnt of
much further progress. One easy and important step in
advance ■would be for a body of metayers to persuade their
landlord to let them have their farm on lease, and at a fixed
rent, thus raising themselves to that higher stage of agri-
cultural co-operation of which an imperfect but encourag-
ing example has been afforded among ourselves by Mr
Qurdon's well-known experiment at Assington in Suffolk.
Of the two or three scores of labourers who are there par-
ties to the leases by which two farms — one of 130, the
other of 212 acres — are held, not more than ten or a dozen
have regular work in their own fields, the rest being
therefore little more than passive capitalists, sleeping
partners in the concern, whUe the active members receive,
in addition to wages at the rates current in the neighbour-
hood, no larger shares in the profits than the members who
do not exert themselves to increase those profits. Never-
theless, to sum up in a single phrase of especial significance
for our present purpose the praises of the results achieved,
Mr Gurdon declares that " ho has no other land so well
farmed " as that on which file co-operative principle is even
thus partially appUed. It would seem, therefore, that the
adoption of the same principle in its integrity would result
in better farming still, and it may be hoped that the ques-
tion wLil, at Assington or elsewhere, be ere long put to the
proof. (w. 1. T.)
Alphabetical Contents.
Ancient hnsMndry, 391
Artichokes, 368.
Bakcwell. 303.
liiirley. 358.
Barns, 308.
Beans. 360, 377.
Beet, 381.
Belhaven. SOL
Blood. 319.
Boes, 403.
Bondsmen, 394.
Bones, 347.
Bresst ptoaRh, 330,
Breeding, 303,
CabbaRC, 869,
Capital. 408.
CaiTofcs, 369.
Carts, 823,
Cattle. 387,
Chaff cutting, 328.
Chalk, 361.
ChicoiT, 378, 883.
Clay, burnt. .^61.
CTeanlng. 3S8.
Climate, 306,
Clovere, 876,
Colza. 883.
Co-operation, 416.
Cottages, 309.
Culley, 303,
Cultivators, steam, 81L
Dawson, 303.
Donaldson, 301.
Draining. 328.
Drills, 890,
Education, 408,
Eg5-pt, ancient, 391,
Fallowing, 837; summer,
840.
Farm buildings, 808,
Farming, large, 411;
small, 413,
Fences, 309,
Fens, 404.
Flax. 380.
Fowler, 816.
Goats. 899.
Gorse. 878.
Grain crops. 854.
Grasses, 870,
Greece, ancient, 393.
Grinding, 326,
Grubbers. 812,
Grabbing, 338,
Guano, 347,
G>-p8Uin, 361,
Harrowing. 387.
Harrows, 318.
HarreBtlng, 863,
Haymakers, 88*.
Havmaking. 878.
Highland Soclety.303, SOS.
History, ancient, 391,
J634-1M6. 295;
1688-1760. 299;
1760-1796, 802;
1796-1816. 363;
Recent, 804.
Hoes. 321.
Hops. 381.
Horses, fann, 884.
Howard, 318.
Implements. 811.
Improvements, recent S06.
Indian corn. 862.
Jewish husbandry. 291.
Knowledge. Increase of,
803.
Kohl Rabl. S70.
Laoourera, 408.
Land tenure 406,
Large farming, 411.
Lawa, old, 298; recent,
304.
Leases. 407, 411; reetric-
tive 341.
Legislation. 409.
Levelling. 335.
Lime. 360.
Literature, 299, 806,
Lucerne, 378.
MachiDe.t. 818
Maize, 3*^2.
Mangel-wurzel, 36o,
Manure distributors, 821,
Manurea, 342; artlfcial,
863 ; liquid, 343,
Marl, 351.
Maxwell. 302.
M(ttayage. 414.
Middle ages. 293.
Moorland, 402.
Mortimer, 299.
Mowing-machines, 323.
Mnstari 377, 384.
Nitrate of soda, 353,
Oats, 359,
Oils, 883.
Paring. 335.
Parsnips. 369.
Pasture. 370.
Pasturea. sheep. 402.
Peasant proprietom, 414.
Peaae, 361.
Peet, charred, 863.
Pigs, 400.
Ploughing. 886.
Plongha. 31?, t,e/jr fH.
Popul&Uon, j-.]J>«er.o. u.
907.
Potash. 368.
Potato disease, 304.
Potatoes. 864.
Poultry. 401.
Porvcyancc. 394.
KaUways. 805.
Rakes. 32.^
Rape, 870, 883,
Rape-cake, 349,
Rcaplng-machlnes, 303.
Reclaiming, 402,
Rinderpest. 804.
Road Btcamera, 833.
Rollers, 819.
Rome, ancient. 393.
Root crops, 364.
Rotation crops, 840.
Rye. 860.
Ryegrass, 876,
Sainfoin, 877.
Salt. 853.
Sands. 406.
Scotland. 298.
Sea weed. 850.
Seed. 383.
Sewage. 849.
Sheep. 891 ; fertsjng. 8M:
paatures, 403.
Small farming. 313.
Societlea, 803, 306.
Soils, 806,
Soot, 863.
Sowing implement]!. 830
.Spain, medieval, 393.
Stacking, 363.
Statistics, GcTenmwnk,
805.
steam-engines. 838.
Steam-power, 318.410.
Stones, removal of, 884.
Swine. 400,
Tenant-right. 407.
Tenants, life. 294.
Tenure, land, 406,
IhrcshiDg-machines, SOt.
324.
Tillage laws. 298.
Trenching. 886; fork, 83".
Tull. 299.
Tamlp cuttera. 836 : pnip"
ers. 826 ; thlnoe^^ 33L
Tumipa 299. 866.
Tussac.379.
Vagabond^ 398.
Vctchea 376.
Waate lands, 403.
Water. 309.
Wheat, 854.
WlT'nowlnfc «3a.
^aol S99.
A G R — A G R
417
AGRIGENTTJM, in Anclmt Geography, a city on the
south coast of Sicily, part of the site of which is now
occupied by a town called Girgenti, from the old name.
(See Giegentl) It was founded by a colony from Gela,
582 B.C. An advantageous situation, a fre6 govern-
ment, and an active commercial spirit raised the city to
a degree of wealth and importance unknown to the other
Greek settlements, Syracuse alone excepted. The pro-
sperity of Agrigentum was interrupted by the usurpation
of Phalaris which lasted about fifteen years. He met with
the common fate of tyrants, and after his death the Agri-
gentines enjoyed their liberty for sixty years ; at the
expiration of which term Theron usurped the sovereign
authority. The moderation, justice, and valour of this
prince preserved him from opposition. He joined his son-
in-law Oelon, king of Syracuse, in a victorious war against
the Carthaginians. Soon after hLs decease, 472 B.C., his
son Thrasydeus was deprived of the diadem, and Agri-
gentum restored to her old democratical government, which
she retained till the Carthaginian invasion in 406 B.c.
During this interval of prosperity were executed most of
those splendid public works which excited the admiration
of succeeding ages, and caused Empedocles to remark
" that the Agrigentines buUt their dwellings as though
they were to live for ever, and indulged in luxury as if
they were to die on the morrow." The total number of
the inhabitants at this period was estimated by Diodorus
at 200,000. The power of the Agrigentines now ex-
perienced a terrible reverse. They were attacked by the
Carthaginians in 406 B.C., their armies routed, their city
taken, and their race almost extirpated, scarcely a vestige
of their material greatness being left. Although some of
the fugitive inhabitants availed themselves of permission to
return to the ruined city, and after a few years wgre even
able to shake off the yoke of Carthage, Agrigentum
never fully recovered from this fatal disaster. Such was
the condition of the city 340 B.C. that Timoleon, after his
triumph over the Carthaginians, found it necessary to re-
colonise it with citizens from Velia in Italy. During the
first Punic war Agrigentum was the headquarters of the
Carthaginians, and was besieged by the Roman consuls,
who, after eight months' blockade, took it by storm. It
nevertheless changed masters several times during the
contest, and in every instance suffered most cruel outrages.
At the close of the war Agrigentum finally fell under the
dominion of Rome.
The profuse luxury and display for which the Agrigen-
tines are celebrated in history were supported by a fertile
territory and an extensive commerce, by means of which
the commonwealth was able to resist many shocks of
adversity. It was, however, crushed in the fall of the
Eastern Empire, and the Saracens obtained possession of
the city.
Agrigentum occupied a hill rising between the small
rivers Agragas and Hypsas, and was remarkable for its
strength as a fortress. The whole space comprehended
within the walls of the ancient city abounds with traces
of antiquity. Of its many celebrated edifices, the most
magnificent was the temple of Olympian Jupiter. Of this
vast structure nothing remains except the basement and a
few fragments of the columns and entablature ; but these
and many other monuments attest the ancient magnifi-
cence of the Agiigen tines.
AQRIONIA, festivals celebrated annually by the Boeo-
tians in honour of Dionysus, in which the women, after
playfully pretending for some time to search for that god,
delisted, saying that hs had hidden himself among the
Muses. They were solemnised at night bywomen and the
priests only. The tradition is that the daughters of Minyas,
having despised tho rites of the god, were seized with
1—15
frenzy and ate the flesh of one of their children, and that
the Agrionia were celebrated in expiation of the offence.
AGRIPPA, Heeod, the son of Aristobulus and
Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great, was bom
about 11 B.C. Josephus informs us that, after the death
of his father, Herod, his grandfather, sent Viim to Rome
to the court of Tiberius. The emperor conceived a great
affection for Agrippa, and placed him near his son Drusus,
whose favour he very soon won, as well as that of the
empress Antonia. On the death of Drusus, Agrippa,
who had been recklessly extravagant, was obliged to leave
Rome, overwhelmed with debt, and retired to the castle of
Malatha. After a brief seclusion, Herod the tetrarch, his
uncle, who had married Herodias, his sister, made him
principal magistrate of Tiberias, and presented him with
a large sum of money; but his uncle grudging to con-
tinue his support, and reproaching him with his bad
economy, Agrippa left Judea, and soon after returned to
Rome. There he was received with favour by Tiberius,
and commanded to attend Tiberius Nero, the son of
Drusus. Agrippa, however, chose rather to attach himself
to Caius, who at that time was universally beloved, and so
far won upon this prince that he kept him continually
about him. Agrippa being one day overheard by Euty-
ches, a slave whom he had made free, to express his
wishes for Tiberius's death and the advancement of Caius,
was betrayed to the emperor and cast into prison. Tibe-
rius soon after died, and Caius Caligula ascended the
throne 37 a.d. The new emperor heaped wealth and
favours upon Agrippa, changed his iron fetters into a
chain of gold, set a royal diadem upon his head, and gave
him the tetrarchy of Batansea and Trachonitis, which Philip,
the son of Herod the Great, had formerly possessed. To
this he added that held by Lysanias ; and Agrippa returned
very soon into Judea to take possession of his new kingdom.
On the assassination of Caligula, Agrippa, who was then
at Rome, contributed much by his advice to maintain
Claudius in possession of the imperial dignity, to which he
had been advanced by the army; and while he made a
show of being in the interest of the senate, he secretly
advised Claudius to maintain his position with fifmness.
The emperor, as an acknowledgment of his services, gave
him the government of Judea; and the kingdom of Chalcis,
at his request, was given to his brother Herod. Thus
Agrippa became of a sudden one of the greatest princes of
the East, the territory he possessed equalling in extent
that held by Herod the Great, his grandfather. Ha
returned to Judea, and governed it to the great satisfac-
tion of the Jews. But the desire of pleasing them, and a
mistaken zeal for their religion, impelled him to acts of
cruelty, the memory of which is preserved in Scripture
(Acts xii 1, 2, (fee.) About the feast of the Passover, 44^
A.D., James the elder, the son of Zebedee and brother of
John the evangelist, was seized by his order and put to-
death. He proceeded also to lay hands on Peter, and
imprisoned him, delaying his execution till the close of
the festivaL But God having miraculously delivered Peter
from prison, the designs of Agrippa were frustrated*
After the Passover, he went from Jerusalem to Coesarea,
where he had games performed in honour of Claudius,
and the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon waited on him to
sue for peace. Agrippa having come early in the morn-
ing to the theatre to give them audience, seated himself on
his throne, dressed in a robe of silver tissue, which reflected
the rays of the rising sun with such lustre as to dazzle the
eyes of the spectators. When the king had delivered his
address, the parasites around him shouted out that it was
not the voice of a man but of a god. The vain Agrippa
received the impious flattery with complacent satisfaction ;
but in tho mulst of his elation, looking upwards, ha saw.
418
A G 11 1 r P A
with superstitious alarm, an owl perched over his head
During his confinement by Tiberius he had been startled
by a like omen, which had been interpreted as portending
his speedy release, with the warning that whenever ho
should behold the same eight again, his death was to
follow within the space of five days. Seized with terror,
ho was immediately smitten with disease, and after a few
days of excruciating torment, died, according to the
Scripture expression, "eaten of worms," 44 a.d.
AGRIPPA, Hkkod, IL, son of the preceding, bom about
27 A.D., was made king of Chalcis on the death of his
uncle Herod, 48 a.d. ; but three or four years after ho
was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave him
other provinces instead of it. In the war which Vespasian
cjirried on against the Jews Herod sent him a succour of
2000 men, by which it appears that, though a Jew in
religion, ho was yet entirely devoted to the Romans, whoso
assistance indeed ho required to secure the peace of his
own kingdom. Ho died at Rome in the third year of
Trajan, 100 a.d. Ho was the seventh and bst king of
the family of Herod the Great. It was before him and
Berenice, his sister, that St Paul pleaded hia cause at
CiEsarea (Acts xxvi. )
AGRIPPA, Makcus Vipsaj^hjs, according to Tacitus,
was born of humble parents about G3 B.C. At the age of
eighteen he was the chosen companion of Octavius (after-
wards Octavianus), the nephew and successor of Julius
Cajsar, many of whoso successes were mainly due to the
courage and military talents of Agrippa. On the assassina-
tion of Caisar, 44 B.C., Agrippa accompanied his friend to
Italy, and rendered essential service in the conduct of the
first war against M. Antonius, which tenninated in the
capture of Perusia in 40 B.C. Three years after this
Agrippa was made consul, and had the command in Gaul,
when he defeated the Aquitani, and led the Roman eagles
beyond the Rhino to punish the aggressions of the Ger-
mans on his province. But Agrippa was soon summoned
to Italy by the critical state of the affairs of Octavianus,
the whole coast being commanded by the superior fleets of
Sex. Pompeius. His first care was the formation of a
secure harbour for the ships of Octavianus, and this he
accompli.shed by uniting the Lucrine lake with the sea.
He made an inner haven also by joining the lake Avernus
to the Lucrine. In these secure ports the fleet was
equipped, and 20,000 manumitted slaves were sedulously
trained in rowing and naval manoeuvres until they wore
able to cope with the seamen of Pompeius. Agrippa was
thus enabled in the following year to defeat Pompeius
in the naval action of Mylie ; and soon after won a more
signal victory near Naulochus. The.se victories gave Octa-
vianus the empire of the Mediterranean, and secured to
him Sicily, the granary of Rome, after an easy triumph
over his feeble colleague Lepidus ; and they prepared the
way for the overthrow of the power of M. Antonius, the
other triumvir. The merit of all these successes was
very much due to the skiU, resolution, and sagacity of
Agrippa.
Agrippa was chosen ffidile 33 B.C., and signalised his
tenure of ofiice by great improvements in the city of
Rome, in the repair and construction of aqueducts and
fountains neglected or injured during the civil wars,
and in the enlargement and repair of the sewers. He
appears also to have introduced an effectual mode of
flushing the sewers by conducting into them the united
waters of several different streams. From these useful
labours Agrippa was again called away in 31 B.C. to com-
mand the Roman fleet, which, by the victory at Actium,
fixed the empire of the world on Octavianus. The
services of Agrippa made him a special favourite with
Octavianus, who gave him his niece Marcella in marriage.
27 B.C., when he was consul for the third time. In the
following year the serviln senate bestowed on Octavianus
the imperial title of AuuusTUs. Agrip])a, in commcmo.
ration of the naval victory of Actium, dedicated to Jupiter
and all the other gods the Pantheon, now called La
liotonda. The inscription on its portico BtUl remains,
M. AoRirPA L. F. Cos. Terthjm Fecit. In 25 B.C. we
find this eminent man employed in Spain, where ho re-
duced the insurgent Cantabri, the ancestors of the present
Biscayans.
The friendship of Augustus and Agnppa seems to have
been clouded by the jealousy of Marcellus, which was
probably fomented by the intrigues ol Livia, the second
wife of Augxistus, in dread of his influence with her hus-
band. Tho consequence was that Agrippa left Rome ;
and though, to cloak his retirement, he was appointed
proconsul of Syria, ho went no farther than Mjlileno.
Marcellus dying within a year, Agrippa was recalled to
Rome, and being divorced from Marcella, became the hus-
band of the \vidowed Julia, who was no less distinguished
by her beauty and abilities than afterwards by her shame-
less profligacy.
In 19 B.C. Agrippa again led an army into Spain, vhcre
ho subdued tho Cantabri, who had been for two years in
insurrection against tho Romans. While in Gaul, where
he also pacified tho insurgent inhabitants, he constructed
four great public road.s, and tho splendid aqueduct at
Nemausus (now ^fismes), the ruins of which even yet
excite admiration. On his return to Rome, 18 B.C., ha
was invested with tho tribunician power, along with the
emperor, for five years. After that ho was a second time
made governor of Syria, 17 B.C., where, by his just and
wise administration, he obtained general commendation,
especially from tho Hebrew population of his province, of
which Judea formed a part. This resulted from his haWng,
at the request of Herod tho Great, gone up to, Jerusalem,
and granted special privileges for their religious worship
to the Jewish subjects of tho empire. In this journey, too,
he colonised Berytus (now Beyrout) as a military and com-
mercial settlement.
The last military employment of Agrippa was in Pan-
nonia, 13 B.C., where his character for equity was of itself
suflicient to put down insurrection without bloodshed.
Returning to Italy, he lived there in retirement, greatly
honoured, and died at Campania, 12 B.C., two years before
his imperial father-in-law. He was the greatest military
commander of Rome since the days of Julius Caesar, and
the most honest of Roman governors in any province.
Under the care of Agrippa, Julius Caesar's design of
having a complete survey of the empire made was carried
out. He had a chart of the entire empire drawn up, and
projected a great work on the geography of its provinces.
His materials were placed in the public archives, where
Pliny consulted them {Nat. Hist., iiL) Agrippa also WTote
an account, now lost, of the transactions in which ho had
taken part.
Agrippa left several children : by his first wife he had Pom-
ponia Vipsania, who became the first wife of Tiberius, and
was the mother of Drusus; and by Julia he was the father
of Caius and Lucius CiEsar, who were adopted by Augustus :
of Julia, married to Lepidus; of Agrippina the elder; and
of Agrippa Posthumus. (See DioCassius; Appianus ;
Suetonius ; Velleius Paterculus ; Fergusson's Rom. Hep. ;
Merivale's Romam under the Empire
AGRIPPA, Henry Corneij03 (vok Nktteshkiji),
knight, doctor, and by common reputation a magician, was
born of a noble familyat Cologne on the 14th Sept. 1486.
Educated at the university of Cologne, he entered when still
very young into the service of the Emperor Maximilian,
who sent him on a diplomatic mission to Paris in 1506.
A G R — A G R
419
During the oezt three years he was engaged in a military
expedition to Catalonia, and then in the formation of a
secret society of theosophiats, the first of those alternations
between the career of the knight and the career of the
student ia which his whole life was passed. In 1509 he
went by invitation to the university of D61e in Burgundy,
and read lectures on Reuchlin's De Verba MirifUo, which
gained for him the degree of doctor of divinity and a
stipend. It was these lectures that first stirred against
liini that malignant hatred of the monks which embittered
his life and blackened hia memory. He was denounced as
an impious and heretical cabalist by an obscure monk
named CatUinet, in lectures delivered at Ghent (1510)
before Macgaret of Burgundy, and his hopes of securing
the patronage of that princess were thus for the time dis-
appointed. To win her favour, he had composed (1509)
and dedicated to he" a treatise, De Nobilitale et Prcecel-
lentia Foeminei Sexus, the publication of which was
delayed from motives of prudence until 1532. For the
same reason the same course was followed in regard to his
treatise De Occulta Fhilosophia, which, though completed
in the spring of 1510, did not appear until 1531. In
writing it he had the advice and assistance of the abbot
Trithemiua of Wiirzburg. Failing to receive encourage-
ment as a man of letters, Agrippa was forced again to
enter the diplomatic seirvice. In 1510 the emperor sent
tiim on a mission to London, where he became the guest
of Dean Colet at Stepney. Soon after his return home he
was summoned to follow his imperial master to the war
in Italy, where he won his spurs — probably at the battle
of E.avenna. In the autumn of 1511, on the invitation of
the Cardinal de Santa Croce, he attended the schismatic
council of Pisa as theologian, and by so doing stUl further
provoked the hostility of the papal party. After a period
spent in the service of the Marquis of Montferrat, during
which he visited Switzerlancl^ Agrippa was invited in 1 5 1 5
to the university of Pavia, where he delivered lectures on
the Piiiumder of Hermes Trismegistus, the first of which
is preserved among his published works, and received a
doctor's degree in law and medicine. He was still doomed,
however, to a harassed, unsettled life. Three years were
spent in the service of the Marquis of Montferrat and the
IJuke of Savoy. In ldl8 he became syndic at Metz,
where he was involved in disputes with the monks, and
especially with the inquisitor Nicolas Savin, before whom
he boldly and persistently defended a womacr accused of
witchcraft. He was, chiefly in consequence of this, com-
pelled to resign his office, and quitted Metz for Cologne
in January 1520. After two years spent in seclusion in
hJ3 native city, ho went to Geneva, where he practised
medicine for a short time. In 1523 he removed to
Friburg, having been appointed town physician. In the
following year he was induced to go to Lyons as court
physician to the queen-mother, Louisa of Savoy, but the
change did not better hii condition, since, though he re-
ceived several empty honours,' his salary remained unpaid.
It was probably amid the privations of poverty that he
composed, in 1526, his De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scien-
tiarum et Artium atque Excellentia Verbi Dei Declamatio,
which was first published in 1530. The work is remark-
able for the keenness of its satire on the existing state of
science and the pretensions of the learned, and when
published furnished fresh occasion for the malicious mis-
representation of his enemies. A quarrel with the queen
compelled Agrippa to leave Lyons and betake himself to
the Netherlands. In 1529 he was appointed historio-
grapher to the Emperor Charles V., and in that capacity
wrote a history of the emperor's reign. The salary attached
to the office was, however, left unpaid, and Agrippa was
consequently imprisoned at Brussels, and afterwards
banished from Cologne, for debt. Hq died at Grenoble
in 1535.
The character of Agnppa has been very variously repre-
sented. The earlier accounts are grossly disfigured by
the calumnies of the Dominicans, 'whose hatred, following
him even to the grave, placed over it an inscription that
is probably unique in its spiteful malignity. In later
times full justice has been done to his memory. A Life
of Agrippa by Henry Morley (London 1856) contains a
detailed analysis of his more important works. A com-
plete edition of hia writings appeared in two volumes at
Leyden In 1550, and has been several times republished.
AGRIPPINA (the Elder), the virtuous and heroic but
unfortunate ofi'spring of M. Agrippa by a very abandoned
mother, and herself the parent of a still more profligate
and guilty daughter of the same name. She was early
married to Germanicus, the son of Druaus and Antonia,
the niece of Augustus. On the death of Augustus she
joined her husband in his German campaigns, where she
had several opportunities of showing her intrepidity, shar-
ing with Germanicus his toils and his triumphs. The
love which the army showed for this leader was the cause
of his recall from the Bhine by the suspicious' Tiberius.
He was soon afterwards sent into Syria, where he died at
Antioch from the effects, as was believed, of poisoa ad-
ministered to him by Piso, the governor of SjTia.
On his deathbed Germanicus implored his wife, for the
sake of their numerous children, to submit with resigna-
tion to the evil times on which they were fallen, and not
to provoke the vengeance of the tyrant Tiberius. But,
unhappily, this prudent advice was not followed by the
high-spirited woman, who, on landing at Brundusium,
went straight to Rome, entered the city bearing the urn
of her deceased husband in her arms, and was received
amid the tears of the citizens and the soldiery, to whom
Germanicus was dear. She boldly accused Piso of the
murder of her husband ; and he, to avoid public infamy,
committed suicide. She continued to reside at Rome,
watched and suspected by Tiberius, who for some time
dreaded to glut lus vengeance on the 'widow and family of
so popidar a prince as Germanicus. She soon had the
temerity to upbraid the tyrant with his hj-pocrisy in pre-
tending to worship at the tomb of Augustus. He begam
by putting to death both men and women who had shownl
attachment to the family of G crmanicus ; and finally he-
arretted A.grippina and her two eldest sons, Nero and
Drusus, and transported them to the isle of Pandataria,
where her mother Julia had perished ; and there she was
starved, or starved herself, to death ia the 33d year of our
era. Tiberius also ordered the execution of her two eldest
sons ■ yet it is remarkable that by his ■will the emperor
left her youngest son Caius, better known by the name
of Caligula, as one of the heirs of the empire.
AGRIPPINA, daughter of Gei'manicus and Agrippina
the elder, sister of Caligula, and mother of Nero, was
born about 15 a.d., at Oppidum Ubiorum, which ivas at
that time the headquarters of her father's legions, and
which was after her named Colonia Agrippina Ubiorum
(now Cologne). She isrote memoirs of her times, which
Tacitus quotes and Pliny commends ; but her life is
notorious for intrigue and perfidy. In 28 a.d. she became
the wife of Cn. Dom. Ahenobarbus, who died 40 a.d. Her
next husband was Crispus Passienus, whom some years
afterwards she was accused of poisoning. For flagitious
conduct, Cahgula banished her to the isle of Pontia ; but
on the accession of her uncle Claudius, 41 a.d., she was set
free, and began to succeed in her ambitious schemes. After
Messalina had been put to death, 48 A.D., Agrippina was
raised by Caudius to her place as his imperial consort
49 A.D. She prevailed upon him to discard Britannicua!
420
A G R — A H A
hia own son, and to adopt tor son Domitiua in his stead.
Sho removed from her path all whom she feared or envied,
and in 54 a.d. poifloned Claudius at Sinuessa that she might
reign as regent for her son. Nero in a short tim6 grew
tired of her interference, and when she first intrigued
against and then frowned upon him, he ordered her to
be slain at her villa on the Lucrino lake. After having
been slightly wounded by Anicetus. she perished by the
sword of a centurion, 60 a.d.
AGROTERAS THUSIA, an annual festival at Athens
in honour of Artemis or Diana, in fulfilment of a vow made
by the city before the battle of Marathon to offer in sacrifice
a number of goats equal to that of the Persians skin in the
conflict. The number was aftcnvards restricted to 500.
AGTELEK, a village of Hungary, in the county of
Gdmor, near the road from Pesth to Kaschau. In the
neighbourhood is the celebrated stalactite grotto of Baradla,
one of the most remarkable in Europe. The entrance is
extremely narrow, but the interior spreads out into a
labyrinth of caverns, the largest of which, called the
Flower Garden, is 90 feet high and 90 feet wide, and
extends nearly 900 feet in a straight line. In those caverns
there are numerous stalactite structures, which, from their
curious and fantastic shapes, have received such names as
the Image of the Virgin, the Mosaic Altar, io.
AGUA, Volcano de, a huge mountain in Central
America, 25 miles S.W. of Guatemala. It is of a conical
shape, and rises to a height of 15,000 feet above the level
of the sea. At the summit there is a crater, measuring
about 140 yards by 120, from which stones and torrents
of boiling water are Occasionally discharged. In close
proximity to Agua are the volcanoes of Pacaya, on the S.E.,
and Fuego on the W., and the three present together a
scene of great magnificence.
AQUADO, Alexander Maria, one of the most famous
bankers of modem times, was born of Jewish parentage
at Seville in 1784. He commenced life as a soldier, fight-
ing with distinction in the Spanish war of independence
on the side of Joseph. After the battle of Baylen (1808)
he entered the French army, in which he had risen to be
colonel and aide-de-camp to Marshal SouJt, when he took
his discharge in 1815. He immediately commenced busi-
ness as a commission-agent in Paris, and chiefly through
his connection with Spain and the Spanish colonies,
acquired in a few years wealth enough to enable him to
undertake banking. The Spanish government gave him
full powers to negotiate the loans of 1823, 1828, 1830,
and 1831 ; and Ferdinand VII. rewarded him with the
title of Marquis de las Marismas del Guadalquiver, and the
decorations of several orders. Aguado also negotiated the
Greek loan of 1834. In 1828, having become possessed
of -large estates in France, including the Chateau Margaux,
famous for its wine, he was naturalised as a French citizen.
He died in 1842, leaving a fortune computed at 60,000,000
francs. The designs of the leading pictures in an exten-
sive and admirable art collection which he had formed
were published by Gavard under the title Galerie Aguado
(1837-42).
AQUAS CALEENTES, a town in Mexico, capital of
the state of the same name, situated 270 miles N.W. of
the city of Mexico, in 22° N. lat., and 101° 45' W. long.
It takes its name from the hot springs in its vicinity. The
climate is fine, and the extensive and beautiful gardens
surrounding the town produce an abundance of olives,
figs, grapes, and pears. It has a large manufactory of
woollen cloth, and the general trade is considerable.
Population, 22,534.
AGUILAE, Gracb (1816-47), an admired English
authoress, was the daughter of a Jewish merchant in
London. She was educated wholly by her parents, and i
commenced her literary career at an early age. Her works,
written in a pleasing, elegant, and improtsive style, consist
chiefly of religious fictions, such as Tlit Martyr and Uomt
Influence. She also wrote, in defence of her fuilh »ud ita
professors, Tlu Spirit of Judaitm, and other works. Her
services in the latter direction were acknowledged grate-
fully by the " women of Israel," in a testimonial which
they presented shortly before her deatL In 1835 she had
a severe attack of measles, from the effects of which her
constitution never wholly recovered. After a long struggle
with increasing bodily infirmities, she died at Frankfort,
on her way to Schwalbach, in the autumn of 1847.
AQUILA-R DB LA Fbonteea, a town of Spain, stands
near the river Cabra, 22 miles S.S.E. of Cordova. The
houses are well built, and distinguished by their cleanness
and regularity. The town has three handsome public
squares, and the principal buildings are the parish church,
the chapter-house, a new town-hall, the prison, and the
markets. Kear the church are the ruins of a once magni-
ficent Moorish castle. The district produces excellent
wines, which go by the name of MontUla, and there is
also some trade in com and oil. Population, 12,000.
AGUILLON, FbaN(J0I8 d', an eminent mathematician,
born at Brussels in 15C6. He entered the Society of
Jesus in 1586, and was successively profe^or of philosophy
at Douay and rector of the Jesuit College at Antwerp.
Eminent for his skill in mathematics, he was the first to
introduce the study of that science among the Jesuits in
the Low Countries. He wrote a treatise on Optics in six
books (Antwerj), 1013), and was employed in finishing
another on Catoptrics and Dioptrics when he died, in 1617.
AGUIRRA, Josef Saenz d', a distinguished Spanish
ecclesiastic and theological writer, was born at Logrogno
on the 24th March 1630. He belonged to the Benedictine
order, and was abbot of St Vincent, professor of theology
at the university of Salamanca, and afterwards secretary
to tlie Spanish Inquisition, For a work (De/ensio Cat/>edrm
S. Petri adversm Declarationes Cleri Gallici, 1082), which
ho wrote in support of the papal authority against the four
propositions of the Galilean Church, he was promoted to
the rank of cardinal by Pope Innocent XL in 1086. Of
his other works the chief are a Collection of the CowiciU
of Spain (1693-4), and a Treatise on the Tlieology of
Anselm, only three volumes of which appeared, the fourth
and last being still incomplete when the author died,
August 19th, 1099. To judge from a warm eulogium of
Bossuet, his opponent in controversy, Aguirra had a very
high reputation for piety.
AGULHAS, Cape, the most southern point of Africa,
100 miles KS.E of the Cape of Good Hope, in 34° 51' 30'
S. lat., and 19° 56' 30' E. long. At a distance of a mile
from the sea it rises to a height of 455 feet. In 1849 a
lighthouse was opened on it nearer the shore, the light in
which stands 128 feet above high-water mark An im-
mense bank, the Agulhas Bank, extends from the Cape of
Good Hope along the coast to the great Fish River, a
distance of 560 miles, with a breadth, opposite to the Cape,
of 200 miles. The great oceanic current from the Indian
Ocean to the Atlantic sets along its outward edge, and has
sharply defined it. This current has such velocity that
ships are often carried far to the westward, and round the
Cape of Good Hope, even against a smart breeze. The
bank abounds with fish ; and the approach to it is denoted
by the appearance of many whales, sharks, and seals, and
innumerable sea-birds.
ARAB, king of Israel, was the son and successor of
Omri. He ascended the throne in the 3Sth year of Asa,
king of Judah, i.e., 918 B.C., and reigned over Samaria 23
years. Having married Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal,
kiag of the Sidonians, he was brought into closer connM
A H A — A H A
421
tion with the neighbouring powers in the north, and
strengthened himself considerably, so that he was able to
consolidate the disunited kingdom, and render it powerful
against Judah, Some notices out of Menander, preserved
by Josephus, lead to the conclusion that Ethbaal, father of
Jezebel was identical with Ithobal, priest of Astarte, who
usurped the throne of Tyre after murdering Pheles the
king. It ia not improbable that Ahab's marriage with
auch a princess was the means of procuring him great
riches, which brought pomp and luxury in their train,
along with the material and social influence that give a
certain security to monarchy. We read of his building an
ivory palace and founding new cities, the effect perhaps of
a share in the flourishing commerce of Phoenicia. But his
matrimonial connection with Tyre and Sidon, however
fruitful in wealth, was in many respects detrimental. His
wife was a strong-minded, passionate devotee of idolatry,
who exercised an injurious influence over him. Led by
her, he gave a great impulse to the worship of Baal and
Astarte in his kingdom. For the former he built a temple
with an altar ; of -the latter he made the well-known image
which existed long after. Under the patronage of Jezebel,
the Phosnician cultus assumed important dimensions, for
Baal is said to have had 450, Astarte 400 priests and pro-
phets. The infatuated queen was especially hostile to the
prophets and priests of Jehovah, whom she tried to exter-
minate ; but the former in particular, though sore pressed,
were not entirely cut off. They stUl held their ground ;
and Elijah, the most conspicuous of them, came off victor
in the contest with Baal's ministers. Jehovism triumphed
in the person of the intrepid Tishbite, whom the queen
was unable to get into her power. Ahab was a publior
spirited and courageous monarch. He defeated the Syrians
twice, and concluded a peace with Benhadad on favourable
terms. Mesha, king of Moab, paid him a large yearly
tribute.- 'In conjunction with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah,
he went forth to battle a third time against the Syrians,
and was slain at Ramoth-GUead. It speaks favourably for
his disposition that he repented of the cruel measures
taken against Naboth, and that he humbled himself before
the Lord. Though he feared Elijah and Micaiah, he was
not insensible to their utterances ; nor could he have suf-
fered 30 many as ^00 prophets to live in his kingdom
without some little regard for their ofiice. The prophetic
voice, held as it was in smaU esteem, inust have had
some influence upon his administration, especially when
political grounds coincided with it. His evil courses were
due much more to the influence of Jezebel than to his own
vicious impulses.
As the accounts of Ahab are fragmentary, it is not always easy
to make out from them a clear or connected history of his reign.
There is room for conjecture and misconception. Thus Ewald
represents him as building a splendid temple, with an oracle-
prove of Astarte near his favourite palace at Jezreel, on the basis of
1 Kings ivi. 32, xviiL 1 9 ; but this is imaginary, since the original
.'oes not speak of a grove but of Astarte (xviiL 19) ; nor is it pro-
bable that a second structure of the kind mentioned existed else-
where in addition to Baal's temple in Samaria, Neither can it be
held as likely that a large statue of Baal was set up in front of his
temple, and small statues of him in the interior, merely because we
read in 2 Kings %. 26, 27, first of bringing forth the images of Baal,
and then of breaking the image of the same sun-god. Rather were
the smaller images in the porch and the chief one in the interior,
60 that the reading or pxmctuatiou of verse 26 should be slightly
Altered. AVhether the 450 or '400 prophets were distinct from the
priests is doubtful. Identifying them, we believe that the priests
aoted as prophets, procuring for themselves greater renown among
the ignorant people by their arts of necromancy and magic
Kor the biography of this monarch we are indebted almost eiclu-
•ively to the books of Kings, where the writers consider him in a
theocratic rather than a political aspect. Viewing him from their
later prophetic standpoint, their portrait is somewhat one-sided,
though correct in the ^ain. It is observable that the portions of
the Kings in which ho is apokeu of arc somewhat different in char-
3ctor rum oxpression, betraying the use of dilfercnt sources by the
compiler. 1 Kings xvi. 29-33, rrii. 39, 2 Kings x. 25-28, are mot«
historical than the rest, which contain almost all that ia related 61
Ahab, and were derived from tradition. It has been conjectured
by Hitzig that the 45th psalm owes its origin to Ahab, being the
joyous poetical expression of a matrimonial connection with Tyre,
which augured unusual prosperity for the distracted kingdom.
But the assumption is improbable, because, as De Wette observes,
an event belonging to Ephraixa was hardly a fitting subject for a
poem included in the canon.
Another Ahab, a false prophet in the time of the Baby-
lonian exile, is mentioned by Jeremiah (xxix. 21), and
threatened with terrible punishment. (s. D.)
AHALA, a noble Roman family of the gens Servilia,
which produced many distinguished men. Of these the
most celebrated is C. Servilius Structus Ahala, master of
the horse to the dictator Cincinnatus, B.o. 439. He sig-
nalised himself by his boldness in slaying in the forum
with his own hand the popular agitator Sp. Mselius, for
refusing to appear before the dictator on a charge of con-
spiracy against the state. For this act Ahala was brought
to trial He saved himself from condemnation by retiring
into exile.
AHANTA, a territory on the Gold Coast of Africa,
lying on the second parallel -of W long. It is one of the
richest and most fertOe districts ia that part of the con-
tinent. Axim, the chief settlement, was founded by the
Dutch, but now belongs to Britain.
AHASUERUS, the Latinised form of the Hebrew
Ahashverosh, "'^"'.IfD? (in the LXX. 'Acro-ov7)pos, once in Tobit
'AoTj'ijpos), occurs as a royal Persian or Median name in
three of the books of the canonical Scriptures, and in one
of the books of the Apocrypha. In every case the identi-
fication of the person thus named with those found La
profane history is matter of controversy. The hypothesis
of Fiirst and others, that in all the passages one and the
same person is meant, viz., the well-known Xerxes, may
be set aside as quite inapplicable to the facts; and' it
becomes necessary to glance at the particular places.
■In Dan. ix. 1, AhasuenLs appears as the father of Darius the
Mede, who *'wa3 made king over the realm of the Chaldeans"
after the conquest of Babylon and death of Belshazzar. Who this
Darius was is one of the most difficult and disputed questions of
ancient history. If, as is very generally supposed, he is Astyages,
the grandfather of the great Cyrus, and the last Independent king
of 'Media, then Ahasuerus is to be identified with Cyasarea, the
father of Astyages. The passage in Tobit where the name occurs
(xiv. 15) lends confirmation to this view. It is there stated that
Nineveh was captured and destroyed by " Nabuchodonosor and
Assuenis." According to Herodotus {L 106 cf. Rawlinson's Her.,
voL L 412), it was the Medes under Cyaxares who took Nineveh.
In Ezra iv. 6 Ahasuerus is mentioned as a king of Persia, to
whom the enemies of the Jews sent representations opposing tho re-
building of the temple at Jerusalem. Here the sequence of the
reigna in the sacred writer au^d in the profane historians — in the
one, Cyrus, Ahasuerus, Artaxerxes, Darius ; in the other, Cyrus,
Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius — leads naturally to the identification of
Ahasuerus with Cambyses. Other circumstances, especially the
known policy of the usur^ier Smerdis, and its reversal by Darius
(see Inscr. of Behistun, coL i. § 14), corroboi-ate this conclusion.
In the Book of Esther, Ahasuerus is the name borne by that king
of Persia, certain events of whose court and empire (which will be
noticed elsewhere, see Esther) form the subject of tho whole nar-
rative. (Throughout this book the LXX. render the name by 'Apra^-
fVf^J') Tii^ hypothesis of certain writers, that this Ahasuerus is the
Cyaxares, king of Media, already referred to, may be at once dis-
missed. That- of others, identifying him with Artaxerxes Longi-
manua, the son and successor of Xer,xea, though countenanced
by Josephus, deserves scarcely more consideration. Recent in-
quirers are all but universally of opinion that he must be a mon-
arch of tho Achtemenian dynasty, earlier than tliis Artaxerxes ; and
opinion ia divided between Darius Hystaspia and his sou and suc-
cessor Xerxea. In support of the former view it is alleged, among
other things (see Tyrwhitt's Esther and Alutsuerus^ p. 162), that
Dariua was the first Persian king of whom it could be said, aa in
Esther i. 1, that he *' reigned from India even unto Etliiopia, over
an hundred and seven and twenty provinces ;" and that it waa
also the distinction of Darius that (Esther x. 1) he "laid a tribute
upon the laud and upon the isles of tho sea' (c/. Herod, iii. 89).
In support of the latter view it is alleged — (1.) That Ih"- Hebrew
422
A H A — A H M
Afuuhveroih is the natural oqaiTalent of the old rersian KTisha-
yanha, the true nnme of the monarch called by the Grooka Xerxes,
as now read in his inscriptions ; (2.) That there is a striking simi-
larity of character between the Xenea of Ilerodotua and the
Ahaauerus of Esther; (3.) That ccjUin coincidencea in datca and
events corroborate this identity, as, e.g., " In the third year of his
reign Ahasuerus gave a grand feast to his nobles, lasting one hun-
dred and eighty days (Esther L 3) ; and Xerxes in Aii third year
also .assembled his chief officers to deliberate on the inra.sion of
Greece (Herod, vii. 8). Again, Ahoanerus married Esther at
Shushan in the seventh year of his reign ; in the same year of hi>
rtign Xerxes returned to Susa with the mortification of his defeat,
and sought to forget himself in pleasure. Lastly, the tribute im-
posed on the land and isles of the sea also accords with tho state of
Lis revenue, exhausted by his insane attempt against Greece"
(Kitto's Cydopadia, t.v. Ahasuerua). To this it may be added
that tho interval of four years between tho divorce of Vashti and
the marriage of Esther is well accouuted for by the intervention of
an important series of events fully occupying the monarch's
thoughts, such as the invasion of Greece. It may bo added that
by the advocates of both views appeal is made, with more or less of
confidence, to the names of the queens of the respective sovereigns ;
Atossa, wife of Darius, answering to Hadassah, and Amestris, wife
of Xerxes, to Esther (Esther ii. 7) ; and also to the number of gene-
rations, indicated in the genealogy of llordecai from tho deporta-
tion of the Jews into Babylon (Esther ii. 6 ; e/. Tyrwhitt, p. 95,
with Rawlinson, Bamptan Leci.,,y. 180). If, as seems probable,
the name Ahasuerus is the transcription of the Persian Klishayarsha
(written Uisiarsa in Babylonian) which, according to Sir H. Rawlin-
son, means " venerable king" (see Rawlinson's Ucr. iii. 363), then
this name may be reasonably supposed to have been originally an
appellative, and its application, especially by foreigners like the
Jews, to different royal persons, is explained.
AHAZ (literally Possessor), boq ef Jotham, and the
eleventh king of Judah, reigned 16 years, from 741 to
725 B.C. He was tho most weak-minded and corrupt of
all the kings that had hitherto reigned over Judah. About
the time of his accession, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin,
king of Syria, had formed an alliance with the view of
acquiring the kingdom of Judah by conquest They in-
vaded the country, laid siege' to Jerusalem, and carried
away an immense number of captives, though they failed
to secure their ultimate object. At the same time incur-
sions were made by the Edomites and Philistines, and
Ahaz was fain to call in the aid of Tiglath-Piieser, king of
Assyria, who destroyed tho power of Syria, but took care
to exact heavy tribute for the service thus rendered. Ahaz
was even compelled to appear as a vassal at Damascus, and
so to bring his kingdom to the lowest point of political
degradation. In religion Ahaz was a heathen. He broke
in pieces the vessels of the temple of Gftd, and at last
ventured to close its gates altogether. He sacrificed to
Syrian deities, erected altars on which incense was to bo
offered, and caused his son to pass through the fire to
Moloch. He was succeeded by his son Hezekiak In the
inscriptions of Tiglath-Hleser II., king of Assyria, Tahu-
khazi Jahudai, that is, Joahaz or Ahaz of Israel, appears
among the names of those who acknowledged his sovereignty
and paid tribute. (Schrader's Die KeUlmchrifUn und das
Alte Testament.)
AHAZIAH (lit WTu>m (he Lord tuslatns), son and
successor of Ahab, and eighth king of Israel, reigned
scarcely two years, from 897 to 896 B.C. He continued
in the idolatrous practices of his father, worshipping Baal
and Astarte. Upon his accession the Moabites revolted,
and refused any longer to pay the tribute which had been
exacted from them since the establishment of Israel as a
separate kingdom. Before Ahaziah could take measures
to subdue them, he was seriously injured by a fall from the
lattice of an upper chamber in his palace. He immediately
sent messengers to the oracle of the god Baalzebub at
Ekron to inquire tho issue of his illness. While on their
way they were met by Elijah the prophet, who bade them
return and tell the king that he would surely die
AHAZIAH, son of Jehoram and Athaliali, daughter of
Ahab, and sixth king j' Judah, reigned one year, 885 B.C.
Under the evil influence of hia mother, he walked in the
ways of Ahab's house, and was an idolal; jus and wicked
king. He was slain by Jehu, the son of Nimshi
AHENOBARBUS, the name of a plebeian Roman family
of tho gena Domitia, which rose in 'the course of time to
considerable distinction. The name was derived from the
red beard and hair by which many of the family were dii-
tinguished, Tho emperor Nero was of this family.
AHITHOPHEL (Ut Brct/itr of Foolishness, i.e.,/oolish),
tho very singular name of one of the sagcst politicians in
Old Testament history. In regard to his family rela-
tionships it is almost beyond doubt that he was tho grand-
father of Bathsheba, and it has been suggested as probable
that ho was first introduced at court through this connec-
tion. He was one of David's most trusted counsellors,
and hia defection to tho cause of Absalom was a severe
blow to the king, who prayed that God would bring his
counsel to " foolishnes.s," probably alluding to his name.
David's grief at the desertion is expressed in Ps. ili. 9,
Iv. 12-1 4-. Ahithophers advice was at first acceptable to
Absalom's party, and probably laid down the policy which
alone was likely to bo successful ; but Hushai's counsel of
delay, given in tho secret interest of David, waa ultimately
adopted. Ahithophel's political foresight enabled him to
see that this resolution would prove fatal to the rebel cauee,
and he at once returned to his home at Giloh, "put his house-
hold in order, and hanged himself." This is the only case of
deliberate suicide that is mentioned in the Old Testament
AHMADAbAD, a district and city of British India, in
tho province of Oujrit, within the jurisdiction of tho
governor of Bombay. Tho district lies between 21° 4'
aLd 23° 5' N. lat, and between 71° 2' and 73° 25' E. long.
It is bounded by the province of Kitiw^r on the N. and
W., by tho Mahi Kinta on the N. and E., by the Kaira
collectorate on the E. and S., and by the gulf of Cambay
on the S. The area of tho district is returned at 3844
square miles. The river Sibarmatl and its tributaries,
flowing from . north-east to south-west into the gulf of
Cambay, are the principal streams that water the district
The north-eastern portion is slightly elevated, and dotted
with low hill.i, which gradually sink into a vast plain, sub-
ject to inundation on its western extremity. With the
exception of this latter portion, the soil is Teiy fertile, and
some parts of the district are beautifully wooded. The
total population of AhmadAbdd is returned at 829,637
souls, the average density, as compared with the area,
being 216 to the square mile, and the proportion of females
891 to every 1000 males. About 86 per cent of tho popu-
lation are returned as Hindus, 10 per cent as Mahome-
tans, and 4 as Buddhists. The percentage 'of persons of
other denominations is infinitesimal, their total number
being only 1237 aotda.
The hamlets for the most part consist of substantial houses of
bricks and tiles, with only a small prc^ortion of huts. Some of the
larger villages contain houses with upper stories, and the general
appearance of the inhabitants indicates prosperity. The principal
agricultural products are rice, wheat, oajra, and cotton, with a
little sugar-cane, tobacco, and oil-seeds. Silk manufacture forms
an important industry of the city. The total revenue of the district
in 1872 amounted to £152,344, of which £147,283 was derived from
the land ; the total net expenditure on civil administration in the
same year amounted to £21,700. The fiscal system consists for the
moet part of settlements direct with the husbandman, technically
known as rayatwiri ; but some villages are *' t<UuAddri," in which
the *'tAlukdir" or landholder collects the revenue, and pays 70
per cent of it to (Jovemment retaining the remaining 30 per cent
lor himselt The excise revenue is generally farmed out but a
government distillery exists in the city. The land settlement is
fixed for a period of thirty years, and expires in diiferent parts of
the district between the years 1884 and 1888. Seventy-uve per
cent of the total area of ^e district is cultivable, of which 55 per
cent is actually under cultivation, the other 20 per c^nt remaining
fallow. The principal marts in AhroaddbAd are DhollerA, Gogo.
i'holk&, and Viramgdon. Municipalities have been established in
A H M — A H M
423
He tewns of Ahmaddbid, Dholkd, Mandii, Goeo, Dhnndiika,
PrintffJ, and Mordshd , the rate of municipal taxation per head of
population varies from 2a. 6Jd. in Ahmadabdd to 4]d in.llorashi,
the average throughout the eight towns being Is. 7Jd, per head-
The municipal inrome is chiefly derived from octroi duties^ which
in some of the towns are farmed. Thirteen towns are returned as
containing a population exceeding 5000 souls, namely, Ahmadab^,
population 116,873 ; Dholki, 20,864 ; Viramgion, 19,061 ; DhoUeri,
12,468 ; Dhandiika, 9782 ; Gogo, 9571 ; Printej, 8341 ; Morishd,
7436 ; Sanand, 7229 ; Mandii, 6774 ; Patri, 6320 ; BarwalA, 5813 ;
and Ranpur,' 6796. The district contains 145 schools, in eight
of which English is taught The police force numbers 1189 men-
The Kolis contribute most largely to the criminal population.
Ahmadabad City, the capital of the district, is situated
on the east or left bank of the river SAbarmati, in 23°
N. lat., and 72° 36' R long. It was formerly one of the
largest towns in India, celebrated for its commerce and
manufactures of gold and silver, silk and cotton fabrics,
articles of gold, silver, steel, enamel, mother of pearl,
lacquered ware, and fine wood-work. Excellent paper
was also manufactured, and a large trade carried on in
indigo, cotton, and opium. With the rise of the Marhatt4
power, however, AlimadAbid became the scene of repeated
struggles between the MarhattAs and the Mussulmans, whose
power was then on the wane, and from this period its pros-
perity decHned. It was captured by the Marhattis in
1755, and again by the British in 1780. The latter soon
afterwards gave the town back to the Marhattds, who held
it till it finally came into the hands of the English in 1818.
The present state of the city is flourishing. It contains a
population of 116,873 souls, and is a large and important
station on the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Rail-
way. It is the seat of important silk manufactures, and
has two cotton-mills worked by steam-power.
The principal objects of architectural interest are the
Jain temple of Seth Hathisinh and the Juma' Masjid or
Great Mosque. The Jain temple is a modem edifice, having
been erected about twenty-five years ago by Hathi Sinh, a
rich Jain merchant, who dedicated it to Dharmnith. This
modern style shows that the Jain style of architecture has
hardly degenerated from its ancient excellence. The ex-
ternal porch, between two circular towers, is of great magni-
ficence, most elaborately ornamented, and leads to an outer
court, with sixteen cells on either side. In the centre of
this court is a domed porch of the usual form, with twenty
pillars. The court leads to an inner porch of twenty-two
■pillars, two stories in height, with a roof of a shape very
fashionable in modern Jain temples, though by no means
remarkable for beauty. This inner porch conducts to a
triple sanctuary. The exterior of the temple expresses the
interior more completely than even a Gothic design ; and
whether looked at from its courts or from th« outside, it
possesses variety without confusion, and an appropriateness
of every part to the purpose for which it was intended.
The Juma Masjid or Great Mosque of AhmaddbAd, although
not remarkable for its size, is one of the most beautiful
mosques in the East, the Jain style of architecture being
plainly visible in its construction- Its external dimensions
are 382 feet by 258 feet.
AHMADNAGAR, a district and city in British India,
in the province of Gujftit, within the jurisdiction of the
Governor of the Presidency of Bombay. The collectokate
extends from 18° G' to 19° 50' N. lat., and from 73° 40'
to 75° 37' E. long., and contains the following eleven
tdlukAs or sulvdistricts : — Nagar, JAmkhair, PArnair,
Srigonda, Karjat, Newasa, KopargAm, Sangamnair, Rahurl,
SiogAm, and AnkolA. A natural boundary is formed on
the west of the AnkolA tAlukA by the Western GhAts, and,
further south, by the edge of tlie table-land of PArnair;
on the S.W. the district is bounded by the Gor river;
on the S. by the BlifniA and SholApur collectorates; on
tha E. by the MizAui'a dominions; on the N.E. by the
GodAvarl river; and on the N. by the NAsik district. The
total area of the district is returned at 4,209,036 acres,
or 657662 square miles. Of the total area, 3,068,162
acres, or 479400 square miles, are cultivated; 121,474
acres, or 189 '80 square miles, are cultivable, but not
actually under tillage; and 1,019,400 acres, or 1592-Sl
square miles, are uncultivable. The last portion includes
(besides unarable lands) village sites, roads, tanks, rivers,
&c The population of the district, according to the cen.-,ua
taken on the night of the 2l8t February 1872, numbered
773,938 souls, divided into the following five classes: —
Hindus, 716,820, gr 9262 per cent, of the total popu-
lation; Mahometans, 42,435, or 5-49 per cent.; Bud-
dhists, 12,547, or 1-62 per cent.; Christians, 941, or 012
per cent.; and other denominations, 1195, or 0'15 per
cent. The bulk of the population consists of MarhaltAs
and Kunbls, the latter being the agriculturists. On tha
north the district is watered by the GodAvari and its tribu-
taries the Prawara and the MillA; on the north-east by the
Dor, another tributary of the GodAvari; on the east by the
S(Sphanl, which flows through the valley below the BAIA
GhAt range; and in the extreme south by the BhlmA and
its tributary the Gor. The SinA river, another tributary
of the BhlmA, flows through the Nagar and Karjat tAlukAg.
The coUectorate on the whole is fairly well watered, although
in some viUages among the hills and spurs of the Western
GhAts the supply is insufficient. The district is intersected
by tha Bombay and Agra road; a second road connects
PunA via Serur with the town of Ahraadnagar, and is con-
tinued thence towards MAUgAm; a third road leads from
PunA to NArAyangAm, besides various cross-tracts and
minor roads connecting the difl'erent towns of the district.
The only important industry is weaving. The principal agri-
cultural products are wheat, gram, bajra, jodr, and tur dal. The
early or spring crop is bajra and tur dal ; wheat, gram, and joar
being sown later in the season. Several other iood grains are
also raised ; and sugar-cane, betel leaves^ a little cotton, and all
descriptions of vegetables are sown on suitable soils. The staple
food of the people is bajrA and joAr (coarse kinds of millet). The
total revenue of the district is returned at nearly £170,000; about
£140,000 being derived from the land revenue. The total annual
expenditure is returned at £50,000. The present land settlement
was introduced about 1844-46, and the thirty years' leases are now
beginning to fall in. In a few villages which were transferred to
Ahmadnagar fi-om the Ndsik coUectorate the leases have already
expired, and a revision of the settlement is in progress (1873). The
following eight towns are returned as containing a population ot
upwards of 6000 scruls : — Ahmadnagar, population 32, 841 ; Sangam-
nair, 9978; Pathardi, 7117; KhurdA, 6889; Srigonda, 6176:
Bhingar, 6762 ; Karjat, 5635 ; and Sonai, 5254. The municipal
system has been introduced into the towns of Ahmadnagar, San-
gamnair, and Bhingar. In the two first named, the municipal
revenue is derived from a house tax and octroi duties on goods and
articles imported into the town for consumption. In Bhingar the
municipal revenue is raised by the levy of a classified tax on pro-
fessions and trades carried on within the town. The municipal
revenue and expenditure in 1872, together with the incidence of
municipal tax per head of the population in each of the three
towns, was as follows: — Ahmadnagar, municipal income, £3611,
18s.; municipal expenditure, £3557, 12s.; incidence per head oi
population, 23. 24d. Sangamnair, municipal income, £275, 4s., —
6id. per head ; expenditure, £217. Bhingar, municipal revenue,
£259, 18s. — 8jd. per head ; expenditure, £269, ISs. Ahmadna-
gar district contains 1 high school, 1 first-grade Anglo-vernacular
school, 3 middle-class schools, 164 lower-class schools, and 1 girls'
school. Kducation is making fair progress, and the numlier of
schools is annually increasing as funds become available. For the
protection of person and property, a regular police force of 694
men of all grades is maintained, at a cost, during 1872-73, of
£9869. A village police, numbering 2042 men, is also kej>t up, at
a cost of £1978 per annum. There are no special criminal classes
in the district except a few Bhils, and they are now much less
troublesome than formerly.
AnMADNAGAE CiTY, the capital of the district of the
s.ime name, is situated in 19° 6' N. lat., and 74° 46' E.
long. It is a town of considerable antiquity, having been
founded, in 1494, by Ahmad NizAon Shih, on the site o£
424
A H M — A I D
a more anciont city, Bhingar. This Ahmad establisned a
new monarchy, which lasted until ita overthrow by ShAh
Jahin ij> 1636. In 1759 the Peahwi obtained possession
of the place by bribing the Mahometan commander; and
in 1797 it was ceded by the Peshwi to the Marhatti
chief Daulat RAo Sindhil During our war with the
Marhattis in 1803 Ahmadnagar was invested by a British
force under General Wellesley, and captured. It was after-
wards restored to the MarhattAs, but again came into the
possession of the British in 1817, according to the terms
of the treaty of PunA. The town has rapidly advanced in
prosperity under British rule. It now contains a popula-
tion of 32,841 souls, is an important station on the Great
Indian Peninsular Railway, and has been created a muni-
cipality, as is mentioned above.
AH.MED SHAH, founder of the DurAni dynasty in
Afghanistan, born about 1724, waa the son of Sammaun-
Khan, hereditary chief of the Abdali tribe. While still a
boy Ahmed fell into the hands of the hostile tribe of
Ohilzais, by whom he was kept prisoner at Kandahar. In
March 1738 he was rescued by Nadir Shah, who soon
afterwards gave him the command of a body of cavalry
composed chiefly of Abdalis. On the assassination of
Nadir in 1747, Ahmed, having failed in an attempt to
seize the Persian treasures, retreated to Afghanistan, where
he easily persuaded the native tribes to assert their inde-
pendence, and accept him as their sovereign. He was
crowned at Kandahar in October 1747, and about the same
time he changed the name of .his tribe to DurAni. Two
things may be said to have contributed greatly to the con-
solidation of his power. He interfered as little as possible
with the independence of the different tribes, demanding
from each only its due proportion of tribute and military
service; and he kept his army constantly engaged in bril-
liant schemes of foreign conquest. Being possessed of the
Koh-i-noor diamond, and being fortunate enough to inter-
cept a treasure on its way to the Shah of Persia, he had all
the advantages which great wealth. can give. He first
crossed the Indus in 1748, when he took Lahore; and in
1751, after a feeble resistance on the part of the Mahome-
tan viceroy, he became master of the entire PanjAb. In
1750 he had taken Nishapur, and in 1752 he subdued
Kashmir. His great expedition to Dehli was undertaken
in 1756 in order to avenge himself on the Great Mogul for
the recapture of Lahore. Ahmed entered Dehli with his
army in triumph, and for more than a month the city was
given over to pillage. The Shah himself added to his wives
a princess of the imperial family, and bestowed another
upon his son Timur Shah, whom he made governor of the
PanjAb and Sirhind. As his viceroy in Dehli he left a
Rohilla chief in whom ho had all confidence, but scarcely
had he crossed the Indus when the Mahometan vizier
drove the chief from the city, killed the Great Mogul, and
set another prince of the family, a tool of his own, upon
the throne. The Mahratta chiefs availed themselves of
these circumstances to endeavour to possess themselves of
the whole country, and Ahmed was compelled more than
once to cross the Indus in order to protect his territory from
them and the Sikhs, who were constantly attacking his
garrisons. In 1758 the Mahrattas obtained possession of
the PanjAb, but on the 6th January 1761 they were totally
routed by Ahmed in the great battle of EAnipat. In a
later expedition he inflicted a severe defeat upon the Sikhs,
but had to hasten westwards immediately afterwards in
order to queU an insurrection in Afghanistan. Meanwhile
the Sikhs again rose, and,Ahmed was now forced to abandon
all hope of retaining the command of the PanjAb. After
lengthened suffering from a terrible disease, said to have
been cancer in the face, he died in 1773, leaving to his
v>n Timur the kingdom he had founded.
AHRIMAN or AaiMANZs {Anffra-ifainyiu, Hostile or
Destroying Spirit), in the Zmd-Aveita, the principle of evil,
opposed to Ormuid, the principle of good, the one being
8)Tnbolised by darkness and the other by light. Both were
visible manifestations of the ZrrvaTi-Aifrene (Infinite
Time), and existed from all eternity, according to the doc-
trine of the Magians. Zoroaster himself, however, Becms
to have taught that Ormuzd alone was eternal, while
Ahriman was created. In the Ave$ta this world is repre-
sented as the theatre of a fierce conflict between the two
spirits, which is to last for 12,000 years. In the end
Ahriman is to acknowledge the sunremacy of Ormuzd. (See
ZOEOASTEB.)
AHWAZ, a town in Persia, on the left bank of the river
Karoon, about 100 miles N.E. of Bassorah. Though
now an insignificant place, it occupies the site of what waa
once an extensive and important city. Of this ancient city
vast remains are left, extending 1 2 miles along the bank of
the river. Among the moat remarkable are the ruins of a
bridge and a palace, besides vestiges of canals and water-
mills, which tell of former commercial activity. There is
also, in a ruined state, a bund or stone dyke of great
strength thrown across the river for purposes of irrigation.
It extends 100 feet in length, and many single blocks in it
measure from 8 to 10 feet in thickness. Ahwaz reached
the height of its prosperity in the time of the earliest
Mahometan caliphs.
AI (Sept. 'Ayyal, 'Ayyof, and Tat; Vulg. Bai), a royal
city of the Canaanites, east of Bethel It existed in the
time of Abraham, who pitched his tent between the two
cities (Gen. lii. 8; xiiL 3); but it is chiefly noted for its
capture and destruction by Joshua (viL 2-5; viii 1-29),
who made it " a heap for ever, even a desolation." At
a later period Ai was, however, rebuilt, and is mentioned
by leaiah (x. 28), and also after the captivity. The site
was known, and some scanty ruins still existed, in the time
of Eusebius artd Jerome (Onomast., 8.v. 'Ayyai'). Dr Robin-
son was unable to discover any certain traces of either. He
remarks (Bib. ResearcJus, u. 313), however, that its situa-
tion with regard to Bethel may be well determined by the
facts recorded in Scripture. That Ai lay to the east of
Bethel is distinctly stated; and the two cities were not so
far distant from each other but that the men of Bethel
mingled in the pursuit of the Israelites as they feigned to
flee before the king of Ai, and thus both cities were left
defenceless (Josh, viii 17). A little to the south of a
village caUed Deir Diwan, and one hour's journey from
Bethel, the site of an ancient place is indicated by reservoirs
hewn in the rock, excavated tombs, and foundations of
hewn stone. This, Dr Robinson thinks, may mark the site
of Ai, as it agrees with all the intimations aa to its position.
In this view more recent authorities generally coincide.
Kiepert's maj) gives it a place near these ancient ruins.
Stanley places it at the head of the Wady Harith.
A.IDAJN, a king of Scottish Dalriada, who reigned about
tne close of the 6th century. He usurped the succession
from the son of Conall, and was crowned by Columba, who
personally preferred another, and, it is said, was compelled
to perform the ceremony by an interposition of divine
power. During Aidan's reign the Scottish Dalriada was
completely freed from subjection to the Irish monarchs.
(See Adamnan, Hb. iii., c. 5; and Bede.)
AIDAN, St, first bishop of Lindisfame or Holy Island,
embraced a religious life in the monastery of lona. Oswald,
king of Northumbria, having requested a mission of monks
from lona to labour for the conversion of his subjects,
Aidan was cfiosen by the abbot as leader of the expedition,
and was consecrated a bishop about 634-5 a.d. Bede
speaks of the holiness of his life, of the influence of his
preaching as seen in the conversion of multitudes, and also
A I D — A 1 L
425
of numerous miracles which he performed. AiJan died
on the Slat August 651.
AIDE-DE-CAMP, a confidential officer attached to the
" personal " or private staif of a general In the field he is
the bearer of his chief's written or verbal orders, and when
employed as the general's mouthpiece, must be implicitly
obeyed. In garrison and quarters his duties are more of a
social character — he superintends the general's household,
writes and answers invitations, &c. To increase their
state, colonial governors and the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland
have aides-de-camp with functions analogous to those of
equerries to royalty. Officers above the rank of captain
are seldom taken as aides, and none of less than two years'
service. The sovereign', as head of the army, may have an
indefinite number of aides-de-camp. In 1874 there were
thirty-three military aides-de-camp ; of these, twelve, taken
from the militia, were honorary, the remainder, from the
regular army and marines, were chosen for distinguished
war services. The appointment carries with it promotion to
the army rank of " full " coloneL The Queen has also at
present (1874) eleven naval aides-de-camp, in compliment
to the sister service ; but the appointment is more especially
of a military character. An admiral's aide-de-camp is his
flag-lieutenant.
AIDIN, or GuzEL-HissAE, a town of Turkey in Asia,
in the pashalic of Anatolia, about 70 miles S.E. of
Smyrna. It is beautifully situated near the river Meander,
and is the residence of a pasha. Since 1866 it has been
connected with Smyrna and Ephesus by rail On a neigh-
bouring height are to be seen the ruins of the ancient
Tralles. Aidin is a place of very extensive trade, and is
celebrated for iis figs, which are grown in great abundance
in the beautiful orchards between the town and the river,
and form an important article of export. The streets of
the town, overshadowed by trees, and having numerous
well-frequented bazaars, present a very picturesque appear-
ance. Among the inhabitants are considerable numbers of
Greeks, Armenians, and Jews; and there are several
churches and synagogues in addition to the fine Turkish
mosques. Population, 30,000.
AIDS (Auxilia), a pecuniary tribute under the feudal
system, paid by a vassal to his lord on particular occasions ;
originally a voluntary grant which in process of time
became exigible as a right. The aids of this kind were
chiefly three, viz. : — \st, When the lord made his eldest son
a knight; 2d, To provide a dower when he gave his eldest
daughter in marriage; 3c?, To ransom the person of the
lord when taken prisoner. The amount of the first two
was definitely fixed by 3 Ed. L, c. 36, but that of the last
was of course uncertain. The right of levjang aids was
abolished by 12 Car. II., c. 24.
AIKIN, John, M.D. (1747-1822), was bom at Kibworth-
Harcourt, received his elementary education at the dissent-
ing academy of Warrington, where his father was tutor,
and prosecuted his medical studies in the university of
Edinburgh, and in London under the celebrated Dr William
Hunter. He commenced his professional career as a surgeon
at Chester; but being unsuccessful, he removed to Warring-
ton. Finally, ho went to Leyden, took the degree of M.D.
in that university (1780), and attempted to establish him-
self as a physician in London. His success in this new
field does not seem to have been considerable ; chiefly,
no disrsbt, because he concerned himself more with the
advocacy of liberty of conscience than with his professional
duties. He therefore began at an early period to devote
himself to literary pursuits. Dr Aikin'a reputation chiefly
rests on his endeavour to popularise scientific inquiries.
In conjunction with his sister, Mrs Barbauld, he com-
menced the publication of a series of volumes on this
principle, entitled Eveningt at Home (6 vols., 1792-5), a
1—15*
popular and interesting work, chiefly commendable for
the purity of the principles it inculcates, and the pleasing
views it gives of human nature. It has been translated
into almost every European language. His love of nature,
and his power in delineating its features, are well illustrated
in The Nalural History of the Year, as well as in his mis-
cellaneous Essays. In 1793 Dr Aikin retired from pro-
fessional life, and devoted himself with great industry to
literary undertakings of numerous and varied kinds, among
which his valuable Biographical Dictionary ( 10 vols.
1799-1815) holds a conspicuous place. Besides these, he
published i?io5f. Metnoirs of Medicine {\JBO); Lives of John
Selden and Archbishop Usher; Memoirs of Huet, Bishop of
Avranches ; Geographical Delineations of All Nat,ions, &c.
He edited the Monthly Magazine from 1796 to 1807, and
started the Athenceuni in 1807. The latter was discon-
tinued, however, in 1809.
AIKIN, Lucy, daughter of the preceding, a well-known
historical writer, was born at Warrington 'on 6th Nov.
1781. After rendering valuable assistance to her father
in several of his later works, she commenced her own
career as an authoress by the publication of several boots
for the young, the most important of which were the
Adventures of Rolando, a translation, and LoriMer, a tale.
In 1818 she published her Memoirs of the Court of Queen
Elisabeth, the first and best of the series of historical works
on which her reputation rests. It was very popular, and
passed through several editions. The Memoirs of the Court
of King James I. (1822) was highly commended in the
Edinburgh Review, which pronounced it " a work very
nearly as entertaining as a novel, and far more instruc-
tive than most histories." Her Memoirs of the Court of
Charles I. (1833) showed a faUing ofi'; and her latest work,
the lAfe of Addison (1843), was declared disappointing
by Macaulay in the Edinburgh Review, vol. Ixxviii Miss
Aikin died at Hampstead, where she had resided for forty
years, on the 29th Jan. 1864. A Life by P. H. le Breton
appeared in a volume entitled Memoirs, Miscellanies, and
Letters of Lucy Aikin (Lond. 1804).
AIKMAN, William, a celebrated portrait-painter, born
at Cairney, Forfarshire, on the 24th Oct. 1682. He
was intended by his father for the bar, but followed his
natural bent by becoming a pupil under Sir John Medina,
the leading painter of the day in Scotland. In 1707
he went to Italy, resided in Rome for three years, after-
wards travelled to Constantinople and Smyrna, and in
1712 returned home. In Edinburgh, where he practised
as a portrait-painter for some years, he enjoyed the patron-
age of the Duke of Argyll ; and on his removal to London
in 1723 he soon obtained many important commissions.
Perhaps his most successful work was the portrait of tha
poet Gay. He also painted portraits of himself, Fletcher
of Saltoun, William Carstairs, and Thomson the poet.
The likenesses were generally truthful, and the style was
modelled very closely upon that of Sir Godfrey Kneller.
Aikman held a good position in literary society; and
counted among his personal friends Swift, Pope, Thomson,
Allan Ramsay, Somerville, and Mallet. He died in June
1731, leaving unfinished a large picture of the royal family.
AILRED, Ealred, Ethelredus, Alitredus, an Eng-
lish ecclesiastic and historian, bom at Hexham in 1109.
He was educated at the Scotch court with Henry the son
of King David. The king is said to have ofi'ered him a
bishopric, which he refused, preferring to become a mon][
in the Cistercian abbey of Rievaulx, Yorkshire. In 1146
he was chosen abbot, and he held that position till his
death in 1 166, — the accounts which state that he was trans-
ferred to Revesby in Lincobishire being probably founded
on a confusion of names. Leland says that he had seen his
tomb at Rievaulx adorned with gold and silver ornameQt&
426
A I L — A I N
Aihed was the author of a large number of historical and
theological works. The former are of little value, owing
to his credulity, except for the occasional glimpses they
give of contemporary life and manners. His theological
works, including a volume of homilies, a treatise on charity,
and a treatise on friendship, are somewhat in the stylo of
St Bernard. (For a full account of the historical writings
see Sir T. D. Uardy'a Descriptive Catalogue.)
AILSA CRAIG, a remafkable island-rock at the mouth
of the Firth of Clyde, off the coast of Ayrshire, Scotland,
It is of a conoidal form, with an irregular elliptic base,
and rises abruptly from the sea to the height of 1139 feet
The only side from which the rock can be ascended is the
east; the other sides beiog for the most part perpendicular,
and generally presenting lofty columnar forms,_ though not
80 regular as those of Staffi. The rock is a greenstone or
syenite, with a basis of grayish compact felspar traversed
by numerous trap veins. A columnar cave exists towards
the north side, and on the eastern are the remains of a
to ver, with several vaulted rooms. Two springs occur on
th.i island, and some scanty grass affords subsistence to
numerous rabbits. The precipitous parts of the rock are
frequented by large flocks of solan geese and other aquatic
wild fowl. It is situated in 5D° 15' N. lat, 5° 7' W. long.
AIN, a departtnent on the eastern frontier of France,
bounded on the N. by the departments of Jura and SaOne-
et-Loire, on the W. by Sa6ne-et-Loire and RhSne, on the
S. by Istre, and on the E. by the departments of Savoie
and Haute Savoie and the Swiss cantons Geneva and
Vaud. It extends at the widest points 52 mil'es from N.
to S., and about the same distance from R to W., with
an area of 2241 square miles. The east of the depart-
ment is very mountainous, being traversed by the southern
portion of the Jura range, but in the north-west the surface
is comparatively level, and in the south-west flat and
marshy Ain is wholly within the basin of the Kh6ne,
that river itself being the boundary on the east and south,
while it receives the Ain, which ))asses southward through
the centre, and the Sa6ne, which forms the western
boundary of the department. The climate is usually cold,
but on the whole Jiealthy, except in the damp marshy
districts on the west. The soil in the valleys and plains of
the department is fertile, producing wheat, barley, maize,
rye, and fruits of various kinds, as well as wine of excellent
quality; the tops of many of the mountains are covered
with forests of fir and oak, and the lower slopes yield
excellent pasture for sheep and cattle. The chief mineral
product is asphalt, besides which potter's clay, iron, build-
ing-stone, and the best lithographic stone in France, are
produced in the department. There are many com and
saw mills on the mountain streams ; and cotton, Unen, and
BUk fabrics, coarse wooUen cloth, paper, and clocks, are
manufactured to a limited extent. Ain, which formed
a part of the ancient province of Burgundy, is divided into
five arrondissements — Bourg and Trevoux in the west, and
Gex, Nantua, and Belley in the east; containing in aO 3G
cantons and 452 communes. Bourg is the capital, and
Belley is the seat of a bishop. Population of Ain in
1872, 363,290, of whom 185,074 were males, and 178,216
were females. Of the total population, 115,407 could
neither read nor write, and 46,450 more could not write.
AINAD, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hadra-
maut, about 207 miles N.E. of Aden. Near it is the
tomb of a Moslem prophet much frequented by pilgrims,
at which a great annual fair is also held. The oooulation
is said to be about 10,000.
AINMULLER, Maximilian Emmauitel, founder of a
new school of glass - painting, was bom at Munich
on the 14th Febmary 1807. He was induced, by the
advice of Gartner director of the royal porcelain manu-
factorj-, to dcvot<! timsclf to the study of glaM-pair.v
ing, both as a mechanical process and as an art, and he
made such progress that in 1828 he was appointed director
of the newly-founded royal painted-glass manufactory at
MunicL The method which he gradually perfected there
was a development of the enamel process adopted in the
Renaissance, and consisted in actually painting tiie design
upon the glass, which was subjected, as each colour was
hud on, to carefully-adjusted heating. The fault of this
new style is its production of transparent pictures seen by
transmitted and not by reflected light; but the popular
verdict in its favour has been, notwithstanding, proved by
the extent to which it has been adopted. The earliest
specimens of Ainmiiller'B work are to be found in the
cathedral of Ratisbon. With a few exceptions, all the
windows in Glasgow cathedral are from liis hand. Speci-
mens may also be seen in St Paul's cathedral and St Peter's
College, Cambridge. On the Continent it must suffice to
mention Cologne cathedral as containing some of his finest
productions. AinmiiUer had considerable skill as an oil-
painter, especially in interiors; and his pictures of the
Chapel Royal at Windsor and of Westminster Abbey have
been much admired. He died 9th December 1870.
AINOS, the name of a small but remarkable tribe in
Japan, found chiefly in the island of Yesso. They are dif-
ferent in race and character from the ordinary Japanese, and
seem to have been the earliest inhabitants of the country.
Since the invasion of the islands by the Japanese, however,
the Ainos have been gradually supplanted by the invaders,
and are now completely subject to them, although they
still preserve the appearance of internal self-government,
living in societies of from ten to twenty families, under a
hereditary chief. Their language is quite distinct from
the Japanese, and intercourse between the two peoples is
carried on by a sort of mongrel dialect. The Ainos are
not tall, averaging a little over 5 feet; but they are well-
proportioned and stroitgly-built, with a type of counte-
nance European rather- than Asiatic. They are distin-
guished by an exuberance of hair on the head and body, a
circumstance which has given rise to their name of ** Hairy
Kuriles." The women are ugly, and are much addicted to
tattooing. The dress of the Ainos consists of a robe of skin
or cotton, reaching to the knees and secured by a girdle ;
their huts are small and uncomfortable, with little or no
furniture ; and their food is mostly the produce of fishing and
hunting, together with rice got by barter from the Japanese.
They are probably less than 50,000 in number.
AINSWORTH, Henry, divine and scholar, was born
"about 1560" at Pleasington, near Blackbum, Lancashire,
having been second eon of Lawrence Ainsworth of Pleas-
ington HalL Young Henry Ainsworth is believed to have
received his education at Queen Elizabeth's Grammar
School ia Blackburn, of which his father was an original
founder. According to tradition, he was a Roman Catholic,
and a younger brother, John, a Protestant; and the two
brothers, entering into a written controversy, mutually con-
verted each other — Henry having embraced Protestantism,
and John, Popery. The subsequent earlier history of A ins-
worth is still obscure. No record survives; but various
authorities concur in stating that he passed from Blackbum
to Cambridge. He associated with the Puritan party in
the Church of England, and eventually adopted the plat-
form of the Independents as represented by the Brownista.
He was driven from his native country by the state
proscription of the sectaries before the year 1593. He is
found residentin "ablind lane at Amsterdam" about 1595-6.'
His exile must have reduced him to extreme poverty. He
is stated to have been a " porter " to a scholarly bookseller
in Amsterdam, who, on discovering his skill in the Hebrew
language, ninJe ^'"i known to his countrymen- Roger
A I N — A 1 R
427
Williams, in one of his fiery tractate3, reproaches Ainsworth
aa " living upon ninepence a week and some boiled roots."
When the Erownists erected a church in Amsterdam,
Francis Johnson was chosen for their pastor, and Henry
Ainsworth for their doctor or teacher. In 1596 these
two divines drew up a confession of their faith (in Latin),
which was reprinted in 1598, and dedicated to the
various universities of Europe (including St Andrews,
Scotland). The separations and controversies which ensued
at Amsterdam and at Leyden belong to church history. Of
Ainsworth it may be said, that while he never put himself
forward or sought notoriety, he was beyond comparison
the most steadfast and most resolute and most cultured
champion of those principles of civil and religious freedom
represented by the now large and influential body of Non-
conformists in Britain and America caUed Independents or
Congregationalists. The personal squabbles and temporary
animosities have long passed away; and it is recognised
that in Henry Ainsworth Nonconformity had a man of
saintly worth, of intellectual power, and of uncompromising
intrepidity. Amid the strifes and clamours of controversy
he pursued steadfastly his rabbinical studies. The com-
bination was so unique that Moreri and Zedler, like others,
made two Henry Ainsworths — one Dr Henry Ainsworth,
a learned biblical commentator; the other H. Ainsworth,
an arch-heretic, and " the ringleader of the Separatists at
Amsterdam." Kindred mistakes are found regarding his
writings in Hornbeck's Summa Ccmtroversiarum, and more
recent bibliographical authorities. In 1608 our Ainsworth
defended the Separation against Richard Bernard and
William Crashaw (father of the poet). But his ablest and
most arduous minor work in controversy was his crushing
reply to the notorious Smyth, entitled A Defence of the
Holy Scriptures, Worship, and Ministry, used in thi^ Chris-
tian Church separated from Antichrist, against the Chal-
lenges, Cavils, and Contradictions of M. Smyth (1609).
His memory abides through his rabbinical learning. The
ripe fruit of many years' dUigence appeared in his Notes
on Genesis, 1616; Exodus, 1617; Leviticus, 1618; Num-
bers, 1619; Deuteronomy, 1619; Psalms, 1612, 2d edition
1617; Song of Solomon, .1623. These were collected in
folio in 1627, and again in 1639, and later in various
forms. From the outset the Annotations have taken a
commanding place, especially among Continental scholars,
as witness Clement, Dornius, Voght, Lilienthal, and
Simon, the last urging Catholics to study and value them.
Perhaps nothing more clearly shows even his home repute
than the praiseworthy zeal with which Vice-Chancellor
Dr John Worthington endeavoured to recover certain
posthumous MSS. of Ainsworth. These, it is to be feared,
have irrecoverably disappeared. Moreri mentions a cur-
rent report that the famous Lightfoot " pillaged the best
of his observations" from Ainsworth. A comparison of
the Exercitations with the Annotations shows, however, that
the two scholars worked independently. Moreri's groundless
remark has beeii transmuted into an imputation as ground-
less— that Lightfoot had got into his possession the MSS.
of Ainsworth. The character and learning of the great rab-
binist ought to have silenced such an unworthy suspicion.
There is nothing more striking in the career of Ains-
worth than the reported manner of his death, which took
place at Amsterdam in 1622-3. It is stated that, having
found a diamond of great value, he advertised it; and when
the owner, who was a Jew, came to demand it, he offered
the finder any gratuity ho sought. Ainsworth, though poor,
requested only of the Jew that he would procure him a
conference with some of his rabbis upon the prophecies of
the Old Testament relating to the Messiah, which thj Jew
promised ; but not having interest to obtain such a con-
ference, it is thought that ho contrived to get Ainsworth
poisoned (Neal, Puritans, u. 47). Another account says
that he attended the conference, and bo confounded the
Jews that, from spite and malice, they in this manner put
a period to his life (Brook, Puritans, ii. 302). There is
an air of improbability about the narrative; but it is cer-
tain he was dead in 1623, for in that year v^as published
his Seasonable Discourse, or a. Censure upon a Dialogue
of the Anabaptists, in which the editor speaks of hiin as a
departed worthy. For a pretty complete list of his writ-
ings, lesser and larger, see Chalmers, Brook, and Hanbury.
Many are now extremely rare and high-priced. (See Wor-
thington's Diary [Chetham Society], by Crossley, i
263-6; Hanbury's Memorials, s.v. ; Works of Robinson,
iii., Appendix, and svpr'a.) (a. b. a.)
AINSWORTH, RoBEET (1660-1743), author of a well-
known Latin dictionary, was born at Woodvale, near Man-
chester. After teaching for some time in Bolton, he
removed to London, where he conducted a boarding-school,
first at Bethnal Green, and then at Hackney. At a com-
paratively early period of his life he had realised a com-
petency, and was able to retire. Proposals for the pre-
paration of a Latin dictionary were made to him in 1714,
but the work was not published tiU 1736. It was long
extensively used in schools, and often reprinted, the later
editions being revised and enlarged by other hands. Ains-
worth's Dictionary was, however, radically itoperfect, c6n-
taining a mere register of words, with no scientific
classification or complete and exact definition of their
various meanings, and necessarily wanting the results of
modern philological research. Later works have now
entirely superseded it.
AINTAB, a large garrison' town on the northern frontier
of Syrfh, 65 miles N.N.E. of Aleppo, in 36° 58' N. lat.,
37° 13' E. long. It has a considerable trade, chiefly in
hides and leather, and cotton of coarse quality is grown in
the district. Population, about 20,000.
AIR was the name formerly given to all gaseous sub-
stances. The gas now known as oxygen, for instance, was
named by Priestley dephlogisticated air, in contradistinc-
tion to nitrogen or azote, which was phlogisticated air. So
hydrogen gas was known to the early chemists as inflame
mahle air, carbonic acid gas aa fixed air, &c. The name
is now ordinarily restricted to what is more accurately
calltd atmospheric air — the air we breathe — the invisible
elastic fluid which surrounds the earth, extending to an
unknown height. The properties of this fluid will be fully
considered under such headings as Atmospheee, Babo-
METEE, Chemistet, VENTILATION, <!cc. Reference may
be made here to the mechanical use of air as a moving
power, or rather as a means for transferring power, just as
it is transferred by a train of wheelwork. Compressed air
can be employed in this way with great advantage in mines,
tunnels, and other confined situations, where the discharge
of steam would be attended with inconvenience. The
work is really done in these cases by a steam-engine or
other prime mover in compressing the air. In the con-
struction of the Mont Cenis tunnel the air was first com-
pressed by water-power, and then carried through pipes
into the heart of the mountain to work the boring machines.
This use of compressed air in such situations is also of
indirect advantage in serving not only to ventilate the place
in which it is worked, but also to cool it; for it must be
rememberfid that air falls in temperature during expansion,
and therefore, as its temperature in the machines was only
that of the atmosphere, it must, on being dLscharged from
them, fall far below that temperature. This fall is so great
that one of the most serious practical difficulties in working
machines by compressed air has been found to bo the fonna-
tion of lie in the pipes by the freezing of the moisture in
the air, which frequently chokes them entirely up.
428
A I R — A 1 R
AIR-ENQINK Engines which havo for their working
fluid heated air instead of etcuin are called "air-engines."
ITio name " caloric engine" has also been apiplied to them,
but is not to bo commended, for thoy have no more right to
that title than steam-engines — the useful effect of both
machines being due to the transformation of heat into
mechanical energy, the air in the one case and the steam
in the other being merely convenient media through which
to effect that transformation.
The utilisation of the expansion of heated air for driving
an engine has for many years been a subject which has
exercised the ingenuity of inventors. The history of air-
engines has, however, been little more hitherto than a
history of failures, and they are as far now from super-
seding steam-engines aa thoy wore fifty years ago. This
is owing mostly to tho fact that the inventors have too
often worked empirically, without any real knowledge of
the conditions under which, and under which only, tho
real advantages of the fluid could bo attained, and have
therefore continually violated these conditions. There are
also certain constructive dilEculties in tho way of making
a successful air-engine which have never boon fully over-
come. • It should be distinctly understood that, regarded
simply as a medium for transforming heat into work, air
possesses no advantage over steam or any other fluid. Its
advantage is, that it can be used with safety at much higher
temperatures than steam (and therefore a larger propor-
tion of the hoat given to it can bo transformed into work),
and that by employing the gases of combustion in the
cylinder much heat can bo utilised which with steam-
engines is necessarily wasted.
Of the air-engines which have actually worked we havo —
(1.) Those in which the changes of temperature talfo place
at a pair of constant volumes; (2.) those' in which the
changes of temperature take place at a pair of constant
pressures; and (3.) those in which heat is received and
rejected at a pair of constant pressures. The first two
classes, fitted vrith " economisers," are in theory "perfect"
engines; that is, they are theoretically capable of trans-
forming into work the largest fraction the limits of tem-
perature allow of the heat received from the fueL Tho
third class are not perfect engines, but possess certain
practical advantages which will bo afterwards mentioned.
Tho well-known engine invented by the Rev. Dr Stirling in 1816,
and subsequently improved by him, in conjunction with his brother,
Mr James Stirling, C. E., of Edinburgh, belongs to the fiiBt class.
In this engine the same mass of air is used again and again, and is
compressed at starting to a pre^'^ure of 7 to 10 atmospheres. A
cylindrical air-receiver, in which a plunger can be moved up
and down, is placed over 'he flue of the furnace. The annular
space between the plunger and the sides of this receiver is occu-
pied by an immense number of thin sheets of metal, which form
the "ecoDomiser." In the upper part of the receiver, which com-
municates freely with one end of a working cylinder of the usual
construction, is a " refrigerator," consisting of a coU of tubing
through which cold water continuallv circulates. The plun^r is
alternately raised and lowered by suitable mechanism, and in its
motion causes the great body of air in the machine to occupy alter-
nately the bottom or heating end and the top or cooling end of the
receiver. It thus undergoes alternate expansion and contraction,
and thereby' gives motion to the piston of the working cylinncr,
and thence to a crank shaft in the usual way. The advantages of
this engine were, that the air in the cylinder was always cool, and
that the great pressure which could be used rendered the si^e of the
machine for a given power very moderate. It was ultimately aban-
doned because of the failure of the receiver to stand the destructive
action of the heat.
The most familiar example of the second class of air-enpines is
that invented by Captain Ericsson. It differed from Stirlmg's in
many respects, and does not seem in any one particular to have
been an unprovement on it. Fresh air was drawn from the atmo-
sphere at every stroke, and a very low pressure used, and what was
the receiver in Stirling's engine became the working cylinder of
EricMon's. It was thus excessively bulky in proportion to its
power, and all the working parts were exposed to the destructive
tq^as of intense hoat. It is chieflv interesting on account of tho
enormous scale on whicn its oonrtmction was actnally carried onW
The enginoa of the stoamahip " EricsAon " had four worlang cylinder^
each 1 4 ft. in diameter, with other juirta in proiortion. The trialf
of this vessel were condactad in a manner wnicn did not allow any
confidence to 1m placed in the results aaid to be obtained, and sleaip-
engines replaced those of Ericuon within two years.
To the third class of air-engines belong those of Sir George Cayley
and several of the older inventors. The best known modem ex-
ample is, however, tho engine of Mr Philander Shaw, which i>
shown in our engraving, and whicTi was exhibited at the Pajii
Exhibition of 1867. The most important feature of this ty]>e of
engine is the use of the products of combustion themselves, instead
of merely the air beatfd by them, to drive the piston. The con-
struction of the engine is very simple : the working piston is fitted
with a trunk on its upper side, which, thus reduced m area, serves
as a compressing pump, and the products of combustion act directly
upon its under side, which is protected by a largo drum filled with
non-conducting material from the heat. The furnace stands besids
the cylinder, and is entirely closed up, means being provided for
feeding it with fuel without allowing any air to enter. The air
compressed by the pump is delivered into the furnace, where it com-
bines with the fuel to form the gases of combustion, and in this
way receiving additional heat, expands, and raises the piston of ths
working cylinder for a portion oi its stroke. The admission-valv»
of the latter is then closed, and the gases expand, without addition
of heat, until the piston has completed its stroke, and are then dis*
charged into the atmosphere. By the addition of an " economiser,"
the efl&ciency of this type of engine may be very greatly increased ;
but its principal advantage is that, by actually using the products
of combustion inside the engine, much heat is saved which in other
engines is unavoidably sent up the chimney and lost.
One of the principal features of all air-engines is the
" economiser " (sometimea erroneously called the " regene-
rator"), an invention of Mr Stirling's. The object of this
apparatus is to store up the heat rejected by the fluid when
it falls in temperature, and subsequently to raise the tem-
perature of the fluid by re-storing tho same heat, so that
the only heat which the furnace has to supply is the latent
heat of expansion, together with the amount of sensible
heat which may be lost through the imperfection of the
economiser.
(For a popular explanation of the theory of air-cnginss,
see an admirable paper by the late Professor Rankine in
the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for January 1855;
and for a complete account of the same, involving the use
of the higher mathematics, see the same author's Steam-
Engine, pp. 345, et teq. See also Prof. Clerk Maxwell'*
Theory of Heat, and a series of papers on the subject in
Enffineerinff, 1874.) (a. b. w. k.)
AIK-GUN, a weapon like a common gun in shape, in
which the force employed to propel the builet is the elas-
ticity of condensed atmospheric air. It has attached to
it, or constructed in it, a strong metal chamber, into which
air is forced by a condensing syringe (see Pneumatics).
In this way a pressure may be obtained of several hundred
atmospheres. When a trigger is touched, tho cond^^nsed
air rushes into a space behind the bullet with such force as
to propel it from the barrel to a considerable distance. If
only a little air be allowed to escape each time, a single
charge will propel a number of bullets in succession, witb
A I R — A I R
429
a constantly diminishing force. ' Sometimes the weapon is
made in the form of a walking-stick, and is then called au
aircane. The air-gun is little else than a scientific toy,
and has no practical value. The apparatus is costly, the
process of condensation requires considerable labour, and
the propulsive force of the air is, at its maximum, less
than that of an ordinary chju-ge of gunpowder. The only
■advantage it can be said to have in any way is the ques-
•tiouable one of its use being unattended by the explosive
noise that accompanies the discharge of a common gun.
AIR-PUMt', an apparatus by means of which a closed
vessel can have the air it contains removed from it It con-
sists essentially of two parts — a receiver, from which the air
is to be exhausted ; and a pump, to perform the work of
exhaustion. The receiver is in general made of glass, in
order that the condition of objects placed within it for the
purpose of experiment may be readily seen by the opera-
tor. It is open at the bottom, and has its lower edge
accurately ground ; when in its place ia the air-pump it
stands upon a smooth brass plate. The pump itself is a
brass cylinder, having a piston in it, which can be moved
backwards and forwards by means of a rod, in the usual
way. At the end of the cylinder nearest the receiver is
•placed a small valve, in the piston itself is another (or
some mechanism which serves the purpose of a valve), and
there b frequently a third in the outer end of the cylinder.
4J1 these valves open outwards from the receiver. The action
of the pump, when arranged in this way, is exactly similar
■to the action of an ordinary weU-pump, with air as the
fluid instead of water. The air-pump was invented about
1654 by Otto von Guericke, a magistrate of Magdeburg,
»nd a man who devoted great attention to various pro-
blems in pneumatics.^" The first description of his pump
^as published in 1657 in the Mcchanica Eydraulico-
pneumatica of Gaspar Schottus, professor of mathematics
»t Wurtemberg. He used a spherical glass receiver, with
A pumping syringe attached, and kept the whole of the
(Working parts under water to prevent leakage. His pump
•was very imperfectly constructed, but he did eventually
Aucceed in getting a yeiy good vacuum -with it. The
method of producing the Torricellian vacuum, bj ulliug a
vessel with liquid and then removing the liquid without
permitting ingress of air, was previously knoivn ; but a
vacuum produced in this way was obviously useless for
experiments vrith any objects but those which could pre-
'viously be immersed in the liquid used. Guericke was,
however, the first to recognise that, by virtue of its perfect
VH0 waa also the inventor of the " Magdsburg hemiapheres."
elasticity, or tendency to expand indefinitely, air could be
pumped out of a closed space as well as water ; and thia
is the principle of his and all succeeding air-pumps. Al-
though the invention of the air-pump is due to a German,
almost all the improvements made in it from time to time
have come from Englishmen. Dr Boyle contributed so
much to its perfection that for a long time the state of the
air in an exhausted receiver was called vacuum Boyleanum,
and the air-pump itself machina Boyleana. Dr Hook,
Hawkesbee, John Smeaton, and others brought the air-
pump externally to very much the same form as that in
which it is commonly seen at present, and which is shown
in the anneied^ woodcut The pump here has two cylin-
ders, which are worked by a winch handle, the pump rods
having toothed racks on the upper part of their length.
Professor Tate is the inventor of a double-action air-pump,
now much used where a very perfect vacuum is required.
It has two pistons in one barrel, the air being drawn from
the receiver at the centre of the barrel, and discharged into
the atmosphere at its extremities. Very complete air-
pumps have two or three barrels, arranged as shown in the
woodcut, for rapid exhaustion, until the pressure in the
receiver is equal to (say) half-an-inch of mercury; and in
addition to these a horizontal Tate's barrel, which can then
be put into action to bring the vacuum down to ^ inch of
mercury (l-600thofthe pressure of the atmosphere), or even
less at low temperatures. See Pneumatics.
AlE-PuMP, in steam-engines, is the pump which draws
the condensed steam, along -with the air which is always
mixed ■with it, and also the condensing water (except
where a surface condenser is used), away from the con-
denser, and discharges it into the hot weU. See Steam-
Enoine. (a. b. ■w. K.)
AIR, or AsBEN, a country of central ■ Africa, lying be-
tween 15° and 19° N. lat and 6° and 10° E. long. The
northern'and best known portion of tltis region is of a very
diversified character. It has numerous mountain ranges,
some of which rise to a height of 5000 feet, ■with richly-
wooded hollows and extensive plains interspersed. The
mimosa, the dum-palm, and the date are abundant; and the
valleys are covered ■with the exuberant vegetation of the
tropics. Some of the plains aiJord good pasturage for
camels, asses, goats, and cattle ; others are . desert table-
lands. In the less frequented districts ■nild animals abound,
notably the lion and the gazelle. The country generally is
of sandstone or granite formation, with occasional trachyte
and basaltic ranges. There are no permanent rivers; but
during the rainy season, from August to October, very
heavy floods convert the water-courses in the hollows of the
mountains into broad and rapid streams. Numerous wells
supply the wants of the people and their cattle. To the
south of this variegated region lies a desert plateau, 2000
feet above the level of the sea, destitute of water, and
tenanted only by the wild ox, the ostrich, and the giraffe.
StiU further south is the district of Damerghu, nominally
tributary to Air, undulating and fertile, and yielding rich
crops. Notwithstanding the fertility of the valleys in the
northern portion of the country, there is little of the soil
under cultivation except in the neighbourhood of the vil-
lages, where slaves are employed in tillage. Jlillet, dates,
indigo, and senna are the principal productions. The great
bujl- of the food supplies is brought from Damerghu, and
the whole materials for clothing are aKso imported. Were
it not for the trafiic in salt between Bilma and the Hansa
states of Soudan, the country could scarcely maintain its
present limited number of inhabitants. A great caravan
aniuially passes through Air, consisting of several thousand
camels, carrying salt from Bilma to Sokoto. Air was called
Aaben by the native tribes until they were conquered by
the Berbers. _ The present inhabitants are for the most
430
A I R — A 1 S
part of a mixed race, combining the finer personal tmita of
the Berbers with iho characteristics of the negro. Tlie
king or sultan of Aij' occupies a very precarious position,
being to a great extent dependent on the chiefs of the
Tawarek tribes inhabiting a vast tract of the Sahara to
the north-west, who are continually at war among them-
selves. A largo part of the revenue of the king is derived
from tribute exacted frpm the salt caravan. His authority
does not seem to fco {jreat in the outlying parts of his
dominions. The chief town of Air is Aoades (?.».) (See
Dr Barth's Travels in Central Africa, io\. i.)
AIUAY, Henry, D.D. This celebrated Puritan presi-
dent of Queen's College, Oxford, was born at Kentmere,
near Windermere, but no record remains of the date of
either birth or bapti.sm. Anthony \ Wood names West-
moreland as his birthplace. In the well-known Life of
Bernard Giljnn it is told that when ho was making prc-
piixations for martyrdom, ho " received the account with
great composure ; and immediately after called up William
Airay, a favourite domestic, who had long served him as
his almoner and steward." From the great kindness
shown to our Airay by Gilpin, and from the vicinity
of Kentmero to tho Rectoiy, it does not appear to bo
hazarding too much to assume that this William Airay
was his father, and that tho family tradition is right in
assigning Kentmere, not Barton or Wilford, as his birth-
place. The truly apostolic man's bounty showed itself in
sending Henry and a (probable) brother Ewan or Evan
to his own endowed school, where they were fully educated
" in grammatical learning," and were in attendance at
Oxford when OUpin lay a-djing. From tho Athence we
glean the details of Aira/s college attendance. He was
" sent," says Wood, " to St Edmund's Hall in 1579, aged
nineteen or thereabouts." " Soon after," ho continues,
" our author, Airay, was translated to Queen's College,
where ho heca.me . pauper puer serviens ; that is, a poor
serving child that waits on the fellow.^ in the common
hall at meals, and in their chambers, and do other servile
work about tho college." His transference to Queen's
College is explained by its having been Gilpin's own
college, and by his Westmoreland origin giving him a
claim on Eaglesfield's foundation. Ho proceeded B.A. on
Juno 19, 1583. On Juno 15, 158G, ho passed M.A. ; B.D.
in 1594; and D.D. on June 17, 1600 — all in Queen's
College. "About the time he was master" (1586), "ho
entered holy orders, and became a frequent and zealous
preacher in the university." His Commentary on the
Epistle to tho Philippians (1618), reprinted 1864, is a
specimen of his preaching before his college, and of his
fiery denunciation of Popery, and his fearless enlinciation
of that Calvinism which Oxford, in common with all
England, prized then. In 1598 ho was chosen provost of
his college, and in 1606 was vice-chancellor of the uni-
versity. In tho discharge of his vice-chancellor's duties,
he came into conflict with Laud, who even thus early was
betraying his Romish tendencies. He was also rector of
Otmore (or Otmoor), near Oxford, a living wliich involved
him in a trying litigation, whereof present incumbents
reap the benefit. He died on 6th October 1616. His
character as a man, preacher, divine, and as an important
ruler in the university, will be found portrayed in the
Epistle by Potter, prefixed to the Commentary. He must
have been a fine specimen of the more cultured Puritans —
possessed of a robust common-sense in admirable contrast
with some of his contemporaries. {Lectures on the whole
Epistle of Paul to the Philippians, 1618, 1864; Wood's
Athen<E, by Bliss, ii 177, 178, ic. ; Laud's Works; Wills
(Surtees Society.^ (a. r o.)
AIRDRIE, a parliamentary and municipal burgh and
market-town of Scotland, in the parish of New Monkland,
Lanarkshire, ] 1 miles E. of Glasgow and 32 W. cf Edin
burgh. Tho high road between these cities passes through
Airdrie, forming its principal street, from which others
diverge at right angles. It is well built, paved, and lighted
with gas, but it contains little that is beautiful or attrac-
tive. It possesses a fine town-hall and a handsome edifice
erected as the county buildings, as well as two places of
worship belonging to the Church of Scotland, three to the
Free Church, two to the United Presbyterians, and one
each to the Reformed Presbyterians, the Congregationalists,
tho Baptists, the Wesleyan Methodists, and the Roman
Catholics; five branch banks, with excellent places of
business c'.Ti.itructed or in course of construction; a me-
ch.anies' institute, and several schools. Tho extensive coal
and iron mines in tho vicinity give empluyment to a large
part of tlie population of Airdrie, and have been the mcan."»
of raising it, since the commencement of the century, from
tho insignificance of a village to its present prosperity. In
the town itself there are manufactories of cotton goods and
iron wares, besides foundries, engineering shops, saw-niills,
and other branches of industry. A branch of the North
British Railway from Glasgow, passing through Airdrio to
Edinburgh, connects it by a direct lino with both cities.
It is also connected with Glasgow by tho Monkland Canal,
which comes within a mile of the town. By tho Reform Act
of 1832 Airdrie. was created a parliamentary burgh, uniting
with Falkirk, Hamilton, Lanark, and Linlithgow in send-
ing one member to parliament. Its municipal corporation,
which dates from 1821, consists of twelve councillors, in-
cluding a provost and three bailies. There are weekly
courts held by the magistrates, and courts are held twice
a week by the sheriff-substitute and the justices of the
peace respectively. The market-day is Tuesday, but the
market is of little importance. By the census of 1B71 the
population of Airdrie was 13,488, the number of inhabited
houses .1167, and the parliamentary constituency 1702,
increased in 1873 to 1932. The annual value of real pro-
perty in the burgh, not including railways, is £26,145;
and the corporation revenue for 1873, £3401.
AIRE, an English river which rises in the West Riding
of Yorkshire and pursues a south-easterly course through
tho populous " clothing district " of which Leeds is the
capital At Castleford, below Leeds, it receives a small
tributary, the Calder, and it joins the Ouse shortly before
that river's expansion into the estuary of the Humber
above Hull. It is navig.able to Leeds for small craft.
AIRE, a fortified tovm of France, on the river Ly.'j, in
the department of Pas-de-Calais, 10 miles S.E. of St Omer.
Although its situation is low and marshy, the town is neat
and well built. It possesses extensive barracks; and the
Church of St Paul is a handsome Gothic structure. Its
manufactures consist of hats, cotton and woollen goods,
hardware, yam, soap, and oil. Population, 8803.
AIRE, a toivn in the south of France, in the department
of Landes, on the left bank of the Adour, 14 miles S.S.E.
of St Sever. At one time it was the capital of tho Visi-
goChs, and sinco the fifth century it has been the seat of
a bishopric. It has a college and cathedral ; and there are
mannft-ctorics of leather and hats. Population, 5144.
AISLE, sometimes written Isle, Yle, and Alley (Lat.
and Ital. Ala, awing; Fr. Aile, Bos c6te; Ger. Seitensehif,
Seitcnchor), in its primary sense, the wing of a house, but
generally used to describe the alleys or passages at the
sides of the naves and choirs of churches. In reckon-
ing their number, the nave is usually counted. Thus a
navo with an aisle on each side is generally called a three-
aisled church ; if with two aisles on each side, a five-
aisled church.. In England there are many churches with
one side-aisle only ; but there is only one cathedral with
five_ aisles, that, at Chichester. . There are, however, verj
A I S — A I X
431
many such on the Continent, the most celebrated of which
are at Jlilau and Amiens. Others have three aisles on each
side, or seven aisles in all, as the cathedrals' at Antwerp
and Paris. The most extraordinary, however, is that at
Cordova, originally erected for a mosque. It was first built
with a nave and five aisles on each side, and eight others
afterwards were added, making nineteen aisles in aU. Old
English writers frequently call the transepts " the cross
isle, or yle," and the nave the " middle ile."
AISNE, a frontier department in the north-east of
France, bounded on the N. by the department of ^ford
and the kingdom of Belgium, on the E. by the department
of Ardennes, on the S.£. by that of Marne, on the S. by
that of Selne-et-Marne, and on the W. by those of Oise
and Somme; extending at the widest points 75 miles
from N. to S., and 53 from E. to W., with an area of
2838 square miles. The surface of the department con-
sists of fine undulating plains, diversified in the north by
hilly ground which forms a part of the mountain system
of the Ardennes. The chief rivers are the Somme, the
Escaut, and the Sambre in the north ; the Oise, traversing
the north-west, with its tributaries the Serre and the Aisne,
the latter of which joins it beyond the limits of the depart-
ment; and the Marne and the Ourcq in the south. The
soil of Aisne is, as a whole, fertile, and in some parts very
rich, jdelding wheat, barley, rye, oats, hops, flax, fruit,
beetroot, and potatoes ; there is good pasturage, and much
attention is paid to the rearing of cattle, sheep, and horses.
Wine is produced, but, except in the valley of the Marne,
its quality is inferior. Large tracts of the department are
under wood, the chief forests being those of Nouvion and
St Michel in the north, Coucy and St Gobain in the centre,
and Villers-Cotterets in the south. There are no minerals
of importance in the department, but good building-stone
and slates of a fair quality are found- Aisne is an im-
portant manufacturing department ; its chief industrial pro-
ducts being shawls and muslin — as well as other cotton,
linen, and woollen goods — glass, including the famous
mirrors of St Gobain, iron wares, beetroot sugar, leather,
and pottery. It has a good trade, which is much facilitated
by railroads (the most important being those between Paris
and Strasbourg, and Paris and Mons), canals, and the
navigable portions of the rivers. Aisne, which is com-
posed of parts of the ancient provinces of Picardy and the
Isle of France, is divided into five arrondissements — St
Quentin and Vervins in the north, Laon in the centre, and
Soissons and Chateau Thierry in the south. It contains in
all 37 cantons and 837 communes, Laon is the capital,
and Soissons the seat of the bishop. The other towns of
importance are Chauny, St Quentin, Vervins, Hirson, Suise,
Villers-Cotterets, and Chateau Thierry. Population in 1872,
552,439, of whom 183,104 could neither read nor write,
and 28,651 could read, but could not write.
AITOK, William (1731-1793), an eminent botaniat
and gardener, was born near Hamilton in Scotland. Having
been regularly trained to the profession of a gardener, he
travelled to England in the year 1754, where he became
assistant to Philip Miller, then superintendent of the
physic garden at Chelsea. In 1759 ha was appointed
director of the newly-established botanical garden at Kew,
in which office he continued till his deatL The garden
at Kew, under the auspices of King George III., was
destined to be the grand repository of all the vegetable
riches which could be accumulated by regal munificence,
from researches through every quarter of the globe.
Alton's care and skill in cultivation, and intelligence in
arrangement, gained for him high reputation among the
lovers of the science, and the particular esteem of his royal
pcitrons. Under his superintendence many iin])rovement8
took place in the plan and edifices of Kew gardens, which
rendered them the principal scene of be tanical culture io
the kingdom. In 1783 his merit was rewarded with the
lucrative office of manager of the pleasure and kitchea
gardens of Kew, which he was allowed to hold along with,
the botanical direction. In 1789 he published his Hortus
Kewenais, a catalogue of the plants cultivated in the Royal
Botanical Garden at Kew, in 3 vols. 8vo, with 13 plates —
a work which had been the labour of many years. The
Ilortus, in which the Linna^an system of arrangement, with
some modification, was adopted, was very favourably re-
ceived by students of science, and a second edition was
issued (1810-3) by W. T. Alton, his eldest son and suc-
cessor. He was for many years honoured with the friend-
ship of Sir Joseph Banks, the president of the Royal Society,
and was aided by the Swedish naturalists, Solander and
Dryander, in the preparation of his Uorlus KewensU.
AITZEMA, Leon van, Dutch historian and statesman,
was born at Doccum, in Friesland, on the 19th Novembtr
ICOO, and died at the Hague on the 23d February 1609.
In his youth he published a volume of Latin poems under
the title of Poemata Juvenilia. He subsequently devoted
himself almost entirely to political life, and held for a
lengthened period the position of resident at the Hague
for the towns of the Hanseatic League. His most im-
portant work was the Hiatorie oft Verhaal van Sadken van
Slaet in Oortogh (14 vols 4to, 1657-71), embracing the
period from 1C21 to 1668. It contains a large number of
state documents, and is an invaluable authority on one of
the most eventful periods of Dutch history.
AIX, an ancient city of France, the chief town of the
arroudissement of the same name, in the department of
the Bouchesdu-Rhone. It was the Aquee SalicB of the
Romans, and between this and Arelale (Aries) is the field
on which Marius gained his great victory over the Teutons.
Under the counts of Provence, Aix became celebrated as
a seat of learning ; and it still retains many relics of its
former splendour, and is distinguished by the number and
excellence of its Uterary institutions. It has a library of
100,000 volumes, an academy of law, science, and theo-
logy, a museum, and a chamber of commerce. The
cathedral — the baptutry of which is said to have been
constructed from the remains of a Roman temple — the
"Palais," the town-haU, and the clock-tower, are fine speci-
mens of ancient architecture. There are numerous public
fountains, on one of which is sculptured a figure of King
R^n6 by David. The hot springs, from which the city
derives its name, are not now in much repute. Aix is the
seat of a court of justice and an archbishopric. The chief
manufactures are cotton, silk, thread, and hardware ; and
olives and almonds are cultivated on the surrounding hill.';
There is considerable commerce in corn, wine, and oil
The naturalists Adanson and Tournefnrt, and the painter
Vanloo, were born at Aix. Population (1872), 29,020.
AIX, or Aix-LEs-LAiX6,atown of France, in the depart-
ment of Savoie, near Lake Bourget, 8 miles north of
Chambury. It was a celebrated bathing-place in the time
of the Romans, and possesses numerous ancient remains.
The hot springs, which are of sulphureous quality, and have
a temperature of from 109° to 113° Fahr., are still much
frequented, attracting annually above 2000 visitors. They
are used for drinking as well as for bathing purposes.
Population, 4430.
AIXLACllAPELLE, the German Aachen, the capital
of a district of the same name in Rhenish Prussia, situated
near the Wurm, a tributary of the Meuse, in a pleasant
and fertile valley about 40 miles west of Cologne, with
which it is connected by railway. It is well built, and \3
enclosed by ramparts that have been converted into pro-
menades, and its appearance is rather that of a prosperous
modern town than of an ancient city full of historical
432
A I X — A J A
wsaociations. Ita town-house, built in 1353 on the rmna
of Charlemagne's palace, contains the magnificent corona-
tion hall of the German emperors, 1G2 feet long by CO feet
wide. Near the town-house are two ancient towers, one of
which, called the Gramistliurm, is sometiraca said to be of
Koman origin ; and a fountain, with a statue of Charle-
m^ne, which was erected in 1620. The cathedral of
Aix-Ia-Chapelle consists of two parts, distinct both as to
the time o( fheir erection and their stylo of architecture.
The older psrlron may be said to date either from 796 a.d.,
when it was erected by Charlemagne as the palace chapel,
or from 983, when it was rebuilt on the old model by
Otho m., after having been almost entirely destroyed by
the Normans. It consists of an octagon, planned after
that of St Vitale at Kavenna, surrounded by a sixteen-
sided gallery, and terminating in a cupola. It contains,
the tomb of Charlemagne, which was opened in the year
1000, when the body of the emperor was found seated on
a marble throne which was afterwards used in the imperial
coronation ceremonies. The Gothic choir, which forms
the more modem portion of the cathedral, was added
during the latter half of the 14th and the beginning of the
15th centuries. The cathedral posses.ses many relics, the
most sacred of which are exhibited only once every seven
years, when they attract large crowds of worshippers. Be-
sides these buildings, almost the only other of any antiquity
is the com exchange, probably of the 12th century. Of
modem edifices, Aix-la-Chapelle possesses a theatre, a pubUc
library, a gj-mnasium, and several churches and hospitals.
The chief manufactures of Aix-la-Chapelle are woollen
cloths, stockings, shawls, silks, leather, glass, needles, pins,
machines, general ironmongery, carriages, beer, brandy,
tobacco, and chemicals. There is a good trade in these
articles, not only with Germany and other continental
countries, but also, in the case of cloth especially, with
the United States of America. The hot sulphur springs
of Aix-la-Chapelle are another important source of revenue
to the inhabitants. These springs were known to the
Romans, and have long been celebrated for the cure of
rheumatism and gout. There are six in all, of which the
Kaiserquelle is the chief, with a temperature reaching as high
as 136°rahr. There are also two cold chalybeate springs.
Aix-la-Chapelle Ls the AquUgramtm, or Cimlas Aquensu,
of the Romans. Charlemagne, who perhaps was born and
certainly died in the town, made it the second city of his
empire and the capital of liis dominions north of the Alps.
He conferred numerous privileges upon its citizens, exempt-
ing them from military service and from all taxes, even when
thjy were living in other parts of the empire. From 813
to 1531 the emperors of Germany were crowned at Aix-la-
Chapelle, which during that period became one of the most
important free imperial cities, although it was ■ ravaged by
the Normans in 851, and again in 882. By the removal of
tha coronations to Frankfort, Aix-la-Chapelle lost its lead-
ing position in Germany, and its internal prosperity was
much injured by a disastrous fire in 1656. During the
revolution it for a time belonged to France, but in 1815 it
was ceded to Prussia, and has ncrw become one of the chief
seats of commerce in that kingdom. Population of Aix-la-
Chapelle (1871), 74,238.
Aix-LA-CHAPELLE, Congresses and Treaties of. The first
qongress of Aix-la-Chapelle concerned the succession of
Maria Theresa to the empire. It was held in 1748, and
resulted in the treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe, signed in the
same year, by which Maria Theresa was left in possession
of most of her hereditary dominions, the chief exception
being Silesia, which was ceded to Prussia. The second
congress, held in 1818, resulted in the convention of Aix-
la-ChapeUe. The object of this congress was the regulation
of the affairs of Europe, especiaUy of France, after the war.
A treaty of peace between France and Spain was also signed
in this city in 1GG8, whereby Louis XIV. gave up his claim
to the Spanish Netherlands, but was left in possession of
much that he had already conquered.
AJACC'IO, the chief town of Corsica, one of the depart-
ments of France. It is a seaport, .situated on the we.st
coast of the island, in 41° 54' N. lat., and 8° 44' E. long.
The harbour is commodious, and sheltered on all sides save
the south-west. The town is well built, and its principal
buildings are the cathedral, the town-house, and the citadel
It is the seat of a bishop and a court of justice, and has a
commercial college, a school of hydrography, a large library,
and a botanic garden. Wine, fruita, and olive oil are the
chief articles of trade ; and anchovy and coral fisheries are
extensively prosecuted along the coast. Ajaccio is cele-
brated as the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte. The house
where he was born (15th August 1769) is still standing in
good preservation. A marble statue was erected to his
honour in 1850, and the people still retain strong Bonapartist
sympathies. Population (1872), 16,545.
AJAN (the ancient Azania), a tract which forms the
eastern hom of Africa, with a coast-line of about 10° of
latitude, from Cape Gardafui nearly to the equator.
It extends inland to the territory of the Gailas, but its
limits cannot be strictly defined, as this part of Africa has
been little explored. The coast towards the south is low
and sandy, but northward, near Capo D'Orfui, it becomes
high and mountainous, with some fertile valleys inter-
spersed. Cape Gardafui, the most eastern point of Africa,
is a bold promontory backed by lofty hills. There are no
considerable rivers in Ajan, and the land for the most part
is barren. The inhabitants, a tribe of the Somali, carry on
a trade with the Arabs in ivory and gum, and the country
possesses an excellent breed of horse*.
AJAX (A'a?), the son of Telamon. In Greek legend
Ajax represents throughout only physical qualities, like
Hercules, with whom, indeed, a likeness must have been
recognised, or there would have been no sufficient basis for
the belief that the child Ajax was bora at the prayer of
Hercules in behalf of his friend Telamon (the- name A'os
— or Ai-as with digamma — being an allusion to the eagle,
a'cT09, which appeared to announce the success of the
prayer); and again, that Hercules was present at the birth
of the infant, and by wrapping it in his lion's skin made
it invulnerable, except in the armpit. In respect of being
open to a wound in' only one small spot Ajax resembles
Achilles, with whom in the usual genealogy he claims to
be related as cousin. But of this relationship there is no
evidence in the Iliad, where Ajax appears of colossal frame
(rrcXcupios), in himself a tower of strength (7n'pyo9 'Ayauav),
and, as the simile implies, prepared for defence, not to
lead assaults, unmoved by the shafts of enemies as is anass
in a corn-field by the pelting of boys (Iliad, xi. 556-566),
wiile Achilles is no less clearly drawn as sensitive to finer
passions and tastes, if equally bold in war. Unwarranted
as it was by the Iliad, the identification of Ajax with the
family of .lEacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the
Athenians, and that not until Salamis had come into their
possession, on which occasion Solon inserted a line in the
Iliad (ii. 557) for the purpose of supporting the Athenian
claim to the-island. Ajax then became an Attic hero, hia
name being given to one of the tribes. In this way his
deeds came tobe a favourite subject of the Attic drama, though
they are not always represented in a creditable manner — as,
for example, when, contrary to his steady character in the
Iliad of being respectful to the gods, he is charged with insult
to Athena, to account for her having influenced the decision
against him in his competition with Ulysses, for the armour
of AchiUes. It was Athena, also, who made him ingane
then, and led him to take his own life. From hia blood
A J A — A J I\I
433
sprang a iloiyer, as at the death of Hyacinthua, which bore
the initial letter of his name. In later times the people of
>>'ovum Hium believed him to have "bean wronged by the
-decision, and told how, when Ulysses had been shipwrecked,
the armour of AchiUes was wafted bv the tide upon the
shore near the tomb of Ajax. (a. 8. m.)
AJAX OILEUS, or the Lesser Ajax, was a son of the
King of Locri, whose subjects he led before Troy, contribut-
ing a contingent of forty ships. In boldness he was in the
first rank among the Greeks there, equal to make a stand
against Hector, and swift of foot next to Achilles. But, com-
pared with the other leaders, he is impatient and pverbear-
ing. Like the Telamonian Ajax, he appears as an enemy
of Ulysses, and as the victim of Athena's vengeance. It was
due to her influence that he, known for his speed, lost
the race with Ulysses at the games in honour of Patroclus
{Iliad, xxiiL 754-784); and again it was through her that
on his return homeward his ship was wrecked upon the
mythical Gyraean rock [Odyssey, iv. 499). As it stands in
later story, he had drawn down Athena's anger by his assault
upon Cassandra at the image of the goddess. Ulysses
charged him with this offence, and demanded that he should
be stoned. But, according to another version of the legend,
he had only carried her off to his tent without any Jiarm,
when Agamemnon took her from him, and spread a report
that Athena would destroy the whole army unless Ajax were
slain; upon which, thinking of the unjust verdict given
against his namesake, he went to sea in a frail vessel and
perished. The news was received in the camp with grief,
a funeral pile was erected on the ship which had conveyed
him to Troy, sacrifice was offered, and when the evening wind
came on, the burning ship was cut adrift. (a. s. m.)
AJEHO, or A-SHE-HOH, also called Alchuku, a consider-
able and rapidly increasing city of Manchuria, 30 miles
south of the river Soongari, and about 120 north of Kirin.
It is advantageously situated on the slopes of a gentle
descent leading to the river. The country around is very
fertile, producing in abundance various kinds of grain,
besides pulse and opium. The population of the district
consists entirely of Chinese immigrants, who are engaged in
the reclamation and cultivation of the soil, which is given
to thera at a nominal price. A large trade is done in the
town ; and although the shops are of mean appearance,
quantities of porcelain and other ornamental articles ex-
posed for sale indicate its growing wealth. The population
is about 40,000, and includes a considerable number of
Mahometans.
AJMIR, a district and town of British India, in Rijpu-
tAnA. The district lies between 25° 43' and 26° 42' K.
lat., and 74° 22' and 75° 33' E. long., measuring 80 miles
in length from north to south, by 50 miles in breadth,
and comprising an area of 2057 square miles. It is
bounded on the E. by the states of Krishnagar and Jaipur,
on the S. by Mewir, on the W. by the British district of
Mairwird, and on the N.W. by the state of Jodhpur. The
population in 1865 was returned at 426,268; of whom
363,539, or 85 per cent., were Hindus, and the remainder
chiefly Mahometans. The eastern portion of the district
is generally flat, broken only by gentle undulations, but
the north and north-western parts are intersected by
the great Aravalli range (q.v.) Many of the valleys in
this region are mere sandy deserts, with an occasional oasis
of cultivation, but there are also some very fertile tracts ;
among these is the. plain on which lies the town of Ajmlr.
This valley, however, is not only fortunate in possessing
a noble artificial lake, but is protected by the massive
walls of the Nig-pAthar range or Serpent rock, which forms
a barrier against the sand. The only hills in the district
are the Aravalli range and its offshoots. Ajmir is almost
tot.illy devoid of rivers, the BanAs being the only stream
which can be dignified with that name, and it only touches
the south-eastern boundary of the district so as to irrigate
the ParganA of Samur. Four small streams — the Sigar-
matf, Saraswatf, Khari, and Dai — also intersect the dis-
trict. -In the dry weathSr they are little more than brooks.
The Sdgar-mati and Saraswati unite at Gobindgarh, the
united waters flowing on under the name of the Luni (or
salt water) river. There are two first-class roads in Ajmlr,
viz., one from Ajmlr city to Gangwana, and thence through
the Krishnagarh and Jaipur states to Agra; and another
from the city to the cantonment station of Naslribrt, a
distance of 14 miles. There is also a second-class road
from Ajmir to Nayi Nagar, a distance of 36 miles, besides
sixteen third-class tracks connecting the principal towns
and villages with the city. The principal products of the
district are wheat, barley, rice, sugar-cane, peas, bajrd,
maize, til (oil-seed), tobacco, and cotton. With the excep-
tion of woolleu blankets, turbans, <tc., manufactures can
be scarcely said to exist in Ajmir. Salt is made in a rude
method at Rimsur, from the saline exudations of the soil,
to the extent of 3000 cwt. per annum. After supplying ,
local wants, 'the surplus is exported towards Milwa and
SAgar. The principal trade is in wool, cotton, opium,
printed cloths, and tobacco. A large quantity of cotton
is exported to XayA Nagar, in MairwAri district, whence it
finds its way into the Bombay market OU is also a pro-
fitable article of trade. The domestic animals are sheep,
horses, bullocka, camels, and goats. Cattle, and especiaUy
bullocks, are much valued, but are very scarce, owing partly
to the want of sufficient pasturage and partly to frequent
droughts. When these occur, the cattle are sent away to
the neighbouring states, where better pasture can be pro-
cured, and very few find their way back. The imperial
revenue obtained from the district in 1867 amounted to
£61,791, 8s., exclusive of local funds raised by a road,
tank, and postal cess.
The tenures of the ftgricultural villaf;e commuiiities in Ajmir aro
of a very simple and uniform kind. They all belong to the type
known aa "imperfect patidari," by which the better descriptions of
land are held in severalty by each member of the proprietary body.
Each member la responsible for the amount of revenue allotted oa
hia holding ; hut in eve-nt of the default of any shareholder, the
whole community is collectively liable for the total sum. The
inferior and waste lands remain the property of the whole village,
and the income derived from them is credited to the common account.
The cultivators are nearly all proprietors of the land they till. A
large portion of Ajmir district is parcelled cut into estates, varying
in size from a single village to a large pargand (or fiscal division).
These estates are held by Rajput chiefs, some of whom descend
from the original ruling families, while others owe their position to
force or to the favour of the reifming power. They have all been
confirmed in their estates by the British on payment of a fixed
annual quit rent. Three towns are returned as containing a popu-
larioQ of upwards of 6000 inhabitants in 1867— viz., Ajmir city (the
capital and the on'y municipality in the district), population
34,763 ; Kekri, 6357 ; and Pisangun, 6056. There ia also a mUiUry
cantonment at Nasiribad, the garrison of which in IS67 consisted
of a battery of European artillery, a European infantry regiment, a
squadron of native cavalry, and a regiment of native infantry. In
1367 there were eighteen government schools in the district, attended
by 647 pupils, and a government college at Ajmlr city attended by
320 students. Besides these there were three mission schools for
boya and one for girls in Ajmlr city, and eight others in its neigh-
boiu-hood. The average attendance ^t the mission schools amounted
to 347.
A/MfR City, the capital of Ajmlr district, is situated in
a picturesque and fertile valley surrounded by mountains,
in 26° 29' N. lat. and 74° 43' E. long. The town U
partly 'built on the lower slope of the Tirigarh hiU, and ia
surrounded by a stone wall with five handsome gates. To
the north of the city is a large artificial lake called the
AnasAgar, whence the water supply of the place is derived
The town is clean, and possesses several handsome streets,
the dwellings of the better classes being large and well
built. The population in 1867 numbered 34,763, about
I. - 55
434
A J U — A K B
Iwo-thirda being Hindus, and tho remainder Mahometans.
Tho city trade chiefly consults of salt and opium. The
former is imported in large quantities from the Sambar
lake and Rimsur. Oilniakii/g' ii) also a profitable branch
of trade. Cotton cloths are DifJiufactured to some extent,
for the dyeing of which the city has attained a high repu-
tation. A municipal income of about £2000 a-year is
derived from octroi duties levied on articles consumed in
the town. Out of this the police and conservancy arrange-
ments are paid, the balance being spent on roads and in
the support of charitable institutions. The Ajmlr college,
affiliated to the Calcutta university, had 320 pupils in
1867. The college buildings being inadequate to this
number of pupils, the foundation-stone of a new structure
was laid on the 17th February 1868. The agent to the
governor-general for R.ijputinli resides at Ajmlr, which is
also the headquarters of the commissioner of the Ajmlr and
Mairwiri division. It is likewise a station of a Scotch
Presbyterian mi.ssion.
Tho chief object of interest is the dargd, or tomb of a famous
Mahometan saint named Mayud-ud-din. It is situated at the
foot of the Tiirdgarh mountain, and con.sist3 of a block of white
marble buildings, without much pretension to architectural beauty.
To this place the emperor Akbar, with his empress, performed a
pilgrimage on foot from Agra, in accordance with the terms of a vow
ho nad made when praying-for a son. The large pillars erected at
intervals of two miles the whole way, to mark the daily halting-place
of the imperial pilgrim, are still extant. An ancient Jain temple,
now converted into a Mahometan Inosque, is situated on the
lower slope of the Taragarh hill. With the exception of that part
used as a mosque, nearly tho whole of the ancient temple has fallen
into ruins, but the relics are not excelled in beauty of architecture
and sculpture by any remains of Hindu art. Forty columns sup-
port the roof, bat no two are alike, and great fertility of invention
is manifested in the execution of the ornaments. The summit of
Tlr.'i^arh mountain, overhanging Ajmfr, is crowned by a fort, the
lol'ty thick battlements of which run along its brow and enclose the
table-land. The walls are 2 miles in circumference, and the fort can
only be approached by steep and very roughly-paved planes, com-
m.andcd by the fort and the outworks, and by the hill to the west.
On coming into the hands of the English, the fort was dismantled
by order of Lord William Bcntinek, and is now converted into ^
sanitarium for the troops at Nasir.'ibdd. Ajmir was founded
about the year 145 A.D. by Aj(, a Chohan, who established the
dynasty which continued to rule the country (with many vicissi-
tudes of fortune) while tho repeated waves of Mahometan invasion
swept over India, until it eventually became an appanage of the
crown of Dehli in 1193, Its internal government, however, was
h.inded over to its ancient rubers upon the payment of a heavy
tribute to the conquerors. It then remained feudatory to Dehli
till 1365, when it was captured by the ruler of Mewir. In 1509
the place became a source of contention between the chiefs of Mewar
and Mdrwdr, and was ultimately conquered in 1532 by the latter
prince, who in his turn in 1559 had to give way before the emperor
Akbar. H continued in the hands of the Mnghuls, with occasional
revolts, till 1770, when it was ceded to the Marhattas, from which
time up to 1818 the unhappy district was the scene of a continual
straggle, being seized at diiferent times by the Mewar and Marwar
rdjas, from whom it was as often retaken by the filarhattds. In
1818 the latter ceded it to the British in retiUTi for a payment of
50,000 rupees. Since then the country has enjoyed unbroken
peace and a stable government.
AJURUOCA, a town of Brazil, in the province of Minas
Geraes, 117 miles N. or Rio de Janeiro. It is situated on
the Ajuraoca river, which is here crossed by a bridge. Gold
was once found in the vicinity, but the soil has been long
exhausted of the precious metals ; and the people are
chiefly engaged in agriculture, and in rearing animals for
the markets of Rio. The land is fertile, and produces
miUet, maniioca, cofl"ee, sugar-cane, and tobacco. The
population of the town and district is 12,000.
AK.ABAH, The Gulf of, the Sinus Elanitea of anti-
quity, is the eastmost of the two divisions into which the
Red Sea bifurcates near its northern extremity. It pene-
trates into Arabia Petriea in a N.N.E. direction, from 28°
to 29° 32' N. lat., a distance of 100 miles, and its breadth
varies from 12 to 17 miles. The entrance is contracted
by Tiran and other islands, so that the passage is
rendered somewhat difficult; and its navigation is danger
ous on account of the Aumerous coral reefs, and the sudden
squalls which sweep down from the adjacent mountains,
many of which rise perpendicularly to a height of 2000
feet. The only weU-sheltered harbour is that caUed the
Golden Port, situated on its western shore about 33 miles
from the entrance, and 29 miles E.' of Mount Sinai
About 2J miles from the head of the gulf is the village
of AKABA.H, with a fortified castle, garrisoned by a few
soldiers for tho protection of the Moslem pilgrims on their
way to Mecca. In tho vicinity of the village there are
extensive date groves; and there is abundance of good
water, fruit, and vegetables. Akabah, though now of
small importance, is not devoid of historical interest. It
is supposed to occupy the site of the Elath of Scripture,
which in remote ages carried en an extensive commerce;
and some ruins in the sea a short distance southward are
surmised to be the remains of Eziongeber.
AKBAJl, Akhbae, or Akbeb, Jellaladin Moham-
med, one of the greatest and wisest of tho Moghul emperors,
was born at Amerkoto in Sindh on the 14th October 1 542,
his father, Humayun, having been driven from the throne
a short time before by the usurper Sher Khan. After more
thaa twelve years' exile, Humayun regained his sovereignty,
which, however, he had held only for a few months when
he died. Akbar succeeded his father in 1556 under the
regency of Bahram Khan, a Turkoman noble, whose energy
in repelling pretenders to the throne, and severity in main-
taining the discipline of the army, tended greatly to the
consolidation of the newly-recovered empire. Bahram,
however, was naturally despotic and cruel ; and when order
was somewhat restored, Aibar found it necessary to take
the reins of government into his own hands, which he did
by a proclamation issued in March 1560. The discarded
regent lived for some time in rebellion, endeavouring to
establish an independent principality in Malwah, but at
last he was forced to cast him. self on Akbar's mercy. Tie
emperor not only freely pardoned him, but magnanimously
offered him the choice of a high place in the army or a
suitable escort for a pilgrimage to Mecca, and Bahram
prefeij-ed the latter alternative. When Akbar ascended
the throne, only a small portion of what had formerly been
comprised within the Moghul empire owned his authority,
and he devoted himself with great determination and mar-
vellous success to the recovery of the revolted provinces.
Over each of these, as it was restored, he placed a governor,
whom he superintended with great vigilance and wi.sdom.
He tried by every means to develop and encourage com-
merce ; he had the land accurately measured for the purpose
of rightly adjusting taxation ; he gave the strictest instruc-
tions to prevent extortion on the part of the tax-gatherers,
and in many other respects displayed an enlightened and
equitable policy. Thus it happened that, in the fortieth
year of Akbar's reign the empire had more than regained
all that it had lost, the recovered provinces being reduced,
not to subjection only as before, but to a great degree of
peace, order, and contentment. Akbar's method of dealing
with what must always be the chief difficulty of one who
has to rule widely diverse races, affords perhaps the crown-
ing evidence of his wisdom and moderation. In religion
he was at first a Mussulman, but the intolerant exclu-
siveness of that creed was quite foreign to his character.
Scepticism as to the divine origin of the Koran led him to
seek the true religion in an eclectic system. He accord-
ingly set himself to obtain information about other religions,
sent to Goa, requesting that the Portuguese missionaries
there would visit him, and listened to them with intelligent
attention when they came. As the result of these inquiries,
he adopted the creed of pure deism and a ritual based
upon the system of Zoroaster. The reliaion thus founded.
A K E— A K E
435
however, laving uo vital force, never spread beyond the
limits of the court, and died with Akbar himself. But
though his eclectic system failed, the spirit of toleration
which originated it produced in other ways many import-
ant results; and, indeed, may be said to have done more
to establish Akbar's power on a secure basis than all his
economic and social reforms. He conciliated the Hindoos
by giving them freedom of worship; while at the same
time he strictly prohibited certain barbarous Brahminical
practices, such as trial by ordeal and the burning of widows
against their will He also abolished all taxes upon pil-
grims as an interference with the liberty of worship, and
the capitation tax upon Hindoos, probably upon similar
grounds. Measures Uke these gained for him during his life-
time the title of "Guardian of Mankind," and caused ^-im to
be held up as a model to Indian princes of later times; 'Vyho
in the matter of religious toleration have only too seldom
followed his example. Akbar was a munificent patron of
literature. He established schools throughout his empire
for the education of Hindoos as well as Moslems, and he
gathered round him many men of literary talent, among
whom may be mentioned the brothers Feizi and Ahul-
faz). The former was commissioned by Akbar to trans-
late a number of Sanscrit scientific works into Persian;
and the latter (see Abuxfazl) has left, in the Akbar-Namek,
an enduring record of the emperor's reign. It is also said
that Akbar employed Jerome Xavier, a Jesuit missionary,
to translate the four Gospels into Persian. The closing
years of Akbar's reign were rendered very unhappy by the
misconduct of his sons. Two of them died in youth, the
victims of intemperance; and the third, Selim, afterwards
the emperor Jehanghir, was frequently in rebellion against
his father. These calamities were kaenly felt by Akbar, and
may even have tended to hasten his death, which occurred
at Agra on the 13th October 1605. His body was deposited
in a jiagnificent mausoleum at Sicandra, near Agra.
AKEN, or AcKEN, a town in Prussian Saxony, situated
on the Elbe, 25 miles E.S.E. of Magdeburg, close to the
frontiers of Anhalt. It has manufactures of cloth, leather,
chemicals, and optical instruments; large quantities of
beetroot sugar are produced in the neighbourhood; and
there is a considerable transit trade on the Elbe. Popula-
tion (1871), 5273.
AKENSIDE, Mark. Like young Henry Kirke White,
the poet of the Pleasures of Imagination was the son of a
butcher. He was born '■. Newcastle-on-Tyne on November
9th, 1721. His school was the free one founded by a
former mayor of Newcastle, Thomas Horsley. Later, one
of the ministers of the Presbyterians added to his school-
acquired knowledge in private. In his sixteenth year he
sent to the Gentleman's Magazine a copy of verses entitled
" The Virtuoso." Sylvanus Urban graciously printed the
poem ; but the old man was not difficult to please. Other
verse contributions succeeded — imitative, yet not without
gleams of a true faculty. Some written in the Lake
country, while on visits with friends at Morpeth, have
Wordsworthian touches. The memories of these visits
transfigure the Pleasures of Imagination. In his nineteenth
year, being intended for the clerical profession, he pro-
ceeded to the university of Edinburgh; but within one
session, Uke many others, he changsd his purpose, and
transferred his name from the theological to the medical
classes — although, indeed, then, as still, the opening years
were occupied with the same studies for either. On his
change he honourably returned certain moneys which his
fellow Presbyterians had advanced towards his theological
education He attended the university for only two years.
While there, in 1740, a medical society, which combined
with it a debating club, gave him a fine field for the
exercise of hia oratorical powers. Dugald Stewart
states that Robertson the historian, then a student of
divinity, used to attend the meetings in order to hear
Akenside's speeches. Some of his minor poems belong to
this period, such as liis Ode " for the Winter Solstice,"
the elegy called " Love," and the v^-ses " to Cordelia."
He returned to his native town in 1741, and then hia
friendship with Jeremiah Dyson had commenced, " a nama
never to be mentioned by any lover of genius or noble
deeds without affection and reverence " (WiUmott). In
the years 1741 to 1743 he must have been ardent in his
wooing of the Muses. -In the summer or autumn of 1743'
Dodsley carried with him to Pope at Twickenham a MS.
for which the writer asked £120. The oracle of Twicken-
ham having read the poem, counselled the publisher to
make no niggardly offer, because " this was no every-day
writer." It was something for Pope to be thus prescient
in the absence of rhyme — albeit Pope's insertions in The
Seasons remain to attest that, supreme artist as he was in
rhyme, he could also manage blank verse with exquisite
cunningness. The MS. was the Phasures of Imagination,
which Dodsley published in 1744. In his twenty-third
year the author, Uke Byron, awoke to find himself famous.
The assaults of Warburton and Hurd were scarcely a deduc-
tion from the universal welcome. The poet's " Epistle" to
Warburton was effective. He went to Leyden, and there
pursued his medical studies with ardour. He obtained the
degree of M.D., May 16th, 1744; his inaugural disserta-
tion describing the formation and growth of the human
foetus with original observation and acuteness. He now
returned to England, advancing more and more in his
friendship with the good and large-hearted Dyson. He
chose Northampton as the place wherein he shoiXld com-
mence practice. It was an unfortunate selection, as Sir
James Ston-ehouse " possessed the confidence of the town,"
and it was deemed an intrusion. A not very creditable
controversy arose; and we are at a loss whether most to
admire the stinging rebuffs in honeyed courtesies or the
mutual pretence of ultimate satisfaction and good-wUl. At
Northampton Akenside was on friendly terms with Dr
Doddridge. There, too, he wrote his " Epistle to Curio,"
■which Lord Macaulay pronounced his best production, aa
" indicating powers of elevated satire, which, if diUgently
cultivated, might have disputed the pre-eminence of Dry-
den." WiUmott traces some of the most nervous lines of
the Pleasures of Hope to this " Epistle to Curio." Not
succeeding in his profession at Northampton, he removed
to Hampstead in 1747. The Odes had then been pubUshed.
Dr Akenside came to Hampstead under the aegis of the
generous Dyson. Somehow, in Hampstead as at North-
ampton, he manifested a vanity of self-display and hauteur
of manner that made him many enemies. Within three
years he had to leave Hampstead for London. He set
up in Bloomsbury Square in a " fine house," and with
an annuity of o£300 from the stiU ungrudging Dyson.
One is pleased to come on these words of a far greater poet
a century later, "I am not unfrequently," wrote Wordsworth
in 1837, "a visitor on Hampstead Heath, and I seldom pass
by the entrance of Mr Dyson's viUa at Goulder's HiU,
close by, without thinking of the pleasure which Akenside
often had there." The generous clerk of the House of
Commons and secretary of the Treasury nobly earned his
imperishable place in the (re^nsed) Pleas-ures of Imagina-
tion. Contemporaneous with his professional duties, tho
poet became an essayist and reviewer for Dodsley in the
now forgotten Museum. In 1753 the university of Cam-
bridge bestowed on him tho degree of doctor of medicine.
In 1754 ho was elected a feUow of the CoUege of Physi-
cians. In 1755 he read before tho coUege the Gulstoniau
Lectures; and in 1756 the Croonian Lectures. In 175D
he was chosen assistant, and two mouths later chief.
456
A K E — A K O
j>hy8iciar of St Thomas's Hospital. In this year ho had
removed to Cravea Street. In 1762 he changed once more
to Burlington ;\treet. In 1760 waa published the Ilarveian
Oration by order of the College of Physicians. In 17G1,
lalocg with Dyson, he passed from a somewhat noisy
vhiggery to the Tories, which added "renegade" to hia
name. ' In 1705-6 ho was working upon the revised and
enlarged copy of the Pleasures of Imagiration. His fame
was wideniiig professionally and poetically, when a putrid
fever carried him off suddenly on June 23d, 1770. He
■ was buried at St James's Church on the 28th. As a man,
the nearer one gets to Akcnside the less is there livable
about him; there seem to have been ineradicable mean-
nesses in his nature. Lavish in his expenditure while
practically dependent on Dyson, and remaining dependent
after his professional income ought to have released his
patron, we cannot think of him as high-minded. His
personal vanity was constantly bringing him sorenesses.
Tha " Doctor " in Peregrine Pickle was painted from the
life, not a mere creation of Smollett's genius. As a poet,
the place of Akenside is secure, but it is not very lofty.
His imagination is rhetorical rather than subtle, consisting
more of pomp of words than greatness of thought. Hw
chief defect'is lack of emotion, and especially pathos. The
enlarged Pleasures of htioffinalion, notwithstanding 8omo_
noble additions, was a blunder. Some of his minor pieces
lave a classical grace and charm of expression. (See the
original editions of his writings ; Bucke's Life, Writings,
and Genius of Akenside, 1832; l3yce and WOlmott's edition
of his Poems; Cunningham's Johnson's Lives of the Poets,
fl.v. ; Biog. Brit.;' Medical Biog., a.Y.) (a. b. o.)
AKEKBLAD, Jan David (1700-1819), a learned
Swede, distinguished for his reroarches in Runic, Coptic,
Phoenician, and ancient Egyptian literature. He entered
the diplomatic service as secretary to the Swedish embassy
at Constantinople, and utilised tlie leisure which the situa-
tion afforded by visiting Jerusalem (1792) and the Troad
{1797).'' After an interval spent at Guttingen, he was
appointed ambassador to Paris. His last years were passed
at Rome, where ho enjoyed a pension from the Duchess
of Devonshire. Akerblad was a diligent student of hiero-
glyphics ; and though ho failed to decipher the Rosetta
stone, he arrived at certain conjectural conclusions with
regard to the true method of interpretation, which were
afterwards confirmed by Dr Young. His works include
letters on the Coptish cursive writing and on the Rosetta
inscription, both addressed to M. de Sacy ; and a number
of pamphlets on the interpretation of various Runic and
Phoenician inscriptions.
AK.ERMAN (perhaps the ancient Tyros or Julia Alba),
a town of Russia in Europe, in the pro^auce of Bessarabia,
on a tongue of land projecting into the estuary of the
Dniester. Its harbour is too shallow to admit vessels of
large size; but the trade of the town is, notwithstand-
ing, very considerable. Large quantities of salt are ob-
tained from the saline lakes in the neighbourhood; and
com, wine, wool, and leather are among the other exports.
The town, which is ill-built, contains several mosques and
Greek and Armenian churches ; it is guarded by ramparts,
and is commanded by a citadel placed on an eminence.
Akennan derives some historical celebrity from the treaty
concluded there in 1826 between Russia and the Porte,
securing considerable advantages to the former. It was
the non-observance of this treaty by Turtey that led to the
war of 1828. Population (1867), 29,609.
AKERMAN, John Yonoe, an antiquarian, distinguished
chiefly in the department of numismatics, was bom in
Wiltshire on the 1 2th June 1806. He became early known
in connection with his favourite study, having initiated the
tfumisr^tUic Journal in 1836. In the following year he
became ine secretary of the newiy-cstablished Numismiitio'
Society. In 1848 ho was elected secretary to the Society
of Antiquaries, an office which ho waa compelled to resign
in I860, on account of failing health. He died on 18th
November 1873. Akennan published a considerable num-
ber of worlcB on lua special subject, the more important
being a Catalogue of Poman Coins (1839); a Numinmatic
Manual (1840); Roman Coins relating to Britain (1844),
for which he received the medal of the French Institute ;
Ancient Coins — Hispania, Gallia, Britannia (1846); and
Numismatic Illustrations of the New Testament (1846). He
wrote also a Glossary of Words used in Wiltshire (1842);
Wiltshire Tales, ilhistrcUive of the Lialect (1853); and
Remains of Pagan Saxtmdom (1855).
AKHALZIKH, a city of Georgia, in Asianc Russia, on
an affluent of the Kur, 110 miles west of Tiflis, in 41° 40'
N. lat., 43° r E. long. It contains a strong castle, a college
and library, and a fine mosque, and has a considerable trade
in silk, honey, ani wax. Population (1867), 15,977.
AKHISSAE, the ancient Thyatira, a town of Turkey
■in Asia, in Anatolia, 58 miles N.E. of Smyrna. The inha-
bitants are Greekg, Armenians, and Turks. The houses
are built of earth or turf dried in the sun, and are very
low and ill-constmcted; but there are six or seven mosques,
which are all of marble. Remarkable inscriptions are to bo
seen in several parts of the town on portions of the ruins
of the ancient city. Cotton of excellent quality is grown
in the neighbourhood, and the place is celebrated for its
scarlet dyes. Population, about 6000.
AKHTYRKA, a town of Russia in Europe, in the
Ukraine, situated on a river of the same name, 45 miles
N.W. of Kharkov. It has eight churches, one of which,
containing an image of the Virgin, is held in great venera-
tion. The tovra is enclosed by ditches; and the cnvironi
are fertile, the orchjirds producing excellent fruit. There
are some manufactures of light woollen stuffs, and a great
market is held annually in May. Population (1867), 17,411.
AKIBA, Ben Joseph, a famous rabbi who flourished
about the close of the first and the beginning of the second
centuries. It is almost impossible to separa. .he trae from
the false in the numerous traditions respecting his life.
He became the chief teacher in the rabbinical school of
Jaffa, where, it is said, he had 24,000 scholars. AVbat-
ever their number, it seems certain that among them waa
the celebrated Rabbi Meir, and that through him and
others Akiba exerted a great influence on the development
of the doctrines embodied in the Talmud. He sided with
Barchochebas in his revolt, recognised him as the Messiah,
and acted as his sword-bearer. Being taken prisoner by
the Romans under Julius Sevems, he was flayed alive
with circumstances of great craelty, and met his fate,
according to tradition, with marvellous steadfastness and
composure. He is said to have been a hundred ana twenty ^
years old at the time of his death. The Jews were long
accustomed to pay visits to his tomb, and he is one of the
ten Jewish martyrs whose names occur in a penitential
prayer still used once a year in the synagogue service. A
number of works commonly attributed to Akiba are of
later origin; but the one entitled fj-pj; "a^-i njoo {^Doctrine
of Rabbi Akiba) is probably genuine.
AKOLA, a district and city of British India, in the
commissionership of West Berar, within the HaidaribAd
assigned districts. AsoLi. district lies between 20° 23'
and 21° 10' N. lat., and between 76° 25' and 77° 19' E.
long.; its greatest length from N. to S. being 72 miles, and
its greatest breadth from E. to W. 63 miles. It is bounded
on the N. by the SitpurA range ; on the E. by Elichpur
district ;■ on the S. by the Sitm41 and Ajant4 hHU ; and
on the W. by the Buldini and Khandesh districts. The
total area af the district in 1869 vras 2697^ square milee^
A K O — A K Y
437
or 1,726,625 acres, of which 1,326,583 acres, or 2012-78
square miles were under cultivation; 127,003 acres, or
198-45 square miles, cultivable but not actually under
tillage ; 41,198 acres, or 64-37 square miles, alienated land
held rent free; the remaining 231,842 acres, or 362-25
square miles, consisting chiefly of unarable land, but includ-
ing river-beds,- tanks, village sites, pasturage land, or land
occupied for public uses, <fec. The population of the dis-
trict in 1869 numbered 487,558— viz., Hindus, 433,238;
Mahometans, 39,030; aborigines, 15,157; Christians, 78;
Pirsis, 45; Jews, 10. The district is square in shape
and almost of a dead level, with the exception of two
conical-shaped hilla which stand out quite apart from any
other eminences; and rise straight up from the plain. The
principal river of AkoU, which, although not navigable,
represents the main line of drainage, and into which the
other streams discharge themselves, is the Piirnij flowing
east and west. The principal tributaries on its south
bank are the KAtA Piirnd, Murni, N\lm, and Bordl ; and
on its north bank, the Shihnilr, Idr\ip4, and W\ln. • None
of these streams are navigable, and some of them almost
dry up after the rainy season.
The extension line of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway from
Bhoaiwal to Nagpur intersects the district, with stations at Jalam
Shegaon, Paras, Akold, anS Borgaon. Of eight main roads,
three havo been metalled. The first runs from AkoU to Akot, a
rising cotton mart, and is 23 miles in length, running north-north-
cast. It is metalled, and all the smaller water-courses are bridged.
The PumA and Shalinur rivers, however, cross the Jine, and are not
bridged, a circumstance which impairs the usefulness of the road
during the rainy season. The second road is known as the Basim
road, and runs for 24 miles southwards through the district. The
third road is 12 miles long, from Khamgaon to Nindura railway
station, and is metalled throughout. The other five lines of road are
neither bridged nor metalled, but only marked out and levelled.
The district imports piece goods from Bombay, and food grains from
the adjoining iUstricts. Its principal exports are cotton to Bombay,
clarified butter, dyes (indigo and kusamba), and cattle. Internal
trade is chiefly carried on at weekly markets and by annual fairs.
The principal manufacture of the district is the weaving of cotton.
Carpets and coarse cloths are woven in almost every village, with
turbans at Balapur, and silk cloths for native women at Akola
and in the larger towns. The principal agricultural products are as
follows : — The wet weather or kharif crop consists of jodr (eighteen
varieties) ; bajrd (two kinds) ; cotton (two kinds) ; tur, urid, and
mug (three kinds of pulse) ; rice and kulkar (a smaller variety of
rice); Indian com ; raid ; ganja ; ajwan ; indigo ; and til (oil-seeds
of two kinds). The cold weather or rabi crop consists of — wheat
(three kinds) ; gram ; linseed ; lakh (a puTse) ; peas ; musuri ; tobacco ;
and mustard. The principal articles of garden produce are the follow-
ing : — Sugar-cane (two kinds) ; Indian com (two kinds) ; ground
nuts ; onions ; garlic ; coriander ; pan leaves ; chillies ; opium ; sweet
potatoes ; grapes ; plantains ; saffron ; and numerous kinds of vege-
tables. A tenure peculiar to Akola is that known as mclkarl hold-
ings. These consist of certain strips of land extending along the
whole breadth of the district at the foot of the frontier range. They
are now of considerable value, and were originally held as payment
for the maintenance of a chain of outposts or watch-towers on
elevated points in the ridge, with a view to giving waniiug of the
approach of the Bhil or Gond banditti, and warding off their attacks.
Seven towns are returned as containing a population exceeding 5000
— vii:., Akola (the capital of the district), popiilation 12,236; Akot,
one of the principal cotton marts of Berar, and also celebrated for its
cotton manufacture, 14,006 ; Khamgaon, now the largest cotton mart
in the province, but which has only sprung into importance within
recent times, 9432 ; Balapur, one of the chief military stations
in the Berars during the Mahometan rule, 12,631 ; Jalgaon, an
important cotton market, 8763 ; Patur, 6011 ; Shegaon, a station
on the Great Indian Peninsular Railway, and a cotton market,
7450. In 1869 there were 1 higher class, 10 middle class, and 63
lower schools for boys in Akola district ; besides 7 fem.alo schools
and 1 normal school for training Hindustani and Marhati masters,
making a total of 82 schools in all. For the protection of person
and property there were in 1869 13 police stations and 12 outposts,
with a regular police force of 536 officers and men, equal to one man
to every -five milea of the district area, or one man to every 909 of
the population.
AkolA Town, the headquarters of the district of the
same name, and also of the west Bcrar division of the
HnidaribAd assigned territory, ia situated on tho NAgpur
extension of the Great xndian Peninsular Railway, in 20"
0' N. lat., and 76° 2' E. long. The town contains three or
four wealthy merchants; and two markets are held each.
week — one^on Sundays, the other on Wednesdays. Th©
commissioner's and deputy-pommissioner's court-houses, tho
central jail (capable of holding 500 prisoners), the post-
office, and ijarracks or rest-houses for European troops,
close to the station, are the principal public buildings.
Besides these, there are a civil hospital, a charitable dispen-
sary, an English high school, a town-hall, and an English
church. A detachment of infantry is stationed at the town.
Popuktion in 1669, 12,236.
AKRON, a town of the United States, capital of Sum-
mit county, Ohio, situated on the Atlantic and Great
Western Railway, and on the Ohio and Erie Canal, at it»
junction with the Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal, 36 milea
S. of Cleveland. By means of the canal and the Littla
Cuyahoga river the town ia amply supplied with water-
power, which is employed in a variety of man-ofactures ;
and its mercantile business is extensive. It has several
flour mills, woollen factories, and maniifactories of iron
goods. Mineral fire-proof paint, immense beds of which
are found in the -vicinity, and wheat are important article*
of export. Akron was founded in 1825, and was made the
capital of the county in 1841. Popuktion in 1870, 10,006.
AK-SU, a town of Chinese Turkestan, is situated in
41° 7' N. lat., 79° E. long., 250 miles N.E. of Yarkand.
It has a flourishing trade, and is resorted to for purposes
of commerce by caravans from all parts of Central Asia.
There are some cotton manufactures ; and the place is
celebrated for its richly-ornamented saddlery made from
deer-skin. A Chinese garrison is stationed here, and
copper and iron are wrought in the neighbourhood by
exiled Chinese criminals." The district is well cultivated,
and sheep and cattle are extensively reared. The popula-
tion of the town is about 20,000 ; that of the town and
district 100,000.
AKYAB, a district and city within the ArikAn division
of British Burmah, and under the jurisdiction of the chief
commissioner of that province. The district lies along th»
north-eastern shores of the Bay of Bengal, between 20'
and 2U° N. lat., and 92° 12' and 94° E. long. It forms the
northernmost district of British Burmah, and the largest
of the three districts of the Ardkdn division. It is bounded
on the N. by the Chittagong district of Bengal; on the E.
by the Sumadoung ranges, which separate it from Inde-
pendent Burmah; on the S. by the Arikin districts of
Rdmri and Sandoway ; and on the W. by the Bay of Bengal
In 1871 the frontier or hill tracts of the district were placed
under a special administration, with a -view to the better
government of the wild tribes which inhabit them The
present area is returned at 4858 square miles, of which
521 square miles are cultivated, 913 cultivable but not
actually under tillage, and 3424 square miles uncultivabla
and waste. The population of the district in 1872
amounted to 263,152, of whom' 192,885 were Buddhists
or Jains, 47,349 Mahometans, 8687 Hindus, 13,928 abori-
gines, and 303 Christians. The central part of the district
consists of three fertile valleys, watered by tho Myu,
Koladyne, and Lemyu. These rivers approach each other
at their mouths, and form a vast network of tidal chan-
nels, creeks, " and islands. Their alluvial valleys yield
inexhaustible supplies of rice, which the abundant water
carriage brings down tp the port of Akyab at a very cheap
rate. The four chief towns are Khilmgchii in the extrema
north-east of the district; Koladyne in the centre; ArAkin,
further down th" rivers; and .iCkyab on the coast, where
their mouths converge. This district passed into the hands
of the British, together -« ith the rest of ArAkin diviiicn.
at the close of the first Burmese war of 1826.
438
A- K Y — A L A
Akyab, Town and Port, situatea at the point of con-
vergence of the tlireo largo rivers Myu, Koladyne, and
Lomyu, 20° 9' N. lat., and 92° 56' E. long., is the chief
town of the district of the same name, and thofliost flourish-
ing city of ■ the Arikdn division. The town' is regularly
built, with broad streets running at right angles to each
other. The port is commodioua, is the seat of a largo export
trade in rice, and possesses steam communication direct
with Calcutta once ^ fortnight, except during tho. south-west
monsoon. The population in 1871-72 numbered 15,281.
Akyab monopolises almost tho whole sea-borne trade of the
province of ArAkin, amounting in 1871-72 to £1,345,417;
to which the export of rice contributed £105,8D4. During
1871-72, 256 vessebj, of a total burden of 129,061 tons,
entered the port; and 262 vessels, of a burden of 130,203
tons, cleared.
ALABAMA, one of the Southern States of the North
American Union, lies between 30° 13' and 35° N. lat., and
between 85° and 88° 35' W. long. It is bounded by
Florida and the Gulf of Mexico on tho S., Mississippi
on tho W., Temiossee on the N., and Georgiq. on the E.
Itj length is 330 miles, average breadth 154, and area
50,722 square miles. The Alleghany range stretches
into the northern portion of the state, but the elevation
is nowhere great ; the centre is also hilly and broken ; on
the south, however, for nearly 60 miles inland, the country
is very flat, and raised but little above the sea-leveL
The Alabama is the chief river of the state. It ia
iormed by the junction of the Coosa and the Talapoosa,
which unite about 10 miles above the city of Mont-
gomery. Forty-five miles above Mobile the Alabama is
joined by the Tombigbee, and from that point is known
as the Mobile Hirer. It is navigable from Mobile to
Wetumpka, on the Coosa, some 460 miles. The Tombig-
bee is navigable to Columbus, and the Black Warrior, one
of its chief tributaries, to Tuscaloosa. The Tonuessee
flows through the northern portion of the state, and the
CHiattahoochee forms part of its eastern boundary. Tlip
climate of Alabama is semi-tropical. Tho temperature
iran^os £rom 82° to 18° Fahr. in winter, and in summer
from' 105° to 60°; the mean temperature for tho year being
a little over 60°. The average severity of tho winter
months is considered to have increased — a result due, it in
said, mainly to the felling of the forests, which gives more
unrestricted scope to the culj north-west winds from the
Rocky Mountains. Tho uplands are healthy, but the in-
habitants of the low-lying lands are subject to attacks of
intermittent, bilious, and congestive fevers. Tho stratified
roclcs of the state belong to tho Silurian, carboniferous,
cretaceous, and tertiary systems. Tho silurian strata throw
up numerous mineral springs along the line of tho anti-
clinal axes, some of which, such as Blount Springs and
the St Clair Springs, are much resorted to for their health-
giving properties. There are abo several noted springs
arising from the tertiary beds, such as those of Tallahatta
and Bladon. Alabama possesses extensive coal deposita
Mr Tait, the state commifisioner for the industrial resources
of Alabama, considers that tho area of the coal-lands in
the state amounts to 5500 square miles, of which 5000
belong to the Warrior, and the remaining 500 to the
Cahawba and Coof a fields. Assuming that only one-half of
this area can be worked to advantage, Mr Tait further esti-
mates the aggregate possible yield at 52,250,000,000 tons.
At present, however, the annual output probably does not
exceed 12,000 tons. In regard to iron, the natural wealth
of Alabama is also very great. Mr Tait asserts that a
ridge of iron, of an average thickness of 15 feet, runs
parallel to one of the principal railway lines for a distance
of 100 miles'; and in other parts of the country there are
large deposits of ore, both red hematite and blackband.
The ores of Alabama are said to yield from 10 to 20 per
cent, more iron than those of Britain. Granite, marble,
flagstones, roofing-slate, lime, and porcelain clay, are
among the other mineral products. A little gold haa
also been found in the state.
Tho soil of Alabama varies greatly in character, but is
for the most part productive to a greater or lesser extent,
except in the south, where there are considerable tracts of
sandy, barren, and almost worthless soD, Tho forests are
mainly in the central and northern parts of the state, and
embrace oaks, pcpl:irs, cedars, chestnuts, pines, hickories,
mulberries, elms, and cypresses. The following table
exhibits tho chief agricultural statistics of Alabama for
1870, as compared with 1860, the year before the war: —
1870.
Farms.
Chief
Products.
\^nd in j Improved, . .
Forms. ( Unimproved,
I Horses, .
Mules and Asses,
Cattle, . . .
Sheep, , . .
Swiue, . , .
f Indian Com, .
Wheat, . . .
Rye, ... .
Oats, , . . .
Potatoes, . ,
Pease and Beans,
Butter, .
Cotton, . .
Wool, . . .
Rice
Tobacco, . .
^Molasses,
bushels
lb
bales
gallons
6,062,204
9,898,974
80,770
76,675
487,163
241,934
719,757
16,977,948
1,055,058
18,977
770,866
2,033,872
166,674
3,213,753
429,482
381,253
222,945
152,742
433,281
1860.
6,385,724
12,718,821
127,063
111,687
773,396
370,156
1,748,321
33,226,282
1,218,444
72,457
682,179
5,931,663
1,482,036
6,028,478
989,955
776,117
493,465
232,914
140,768
Alabama possesses comparatively few manufactures. It
is estimated that in 1870 the capital invested amounted
to £1,140,806, and the total products in the same year
were valued at £2,608,124. There were in 1870 thirteen
establishments for the manufacture of cotton goods, whose
products amounted in all to 2,843,000 6, including
4,618,403 yards of sheetings and shirtings, and 1,039,321
A L A — A L A
439
yards of ginghams and checks. In the same year 613 flour
mills eperated on 3,298,848 bushels of grain. There were
284 lumber mills, producing 1,115,000 laths, 97,192 feet
of lumber, and 1,422,000 shingles. In the iron manufac-
tures there has been a marked advance, which is the more
noticeable because several other industries have experienced
a serious decline. Thus, in 1850 the quantity of ore used
for making pig-iron was only 1138 tons, in 1860 it had
risen to 3720 tons, and in 1870 to 11,350; the value of
the products being respectively .£4500, £12,918, and
X42,Q51. Alabama has also manufactories of rolled and
cast iron; but the rise in the value of their products is not so
marked. There are, besides, tanneries, carriage and waggon
works, and machinery factories, in addition to industries
■of a local nature. Mobile is the chief mercantile city of
the state. In the years endiji>.g June 30, 1871 and 1872,
688 and 3G9 vessels (gross burden, 558,525 and 272,853
tons) entered, and 711 and 369 (551,310 and 277,356 tons)
cleared the port of Mobile. Cotton was the principal
article of export — the amount in 1871 being 287,074
bales, and in 1872, 137,977; of which 240,660 and
123,522 bales went to Great Britain. Mobile is con-
nected with the general network of railways of the United
States. A line runs from the city through Montgomery
and on to Atlanta in Georgia; another runs from Mobile
to Meridian in Mi-ssissippi; a line crosses the state from
Meridian through Cahawba to Montgomery; a loop-line
runs from Montgomery to Troy, and proceeding round by
Columbus in Georgia, rejoins the main line at Opelika; from
Selma a line proceeds north-easterly, foUowing the valley
of the Coosa, and passing through Georgia and Tennessee;
.and another traverses the valley of the Tennessee, from
which a branch strikes off to the north to join the Ten-
nessee group of railways at Nashville. A line also con-
nects Mobile with New Orleans. The part of the line
from Mobile to Montgomery between Mobile and Tensaa
was completed under considerable engineering difficulties.
It crosses the Mobile river by a swing drawbridge 1000
feet in length, with a draw of 260 feet; while the
Tensas river bridge is built on cylindrical piers, each
span measuring 152 feet, and its total length 2084 feet.-
There are at present 1602 miles of railway and 2135 of
telegraph lines in operation in Alabama.
Alabama returns 8 members to Congress. The state
government is vested in a governor, Senate, and House of
Representatives. The Senate consists of 33 members
«lected for four years, one half retiring every two years.
The House of Representatives consists of not more "than
100 members, elected for two years, and apportioned
among the counties according to population, each county,
however, being entitled to at least one representative.
The members of both houses receive 16s. 8d. each per diem,
and the governor £520, 16s. 8d. per annum. The taxation
in 1870 amounted to $2,982,932, and the public debt to
413,277,154. In 1860 the taxation was only $851,171.
The state is divided into 65 counties, and Montgomery is
the capital. The other principal towns are Mobile, Tus-
caloosa (the former capital), Florence, HuntsviUe, Selma,
and Wetumpka.
Alabama was first penetrated by the Spaniards in quest
of gold in 1541, under the celebrated leader De Soto. The
natives defended themselves stubbornly, and in their
defence inflicted and sustained very severe losses. The
present site of Mobile was first occupied by the French in
1711. In 1763 the French possessions ea.st of the Missis-
sippi, including Alabama, were ceded to England. Alabama
was originally included in Georgia, but in 1802 became
part, of the territory of Mi.s.si.iBippL In 1813 the Creek
Indians made a desperate effort to chock the encroach-
ments of the AnL'lo-Saxons, but were eventually crushed in
the battle of Horse Shoe Bend by General Jackson, whc
compelled them to surrender three-fourths of their terri-
tory. In 1819 Alabama was admitted into the Union as
an independent member of the confederation. It seceded
in the year 1861, but since the close of the war has beei)
again admitted into the Union. ,
The census of 1870 showed the following results: — Total
population of Alabama, 996,992; coloured, 475,510; with
98 Indian.?. Of these, 987,0,30 were native bom, and
9962 foreign. In 1860 the population was 964,201,. of
whom 526,271 were whites and 437,770 (435,080 slaves)
were coloured; in 1820 (the year after Alabama had been
admitted into the Union) the numbers were — total, 127,901;
whites, 85,451 ; coloured, 42,450 (41,879 slaves). Of the
total population in 1870, 488,738 were males (255,023
whites, 233,677 coloured, 38 Indians) and 508,254 females
(respectively, 266,361, 241,833, 60). In regard to educa-
tion, there were in the state between 5 and 18 years
of age, 173,273 males (91,989 whites, 81,274 coloured,
and 10 Indians) and 169,703 females (89,798, 79,882,
and 23); of whom 77,139 have attended school (viz.,
31,098 white and 7502 coloured males, and 30,226
white and 8313 coloured females). The returns give 2969
schools, with 2372 male and 992 female teachers. Of
persons 10 years and upwards, there were 349,771 returned
as unable to read, and 383,012 as unable to 'write.
ALABASTER (said to be derived from the Arabic al
batstraton, the whitish stone), a name properly restricted to
the fine massive variety of gyjisum, or sulphate of lime, which
is used in the manufacture of ornamental vases, statuettes,
clcpck-frames, (fee. When pure, it is of a brilliant pearly-
white lustre, so very soft as to be easily scratched by the
nail, and is soluble to a slight extent in water. It occurs in
large and very pure masses at several localities in Tuscany,
and is turned or chiselled into its various ornamental fonns
in Florence, which is the centre of the alabaster trade. At
a time when the taste for alabaster work was more general
than now, it was quarried at Lagny, near Paris. In Eng-
land considerable deposits are found in various localities,
but chiefly in Derbyshire and Staffordshire, where it is
worked to form the plaster of Paris moulds used by potters ;
hence it is termed " potters' stone." Fine blocks found
in quarrying the potters' stone are reserved for the
alabaster turners. A yellow variety of alabaster, found at
Sienna, is termed " alabastra agatato." \Vlien it presents a
fibrous structure, it is known as " satin spar," which when
cut has the opalescent appearance of " cat's eyes." Ori-
ental alabaster is the name applied to the stalagmitic
variety of carbonate of Ume formed on the floors of lime-
stone caves by the percolation of water, an entirely dif-
ferent material from the above. It is usually clouded or
banded in an agate-Uke manner, and hence is sometime?
known as onyx marble. The alabaster yielded by celebrateci
quarries, known to the ancients and now again woiked, in
the province of Oran, Algeria, is of this kind. Tt is ,,]iis
oriental alabaster that is referred to in the IX. "e, the
oAa/JatrTpin;? of the Greeka The stone was held in very
high estimation among the civilised nations of antiquity,
being then chiefly procured from quarries in the neighbour-
hood of Thebes, which to this day remain unexhausted. At
the present time it is procured from Oran (Algerian onys),
the Pyrenees, ChUi, California, cfec. In the Soanean Museum
there is an Egyptian sarcophagus in oriental alabaster,
covered with hieroglj-phics, which was purchased by Sir
John Soane for 2000 guineas.
ALABASTER, William, D.D., poet and scholar. If
to have been commemorated with golden words by Ed-
mund Spenser in his Colin Clouts come Home Againe, 11.
400-415, and by Herrick in his Jlesperides ; and to have
been reckoned " foeman worthy of his steel " by Bishop
440
A L A — A LA
Bedell ; and to have had his portrait painted by Corneuus
Jansen, and engraved by Payne ; and to have been pro-
nounced by Fi^ller " a most rare poet as any our ago or
nation hath produced ;" and to have drawn from Samuel
Johneon unequivocal eulogium, may be regarded as entit-
ling to a claim on our interest at this later day, Dr William
Alabaster unites in himself all these memorable tributes.
Alabaster was his own spelling, as it was Bedell's and
Fuller's ; but it is found contcimporaneously " Arblaslier."
The name is derived from arcubalista (in arms of the
family, a cross-bow bent in pale), and tho same probably
OS Arblastier. He was born at Hadleigh, SufiTolk, about
1567, was educated at Westminster School, and went
thence to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was also in-
corporated at Oxford in 1592. He became fellow of
Trinity. Having been appointed chaplain to Robert, Earl
of Essex, ho attended him in that expedition, designed to
aid Henry IV. against tho League in 1591, celebrated by
Dr Donnei in "The Storm" and "The Calm." <VTiile in
France (in his twenty-fourth year), he was converted to
Roman Catholicism, and a quaint English sonnet, " Of his
Conversion," survives, wherein he defies the " frowne and
Bcorne and purblind pittie " of the world, as having a
vision of perdition if he yielded thereto. He did not long
remain a Roman Catholic. In the preface to his work
entitled Ecce Sponsus Venit (1633), he relates that certain
doctrines of his having become obnoxious to the court of
Rome, he was enticed to that city and imprisoned there
by authority of the Inquisition ; and that on his liberation
ho was confined within the city walls, but escaped at the
peril of his life, and returned to England., On his return
he became prebendary of St Paul's and rector of Hatfield.
Dr Alabaster was famous as a Hebraist; but his studies of
Hebrew took a twist in the direction of the cabalistic
learning, by which he luxuriated in discussions on the
mystical meanings imagined to bo hidden in the words of
tho Old Testament. The investigation and application of
this supposed mystical meaning of Scripture was the main
object of his Apparatus in Revelationem Jesu Chrisii
(Antwerp, 1607); and, indeed, it runs through all his
critical writings, as in his singular Spiraculum Tubarnm,
tivt Fons Spiritualium Expo$itionem ex equivocia Penta-
glotli SigniJUationihis (n.d., foUo), his Lexicon Pentaglotton
(1637, folio), and the Commentarius de Bestia Apoca-
lyptica (1621). It was of these books Herrick wrote ea
making Alabaster "the one, one onely glory of a million."
A MS. of Alabaster's Elisceis is among Emanuel College
MSS. ; a better one, with additional poems, entitled
" Inuenta Bellica" — 'c:iHing Herbert's " Triumphus
Mortis," 80 headed — and "Inuenta Adespota," is in the
Chetham Library, Manchester. The poem is unfinished, but
has lines in it w>ach pccount for Spenser's lofty praise and
hopes. It has never been printed. His best known verse
is a Latin ..ragedy called Roxana. This is praised by
Fuller, stirred Anthony b, Wood into enthusiasm, and is
regardej by Dr Johnson as the only Latin verse in Eng-
land worthy to be named previous to Milton. It was
prepared for his college (Trinity), and never meant for
publication. Having been surreptitiously published in
1632, the author thereupon reprinted it, with this on the
title-page, " A plagiariis unguibus vindicata, aucta et
agnita." It is a curious composition. The subject is an
oriental tale which had previously been dramatised in the
Dalida of Qroto, an ItaKan. The scenes consist of con-
versations between real and allegorical personages. The
first act is entirely carried on between the ghost of one of
the characters and personifications of Death and Suspicion.
HaUam charges Alabaster with plagiarism from Dalida,
but he cannot have really read the two. Alabaster died
about 1640. (a. a o.)
aLACRANES, a group of corai reers and islanda in tha
Gulf of Mexico, 80 miles off the north coast of Yucatan,
and extending 14 miles from north to south, and 11 from
east to west. On the 12t]| February 1847 the mail steamer
Tweed was wrecked on the Alacranes ; and in January 1849
a similar di.sa3ter befell the Forth, belonging to the same
company. On tho south side, in 22° 23' 36" N. lat., and
89" 42' W. long., there is a secure harbour, well sheltered
by dry .reefs.
ALAGOAS, a maritime province of Brazil, formerly a
district of Pornambuco,.is situated between 9° and 10° 30'
S. bt., and extends inland 150 miles. It is bounded on
tho N. and W. by Pernambuco, and is separated by the
river San Francisco from the province of Sergipe on the
S. It embraces an area of 12,000 square miles. Tho
country, particularly in the north-west, is very moun-
tainous, but at the same rime richly wooded. On tho
eastern side of the mountains, hilly tracts, well suited for
the cultivation of cotton, descend towards the coast, and
nearer tho sea there is a rich alluvial soil interspersed with
swamps (lagoas), whence the province takes its name. Tho
chio^ articles of produce and export are sugar-cane, rice,
cotton, hides, and rosewood. Tropical fruits of all kinds
are produced in abundance, and tho forests, besides ad-
mirable timber, yield various dyes and drugs. The people
are chiefly engaged in agriculture, and there are no manu-
factures of importance. The population of the province i»
300,000. The town of Alagoas, formerly the capital of tho
province, is situated on Lake Manguaba. It has declined
considerably since the transfer of the local government
to Maceio. Population, including di-strict, 12,000.
ALAIN DE LILLE (Alakus ab Insulis), theologiaa
and ecclesiastic, born at Lille or Ryssel about the year
1114. The facts of his life are involved in uncertainty,
owing to his having been frequently confounded by bio-
graphers with others, nearly contemporary, who bore the'
same name. Some have identified him with Alanus,
bishop of Auxerres ; others confound him with an elder
Alanus, also born at Lille. These, however, were probably
three distinct persons. Of the theological writer known
as the doctor universalis, all that can be said with certainty
is that he was a Cistercian monk. It is probable that
he passed a great part of his life in England, though he
ended his days in the abbey of Citeaux. His works are
very numerous, the most important of them being entitled
Anti-Claudianus, sive de Ojficio Viri Boni et Per/ecti. The
title denotes that the work takes for its model Claudian's
satire against Rufinus, the minister of Theodosius. It is
written in verse, and partakes somewhat of the character
of an encyclopcedia. Alain's De Arte Catholicce Fidei is
remarkable focits endeavour to base dogmatic theology on
the exact reasoning of mathematical demonstration, and
for its admission that heresy was to be overcome by argu-
ment and not by mere authority. His exposition of the:
prophecies of Merlin, in seven books, is of some importance
in its bearing upon English history. A Life of St Bernard
and a treatise against heretics, usually included among the
works of this author, are, from internal evidence, to be
attributed with more probability to the bishop of Anzerres.
Alain died about 1202-3.
ALAIS, a flourishing town of France, in the department
of the Gard, on the right bank of the Gardon, at the foot
of the Cevennes, 25 miles north-north-west of Nimes, with
which it is united by rail In the 17th century it was a
stronghold of the French Protestants, and was besieged
and taken by Louis XIIL in 1629. It has a citadel,
erected by Louis XIV., a fine Gothic church, and a mining
school The town itself has considerable manufactures of
ribands, silk, earthenware, glass, and vitriol ; but its pros-
perity is chiefly derived from the adjacent mineral field.
A L A — A L A
441
Wiiich was opened up in 181y, ana yields great quantities
of coal and iron, as well as zinc, lead, and manganese.
The numerous mines, blast furnaces, and iron foundries,
afiFord employment to many workmen. There are cold
mineral springs in the vicinity, which attract large num-
bers of visitors durine the summer months. Population
in 1872, 19,230.
ALAJUELA, a city in the siate oi Costa xvica, ^^6ntral
America, 23 miles W.N.W. from Cartago, and midway
between it and the west coast. It is a place of consider-
able trade, and is connected by a mule road with the port
of Puntas Arenas, the only good harbour possessed by Costa
Kica on the Pacific Ocean. Some parts of the town are
well bmlt and beautifully situated; and the detached houses
in the environs are embowered by trees and flowering
shrubs. The sugar-cane is cultivated in the neighbourhood.
Population, 12,575.
ALAMANNI, or Alemanni, ^mai, an Italian states-
man and poet, was bom at Florence in 1495. His father
was a devoted adherent of the Medici party, but Luigi,
smarting under a supposed injustice, joined with others in
an unsuccessful conspiracy against Giulio de' Medici, after-
wards Pope Clement VII He was obliged in consequence
to take refuge in Venice, and, on the accession of Clement,
to flee to France. When Florence shook ofif the papal
yoke, Alamanni returned, and took a prominent part in the
management of the affairs of the republic. On the restora-
'tion of the Medici (1530), he had again to take refuge in
France, where he composed the greater part of his works.
He was a favourite with Francis I., who sent him as ambas-
sador to Charles V. after the peace of Crespi in 1544. As
an instance of his tact in this capacity, it is related that,
when Charles interrupted a complimentary address by
quoting from a satirical poem of Alamanni's the words —
" raqnlla grifagna,
C!he per piu devorar, duoi rostri porta,"
(Two crooked bills the ravenous eagle tears.
The better to devour,)
the latter at once replied that he spoke then as a poet,
who was permitted to use fictions, but that he spoke now
as an ambassador, who was obliged to tell the trutL The
ready reply pleased Charles, who added some compli-
mentary words. After the death of Francis, Alamanni
enjoyed the confidence of his successor Henry IL, and in
1551 was sent by him as his ambassador to Genoa. He died
at Amboise in 1556. He wrote a large number of poems,
distinguished by the purity and excellence of thoir style.
The best is a didactic poem. La Coltivazione (1533), written
in imitation of Virgil's Georglcs. His Opere Toscarie (1532)
consists of satirical pieces written in blank verse. An
unfinished poem, Arvarchide, in imitation of the niad, was
the work of his old age, and has little merit. It has been
said by some that Alamanni was the first to use blank
verse in Italian poetry, but the distinction belongs rather
to his contemporary Trissino.
ALAMOS, Los, a town of Mexico, in the state of
Sinaloa, situated on a barren plain 140 miles N.N.W. of
Sinaloa. Thd houses of the town are mostly of stone or
brick covered with stucco, and several of the streets are
well paved; provisions are dear and water scarce. The
surrounding district contains many rich silver mines. Of
the population, amounting to about 10,000, a large propor-
tion are employed in the mines.
ALAMOS DE BAiffilENTOS, Don Balthazae, a
Spanish philologist, bom at Medina del Campo, in Castile,
about 1650. He was on terms of intimate friendship with
Antonio Perez, secretary to Philip H ; and when the latter
fell into disgrace, Alamos was cast into prison, where he
remained nearly twelve years. During this period ho pre-
pared thn translation of Tacitus, with a commentary, which
gave biiTi his reputation as a classical scholar. On the
death of Philip EL Alamos recovered his liberty, and
afterwards received various important court appointments
through the influence of the Duke de Lerma and the Count
d'OUvarez. He died at the age of eighty-five.
ALAN, AiiBN, or Allyn, Whuam (153i-v/»;, car-
dinal, was bom at Eossall in Lancashire. He studied
at Oriel College, Oxford, and was appointed principal of
St Mary's HaU in 1556. Two years later he was made a
canon of York; but being opposed to the Reformation,
was forced to flee to Louvain on the accession cf Elizabeth.
He returned to England after a time, and for some years
resided chiefly at Oxford ; but his proselytising zeal being
discovered, necessitated a second flight At Douay ha
received a doctor's degree from the recently-founded univer-
sity, and he himself established a coUege there for English
Catholics. In 1587 he was made cardinal of St Martin
de Montibus, and in 1689 archbishop of Mechlin. The
great aim of his life seems to have been to restore the papal
supremacy in England. For this purpose he founded the
college at Douay, and sent over the Jesuit priests trained
there 'to his native land. He was, of course, a bitter enemy
of Elizabeth, who expelled his emissaries, and even caused
some of them to be put to death. One of his pamphlets,'
prepared for circulation among the English people, con-
tained charges against the queen so foul and scurrilous that
they can scarcely be repeated. It was only natural that he
should be one of the chief intriguers in the Spanish plot
which led to the fitting out of the Armada, especially as the
pope had promised him the archbishopric of Canterbury in
the event of the expedition being successfuL His letters
to Philip were full of encouragement, and the failure of the
enterprise must have been a severe blow to him. When
the fact became known, he lost favour at the papal court,
and was refused permission to return to his diocese.
ALAND ISLANDS, an archipelago at the entrance to
the Gulf of Bothnia, abovi_' 25 nules from the coast of
Sweden, and 15 from that of Finland. The group consists
of nearly 300 islands, of wjiich about 80 are inhabited, the
remainder being desolate rocks. These islands form a
continuation of a dangerous granite reef extending along
the south coast of Finland. They formerly belonged to
Sweden; and in the neighbourhood -the first victory of the
Russian fleet over the Swedes was gained by Peter the
Great in 1714. They finally passed into the possession of
Russia in 1809. The inhabitants, amounting to about
16,000, are mostly of Swedish descent, and are hardy sea-
men and fishermen. The surface of the islands is generally
sandy, the soil is thin, and the climate is keen; yet Scotch
fir, spruce, and birch are grown; and rye, bariey, flax, and
vegetables are produced in sufficient quantity for the wants
of the people. Great numbers of cattle are reared; and
cheese, butter, and hides, as well as salted meat and fish,
are exported. The largest island, which gives its name to
the group, is 18 miles long by 14 broad, and contains about
two-thirds of the total population. There are several excel-
lent harbours (notably that of YttemiEs), which are of great
importance to Russia from the fact that they are frozen up
for a much briefer period than those on the coast of Finland.
The fortress of Bomarsund, in one of these islands, was
attacked and destroyed by an Anglo-French force in 1854.
ALANI, a number of nomadic tribes of eastem origin,
who spread themselves over Europe during the decline of
the Roman empire. The name was probably at first con-
fined to one tribe of Tatar race, whose oripnal seat was
on the northern shores of the Caspian Sea, and was after-
wards, as the power of that race extended, applied to other
tribes. It is supposed that their first encounter with the
Romans was during the Mithridatic war, when Pompey led
an expedition into the Caucasus. Isolated statements io
442
A L A — A L A
contemporary writers show that the Alani vicro .'iCqucntly
in conflict with the Roman power. In March 276 A.D. they
received a decisive check in an attempt to make their wav
eastward into Persia, being defeated by tue emperor iacitus,
■who forced them to recross the Phasis. The most com-
plete account of the Alani is to bo found in the pages of
Ammianus MarceUinus (lib. ixii), who describes their
manners and customs at considerable length. From him,
too, wo learn of the advance of the Huns, who signally
defeated the Alani in a battle fouglrt on the banks of the
Tanais in 375. The race thereupon divided, some retiring to
the CMt, while the great majority joined their conquerors
in an invasion of the kingdom of the Gotha. Associated
with the Vandals and Suevi, they left the settlements
they had in Pannonia and entered Gaul in 406, whence
three years later they crossed tha PjTenees into Spain,
and founded a settlement in Lusitania and Bajtica, where
they remained in peace for some years. In 418, however,
they were attacked and defeated by Wallia, king of the
Visigoths, with whom they had quarrelled. Their king,
Ataces, was slain in the battle, and they became subject to
Gunderic, king of the Vandals, their national independence
being lost. Those of the Alani who had remained in Gaul
when the others invaded Spain, settled near Valence and
Orleans. Though serving under Theodoric, they sympa-
thised with Attila and the Huns, and by deserting at
Chalons (451)^ all but changed the victory of the Romans
into a defeat. Soon afterwards their separate national
existence in Gaul was merged in that of the Visigoths.
The small portion of the Alani that had remained in their
original seat in the Caucasus are frequently noticed in
history down to the middle a^es. In 572 they were allied
with the Armenians under King Saroes. They seem to
have afterwards regained their independence. In 1221
they were defeated by Gengis Khan, and in 1237 they
were so completely subjugated by Batu-Khan that then-
very name disappears in subsequent history.
ALARCON, Hernando de, a Spanish navigator of the
16th century, known only in connection with the expedi-
tion to the coast of California, of which he was leader.
He set sail on the 9th May 1540, with orders from the
Spanish court to await at a certain point on the coast the
fcrrival of an expedition by land under the command of
Vasquez de Coronado. The junction was not effected,
though Alarcon reached the appointed place and left letters,
which were afterwards found by Diaz, another explorer.
Alarcon was the first to determine with certainty that Cali-
fornia was a peninsula and not an island, as had been sup-
posed. He made a careful and exact survey of the ooast,
sailed a considerable distance up the Rio del Tizon (Colo-
rado), and was thus able, on his return to New Spain in
1541, to construct a map of California, which, according to M,
Duflot de Mofras, scarcely differs from one of the present day.
ALARCON Y MENDOZA, Juan Ruus de, one of the
most distinguished Spanish dramatists, bom at Tasco in
Mexico about the close of the 16th century, was descended
from a noble family belonging to Alarcon in Cuenja.
Nothing is known with certainty of his early life, but it is
probable that he was educated at one of the Spanish univer-
sities. In 1 622 he had taken up his residence at Madrid, and
in 1628 he was appointed to the office of relator (reporter)
of the royal council of the Indies, which afforded him a com-
petency. In the same year he publishfd the first volume
of his comedies, dedicating it to " the rabble" in a daringly
contemptuous address. A second volume of comedies
appeared at Barcelona in 1634, in which he brought charges
against several poets of appropriating his productions.
About the game time he was successful in an open com-
petition for a dramatic hbretto to be played at the f^tes in
Qonour of Philip IV. These two facts, comb'iied with hL»
haughty disdain both of the public and of his literary
brethren, made Alarcon very unpopular; -nd he was ecur-
lilously lampooned by mont o' the poets and diamatiats'of
ii.e day, Calderon honourably distinguisning himself by hia
silence. A further injustice was done him in the piracy o{
his works by other and better known authors than himself.
To such an extent was this carried that Alarcon's reputa-
tion as a dramatist was almost extinct even before th»
close of his life, and it is only quite recently that it has
been revived. The date of his death b givcin, on doubtful
authority, as 1639. Alarcon holds a foremost place among
Spanish dramatists, being surpassed only, if at all, by Lopo
de Vega and Calderon. He is distinguished by the cor-
rectness of his language, the harmony of his verse, and the
elevation of his sentiment. His La Ferdad Sospec/icia
(Suspicious Truth) supplied CorneiUe with the materials-
for hia Menteur, and called forth the highest praise from
the great French dramatist. His Tejedor de Segovia (Weaver
of Segovia) and iajParfrfejOycn (Walls have Ears) are acted
at the present day. A complete edition of his comedies
was published by Hartzenbusch at Madrid (1848-52).
ALARIC (^Al-rk, i.e., All rich), a chief, md aftenvards
king of the Visigoths, was born of the noble family of
Balti {hcdtha, bold). He first appears in history (394
A.D.) as a commander in the army of subjugated Gotlis
whom the Emperor Theodosius employed in his war with
Eugenius. On the death of Theodosius in 395 the Gotha
asserted their independence, and under the leadership of
Alaric made an incursion from Thrace, where they had
been located, into the ilorea. Athens yielded to them
without resistance, and Alaric enriched himself with the
movable treasures of the city, though ha did not, as somo
have asserted, destroy buildings and works of art. Rufinus,
the crafty minister of Arcadius, did nothing to check the
advance of the barbarians, and it has even been said that
he had a secret understanding with Alaric. Opposition
came, however, from the Western Empire. Stilicho, the
famous general, landed at Corinth, and drove the Goths to
Mount Pholoe, on the frontiers of Elis, where he besieged
their camp. With proper vigilance, the siege could not
have been raised; but the Romans were careless, and Alaric
with his army contrived to escape to Epirus. Stilicho
was prevented from following him by an order from the
Emperor Arcadius, who conferred upon Alaric the pre-
fecture of eastern Dlyricum. About the same time the
Gothic chief was chosen king by his people. It was
natural that Alaric's desire of conquest should increase
with the increase of his power, and accordingly about the
year 400 ad. he set out to invade the Empire of the
West. His march was exceedingly slow, and it was not
until the spring of 403 that he appeared before Milan,
from which the Emperor Honorius instantly fled to the
fortress of Asta in Liguria. Being besieged there, he was
on the point of .capitulating when he was relieved by
Stilicho, who, in the battle of PoUentia, fought on Easter-
day, gained a somewhat doubtful victory over ALiric.
Some time after, the contest was renewed at Verona, and
Alaric sustained a decisive defeat. He was obliged to
accept terms of peace, and to retreat for the time; ImH
his attitude was always threatening, and Honorius found
it expedient to buy him off by appointing him prefect of
western Illyricum, with a large revenue. In this capacity
Stilicho encouraged Alaric to lead his army against Con-
stantinople, probably more with the design of keeping him
at a distance from Italy than with any hope of reuniting
the divided empire. The final expedition to Constantinople
was not undertaken ; but for his services during three
years in Epirus, Alaric claimed an extravagant reward,
and Honorius, on the advice of Stilicho, promised him
4000 pounds. of gold. _ Shortly afterwards the weafe
A L A- A L A
443
minded emperor procured the assassination of his minister,
the only Roman who had proved himself able to cope with
the Gothic forces, and broke all the treaties which StOicho
had made with Alaric. The latter at once marched upon
Rome (408) by the Via Flaminia, and laid siege to the
city. On coming to treat with him, the Romans found his
demands so extravagant that they threatened a desperate
resistance, to which Alaric made the well-known reply,
" The closer hay is pressed, the easier is it mown." At
last the barbarian was induced to retire by the promise of
5000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver, besides
other treasure. The respite, however, was but for a time,
Honorius, who had left Rome for Ravenna, refused to
ratify by treaty certain conditions, moderate in themselves,
on which Alaric firmly insisted, and the capital was again
at the mercy of the enemy. With commendable forbear-
ance, Alaric contented himself at first with taking posses-
sion of Ostia, from which h,e summoned the city to sur-
render, threatening the immediate destruction of the food
stores in case of refusal. The terrified people at once
opened their gates, and agreed that the conqueror si-ould
appoint another emperor in place of Honorius. Alaric's
choice fell upon Attains, the prefect of the city, who,
though well received at first, soon proved himself thoroughly
incompetent, and Honorius had to be restored. WTule the
conferences as to the restoration were still being carried
on at Ravenna, the treachery of Honorius occasioned yet
another and more disastrous siege of Rome by the Goths.
Sarus, a barbarian and a hereditary enemy of the house of
Balti, w'as permitted by the emperor to attack the camp of
the Goths and return in triumph to Ravenna. Alaric was
naturally indignant, laid siege to Rome for the third time,
and gained an entrance by the Salarian gate on the night
of the 24th August 410. For sii days the city was
given over to the horrors of a pillage, which the humane
orders of Alaric did but little to mitigate. On the 29th
August Alaric withdrew his troops from Rome, and led
them into southern Italy, which he ravaged for several
months. Towards the close of the year, while engaged in
the siege of Cosentia {Cosenza), he was seized with an
illness which proved fatal after a very short duration. He
was buried with his treasures in the bed of the river
Busentinus, which was diverted from its channel for that
purpose, and all the prisoners who were engaged in the
work were put to death in order that the place of bis
sepulture might remain unknown. The character of Alaric
has been somewhat variously represented by historians.
In forming an estimate of it many have been misled by
the use of the term barbarian, which, as applied to him, it
should be remembered, indicates a national and not a
personal distinction. Many proofs may be found of his
humanity and moderation in trying circumstances, whUe,
on the other hand, the charges of cruelty brought against
him are not borne out by evidence. His marked respect
for Christianity is explained by the fact that, if he was not
himself a Christian, he had come early under Christian
influence, having had frequent intercourse with Arian
teachers.
ALARIC II., eighth king of the Goths in Spain, suc-
ceeded his father Euric or Evaric about 484. His dominions
not only included the greater part of Spain (Hispania
Tarraconensis and B^tica), but extended into Gaul as far
as the rivers Rhone and Loire. In religion Alaric was
an Arian, but that he was tolerant of the orthodox Catholics
is shown by the decrees of the Council of Agde, summoned
by him in 506. He displayed sioiilar wisdom and liber-
ality in political afl'airs by appointing a commission to
prepare fn abstract of the Koman laws and imperial
decrees which should form the authoritative code for his
domirjons. This ia generally known aa th'j Brniarium
Alaricianum. It contains six books of the code of Theo-
dosius, and is therefore sometimes called the Corpus
Theodosii. The full text has been given by Savigny.
Alaric was of a peaceful disposition, and endeavoured
strictly to maintain the treaty which his father had con-
cluded with the Franks. Clovis, however, desiring to
obtain the Gothic province in Gaul, found a pretext for
war in the Arianism of Alaric. The intervention of
Ineodoric, king of the Ostrogoths and father-in-law of
Alaric, proved unavailing. The two armies met in 507 at
Voglade (Vouillf), near Poitiers, where the Goths were
defeated, and their king, who took to flight, was overtaken
and slain by Clovis himself.
ALASCO, John (in Polish, Lascki), a Polish nobleman,
born in 1499, who travelled extensively in his youth, and
during a residence in Zurich imbibed the doctrines of the
Reformation from Zwingli. At Basel in 1525 he had
frequent intercourse with Erasmus, who held him in great
esteem, and bequeathed his library to him. On his return
to his native country he was oflTered more than once
ecclesiastical preferment, which the change in his religious
opinions prevented him from accepting. With the view of
securing more freedom, he quitted Poland, and after travel-
ling for a timp, became pastor of a Protestarft congregation
at Embden, in East Friesland, in 1542. Foreseeing per-
secution there, he went to London in 1551, on the invita-
tion of Cranmer, and became superintendent of the con-
gregation of foreign Protestants, most of whom were driven
into exile like himself in consequence of the Interim. The
revenues of the church of Augustin Friars were assigned
to support him and four assistant ministers, who had to be
approved by the king. On the accession of Mary in 1553,
Alasco and all his congregation were banished. In 1656
he returned to Poland, where he died on the 13th January
1560. Alasco wrote a number of theological treatises,
chiefly in defence of the doctrine of the sacraments as held
by the Swiss Reformers, and he was one of the eighteen
divines who prepared the Polish version of the Bib'e,
which was published in 1563.
ALA-SHEHR, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic
of Anatolia, 83 miles E. of Smyrna. It is dirty and Ul-
buUt ; but, standing on elevated ground, and commanding
the prospect of the extensive and fertile plain of the
Hermus, presents at a distance an imposing appearance.
It is the seat of a Greek archbishop, and has five Christian
churches and fifteen mosques. The city occupies the site
of the ancient Philadelphia, one of the "seven chiuches
in Asia" of the Apocalypse. The ancient city, founded
two centuries B.C., was subject to frequent earthquakes.
In more modern times it was celebrated for its prolonged
resistance to the Turks, who took it in 1300, after all the
other cities of Asia Minor had surrendered. Ala-Shehr
has an active trade, and the population is about 18,000.
ALASKA, or Aliaska, formerly Russian America,
but now a territory of the United States, is a vast tract of
country forming the north-west portion of North America,
bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by
British America, and on the S. and W. by the Pacific
Ocean. The name was formerly confined to a long narrow
peninsula stretching into the Pacific, but has been^extended
to the whole territory. Alaska comprises the whole of
North America from 141° W. long, to Behring Strait, and
also numerous islands iJong the coast, notably Prince of
W.ile3 Islands, King Q<.jorge III. Archipelago, the Kodiak
Iskinds, and the Aleutian Islands, which stretch seaward
from the extremity of the peninsula. From the main
portion of the territory a narrow strip, with a breadth of
about 50 mUei, extends south-east along the Pacific coast,
and terminates 'it the confines of British Columbia, in
64° 40' N. lat. From north to south the extreme length ot
444
A L A — A L A
Alaska is about 1100 miles, and the greatest breadth from
east to west is 800 miles. The area of the whole territory
is estimated at 514,700 equate miles.
Coast The numerous islands, creeks, and inlets of Alaska
lengthen out its coast-lLne to 7860 miles, an extent
greater than that of the eastern coast^line of the United
States. Beginning at the south-east, the chief creeks and
bays are Cook's Inlet, BrLstol Bay, Norton Sound, and
Kotzebue Sound; while, following the same order, the
principal headlands, in addition to the extremity of the
j)enin.sula, are Cape Ncwonham and Cape RomarizofI in
the Pacific, Capo Prince of Wales in Behring Strait, and
Cape Lisbume, Icy Cape, and Point Barrow in the Arctic
Ocean. Point Barrow is in 71° 23' N. lat, and is the
extreme northern point of the country. The exploration
of the northern coast was chiefly the work of the British
navigators Cook, Beechy, and Franklin, and of the officers
RiTers. of the Hudson's Bay Company. The principal river of
Alaska is the Yukon, or Kwiclipak, which rises in British
America, and, receiving ^lie Porcupme river at Fort
Yukon, flows westward across the territory, and falls
into the Pacific Ocean to the . south of Norton Soojid.
At a distance of 600 miles from the sea this magnificent
river has a width of more than a mile. Its tributaries
would in Europe be reckoned large rivers, and its volume is
80 great that 10 miles out from its principal mouth the
water is fresh. Among the other rivers of Ala-ska are
the Copper river, the Suschitna, the Nuschagak, and the
Kuskokwim, falling into the Pacific, and the Colville,
Mountains, flowing northward into the Arctic Ocean. A great moun-
tain range extends from British Columbia, in a north-west
direction, along the coast of Alaska, the summit being
covered with snow and glaciers. Mount St Elias, an
active volcano, in 60° 18' N. lat., and 140° 30' W. long.,
rises to the height of 14,970 feet above the sea. The
mountain chain runs out along the peninsula which has
given its name to the country, and at the western extremity
there are several volcanic cones of great elevation ; while
in the island of Uminak, separated from the mainland by
only a narrow strait, there are enormous volcanoes, one
rising to more than 8000 feet in height. In the interior
and to the north ^the country is also mountainous, with
great intervening plains.
iHistory. The north-west coast of this part of America was dis-
covered and explored by a Russian expedition under
Behring in 1741 ; and at subsequent periods settlements
were made by the Russians at various places, chiefly for
the prosecution of the fur trade. In 1799 the territory
was granted to a Russo-American fur company by the
Emperor Paul VIII., and in 1839 the charter of the com-
pany was renewed. Kew Archangel, in the island of
Sitka, was the principal settlement, but. the company had
about forty stations. They exported annually 25,000
skins of the seal, sea-otter, beaver, <fec., besides about
20,000 sea-horse teeth. The privileges of the company
expired in 1863; and in 1867 the whole Russian posses-
sions in America were ceded to the United States for a
money payment of $7,200,000. The treaty was signed on
30th March, and ratified on 20th June 1867 ; and on 9th
October following, the possession of the country was
formally made over to a military force of the United
States at New ArchangeL It still remains in the mUitary
keeping of the United States, no steps having been taken
to organise a territorial government It has, however,
been constituted a revenue district, with New Archangel,
or Sitka, as the port of entry. Since Alaska was ceded to
the United States considerable information has been col-
lected as to the resources of the less sterile parts of the
country; but the central and northern parts of this region
»re only known as the inhospitable home of some wander-
ing tribes of Indians and Esquimaux. Portions of Alaska
have also been recently explored by the employ^ of the
Russo-American Telegraph Company in surveying a route
for a line of telegraph which was designed to cross from
America to Asia near Behring Strait — a project which was
abandoned, after an expenditure of £600,000, on communi-
cation with Europe being secured by the Atlantic cable.
The climate of the south-western coast of Alaska i3 CUinu*.
tolerably mild, considering its high latitude. The great
warm current of the Pacific, sweeping in a north-easterly
circuit from the East India Islands, and corresponding
very much in character and efi'ects to the Gulf Stream of
the Atlantic, washes its shores ; and wliile it modifies the
temperature, also causes an excessive rainfalL At Sitka
the mean temperature is 42°'9, and the average rainfall about
80 inches. Alaska will never have any great agricultural Prodaoj
value. From the great amount of rain and the want of
heat, cereals grow, but will not ripen, and vegetables do
not thrive. Native grasses and berries grow plentifully,
but the chief wealth of the country is in its vast forests,
in the furs of its wild animals, and in the fish with which
its rivers and seas abound. The forests, rising from the
coast and covering the mountains to a height of 2000 feet,
consist of a very durable yellow cedar, spruce, larch, and
fir of great size, and also cypress and hemlock. The wild
animals include the elk, the deer, and various species of
bear, and also many fur-bearing animals, such as the wolf
and fox, the beaver, ermine, marten, otter, and squiireL
Near the coast and islands there are inniunerable fur-
bearing seals, which are caught in great numbers by the
settlers ; but from the rigour of the climate and the
arduotis nature of the work, the trapping of the animals of
the interior is left to the Indians. The salmon abounds in
the rivers, and there are great banks along the shores, the
favourite haunt of cod and other fisL About eighty whalers
prosecute their fishing off the coast of Alaska. Coal and
iron are the most important minerals, but the value of the
deposits remains to be ascertained.
The population is very limited, consisting of 8000 whites Popak.
and 15,000 Indians, with some Esquimaux on the northern t'""-
coast. The Indians are rapidly decreasing in number, and
are described as treacherous and discontented. New Arch-
angel, now called Sitka, in the island of Sitka, in 57° 3'
N. lat., and 135° 18' W. long., was the seat of the Russian
governor, and is the headquarters of the United States
authorities. It contains about 1500 inhabitants, is the
residence of a Greek bishop, and has fortifications; maga-
zines, and a magnetic observatory. Of the other settle-
ments. Fort Nicholas on Cook's Inlet, and Fort St Michael
on Norton Sound, are the more important. The admirable
harbours on the coast and the great navigable river Yukon
afford facilities for the formation of new settlements and
the increase of trade by the Americans. At the junction
of the Porcupine river and the Yukon a fort was estab-
lished by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1847. (See
^Vhympor, Travels m Alaska and on the Yukon, 1868;
Dall, Alaska and its Resources, 1870.)
ALATRI, the ancient Alalrium, a town of Italy, 6 miles
N. of Frosinone, in the province of that name, which until
1870 formed part of the papal territory. It is the see
of a bishop, and has considerable remains of PelasgianI
antiquity. Popdlation of commune, 11,370.
ALAVA, one of the Provincias Yascongadas, Or Basque
Provinces, in the north of Spain. It is of a triangular
shape, and is bounded on the N. by Guipuzcoa and Biscay,
on the E. by Navarre, on the S.W. by Logrono, and on
the W. by Burgos; with an area of about 1200 square
miles. The surface of Alava is very mountainous, espe-
cially on the north, where a part of the Pyrenees forms its
natural boundary. It is separated from Logrono by thr
I
A L A — A L Fv
445
£bro, $nd the other rivers are the Zadorra and the A3nida.
The soil in the valleys is fertile, yielding wheat, barley,
maize, flax, hemp, and fruits. OU, and a poor kind' of
wine called chacoli, are also, produced. Many of the
mountains are clothed with forests of oak, chestnuts,
beeches, and other trees, and contain iron, copper, lead,
and marble. Salt is also found in large quantities in the
province. The manufactures of Alava are unimportant ;
coarse cloth, iron ware, earthenware, hats, and shoes being
among the chief. The capital of the province is Vitoria.
Population in 1870, 102,494.
ALAVA, Don Miquel Kioaedo d', a Spanish general
and statesman, bom at Vitoria in 1771. He served first
in the navy, and had risen to be captain of a frigate when
he exchanged into the army, receiving corresponding rank.
In politics he followed a very devious course. At the
assembly of Bayonme, iu 1808, he was one of the most
prominent of those who accepted the new constitution
from JosBpfc Bonaparte as king of Spain. In 1811, when
Joseph's position was becoming insecure, Alava joined the
national independent party, who were fighting in alliance
with the English. The Spanish Cortes appointed him
commissary at t'le English headquarters, and Wellington,
who seems to have regarded liim with great favour, made
him one of his aides-de-camp. Before the close of the
campaign he had risen to the rank of brigadier-general
On the restoration of Ferdinatid, Alava was cast into
prison, but the influence of his uncle Ethenard, the in-
quisitor, and of Wellington, secured his speedy release. He
soon contrived to gain the favour of the king, who ap-
pointed him in 1815 ambassador to the Hague. Four
years later he was recalled, owing, it is said, to the marked
kindness he had shown to his banished feU 7-co' itrymen.
On the breaking out of the revolution of 1 8 ■ he' was
chosen by the province of Alava to represent i-, in the
Cortes, where- he became conspicuous in the pa* ^y of the
Exaltados, and in 1822 was made president. In the
latter year he fought with the militia under Ballasteros
and Murillo to maintain the authority of the Cortes
against the rebels. 'When the Erench invested Cadiz,
Alava Kas commissioned by the Cortes to treat with the
Duo d'Angouleme, and the negotiations resulted in the
restoration of Ferdinand, who pledged himself to a liberal
pcdicy. No sooner had he regained power, however, than
he ceased to hold himself bound by his promises, and Alava
found it necessary to retire first to Gibraltar and then to Eng-
land. On the death of Ferdinand, he returned to Spain, and,
espousing the cause of Maria Christina against Don Carlos,
was appointed ambassador to London in 1834, and to
Paris in 1835. After the insurrection of La Granja, he
refused to sign tie constitution of 1812, declaring himself
tired of taking new- oaths, and was consequently obliged
to retire to France, where he died at Barfeges in 1843.
ALAY (lit. a triumphant procession), a Turkish cere-
mony observed on the assembling of the forces at the out-
, break of war. Its essential feature is the public display
of the sacred standard of Mahomet, which may be seen
only by Moslems and touched only by the emirs. On one
occasion, when, owing to a long interval of peace, this
rule had been forgotten, the Christians, who had witnessed
the spectacle in large numbers, were cruelly massacred.
The procession in which the standard is carried is headed
by artisans bearing the implements of their respective
trades.
ALB, or AxBE, a vestment of white linen, hanging down
to the feet, worn by priests at all the more solemn services
of the church. It corresponds to the surplice of the
English clergy, the difference being that the alb is closer in
the sleeves, and bound at the waist by a girdle. In the
indent church it was customary for the neophytes who
were baptized on Easter-day to wear an alb for the eight
days following, and hence the Sunday after Easter was
called Dominica in Albis.
ALBA, the ancient Alba Pompeia, a town of Italy, in
the province of Cuneo, situated on the Tanaro, 30 miles
S.E. of Turin. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a
cathedral, founded in 1486, as well as other churches and
religious establishments. It has a large trade in cattle,
and the surrounding district is very fertile, producing silk,
wine, oil, grain, and fruits, and also marble and rock-salt.
Population of tie commune (1865), 9687.
ALBA LONGA, the most ancient town in Latium,
was situated 15 miles S.E. from Rome, on a ridge be-
tween the mountain and the lake that were both called
from it Albanus. It derived its name probably from its
elevated or Alpine situation, the story of the white sow
discovered by iEneas on landing (Virgil, JEndd, ui. 390-
392) being of course mythical Little beyond the bare
fact of its existence for a considerable period as the foremost
town in Latium can be accepted as strictly historical
According to the legendary accounts, it was founded by
Ascanius, the son of .(Eneas, 300, or, as a later version
has it, 360 years before the foundation of Eome. Four-
teen kings, whose names are all preserved, are said to have
reigned over it in succession. The names, however, are
evidently an invention, having probably this substratum of
historic truth, that the riling family belonged to the
Silvian gens. The city was destroyed by the Romans
under Tullua Hostilius, and its inhabitants removed to
Rome. Several of the patrician families, such as the
Julii, Curiatii, Servilii, Tullii, Quintii, ascribed their origin
to these immigrants from Alba.
AlLBACETE, one of the new provinces of Spain, was
formed in 1833 out of districts taken from Murcia and
New Castile. It is bounded on the N, by Cuenya, on
the E. by Valencia and Alicant, on the S. by Murcia,
and on the W. by Ciudad Real and Jaen. The area is
5971 square miles. The province is generally hilly, some
of the peaks of the sierras rising to a height of 5000 feet ;
but it contains rich plains and many fertile valleys. The
principal rivers are the Mundo in the southern and the
Jucar in the northern part of the province ; and there are
numerous smaller streams. Soma parts of the country have
a bare appearance, being destitute of wood, but the neigh-
bourhood of Alcarez is covered with fruit trees, and pre-
sents the aspect of a garden. Agriculture is in a tolerably
prosperous state, more advanced than in the centre of
CastUe, but less co than in the rich districts of Murcia
and Valencia. Cereals, pulse, and fruits of all kinds are
produced, as well as wine of fair quality, and excellent
honey. Saffron also is produced in large quantities, and
some attention is given to the keeping of sUk-wonns.
Many of the inhabitants devote themselves to the rearing
of cattle, sheep, and goats. The buUs of Albacete are in
request for buU-fights; there is a good breed of mules,
and the horses of the province have long mounted the
Spanish cavalry. Manufactures are confined to the spin-
ning of hemp, and the making of coarse cloths, porcelain,
earthenware, and cutlery, There are several distilleries,
and a considerable trade in wood. The district is rich in
minerals, including silver, iron, copper, zinc, sulphur,
gypsum, and coal ; but, excepting stones and marble for
building purposes, they are little wrought In addition
to agricultural produce, small quantities of zinc, iron, and
sulphur are exportei There are numerous mineral
springs, chiefly sulphureous, and hot as well as cold, at
various places in the province. Among the chief towns
are Albaceto, Chinchilla, Bonillo, and Alcarez. The rail-
way from Madrid to Valencia traverses the province, and
at Chinchilla a line branches southward to Murcia.
44G
A L B — A L ii
The state of education throughom the province u very low.
In the town of Albacete, where it is best, little more than
half the pojjulation can read ; while at Ycste, where it ia
worst, the proportion is only 1 in 15. The graver crimos
are of iufrcquont occurrence ; but the inhabitants always
wrear arms, and oGTonccs against the person are numerous.
Population in 1867, 221,444.
AiBACETK, a town of Spain, capital of the above pro-
vince, is situated about 140 miles S.E. of Madrid, and is a
station on the railway between Madrid and Valeni^ia. It
ia surrounded by a fertile plain, and has considerable trade
in saffron and in the agricultural products of the district.
A great market, chiefly for the sale of cattle, is held annu-
.lUy in September, and citendsover several days. The
town is well built, and has several churches, two hospitals,
and a normal school At ono time it had an extensive
trade in cutlerj-, from which it received the name of the
Shelliold of Spain. This manufacture has been very much
reduced by the importation of cutlery from England and
Goniiany, but Albacete is still famous for its daggers,
•which are held in high repute and much worn by the
Spaniards. They are formidable weapons, of coarse manu-
facture, but with richly-ornamented handles, and frequently
bear proverbial inscriptions suitable to their murderous
appearance. Population, 15,150.
ALBAN, St, usually styled the protomartyr of Britain,
was born at Verulamiuin, and flourished towards the end
of the third century. In his youth he took a journey to
Home in company with Amphibalus, a monk of Cacrleon,
and served seven years as a soldier under the Emperor
Diocletian. On his return home he settled at Verulamium,
and, influenced by the example and instructions of Amphi-
balus, renounced the errors of paganism, in which he had
been educated, and became a convert to the Christian
religion. It is generally agreed that Alban suffered
martyrdom during tie great persecution in the reign
of Diocletian ; but authors differ as to the precise date.
Bede, who gives a full account of the event, fixes it in 286 ;
some refer it to the year 296; while Usher reckons it
amongst the events of 303. Between 400 and 500 years
after St Alban's death, Offa, king of the Mercians, built
a large and stately monastery near Verulamium to his
memory, and around it the present town of St Albans was
gradually erected.
ALBANI, or Albano, Feancesco (1578-1660), a
celebrated Italian painter, was born at Bologna. His
father was a silk merchant, and intended to bring up his
son to the same occupation ; but Albaui was already, at
the age of twelve, filled with so strong an inclination for
painting, that on the death of his father he devoted him-
self entirely to art. His first master was Denis Calvart,
-with whom Quido Reni was at the same time a pupil He
was soon left by Calvart entirely to the care of Guido, and
contracted with ln'm a close friendship. He followed Guido
to the school of the Caracci ; but after this, owing to
mutual rivalry, their friendship began gradually to cooL
They kept up for a long time a keen competition, and their
mutual emulation called forth some of their best produc-
tions. Notwithstanding this rivalry, they still spoke of
each other with the highest esteem. Albaui, after having
greatly improved himself in the school of the Caracci,
went to Rome, where he opened an academy and resided
for many years. JHere he painte^, after the designs of
Annibal Caracci, the whole of the frescoes in the chapel of St
Diego in the church of San Giacomo degli SpaguuolL His
best frescoes are those on mythological subjects, of which
there is a large number in the Verospi Palace, now Tor-
Ionia, On the death of his wife he returned to Bologna,
where he married a second time, and resided till his death
Si. th; ciyoymeat of much domestic happiness and general
esteem. His wife and children were very beautiful, and
served him for models. But while thus studWng from
nature, his lovj of artificial refinement and conventional
expression was so great, that even Lis best works are defi-
cient in breadth and vigour, as well as in unaffected grace
and natural feeling. The learning displayed in the com-
position of his pictures, and their minute elaboration
and exquisite finish, gave them great celebrity, and entitle
them to a distinctive place among the products of the
Bolognese school
*'In point of ori^nal invention," saysl^nzi, "Albaniissapenor to
Domcnichino, perhaps to uij other of the achool ; imd in his re,'r«.
Beatation of fcm.ilo forxnB, according to Klen^, he haa no enn&L By
Bomo he is denominated the Anacreon of pamting. Like that poet,
with his short odes, so Albani, from his small paintinge, acquired
great reputation ; and as Ihe one sings Venus and tSe Lores, and maids
and boya, so docs the artist hold up to the eye the same delicate
and graceful Bubjccts. Kature, indeed, formed, the perusal of the
poets inclined, and fortune encouraged his genius for this kind of
painting ; and possessing a consort and twelro children, all of sur-
prising beauty, he was at the same time blest with the finest
models for the pursuit of his studies. He had a villa most delight-
fully situated, which further presented him with a variety of objecta
enabling him to represent the beautiful rural viewa so familiar to
hii) eye.
A great number of his works are at Bologna. Among
the most celebrated of his pictures are the " Four Seasons ;"
" Diana and Venus," in the Florentine gaUery; the "Toilet
of Venus," in the Louvre ; " Venus landing at Cythera,"
in the CLigi palace at Rome, <Sjc Among the best of his
sacred subjects are a " St Sebastian " and an " Assumption
of the Virgin," both in the church of St Sebastian at
Rome. He was among the first of the Italian painters to
devote himself to the painting of cabinet pictures.
ALBi\_N'IA, a country of considerable extent, which
though frequently ruled by turbiJent and nearly independ-
ent chiefs, ranks as one of the provinces of the Turkish
empire. The tract of land to which this name is now
applied extends from 39° to 43° N. lat., and from 18° 24'
to 21° 48' E. long. ; from the Gulf of Cattaro in the north
to the Gulf of Arta in the south, and from the coast of
the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea on the west to an irregular
ill-defined line inland towards the cast, roughly indicated
in its northern part by the Tchar Dagh, the ancient Scardui,
a part of the Haemtis or Balkan range, and southwards by
the Pindus chain, or rather the portions of it now called
the mountains of Sagori, Metzovo, and Suli Within these
limits is included the ancient Epirui, corresponding to
the southern part of the country now comprehended
under the general name of Albania, and divided from
Albania, properly so called, by the river Voyutza or Viosa,
which enters the Adriatic a few' miles north of Avlona.
Albania, therefore, is bounded on the N. by Dalmatia,
Montenegro (from which it is separated by the river
Moroka), and Bosnia ; on the E. by Servia and the
Turkish province of Rum-ili, in which Macedonia, or the
greater part of it, is included ; and on the S. by Hellas
or Northern Greece, which was the Turkish province of
Livadia before Greece regained its independence, and froni
which it is separated by the river Garla or SulL The
superficial area of Albania is estimated at about 18,944
square miles, and it has a coast-Une of about 280 miles
from north to south, without reckoning indentations, &c.
It nowhere extends more than 100 miles from the sea.
and in the southern part not more than 30 mOes.
According to the most recent division of the Turkish
empire into eyalets, sanjaks, and Uvas, Albania is com-
prehended in three eyalets, namely, Uskub or Uskup
in the north ; Roumelia, which also includes part of
Macedonia, in the centre; and Yania, corresponding pretty
nearly to the ancient Epirvs, in the soutL The chief
towns (f these eyalets are respectively Scutari Mouastir,
ALBANIA
447
'mnd Joannina, sometimes written Janina or Yanma ; and
these diviaiona are therefore spoken of by some-writers as
the pashaliks of Scutari, Monastir, and Joannina. The
divisions chiefly recognised by the Albanians themselves
are those formed by the varieties of the native tribes.
Colonel Leake, who is considered one of the best informed
authorities on this head, divides them into the Ngege or
Ghegides, whose principal towns are Dulcigno, Scutari, and
Durazzo ; the Toske or Toskides, who occupy Berat and
Elbasan; the Liape, a poor and predatory race, who in-
habit the mountains between the Toske and Delvino ; and
the Tsami, who inhabit the most southerly district, and
whose principal towns are Suli and Paramithia. The
country is mQuntainous, the interior being traversed' by a
range which forms a prolongation of the Dinaric Alps,
and which is continued southwards in the Pindns range.
These mountains, from which numerous spurs are thrown
out to the east and west, run in a direction from north to
Bouth, parallel to the course of the Tchar Dagh. Along the
southern part of the coast-line, and parallel with it, run the
Khimara mountains, known to the ancients as the Acro-
ceraunian range, terminating northwards in the bold head-
land of Cape Qlossa. There are three lakes' of great size
in Albania — Scutari in the north, Okhrida in the centre,
and Joannina in the south. The rivers for the most part
are short, and run, generaUy speaking, from east to west,
or in a north-westerly direction. The Moroka and Zenta
enter the lake of Scutari, which is connected with the sea
by the Boyana, that flows into the Adriatic near Dulcigno.
The 'White Drin, flowing in a southerly direction, and the
Black Drin, running northwards from Lake Okhrida, form
the head streams of the Drin. The principal streams in
addition to theae are the Skombia, Voyutza, Calamas,
Arta, and Qurla (the ancient Acheron), with its tributary
the Vuv6 (the ancient Cocyius). The climate is generaUy
healthy, though cold and bleak in the highlands ; the
warmer regions along the coast are also frequently visited
by cold northerly winds.
Albania includes not only the ancient Epirus, but also
part of the ancient Macedonia, Illyria, and Chaonia.
This country was in early times, as now, distinguished by
the rude valour of its inhabitants. Its remote situation,
and the want of union among its tribes, generally pre-
vented it from acting any conspicuous part in Grecian
politics. The only remarkable exception occurs in the reign
of Pyrrhns, king of Epinis (296-272 B.C.), who was justly
ranked among the greatest captains of antiquity. After his
death the country was again spUt into a -number of petty
states, which were unable to resist the united strength of
Macedon ; and to that kingdom Epirus continued subject
tiU both were alike subdued by the Homan arms (167 B.C.)
It was during the time of the Greek empire that the
name of Albania was first given to this district During
the decline of the empire the Albanians gradually rose to
distinction, and at last to independence. Their valour
enabled them to maintain their ground against the Bul-
garians, who had occupied all the neighbouring districts of
Greece. Nor were they less successful against the Turks,
a more formidable enemy. Under the command of the
celebrated George Ci.:triot, called by the Turks Scander-
beg, they baffled all the efl'orts of Mahomet IL, the con-
queror of Constantinople. That powerful monarch entered
Albania only to experience a succession of defeats, and was
at length compelled to acknowledge its independence by a
formal treaty. On the death of Scanderbeg, the Turks
redoubled their efl'orts against Albania, which was at
length reduced to a state of nominal subjection. The
siege of Scutari,. in 1478, formed the termination of this
memorable struggle. The subjection, however, was always
the imperfect; revolts were frequent, and the inhabitants of
mountamona districts still preserved their independence.
It was the motives of pay and plunder, rather than com-
pulsion, that brought these hardy soldiers into the Turkish
ranks. In proportion as the Ottoman empire declined
in vigour, its hold of Albania became less firm ; and the
vigorous and enterprising genius of Ali Pasha again con-
verted this dependency into what might almost be called a
separate kingdom.
In the grand insurrection of Greece (1821-1829), the
Albanians, ^customed to view with disdain the Ottoman
yoke, showed a considerable disposition ' to make common
cause with the Greeks, and their co-operation would have
almost ensured success. But the Greeks, imprudently and
unhappily, could not divest themselves of the feelings of
enmity cherished during the long series of. wars which Ali
had waged against them. At the siega of Tripolizza
(October 5, 1821) overtures were made to them by a corps
of 3000 Albanians, who formed part of the garrison ; but
the Greeks, having succeeded in entering the place, began
a dreadful and indiscriminate massacre, in which the
Albanians were not spared. At the siege of Arta, al-
though the capture was much facilitated by the coming
over of a corps of Albanians, the Greeks treated them
extremely ilL The Albanian nation was thus forcibly
thrown into the arms of the Porte, to which it has since
continued nominally subject. The allegiance of the Alba-
nians, however, to Turkey rests on a very precarious basis
even at the present day, and, it will be remembered, in the
Crimean war many Albanian chiefs fought under the
Russian flag against the combined forces of England>
France, and Turkey.
The inhabitants of Albania are estimated at 1,200,000, of
whom a considerable proportion are Turks and Greeks ; but
the basis of the population consists of the original race,
called Amauts. About half of the entire population are
Mahometans; of the other moiety, about 520,000 belong
to the Greek Church, and the remainder to the Latin
Church. The conversion of those who profess Maho-
metanism has been, however, very imperfect, and chiefly
induced by political motives. In every family the males
usually go to the mosque, the females to church ; and some
members of a family are seen in the most amicable manner
eating from the same table, and even from the same plate,
meats forbidden to the others. 'V\'ith the Turks, accord-
ingly, infidel an<^ Albanian are terms nearly synonymous.
The native Albanian is of middle stature ; his face is
oval, with high cheek-bones ; his neck long ; his chest full
and broad. His air is erect and majestic to a degree which
never fails to strike the traveller. He holds in utter con-
tempt that dissimulation which is characteristic of the
Greek, and, unhke the Turk, he is gay, lively, and active.
Averse, however, to regular industry, his whole delight is
in Irms and plunder. He goes constantly armed; and
there are few Albanians who have not, in the prime of
their Hfe, belonged to some of the numerous bands of
robbers who infest the mountains of thei» £ative country,
of Thessaly, and of Macedonia. This occupation carries
with it no disgrace: it is common for the Albanian to
mention circumstances which occurred " when he was a
robber." In proportion as the trade of robbing becomes
overstocked, part of those engaged in it seek employment
in the service of the sultan and the difl'erent pashas
throughout the Turkish empire, by all of whom the Alba
nians are regarded as the most valuable of their troops.
This fierce and haughty race display a greater degree of
contempt for the female sex than is usual even among the
most barbarous nations. The females are Lterally regarded
as inferior animals, and treated accordingly; but in the
country districts they are not confined or veiled, as is cui>-
tomary in Mahometan countries
.448
A L B -- A L li
The national costume of the Albanians is bandsomo in
appearance, and bears some resemblance to the Highland
dress. It consista of a cotton shirt ; a white ■woollen
fuslanella or kilt, which reaches to tlie knees ; a jacket ; a
sash round the waist, in which pistols and a yataghan are
commonly carried ; coloured leggings ; sandals ; and a red
cap, round which some twist a shawl or scarf. The chiefs
and wealthy Albanians generally wear a jacket and vest of
velvet, richly embroidered with gold, and metal greaves
over their leggings, which are usually made of fine scarlet
cloth. The poorer classes, though picturesque in appear-
ance, aro e.\tremely dirty in their habits, and seldom
change their clothes. As a protection from the weather,
every Albanian has a capote, or rough shaggy mantle with
a hood attached, and usually made of horse-hair stuff or
coarse woollen cloth. The dress of the females is more
various, and often fantastical. A singiilar custom prevails
among the girls of stringing together the pieces of money
which they have collected for their portion, and wearing
them upon their heads. Some of them have their hair
hanging down in braids to a great length, loaded with this
species of ornament.
Scutari, on the lake of that name, is now considered the
chief town of Albania. It is tho centre of a largo inland
trade, and contains about 40,000 inhabitants. Prisrend,
in the north-cast, is noted for its manufactures of fire-arms
and cutlery, and has a population of 25,000. Monastir,
or Bitolia, although tho capital of the eyalet of Roumelia,
is not, strictly speaking, within the confines of Albania.
It has a krgo transit trade between eastern and western
Turkey. Joannina, with 3G,000 inhabitants, situated on
the south-west shore of a lake of tho same name, was' tho
capital of Albania in the time of Ali Pasha, and was his
stronghold as well as the seat of his government. The other
important towns of the interior are Jacova, Tirana, Okhrida,
Elbasan, Delvluo, and Metzovo. The principal seaports
and river-ports are Dulcigno, Durazzo, Parga, Prevesa, and
Arta,
The commerce of Albania is chiefly carried on through
Arta and Prevesa, on the north side of the entrance to the
Gulf of Arta. The principal merchants, however, aro
Greeks residing at Joaanina, among whom a very active
commercial spirit appears to prevail. The exports consist
almost entirely of unmanufactured produce, live stock, and
provisions, and comprise valonia (the cup of the acorn of
the Valonia oak, used in tanning), raw silk, cheese, raw
hides, drugs, dye-woods, sheep, horses, and salted meats.
Notwithstanding its mountainous character, the fertility of
its plains affords a surplus of grain, of which a considerable
quantity is sent to Italy, the Ionian Isles, Malta, and
other places. The vino, olive, pomegranate, orange, lemon,
mulberry, and Cg are also cultivated. Wool is exmrted,
chiefly immanufaotured, but partly also wrought into coarse
cloth. Other important articles of export are oil, tobacco of
good quality, cotton, and cotton yam. Some cargoes of wood
for building and firewood are annually sent to Malta. The
chief imports consist of woollen cloths, used for winter
coverings. For this purpose the preference is given to a
coarser and cheaper kind than any that is usually manu-
factured in Great Britain. This is supplied from Germany.
Fire-arms, cutlery, gunpowder, hardware, coffee, and sugar
are also imported. The manufactures of Albania are few
and unimportant, being almost entirely confined to capotes,
embroidery on cloth and velvet, fire-arms and cutlery to a
limited extent, and gun and pistol stocks — all for home
consumption.
See the Journey through Albania and Turkey of Mr
J. Cam Hobhouse (Lord Broughton) ; Travels in the Ionian
Isles, Albania, <ta, by Sir Henry Holland, who resided for
some time in the capacity of physician at the court of Ali
Pasha ; RiSv. T. S. Hugnea's Travels tn Sia'ly, Greece, and
Albania; Leake's Travels in Northern Greece; Mrs ilary
A. Walker's Through Macedonia to tlie Albanian Lakes.
ALBANIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Asia,
bounded, according to Strabo, on the W. by Iberia, on
tho E. by the Caspian Sea, on the N. by Sarmatia, on the
S. by Armenia and the river Cyrus (Kour). The country
formerly called Albania corresponds with tho modem
Daghistan, Schirvan, and Leghistan, and is extremely
fertile, owing to tho alluvial deposits made by tho river
Cyrus. The ancient historians describe tho Albanians
as tall, strong-bodied, and, generally speaking, of a very
graceful appearance. The Albanians were originally a
nomad race, and never devoted themselves to agriculture
or commerce. They became known to the Romans during
Pompe/s expedition in pursuit of Mithridates (C5 B.C.),
against which they opposed a force of C0,000 infantry
and 22,000 cavalry. Though Pompey exacted from them
a nominal submission, they continued practically inde-
pendent.
ALBANO, a town and lake in the Campagna di Roma,
Italy, about 14 miles S.E. of Rome. The town is much
admired for the picturesque scenery around it. It is well
buUt, and the Roman aqueduct and other monuments of
antiquity are in tolerable preservation. It contains a
cathedral, and there are many handsome villas of the
Roman nobles in the vicinity. Population, 6400. The
lake of Albano, lying to the N.E. of the town, occupies
the crater of an extinct volcano, and is of a beautiful
oval form, surrounded with high wooded banks, and about
7 miles in circumference. It has long been an object
of attraction to the painter and the traveller. In the
fourth century of ancient Rome, during the siege of Veil,
there was an extraordinary rise of the waters of this lake,
and the oracle declared that there was no hope of success
against Veii while the Alban lake was allowed thus to
swell. This prompted the Romans to drain it by a tunnel
cut through the rock, a mile and a half in length, 4 feet
wide, and 6 high, which is still perfect. This outlet keeps
the surface of the lake at the height of 920 feet above
the level of the sea. Monte Cavo, the ancient Albanus,
rises on the eastern side of the lake to a height of 3000
feet, and commands a magnificent prospect. On its sum-
mit stood the famous temple of Jupiter Latialis.
ALBANY, a city of the United States, capital of the
state of New York and of the county of Albany, pictu-
resquely situated in a beautiful and fertile country on the
western bank of the Hudson, 145 miles from New York. It
is, for an American city, irregularly laid out, and much of
its architectiire is poor, although it contains several veiy
fine buildings, and many of its more recently made streets
are broad and handsome. The Capitol, a brown stone
edifice, 115 feet by 90, built in 1807, faces a square called
Capitol Park ; and opposite it, on the eastern side of the
square, are the State Hall and City Hall, both con-
structed of white marble. There are several beautiful
churches, including a large Roman Catholic cathedral
Among the literary and scientific institutions of Albany
may bo mentioned the university, incorporated in 1852,
giving instruction in most branches of education, especially
practical science and law ; a medical college ; an academy,
and other schools of various grades ; a large observatory ;
the state library, with about 90,000 volumes ; and the
Albany Institute for the collection and diffusion of scien-
tific information. Albany is an important centre of trade,
being situated at the point where the united Erie and
Champlain canals join the Hudson, and possessing good
railway communication with most cities of the United
States. The chief articles of commerce are timber, wheat,
barley, wool, and tobacco, enormous Quantities of which,.
A L B — A L B
449
espcciaUy of tlie first-mentioned, pass througli the city
annuaUy. Besides its transit trade, its numerous foundries,
its breweries, carriage and hat manufactories, and tanneries
are of importance. In 1873, 536 vessels (83 sailing and
352 unrigged vessels and 101 steamers), of 68,682 tons,
belonged to the port. Albany was founded by the Dutch
in 1623, and is thus one of the oldest European settle-
ments in the United States, dating sixteen years after
that of Jamestown in Virginia. It was captured by the
British in 1664, who changed its name from Beaverwyck
or Williamstadt in honour of the Ouie of York and Albany.
It received its charter in 1686, and became the capital of
the state of New York in 1797. It is governed by a mayor
and twenty aldermen, and is divided into ten wards. Popu-
lation in 1870, 69,422 ; number of families. U,105 ; and
of dweUings, 8748.
ALBANY, Louisa Maria Cakoline, Countess or,
daughter of Prince Gustavus Adolphus of Stolberg-Gederu,
was born at Mons on the 27th Sept. 1753, and assumed the
title of Albany in 1772, when she married the Pretender,
Charles Edward, grandson of James II. of England. Her
husband was much older than herself, and their union
proved very unhappy. There were no children, and the
Pretender, who was a confirmed drunkard, treated his wife
with such brutality that her health and even her life were
endangered. In 1780 she obtained a legal separation, and
entrusted herself to the care of her husband's brother, the
Cardinal of York, who placed her in a convent, and after-
wards removed her to his own house at Rom^ Here she
was frequently visited by the poet Alfieri, who made her
the object of what seems to have been the only pure attach-
ment of his life, and who, according to his own avowal,
was indebted to her influence for all that was best in his
works. (See Alfieri.) In 1788 she was freed from her
bonds by the death of the Pretender, and in the same year
she is said to have been secretly married to Alfieri. For
the remainder of her life she resided at Florence, where
she continued to be known as Countess of Albany, and
distinguished hers^ as a patroness of literary men and
artists. Alfieri died at her house in 1803, and in 1810
she caused a monument to his memory, by Canova, to be
erected in the church of San Croce. With the death of
the Cardinal of York in 1807 the Stuart line became
extinct, and the countess, who died on the 29th January
1824, was the last who was known by the name of Albany.
She was buried beside Alfieri in the church of Sun Croce.
ALBATEGNI, an Arabian astronomer, whose proper
name is Mohammed Ihn Jdbir Ibn Sendn Ahu Ahdillah,
derived this appellation from Batan in Mesopotamia, his
native town, of which he is said to have been chief. His
astronomical observations extended from 877 a.d. to his
death in 929, and were principally conducted at Rakkah
or Aracta, on the Euphrates, and at Antioch in Syria. His
principal work, Zidje Sabi, the original MS. of which is
in the Vatican, was published in a Latin translation by
Plato Tiburtinus at Nuremberg in 1537, under the title De
Scientia Stellarum, and reprinted at Bologna in 1C45.
Among the unpublished works of Albategni are commen-
taries on the Almagest and Makalat of Ptolemy, and a
Treatise on Astronomy and Geography. Instead of the
tables of Ptolemy, which were imperfect, he computed new
ones; those were adapted to the meridian of Rakkah, and
were long used as the best among the Arabs. Albategni
gives the motion of the sun's apogee since Ptolemy's time,
as well as the motion of the stars, which he estimated at
1° in 70 years. He makes the obliquity of the ecliptic
23° 35'. His determination of the length of the tropical
year is more exact than that of Ptolemy, being ouIy^2m.
263. short. Upon his observations were founded the Al-
phonsino tables of the moon's motion. He first substi-
1—16
tuted sines for chords, and alao introduced into tngonometry
the use of tangents and versed sines. On account of hrs
discoveries, the chief of which is the motion of the sun's
apogee, he has been called the Arabian Ptolemy, and has
been placed by some at the head of Arabian astronomers.
ALBATROSS, a genus of aquatic birds {Diomedea),
closely allied to the Petrels and Gulls, belonging to the
family of Longipennatce, or long-winged birds, in the order
Natatorea. In the name Diomedea, assigned to them by
Linna3U3, there is a reference to the mythical metamor-
phosis of the companions of the Greek warrior Diomedes
into birds. They have the beak large, strong, and sharp-
edged, the upper mandible terminating in a large hook:
the wings are nanow and very long; the feet have nc
hind toe, and the three anterior toes are completely webbed.
Of the three species
that the genus includes
the best known is the
Common or Wandering
Albatross {D. exiilans),
which occurs in aU
parts of the Southern
Ocean, and in the seas
that wash the coast of
Asia to the south of
Behring Strait. It is
the largest andstrongest
of all sea-birds. The
length of the body is
stated at 4 feet, and
the weight at from 15
to 25 B). It sometimes
measures as much as
17 feeb between the
tips of the extended wings, averaging probably from 10 tu
12 feet. Its strength of wing is very great. It often
accompanies a ship for days — not merely foUoiving it, but
wheeling 'in wide circles round it — without ever being
observed to alight on the water, and continues its flight,
apparently untired, in tempestuous as well as in moderate
weather. It has even been said to sleep on the wing, and
Moore alludes to this fanciful " cloud-rocked slumbering "
in his Fire Worshippers. It feeds on small fish and on
the animal refuse that floats on the sea-, eating to such
excess at times that it is unable to fly, and rests helplessly
on the water. The colour of the bird is a dusky white,
the back being streaked transversely with black or brown
bands, and the wings darker than the rest of the body.
The flesh, though hard, dry, and unsavoury, is eaten by-
the inhabitants of Kamtchatka, who also capture the bird
for its entrails, which they inflate for net-floats, and its
long ■(ving'-bones, which they manufacture into various
articles, particularly tobacco-pipes. The albatross lays one
egg; it is white, with a few spots, and is about 4 inches
long. In breeding-time the bii'd resorts to solitary island
groups, like the Crozet Islands and the elevated Tristan
da Cunha, where it has its nest — a natural hollow or a
circle of earth roughly scraped together — on the open
grounds The early explorers of the great Southern Sea
cheered themselves ^vith the companionship of the alba-
tross in its dreary solitudes; and the evil hap of him
who shot with his cross-bow the bird of good omen is
familiar to readers of Coleridge's liime of the Ancient
Mariner.
ALBAY, a town of Luzon, the chief of the Phuippino
Islands, in W 11' N. lat. and 123° 52' E. long. It is the
capital of the fertile province of the same name, and the
residence of ths governor, and has an active trade. Close
to the town is an active volcano by which it has been fre-
quently devastated. Population, 13,115.
450
il L B — A L B
ALBERONI, Giniio, cardinal and statesman, ^^■a9 born
near Piaceiiza, probably at tho village of Fiorcnzxiola, on
the 31st May IGUl. His father was a gardener, and ho
himfolf became first connected ■nith tho church in tho
humble position of verger in the cathedral of Piacenza.
Having gained tho favour of Bisliop Barni, ho took priest's
orders, and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron
to Rome. During the war of the Spanish succession
Albcroiii laid the foundation of his political success by the
services ho rendered to the duko of Vondome, commander
of tho French forces in Italy; and when these forces were
recalled in 170C, he accompanied the dul;c to Paris, where
he was favour,il)!y received by Louis XIV. In 1711 he
foUoweil Vcndflmo into Spain as his secretaiy. Two years
later, tho duko having died in tho interval, Albcroni was
appointed consular agent for Parma at tho court of Philip
V. of Spain, being raised at the same time to the dignity
of count. On his arrival at Madrid he found tho Piincess
des Ursins all but omnipotent with the king, and for
a time ho judged it expedient to uso her influence in
carrying out his plans. In concert with her he arranged
the king's marriage with Elizabeth Farncse of Parma,
whom ho represented to bo of such a facUo disposition that
the princes.s's power over Philip would be in no degree
impaired by the union. Alberoni was already in Parma
to conclude tho negotiation ere the Princess des Ursins
discovered that ho had entirely deceived her as to the
character of Elizabeth. A messenger was at once des-
patched to prevent, if possible, tho ratification of the
cng,agement; but ho arrived too late. On reaching Spain
Elizabeth's first act, prompted doubtlesc by Alberoni, was
to demand tho instant dismissal of tho outwitted favourite,
who was compelled to leave the Spanish dominions. The
influence of tho new queen being actively exerted on
Alberoni's behalf, ho speedily rose to high position. Ho
was made a member of the king's council, bishop of JIalaga,
and in 1715 prime minister, and was raised to the dignity
of cardinal in 1717. His internal policy was exceedingly
vigorous, and, though carried out altogether regardless of
popular rights and liberties, might have restored the lost
greatness of Spain had it not been for his unscrupulous
and audacious conduct of foreign afi'airs. The key to his
daring and crafty schemes is probably to be found in the
desire of Elizabeth to secure a throne for her son Don
Carlos, born in 171 G. Seizing the flimsiest pretext for
making war upon Austria, he invaded the island of Sar-
dinia, then Austrian territory, and took possession of
Sicily. In Franco he pressed the claims of Philip V. to
the regency in opposition to the Duke of Orleans; he sought
to keep England employed at homo by encouraging the
Pretender, and he pursued a similar policy towards Austria in
connection with Ragotski of Transylvania and the Sultan.
An alliance which he formed with Russia and Sweden led to
no practical results, and his other schemes similarly failed.
England, France, Austria, and Holland united themselves
in what is known as the Quadruple Alliance against the
aggressions of Spain; and though their first proposals
were rejected fearlessly by Alberoni, they were strong
enough to succeed when, in a second negotiation, they re-
quired of Philip the dismissal of his minister as an indispen-
sable condition of peace. On the 5 th December 1719 he
was ordered to leave Spain, Elizabeth herself having taken
an active part in procuring the decree of banishment. He
went to Italy, and there had to take refuge among the
Apennines, Pope Clement, who was his bitter enemy,
having given strict orders for his arrest. On the death of
Clement, Alberoni boldly appeared at the Conclave, and
took part in the election of Innocent XIII. (1721),
niter which he waa for a short time imprisoned by the
T^ontlff on the demand of Spaia At tho next election he
was him"elf proposed for the papal chair, and secured ten
votes at the Conclave which elected Benedict XI1I> Bene-
dict's successor, Clement XII., named him legate of
Ravenna, in which capacity ho incurred the pope's dis-
pleasure by the strong and unwarrantable measures he
adopted to reduce the little republic of San Marino to
subjection to Rome. He was consequently replaced by
another legate in 17iO, and soon after he retired to Pia-
cenza, where he founded a college which still bears his
name. He died on the IGlh June 1752, leaving a sum of
000,000 ducats to endow the seminary ho had founded,
and the residue of the immense wealth he had acquired in
Spain to his nephew. Alberoni left a largo quantity of
manuscripts; but tho genuineness of tho I'olitical S'esla-
ment, published in his name at Lausanne in 1753, has
been questioned.
-ALBERT (Albrecht; I, Duke of Austria, and after-
wards King of Germany, born in 1248, was tho son of
Rudolph of Habsburg, the founder of the imperial Austrian
dynasty. Rudolph having acquired the duchy of Austria
by conquest, vested it in his son, with consent of tho
electors, in 1282, and thus founded the dynasty which still
reigns. He also endeavoured to secure for Albert the suc-
cession to the throne of Germany, but was unsuccessful.
On the death of his father in 1291, Albert seized the in-
signia of sovereignty, and with characteristic presumption
declared himself king of Germany, without regard to the
decision of tho electors. Their choice fell (1292) upon
Adolphus of Nassau, and Albert, who was called to sup-
press a revolt among his subjects in Switzerland, found it
neccs.sary to acknowledge the superior claims of his rival.
Tho government of Adolphus having become displeasing
to the electors, they formally deposed him in 1298, and
named Albert his successor. As, however, the former
refused to recogni.so their verdict, the matter had to be
referred to tho arbitrament of the sword. The forces of
tho rival kings met at Golheim, near Worms, where tho
army of Adolphus was defeated, and ho himself slain by
Albert's own hand. L^pon this, Albert, wishing probably
to show his moderation, resigned his claim to the throne;
but he was re-elected, and crowned at Aix-la-Cliapelle on
the 24th August 1298. Pope Boniface VIIL, however,
denied the right of the electors, and refused to confu'm their
choice, alleging that the empire belonged to him alone to
hold or bestow at his pleasure. In league with Philip the
Fair of France, Albert at first openly resisted the pope:
but soon finding it advisable to change his policy, he
deserted his ally, admitted the papal jui-isdiction, and was
rewarded with the kingdom of the deposed Philip. It
should be noted, however, that he never received from tho
pope the crown of the Roman empire, though his name is
generally included in the list of emperors. His reign as
king of Germany was one of continual warfare. With a
rapacity which seems to have known no bounds, he endea-
voured to subdue Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Hungary,
and Bohemia; but was in each case unsuccessful The
attempt to bind his yoke more firmly upon the Swiss can-
tons caused tho revolt of Unterwalden, Schwj'z, and Uri,
in January 1308, and thus laid the foundation of the Swiss
Confederation. It was while endeavouring to check this
revolt that Albert met his death at the hand of his nephew,
John of Habsburg, whose claim to his father's dominion of
Swabia had been refused in the most insulting terms by
the king. Incensed at tho denial of his rights, John
formed a conspiracy with three noblemen of the king's
suite. On the 1st May 1308 the four crossed tho river
Reuss at Windisch with Albert, who was slain immediately
on landing, and before the eyes of the other members of the
suite, who had been left on the opposite side. He died in
the dime o'' " be^eai woman, who happened to be pa'i.-<ing.
ALBERT
451
Albert was married to Elizabeth, daughter of the count of
Tyrol, who bore him eleven children.
Four other reigning dukes of Austria bore the name of
Albert. Of these, Albert IT., sumamed the Wise, reigned
from 1330 to 1358; Albert III. from 1365 to 1390; and
Albert IV., surnamcd the" Pious, from 1390 to 1402.
Albert v., surnamed "The Magnanimous," bom in 1397,
was elected king of Germany in April 1438, and is therefore
sometimes styled Albert II., the higher dignity having
been previously borne only by the first of the name.
Through his marriage in 1422 with Elizabeth, daughter of
Sigismuud, king of Bohemia and Hungary, he ultimately
added the sovereignty of these dominions to his own, being
elected king of Hungary on the death of Sigismimd in 1437,
and king of Bohemia in May 1438. He died at Langen-
dorf on the 27th October 1439. while engaged in an ex-
pedition against the Turks.
ALBERT I., margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed " The
Bear," from the heraldic emblem he assumed^ bom in
1106, was the son of Otto the Rich, count of Ballenstadt,
by hi", marriage with Eilica, eldest daughter of the duke of
Sa\ony. In 1121 he received from the Emperor Lothario
the marquisate of Lusatia, to be held in fief, and he served
the empire faithfully in the war with Bohemia in 1 1 26. In
the following year, from some unknown motive, the emperor
conferred the duchy of Saxony, to which Albert, as son of
the eldest daughter of Magnus, had the best claim, upon
Henry of Bavaria, son of a younger daughter; and in 1131
Albert was deprived of Lusatia. He stiU remained, how-
ever, loyal to the empire, and received as a reward the
margravate of Brandenburg in 1134. In 1136-7. he made
incursions into the territory of the Wends, his troublesome
neighbours on the north, and succeeded in strengthening his
position. In 1138 the Emperor Conrad UL conferred upon
him the duchy of Saxony; but finding himself unable to
maintain his rights against Henrythe Lion, he betook himself
in 1142 to the emperor, who restored Saxony to his rival,
and allotted Swabia to him in compensation. A few years
later Albert again attacked the Wends, and secured by
canqueat large accessions of territory, which ho held as a
fief of the empire. On the extinction of the house of
Staden ip 1150, Albert was raised to the dignity of an
elector. A third expedition against the Wends, under-
taksn in 1157, ended in their almost total extinction, and
Albert caused the depopulated territory to be colonised by
industrious agriculturists from the Rhine and the Nether-
lands, who greatly improved the face of the country. In
1158 Albert went on a crusade to the Holy Land, in com-
pany with his wife, returning the follo'B'ing year. The
close of his reign was signalised by another war with
Henry of Saxony (1164—8), ki which Albert was unsuc-
cessful Immediately on peace being concluded, he abdi-
cated in favour of his eldest son; and after two years
.■pent in retirement, he died at Ballenstadt on the 18th
November 1170.
ALBERT, Margrave of Brandenburg and first Dukc
of Prussia, third son of the Margrave Friedrich of Ans-
pach, was bom on the 17th May 1490. Being intended
for the church, ho was educated by Archbishop Hermann
of Cologne, and became a canon of Cologne cathedral He
seems, however, to have himself preferred a military life,
ea he accompanied his father in the train of the emperor on
an expedition to Venice, and was present at the siege of
Pavia. On the 13th Feb. 1511 he joined the Teutonir„
order; and a few days after, though scarcely twenty-one
years old, was chosen grand master, it being expected that,
03 nephew of Sigismund of Poland, he would be able to
secure the privileges and immunities which the order were
at the time claiming from that monarch. The refusal of
Albert to swear allegiance to Sigismund led, after pro-
tracted negotiations, which proved fruitless, to a war with
Poland in 1520. A four years' truce being concluded at
Thorn in 1521, Albert repaired to the diet at Nuremberg
to invoke the aid of his brother German princel on behalf
of his order. The diet found itself unable to render him
any assistance, and at the same time he received advice
from Luther which altogether changed his purpose. Em-
bracing the doctrines of the Reformation, he was declared
Duke of Prussia, consented to hold the duchy as a fief from
Poland, and took the oath of allegiance at Cracow on the
9th April 1525. At the same time he resigned the grand
mastership of the order. In 1527 he married Anne
Dorothea, daughter of the king of Denmark. His subse-
quent reign was' marked by zealoiis efi'orts, amid many
difficulties, to promote the welfare of his duchy. He inter-
ested himself especially in the advancement of learning,
inviting men of letters to his court, and promoting the
publication of their writings. In 1544 he founded tl;ie
university of . Konigsberg, in spite of great opposition,
chiefly from the pope. Keen theological disputes between
the professors of this university were among the many
troubles of his later years. He died of the plague on the
20th of March 1568. His second wife, the Princess Anna
Maria of Brunswick, who had been attacked by the same
disease, survived him only a single day.
ALBERT, Cardinal Archbishop of Magdeburg and Elector
of Mentz, bom 1489, was the youngest son of John, Elector
of Brandenburg. In 1513 he was consecrated archbishop
of Magdeburg, and about the same time he was chosen
administrator of the diocese of Halberstadt. Next year he
was raised to the stiU higher dignity of archbishop and
elector of Mentz, and he continued to hold all three offices
simultaneously. For the pallium in connection with the
latter appointment the pope demanded the exorbitant sum
of 30,000 ducats, but enabled the archbishop to recoup
himself by granting him the privilege of seUing indulgences
throughout his diocese. It was his employment of the
Dominican Tetzel in this service which, by calling forth
Luther's famous ninety-five theses, had so important an
influence on the course of .the Reformation. In 1518 he
was created a cardinal as a retfard for his services to the
Romish church. His opposition to the doctrines of Luther
did not prevent many within his own diocese from accept-
ing the Reformation; and he found it necessary to grant
religious liberty to his subjects in 1541, availing himself of
the opportunity to extort from them in return for the boon
the payment of his debts, which amounted to 500,000
florins. Albert was a patron of learning, and counted
Erasmus among his friends. He died at Mentz on the
24th September 1545.
ALBERT (PRINCE), Feancis Chaeles Augustus
Albert Emmanuel, Prince Consort of England, bom at
Rosenau on the 26th Aug. 1819, was the second son of the
hereditary Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, by his first wife
the Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. He thus be-
longed to the Ernestine or elder branch of the royal family
of Saxony, which, on account of its adherence to the
doctrines of the Reformation, had to surrender the king-
dom to the Albertine or younger branch, which is still in
possession of it. The marriage of his parents proving an
iinhappy one, they separated in 1824, and the young prince
never again saw Ids mother, who died in 1831. He was
educated, along with his elder brother Ernest, under the
care of Consistorial-Rath Florschiitz, who, in a memoran-
dum drawn up after the prince's death, speaks in the
highest terms of his pupil's benevolent disposition and
studious habits. At the proper ago the brothers proceeded
to the university of Bonn, where Herr Florschutz stiJ
continued to exercise a general superintendence of their
studies. Prince Albert devoted himself especially to the
452
ALBERT
natural sciences, pob'tica! economy, and philosophy, having
for teachers men of such world-wide fame as Ficht*,
Bchlegel, and Perthes. He also diligently cultivated at
this period the sister arta of music and painting, and thus
qualified himself for some of the most valuable services he
was afterwards to render to the land of his adoption. His
feeling for art in all its forms was very sensitive, and his
executive skill, both as a musician and painter, very con-
siderable. In gymnastic eiercises he greatly excelled,
carrying off the first prize for fencing in a competition with
a large number of students.
In 1836 the priuce visited England in company with his
father, and met his future consort for the first time. The
idea of a matrimonial alliance between the cousins had
occurred to various members of the family, and had been
cherished especially by their grandmother the dowager-
duchc8.s of Coburg, and their uncle Leopold, the king of
the Belgians. From the time of the queen's accession
there seems to have been a family understanding on the
subject, though, owing to the youth of the prince and his
cousin, no formal engagement was entered into till two years
later. In the winter of 1838-9 the prince travelled in
Italy, accompanied by Mr Seymour, a young English gentle-
man, who was selected doubtless out of regard to the pro-
bable future of his charge. A year later the hopes of
many were realised when, on the 23d Nov. 1839, the
queen announced to the Privy Council her intended mar-
riage with her cousin. The circumstances of the eu^age-
ment have been fully made known iince the prince's death,
and they show that the union was founded upon mutual
choice, springing from mutual affection. On the lOtb
Febniary 1840 the marriage was celebrated at the chapel-
royal, St James's, am\d universal rejoicings. A few days
before the event two bills had been passed in parliament,
one naturalising the prince as a British subject, and the
other providing an ailnuity of £30,000 a year for the
maintenance of his establishment. The ministry had
proposed that the sum should be £50,000, following the
precedent established in the case of Prince Leopold; but
the reduction was made on the motion of Colonel Sibthorpe,
who received the support of the radicals and the entire
opposition. The result of the vote caused the prince con-
siderable vexation and disappointment, which were enhanced
when difficulties were raised in parliament as to the pre-
cedence to be accorded to him. The latter question was only
settled by an exercise of the queen's prerogative. Letters
patent were issued on the 5th March, giving the prince
precedence next to the queen.
The position in which the prmce was placed by his
marriage, while it was one of distinguished honour, was
also one of peculiar difficulty, and it was only the posses-
sion of a rare discretion that enabled him to fUl it so
irreproachably as he did. Published letters and .memo-
randa show how thoroughly he appreciated the delicate
nature of his duties, and how clearly he perceived the
limits within which his influence must be confined if it
was to be legitimately and usefully exerted. A letter to
the Duke of WeUibgton, declining, after mature considera-
tion, to be designated to the office of commander-in-chief
of the army, is especially noteworthy as containing an
admirabl^escnption of the proper functions of a prince-
consort. Generally, his idea was that it was his duty to
merge his" personality as completely as possible n that of
the sovereign, while giving her in all things real but unob-
trusive advice and support; and that ho acted during his
whole life in conformity with this idea those who had the
best means of knowing were the readiest to testify Once,
indeed, nt the commencement of the Crimean war, it was
generally believed that he had overstepped the limits of
his position by interfering unwarrantably with the foreign
policy of the country and the patronage of the army.
The charges were so definite and so widely circulated that
it was deemed necessary to take notice of them in parlia-
ment. They were met by a complete and emphatic denial
on the i>art of the ministry, and no one now believes that
they had any real foundation. It was, of course, both
natural and proper that the prince should interest himself
deeply in the afi'airs of the country over which, by an Act
pa.ssed on the 4th Aug. 1840, he had been named regent
in the event of the death of the queen before the heir to the
crown had attained the age of eighteen years. He had ako
a right to interest himself in the administration of the army,
as being himself a fieldmarMhal and a colonel of hussars.
It was' fortunate for the prince, shut out as he was by
the circumstances of his station from any share in party
politics, that he found other and more congenial wor)c
suflficient to engage all his energies. He was qualified, as
few of his rank are, to deal with those social and scientific
problems in the solution of which men of bU parties are
equally interested. He engaged himself especially in endea-
vours to secure the more perfect application of science and
art to manufacturing industry. The Great Exhibition! of
1851 originated in a suggestion he threw out at a meeting
of the Society of Arts, and owed the greater part cf its
success to his intelligent and unwearied efforts. Similar
institutions, on a smaller scale but with a kindred aim,
always found in him warm advocacy and substantial sup
port. It was chiefly at meetings in connection with these
that he found occasion for the delivery of addresses cha-
racterised by profound thought and comprehensiveness of
view, a collection of which v.as published in 1857. One
of the most favourable specimens of his powers as a speaker
is the inaugural address which ho delivered as President of
the British Association for the Advancement of Science
when it met at Aberdeen in 1859, printed in an edition of
his speeches which appeared in 1862. The education of
his family and the management of his domestic affairs
furnished the prince with another very important sphere
of action, in which he employed himself with conscientious
devotedness. The training of the Prince of Wales was
carried on under his own superintendence, in accordance
with a plan he himself had d.'awn up; and it may be
q^uestioned whether so much wisdom and care was ever
bestowed on the upbringing of an heir to the British
throne. The estates of the Duchy of Cornwall, the here-
ditary appanage of the Prince of Wales, were so greatly
improved under his father's management that the rent-roll
rose from £11,000 to £50,000 a year. Prince Albert,
indeed, had a peculiar talent for the management of landed
estates. His model farm at Windsor was in every way
worthy of the name; and the grounds at Balmoral and
Osborne, so universally admired, were laid out entirely in
conformity with his designs.
A character so pure, and a life so useful and well-directed
in all its aims, could scarcely fail to secure universsj respect.
As the prince became better known, the mistrust, of which
the adverse votes in parliament were undoubtedly to some
extent an expression, gave way, and the people vied with
their queen in showering deserved honours upon him.
After a keen contest with Earl Powis, he was elected chan-
cellor of the university of Cambridge in 1847; and he was
afterwards appointed master of the Trinity House. In
1857 the formal title of "Prince-Consort" was conferred
upon him by letters patent, in order to settle certain
difficulties as to precedence that had been raised at foreign
courts. As he had previously possessed no distinctive title,
the precedence he had received was only by courtesy.
It was in the prime of manhood and the fuU career of
his usefulness that the prince-conport was r'''moved by
d>-ath. He had been greatly occupied during; the autumn
A L B — A L B
453
of 1861 with the arraiigements for the projected interna-
tional exhibition, and it was just after returning from one
of the meetings in connection with it that he was seized
with his last illness. He died of typhoid fever on the 14th
of Dec. 1861. Few have ever been more sincerely or more
universally mourned. The grief of the queen was deep and
lasting, and the whole nation sympathised in the truest sense
with her in her sorrow. Perhaps never before, except on
the occasion of the death of the Princess Charlotte, had all
classes of the people been so closely knit together in the
feeling of a common bereavement and a common sorrow.
A national memorial, to be erected partly by parliamentary
vote and partly by public subscription, was at once resolved
upon, and nearly every town of importance throughout the
kingdom embodied in a statue or some other form its
tribute to the memory of " The Good Prince." The mag-
nificent mausoleum at Frogmore, in which his remains
were finally deposited, was erected at the expense of the
Queen and the royal family. (See Early Tears of H.R.U.
the Prince Consort, 1867 ; Principal Speeches and Addresses
of Prince Albert, with an Introduction, 1862).
ALBERT NYANZA, a large lake in East Central
Africa, extending from 2° 45' N. lat. at least as far as
2° S. Its surface is 2720 feet above the level of the sea :
on its western coast are the Blue Mountains, rising 7000
feet higher ; and on the east a ridge of steep cliffs, with
elevations varying from 1500 to 5000 feet. The White
Nile, flowing in a north-westerly direction from Lake
Victoria Nyanza, enters Lake Albert Nyanza about 2°
15' N. lat., and issues from it near its northern extremity,
ilessrs Speke and Grant were informed of the existence
of this lake by the natives, but Sir Samuel (then Mr)
Baker and his wife were the first Europeans who explored
jt in 1864. (See Africa and^iLE, and also Sir S. W.
Baker's The Albert Nyanza, the Great Basin of the Nile, and
Explorations of the Nile Sources, 2 vols., London, 1866).
ALBERTI, Leon Battista, distinguished as a painter,
poet, philosopher, musician, and especially as an architect,
was descended frqm the noble family of the Alberti of
Florence. The place and date of his birth are variously
given, but it is most probable that he was bom at Venice
about the year 1404. He was so skilled in Latin versfe
that a comedy he wrote in his twentieth year, entitled
Philodoxius, deceived the younger Aldus, tvho edited and
published it as the genuine work of Lepidus. In music
te was reputed one of the first organists of the age. He
held the appointment of canon in the metropolitan church
of Florence, and thus had leisure to devote himself to his
favourite art. He is generally regarded as one of the
restorers of the ancient style of architecture, and has been
paUed by some writers the Florentine Vitruvius. At Rome
he was employed by Pope Nicholas V. in the restoration
of the papal palace and of the fountain of Acqua Vergine,
and in the ornamentation of the fountain of the Piazza de
Trevi At Rimini he designed the celebrated church of
San Francesco, which is generally esteemed his finest
work. On a commission from RuceUai, he designed the
principal fayade of the church of Santa Maria Novella in
Florence, as well as the family palace in the Via della
Scala, now known as the Palazzo Strozzi In Mantua he
was employed by the Marchese Ludovico Gonzaga to
design several buildings, the most important being the
church of Sant' Andrea. Alberti wrote works on sculp-
ture, Delia Statua, and on painting, De Pictura, which
are highly esteemed ; but his most celebrated treatise is
that on architecture, De Re jEdifcatoria, which has been
translated into Italian, French, Spanish, and English. A
•jplendid edition of this work in English and Italian, by
Leoni, was published at London in 1726, in 3 vols, folio.
Alberti, being of an amiable and generous disposition, was
highly esteemed by his contemporaries. He died at Roioe
in 1472, or, according to others, in 1484.
ALBERTRAND Y, Jan Chezciciel, or John Christian,
historian, was bom at Warsaw in 1731, his father being
an ItaliaiL Educated in the public school of the Jesuits,
he joined their order in his fifteenth year, and gave such
proof of his abUity that, at the early age of nineteen, he
was appointed professor at the college of Pultusk. After
having successively filled similar positions lq Plock",
Nieswiez, and Wilna, he became, in 1766, librarian to
Bishop Zaluski, who desigmed to make his extensive col-
lection of books available to the public. A detailed catalogue
of the 200,000 volumes which it contained was accordingly
prepared by Albertrandy. la 1764 he was chosen by
the prifhate Lubienski tutor to his grandson, Count Felix
Lubienski, afterwards minister of justice. In this capacity
he visited Italy in 1770 with his pupil, residing first at
Siena and then at Rome. The preference Lubienski
showed for numismatics induced Albertrandy to devote
himself while in Italy to the special study of that science,
and he was soon recognised as an authority on the subject.
When he returned to his native country, King Stanislaus
Augustus appointed him, at the request of Lubienski,
keeper of his medals, and afterwards his reader and
librarian. The representations he made to the king as to
the extent and value of the materials for Polish history
that were scattered throughout the libraries of Rome,
induced Stanislaus to send him on a second visit to Italy,
in order that he might collect these materials. He arrived
at Rome in 1782, and devoted three years to the task.
The Excerptq, all written with his own hand, filled 110
volumes of manuscript. To complete the collection, he
subsequently visited Sweden, where the difficidty of the
work was greatly increased by his being forbidden to copy
any portions of the books or manuscripts he consulted.
An excellent memory, however, enabled him in great
measure to overcome the difficulty ; and from the libraries
of Stockholm and Upsala he made extracts which increased
the entire collection to 200 volumes. In recognition of
his merit the king bestowed on him the bishopric of
Zenopolis. He was the first president of the Royal
Society of the Friends of Science in Warsaw, and took a
large share in its proceedings up to the time of his death;
which occurred on the 10th August 1808.
ALBERTUS MAGNUS, a celebrated scholastic philo-
sopher, was born of the noble family Von Bollstadt at
Lauingen in Suabia. The date of his birth is most pro-
bably 1193. He was educated principally at Padua, where
he received particular instraction in Aristotle's writings.
In 1223 he became a member of the Dominican order,
and studied theology under its rules at Bologna and else-
where. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne,
where the order had a house, he taught for several years
there, at Regensburg, Freiburg, Strasburg, and Hildesheim.
In 1245 he repaired to Paris and received his doctorate,
teaching for some time, in accordance with the regulations,
and with great success. In 1254 he was made provincial
of his order, and fulfilled the arduous duties of the office
with great care and effectiveness. During the time he held
this office he publicly defended the Dominicans against the
university of Paris, commented on St John, and answered
the errors of the Arabian philosopher, Averroes. In 1259
the pope made him bishop of Regensburg, which office he
resigned after three years. The remainder of his life he
spent partly in preaching throughout Bavaria and the
adjoining districts, partly in retirement in the various
houses of his order ; almost the last of his labours was the
defence of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas
Aquinas. He died in 1280, aged 87. AHiert's works,
published jn twenty-one folios by the Dominican Petei
454
A L h- A LB
jammy m 1651, sufEciently attest hia great activity. He
waa the most widely read and most learned nian of his
time. The whole of Aristotle's works, presented in the
Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators,
were by him digested, interpreted, and systematLscd in
accordance with church doctrine. Albert's activity, how-
ever, is rather philosophical than theological, for while
pressing philosophy in general, and Aristotle in particular,
into the service of theology, he excludes from what belongs
to the natural reason all tliat is specially biblical, as, e.y.,
miracles, the atonement, and the I'rinity ; though ho does
not refuse to see with Augustin exemplifications, shadow-
ings, of the latter doctrine oyen in nature. The philosophical
works occupying the first six and the last of the twenty-
ono volumes are generally divided .according to the
Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of inter-
pretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works,
with supplementary discussions depending on the questions
then agitated, and occasionally divergences from the
opinions of the master. In logic, he attempts to unite
the three rival theories of univcrsals, holding that uui-
versals exist in three ways — (1.) Ante res, as ideas in the
mind of God, from which tho class is modelled, and which
therefore exist before individual things; (2.) In rehua, as
the common basis in a class of individual objects; (3.)
Post res, as the mental notion of the class. In the meta-
physical and physical treatises ho mainly repeats Aristotle,
differing from him as regards the eternity of the world
and the definition of the soul. His principal theological
works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books
of the Sentences of Peter Lombard {ilagister Sententiarum),
and the Summa Theologiw, in two volumes. This last
is 4p substance a repetition of t^e first in a more didactic
form. Albert's knowledge of physical science was consider-
able, and for tho ago accurate. His industry in everj' de-
partment was great, and though we find in hia system many
of those inner gaps from which no scholastic philosophy was
ever free, yet tho protracted study of Aristotle gave him a
great power of systematic thought and exposition, and the
results of that study, as left to us, by no means warrant
the coatemptuous title sometitaes given him — the " Ape of
Aristotle." They rather lead us to appreciate the motives
which caused his contemporaries to bestow on him the
honourable surname " The Great," and the no less honour-
able title, " Doctor Universalis." For Albert's life the best
authorities are Sighart, Albe7-tus Magnus, sein Lehen und
seine Wissenschaft, 1857; and D'Assailly, Albert le Grand,
1870. The most comprehensive surveys of his philosophy
are those of Stockl, Geschichte d. Scholastischcn Fhilosopkie,
and, in smaller compass, Erdmann, Grundriss d. Ges. d.
Phil., vol. i Hauriau. Kitter, and Prantl may also be
referred to.
ALBI, a city of France, capital of the department of
the Tarn, is situated on the river Tarn, 41 miles N.E. of
Toulouse. It b a place of great antiquity, and was a
stronghold of the early French Protestants, giving its
name to the Albigenses. It is the seat of an archbishop,
and has a chamber of commerce and a public library of
12,000 volumes. The cathedral, dedicated to St Cecilia,
is a magnificent Gothic edifice, in the style of the 13 th
century, and has one of the finest choirs in France. Here
there is a very valuable silver shrine, of exquisite mosaic
work, containing the relics of St Clair, the first bishop of
the see. The environs are charming, and the promenade
of La Lice, without the city, is a be dutiful terrace bordered
with two rows of very fine trees. At one end is the con-
vent of the Dominicans. Albi has wooUen and Unen
mamifactures ; coal, iron, and copper are wrought in the
vicinity ; and the surroucding district is very fertile, pro-
iaciug much grain and frsit. Population (1872'), 17,469.
ALBIGENSES, a sect opposed to the Church of Borne,
which derives its name from Albiga (the modern Alii,
noticed above), either because its doctrines were ex-
pressly condemned at a councU held there, or, more pro-
bably, because its adherents were to bo found in great
numbers in that town and its neighbourhood. The Albi-
genses were kindred in origin and more or less similar in
doctrine to tho sects known in Italy as Palcrins, in
Germany as Catharists, and in France as Bulgarians, but
they are not to bo entirely identified with any of these.
Still less ought they to be confounded, as has frequently
been the case, with the Waldcnses, who first appear at a
later period in history, and are materially different in their
doctrinal views. The descent of the Albigenses may bo
traced with tolerable distinctness from the Paulicians, a
sect that sprang into existence in the Eastern Church during
the Cth century. (See Paulicians.) The Paulicians were
Gnostics, and were accused by their enemies and persecutors
of holding Manicha;an doctrines, which, it is said, they
vehemently disowneU. Their creed, whatever it was pre-
cisely, spread gradually westward through Europe In the
9th century it found many adherents in. Bulgaria, and 300
years later it was maintained and defended, though not
without important modifications, by the -Vlbigenses in the
south of France. The attempt to discover the precise doc-
trinal opinions held by the Albigenses ia attended with a
double difficulty. No formal creed or definite doctrinal
statement framed by themselves exists, and in default of
this it is impossible to depend on t'ae representations of
their views given by their opponents in the Church of
Rome, who did not scruple to exaggerate ar.d distort the
opinions held by those whom they had branded as heretics.
It is probably impossible now to determine accurately what
is true and what is false in these representations. It seems
almost certain, however, that the bond which united the
Albigenses was not so much a positive fully-developed
religious faith as a determined opposition to the Church of
Rome. They inherited indeed, as has been already said,
certain doctrines of eastern origin, such as the 'Manichiean
dualism, docetisra in relation to the person of Christ, and
a theory of metempsychosis. They seem, like the Manichees,
to have disowned the authority of the Old Testament; and
the division of their adherents into perfecti and credentes is
similar to the Manicha;an distinction between elccti and
auditores. The statement that they rejected marriage,
often made by Roman Catholics, has . probably no other
foundation in fact than that they denied that marriage was
a sacrament; and many other statements as to their doctrine
and practice must be received at least with suspicion aa
coming from prejudiced and implacable opponents. The
history of the Albigenses may be said to be ^vrittcn in
blood. At first the church was content to condemn their
errors at various councils (11G5, 1176, 1178, 1179), but as
their practical opposition to Rome became stronger, more
decided measures were ta.ken. Innocent III. had scarcely
ascended the papal throne when he sent legates to Toulouse
(1198) to endeavour to suppress the sect. Two Cistercians,
Guy and Regnier, were first commissioned, and in 1199
they were joined by Peter of Castelnau and others, who
were known throughout the district as inquisitors. Ray-
mond VX, count of Toulouse, took the part of his Albi-
gensian subjects, though not himself belonging to the sect,
and for this ho was excommunicated in 1207. A year
later the pope found a pretext for resorting to the mo-it
extreme measures in the assassination of his legate Peter of
Castelnau, Jan. 15, 1203. A crusade against the Albigcnsc-.
was ai once ordered, and Ra^Tnond, who had meanwhile
submitted and done penance, was forced to take the llcid
against his own aubjects. The bloody war of ertermin.^
tion which followed has scarcely a parallel in history. Aa
A L B — A L B
455
town after town was taken, the Inhabitants were put to the
sword without distinction of age or sex, and the numerous
ecdeaiastica who were in the army especially distinguished
themaelves by a bloodthirsty ferocity. At the taking of
Beziers (July 22, 1209), the Abbot Arnold, being asked
how the heretics were to be distinguished from the faithful,
made the infamous reply, " Slay aU ; God will know his
own." The war was carried on under the command of
Simon de Montfort with undiminished cruelty for a n\un-
ber of years. Raymond's nephew. Viscount Raymond
Koger, who had espoused tho cause of the Albigenses, was
taken prisoner at Carcassone, and the sect became fewer in
numbers year by year. The establishment of an In-
quisition at Languedoc in 1229 accelerated the exterminate
ing process, and a few years later the sect was all but
extinct.
AI/BINO. The name Albinism, or Leucopathia, is ap-
plied to a remarkable peculiarity in the physical constitu-
tion of certain individuals, which cousists in the skin and
hair being perfectly white. The earliest accounts we have
uf it refer to its being observed among the negroes of West
Africa by the Portuguese, who called the persons so affected
Albinoes. They have also been called Leuccethiopes, i.e.,
white negroes. Albinism is most common and most
marked in the negro and Indian races, but it occurs in all
parts of the world and among all the varieties of the
imman race. The appearance arises from the absence of
the minute particles of colouring matter ^hich ordinarily
occur in the lowest and last-deposited layers of the epidermis
or outer skin, and to the presence of which the skin owes
its colour. With very rare exceptions, it affects the entire
body, and continues through life. The skin of the albino
is of a dull milky or pearly colour, unrelieved by the
slightest tint of red or brown, and is generaUy of rough
texture. All the hair on the body is of the same dull hue,
and is commorJy soft and silky. Another peculiarity that
invariably accompanies this whiteness of skin and hair is
an affection of the eyes : the pupU is a bright red, and the
iris (or white of the eye) that surrounds it is of a pale rose
colour. This redness is attributable to the absence of a
colouring matter, the pigmentum nigrum of the membrane
of the eye, which serves to protect the retina. In conse-
quence of this defect, the eye of an albino cannot bear a
strong light. Albinism is hereditary in the same limited
degree as blindness, deafness, &c. See on this Darwin's
Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication
(chap, xii), where mention is made that "two brothers
married two sisters, their first (Tousins, none of the four nor
any relation being an albino; but the seven children pro-
duced from this double marriage were all J)erfect albinoes."
Apart from the peculiarities mentioned above, there is no
distinction between albinoes and other men. Albinism is
not to be regarded as a diseased condition of body; and
tho idea, once entertained, that it is accompanied with a
want of physical and mental vigour is now completely ex-
ploded. Probably this notion arose from some of the
albinoes whoso condition was first described being unhealthy
or imbecile; and even still more (as the interesting account
of Saussuro, Voyages dans les Alpes, 1787, suggests) from
the temptation to which, as natural curiosities, they were
exposed to live in indolence without exerting their natural
powers. In many spooiea of animals albinism occurs, i.e.,
an abnormal wliitonoss of the skin, hair, feathers, Ac, duo
to similar causes as in the human albino, but not so uni-
formly permanent. Of this, white hares, mice, blackbirds,
&c., are instances. White elephants are regarded with
particular veneration by some eastern nations.
ALBINUS (originally Wffiss), Bkknakd Sieofeied,
a celebrated anatomist, born in 1697 at Frankfort-on-
thq-Oder, where his laiLe: was prc-fessor of tlio i^-.racdco of
medicine. In 1703 the latter was transferred to a pro-
fessorship at Leyden, and it . was there that Bernard
Siegfried commenoed his studies, having for his teachers
such men as Boerhaave, Bidloo, and Rau. His great
ability, especially in surgery and anatomy, was early
recognised, and Rau, so justly celebrated as a Hthotomist,
is said to have seldom performed an important operation
without inviting him to be present. Having finished his
studies at Leyden, he went to Paris, where, under th»
instruction of Vaillant, Winslow, and others, he devoted
himself especially to anatomy and botany. After a year's
absence, he was, on the recoirmiendation of Boerhaave,
recalled in 1719 to Leyden to be a lecturer on anatomy
and surgery. Two years later he succeeded his father in
the professorship of these subjects, and delivered an
address at his installation which was received with uni-
versal approbation. Albinus speedily became one of the
most famous teachers of anatomy in Europe, his class-
room being resorted to not only by students, but by many
practising physicians. With little original genius, and
no special talent for exposition, he possessed those habits
of accurate observation .and patient research which are the
best qualification for laa department of study. The en-
gi-avings of bones and muscles executed by Wandelaar for
the treatise of Albinus on these organs were far superior in
clearness and exactness to anything that had previously
been produced. In 1745 Albinus was appointed professor
of the practice of medicine, being succeeded in the anato-
mical chair by his brother Frederick Bernard, who, as well
as another brother. Christian Bernard, attained consider-
able distinction. Bernard Siegfried was twice rector of
his university, and was an associate of the learned societies
of London, St Petersburg, aud Haarlem. He died on 'the
9th September 1770.
ALBINUS, Flaccus. See ALCtrur.
ALBOIN, a king of the- Lombards, who invaded Italy,
568 A.D. He was murdered at Verona on the 8th June
573. See Itaxy and Lombaiujs.
ALBORNOZ, Gn, Alvaeez Caeillo de, a cardinal of
Spain, was born at Cuenja early in tho 1 Ith century, and
was related to the royal families of Leon and Arragon.
While still young ho was appointed archbishop of Toledo
by Alfonso XL of Castile. Unitmg, as many in that age
did, the exercise of the military with that of the clerical
profession, he was able to show his gratitude to his patron
by saving the king's life at the battle of Tarifa in 1340.
He conducted the siege of Algeciras in 1343, when the
king dubbed him a knight. Falling into disfavoiu- with
Pedro the Cruel, whose licentious life he had rebuked, he
fled to Avignon, then the papal seat, and was soon after-
wards made a cardinal by Pope Clement VI. In 1353
Innocent VI. a.'^nt him as a legate into Italy, with a view
to the restoration of the papal authority in tho States of
the Church. He was recaUod in 1357, but was sent again
to Italy after a brief interval ; and in 1362 had paved the
way for the return of Urban V. to Rome. Aa a mark of
gratitude, the pope appointed him legate at Bologna in
1367, but he died at Viterbo the same year. Accordiug
to his own desire, his remains were carried to Toledo,
whero Henry of Castile caused them to be entombed with
almost royal honours. A work by Albomoz on the con-
stitution of tho Church of Rome, first printed at Jesi in
1473, is now very rare. The college of St Clement ct
Bologna was founded by Albomoz.
ALBRECHTSBERGER, Johann Geoeo, a celebrated
musician, bom at Klostor-Neuburg, aear Vienna, on tho
3d February 1736. Ho studied musical composition under
tho court organist, Mann, and became one of the most
learned and skilful contrapuntists of his ago. After bein^;
employ od us orgauint at Ruab and Maria-Taferl, ho >i.j
45f>
A L B — A L B
appointed in 1772 organist to the court of Vienna, and in
1792 kapellmeister of St Stephen's cathedral His fame
as a theoriat attracted to him in the Austrian capital a
large number of pupils, some of whom afterwards became
eminent musicians. Among these were Beethoven, Hum-
mel, 'Moscheles, Seyfricd, and Weigl. Albrechtsberger
died in 1S09. His published compositions consist of pre-
ludes, fugues, and sonatas for tJio piano and organ, string
quartettes, ic. ; but the greater proportion of his works,
vocal and instrumental, esist only in manuscript, and are
in the possession of Prince Esterhazy. Probably the most
valuable service he rendered to music wa? in his theoretical
works, which to a great extent superseded earlier treatises,
and are still standard authorities. In 1790 he published
at Leipsic a treatise on composition, of which a third
edition appeared in 1821. A collection of his writings on
liarmony, in three volumes, was published under the care
of his pupil Seyfried in 1826. The English translation of
the latt«r is from a French version, and not from the
original.
ALBUERA, a small village of Spain, in the province of
Badajoz, 13 miles S.E. of the tovji of that name. It is
celebrated on account of the victory gained there on the
16ti of May 1811 by the English, Portuguese, and
Spaniards, under Marshal Beresford, over the French
army commanded by Marshal Soult.
ALBUFERA DE VALENCIA, a lagoon, 7 miles south
of Valencia in Spain, about 12 miles in length and 4 in
breadth, 12 feet being its greatest . deptL It communi-
cates with the sea by a narrow outlet, which can be
opened or closed at pleasure. The lake is crown property,
and is of great value from the fish and wild fowl with
which it abounds. In 1812 Marshal Suchet was created
duke of Albufera by Napoleon for his conquest of Valencia,
and invested with the domain ; but the battle of Vitoria
soon deprived him of his possession, though he EtUl re-
tained the title. Subsequently the revenues of Albufera
were conferred upon the Duke of WeUington, in token of
the gratitude of the Spanish nation.
AXBUM (atbus, white), originally denotea a tablet
on which decrees, edicts, and other public notices were
inscribed in ancient Rome. It was so called probably
because the tablet was made of white or whitened material,
though some authorities say that the inscrijition was in
white characters. The Pontifex Maximus wrote his annals
{Annates Maximi) upon an album. In course of time the
term came to be restricted almost exclusively to lists of
official names. Such were the Album Jtidicum, Album
Senatorum, Album Decunonum, Album CenturUe. In
modern times album denotes a book in which verses, auto-
graphs, sketches, photographs, ic, are collected. It is
also applied to the official Kit of matriculated students in
a university, and to the mil in which a bishop inscribes
the names of his clergy.
AiBUMAZAR (Aiu-MAASCHAB), a celebrated Arabian
astronomer, born at Balkh, in Turkestan, in 805 A.D.,
died at Wasid in 885. He had reached the age of forty-
seven before he entered on the studies to which he owes
his fame. His principal works are An. Introduction to
Astronomy and the £ook of Conjunction, both published
in a Latin translation at Augsburg in 1489, and again at
Venice in 1 5 1 5. A work On the Revolution of the Years, is
also attrib\ited to him, in which it is maintained that the
world was created when the seven planets were in con-
junction in the first degree of Aries, and that it will come to
an end at a Uke conjunction in the last degree of Pisces.
ALBUMEN, an organic substance of a veiy complicated
structure. It is tj-pical of a group of bodies that have
the same chemical composition but very different pro-
»rtics. The principal varieties are named albumen.
fibrin, and casein. They arc sometimes called the hieto-
genetic bodies, because they are essential to the building
up of the animal organism. The vegetable kingdom is
the original source of the albumenoid group of substances.
In plants the albumen Ls foiud in greatest quantity in
the seed. The mean average percentage composition of
the albumenoids is as follows —
Carbon, 63-8
Hydrogen, 7°0
Nitrogen, 157
. Jphur, 1-2
'^lygen 22-3
100 0
TL3 true chemical formula of these bodies is unknown,
but if we regard the sulphur as replacing oij-gen, then
'ha simplest empirical formula is C^H.^NjOj.
All the albumenoid bodies are capable of existing in two
forms — {a) soluble, (6) insoluble. They belong to the class
of bodies called colloids, and easily pass from the one con-
dition into the other. Whether in the soluble or insoluble
condition, they are easily dissolved by caustic potash, and
may be precipitated by the addition of acetic acid. The
soluble varieties are coagulated by alcohol, and precipitated
by salts of copper, lead, and mercury. Strong sulphuric acid
dissolves them, with the production of leucine, tyrosine,
and ammoniacal salts. Strong nitric acid produces in
their solutions a coagulum of a bright orange' colour,
and then gradually dissolves it with effervescence. A
solution of nitrate of mercurj-, when heated with the
members of the group, produces a deep red colour, and
this is one of the most delicate tests. Some varieties of
albumen coagulate when heated. All the albumeroid
bodies are amorphous, and may be kept when dry for any
length of time, but when moist they rapidly putrefy,' ard
produce a sickening odour. Among the products of
putrefaction are found leucine and tyrosine, and carbonate,
butyrate, valerate, and sulphide of ammonium. The readi-
ness with which these bodies change in the moist con-
dition produces the digestive and othef ferments in the
body, and the synaptase, diastase, and emulsin which we
find in plants. The special properties of albumen, fibrin,
and casein wiU be described in the article Chemistby. From
its property of coagulating when heated, albumen is empioyea
in the arts to remove colouring matters from liquids.
ALBUQUERQUE, a town of Spain, in the province of
Badajoz, 9 miles from the frontiers of Portugal Situated
on an eminence, it is defended by an almost impregnable
fortress built on a high mountain. It war taken by the
allies of Charles, at that time a competitor for the Spanish
throne, in 1705, but was restored to the Spanish crown in
1715. It has woollen and linen manufactures, and exports
cattle and fruits. Population, 7000.
ALBUQUERQUE, AiPHOKSO d' (in Portuguese Afonso
d' Alboquerque), sumamed "The Great," and "The Portu-
guese Mars," was bom in 1453 at Alexandria, near Lisbon.
Through his father, GonzaJvo, who held an important
position at court, he was connected by illegitimate descent
with the royal family of Portugal, and through his mother.
Dona Leunora de Menezes, he could claim kindred with
Zarco and other fllustrious navigators. He was educated
at the court of Alphonso V., and after the death of that
monarch seems to have served for some time in Africa.
On his return he was appointed estribeiro-mor (chief
equerry) to Joao II. In 1503 he set out on his first expe-
dition to the East, which was to be the scene of his future
triumphs. In company with his kinsman Francisco he
sailed round the Cape of Good Hope to India, and suc-
ceeded in establishing the king of Cochin securely
on his throne, obtaining in return for this service per-
missicn to build a Portuguese fort at Cochin, and thtu
A L C — A L C
4o7
Ijyiug tho foundation of his country's empire in the East.
He returned home in July 1504, and was well received
by King Emmanuel, who entmcted him with t!ie command
of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen which
Bailed for India in 1506 under Tristan da Cunha. After
a series of succepsful attacks on the ^Moorish cities on the
east coast of Africa, Albuquerque separated from Da
Cunha, and sailed with his squadron against \he island of
Ormuz, in the Persian G'llf, which was then one of the
rhief centres of commerce in the E-ist. He arrived on the
9,5th September 1507, and soon obtained possession of the
island, thoagh he was unable long to maintain his position.
With his squadron increased by three vessels, he reached
the Malabar coast at the close of the year 1503, and im-
mediately made known the commission he had received
from the king empowering him to supercede the governor
Almeida. The latter, however, refused to recognise Albu
querque's credentials, and cast him into prison, from which
he was only released, after three months' confinement, on
the arrival of the grand marshal of Portugal with a large
■ fleet. Almeida having returned home, Albuquerque
speedily showed the energy and determination of his
chaiacter. An unsuccessful attack upon Calicut in Janu-
ary 1510, in which the commander-in-chief Veceived a
severe wound, was immediately foUowed by the in>'cstment
and capture of Goa. Albuquerque, finding himself unable
to hold tho town on his first occupation, abandoned it in
August, to return with reinforcements in ifovember, when
he obtained undisputed possession. He next directed his
forces against ilalacca, which he subdued after a severe
struggle. He remained in the town nearly a year in order
to strengthen the position of the. Portuguese power In
1512 he sailed for the ccast of Malabar. On the voyage
a violent storm arose, Albuquerque's vessel, the " Flcr de
la ilar," which carried the tieasure.he had amassed in his
conquests, was wrecked, and he himself barely escaped
with his Ufc. In September of the same year he amved
at Goa, where he quickly suppressed a serious revolt
headed by Idalcan, and took such measures for the security
and peace of the town that it became the most flourishing
of the Portuguese settlements in India. Albuquerque
had been for some time under orders from the home
government to undertake an espeditiorr to the Red Sea,
in order to secure that channel of communication exclu-
sively to Portugal He accordingly laid siege to Aden in
1513, but was repulsed; and a voyage into the Red Sea,
the first ever made by a European fleet, led to no sub-
stantial results. In order to destroy the power of Egypt,
he is said to have entertained the idea of diverting the
course of the NUe, and so rendering the whole country
barren. His last warlike undertaking was a second attack
upon Orranz in 1515. The island yielded to him without
resistance, and it remained in the possession of the Portu-
guese until 1622. Albuquerque's great career had a pain-
ful and ignominious close. He had several enemies at
tho Portuguese court who lost no opportunity of stirring
up tho jealousy of the king against him, and his own
injudicious and arbitrary conduct on several occasions
served their end only too weU. On his return from
Ormuz, at tho entrance of the harbour of Goa, he met a
vessel from Europe bcanng despatches announcing that
ho was superseded by his personal enemy Soarez. The
blow was too much for him, and he died at sea on the
16th December 1515. Before his death he wrote a letter
to the king in dignified and affecting terms, vindicating
his conduct and claiming for his son the honours and
rewards that were justly due to himself. His body was
buried at Goa in the Church of Our Lady, and it is per-
haps the most convincing proof possible of tho justice of
liifl administration, that, many years after, Moors and
\—h\*
Hindoos used to go to his tomb to invoke protectioL
against the injustice of his successors. 1'he king of Por-
tugal was convinced too late of his fidelity, and endeav-
oured to atone for the ingratitude with which he had
treated him by heaping honours upon his natural son
Affonso. The latter published a selection from his father's
papers, under the title Commentaries do Grande Affonso
d'Albcquerqtie.
ALC<EUS, one of the great lyric poets of Greece, was
a native of Mitylene in Lesbos, and flourished about tho
year 600 B.C. From the fragments cf his poems which
have come down to us we learn that his life was greatly
mixed up with the political disputes and internal feuds
of hi3 native city. He sided with the nobles, and took
an active part against the tyrants, who at that time set
themsilves up in Mitylene. He was obliged, in conse-
quence, to quit his native country, and spend the rest of
his life in exile. The date of his death is unknown. His
poems, which were composed in the jEolian dialect, were
collected afterwards, and apparently divided into ten
books. The subjects, as wo can still see from the frag-
ments, were of the most varied kind : some of his poems
were hymns to the gods ; others were of a martial or
political character ; others again breathed an ardent love
of liberty and hatred of the tyrants ; and lastly, some were
of an erotic kind, and appear to have been particiJarly
remarkable for the fervour of the passion they described.
Horace looks upon Alcneus as his great model, and has, m
one passage (Od. u. 13. 26, et sqq.) given a fine picture of
the poetical powers of the yEolian bard. The care which
Alc«u3 bestowed upon the construction of his verses wa?
probably the reason why one kind of metre, the Alcaic,
was named after him Not one of his compositions has
come down to us entire, but a complete collection of ail
the extant fragments may be found ia Berst's Poetcs
Lyrici Greed, Lipsis, 1852, 8vo.
ALCAICS, in Ancient Poetry, a name given to several
kinds of verse, from Alcsus, their reputed inventor. Tne
first kind consists of five feet, viz., a spondee or iambic,
an iambic, a long syllable, and two dactyles ; the second
of two dactyles and two trochees. Besides these, which
are called da/:tyhc Ahaxcs, there is another, simply styled
Alcaic, consisting of en cpitritc, two choriamb), and a
bacchius; thus —
Cur timet fia\vuin Tibsrim | tangere, cur | olivun)
The Alcaic ode is composed of several strophes, each_co!i-
sisting of four verses; the first two of which are always
alcaics of the first kind; the third verse is an iambic
diameter hypercatalectic, consisting of four feet and a
long syllable; and the fourth verse is an alcaic of the
second kind. Tho following strophe is of this epeciea,
which Horace calls "Alcoei minaces camence" —
Nan possidentem multa vocaveris
Hccte hcaiuin; rcciitis occupai
Nomen htaii, qui cUorum
Muncrtbus sapientcr uti,
ALCAIDE, or Alcatde, a word of Moorish origin,
being derived from tho Arabic kdda, to head, which w.as
applied by the Spanish, the Portuguese, and the Moors to
the military oSicer appointed to take charge of a fortress
or prison. See Alcalde.
ALCALA DE QUADAIRA, a town of Spam, in the
province of Seville, Andalusia, situated on tho Guadaira,
7 miles E. of Seville. It contains an old castle and other
Moorish remains ; but it is now chiefly remarkable for the
excellent quality of its bread, whence the epithet de let
Panadcroa, sometimes applied to it. Nearly tho whole of
the bread required by the town of Seville is made hero.
Population, 7uOO.
458
A L C — A L C
ALCALA DE HEXARES, an ancient Spsrnsh city on
llie river Henares, 17 miles E.N.E. of Madrid.- It Las
been identified with tho Eoman Complutum, -nliich waa
destroyed about the year 1000, and was rebuilt by tho
Moors in 1083. In later times it was renowned for its
richly-endowed university, founded by Cardinal Ximenes
in 1010, which, at the height of its prosperity, numbered
more than 10,000 students, and was second only to that
of Salamanca. Ilero the famous edition of the Holy
Bible known as the CompluUnsian Poh/glot was prepared.
The college of St Ildefonso contains a magnificent chapel,
in which Ximenes is buried, and is distinguished by its
splendid architecture, partly Jlooridh and partly Gothic.
Alcala is further celebrated as the birthplace of the Ger-
man emperor Ferdinand I., the poet Figueroa, the naturalist
Bustamente de la Camera, the historian Solis, and last and
greatest of all, Cervantes, who was born here. in 1547.
Since the removal of the university to Madrid in 1836 the
town has rapidly declined. It contains a military academy
and various public institutions, but is of little commercial
•"uportance. Population, 8745.
ALCALA LA REAL, a town of the province of Jaen in
Spain, 18 mOes S.W. of the town of that name. It stands
on a declivity between two mountain ridges, at an elevation
of about 3000 feet above the sea. It possesses a fine abbey.
Its distinctive name la Real, the Royal, is derived from its
capture in 1340 by Alphonso XI. of Leon, in person.
In 1810 the Spaniards were defeated here by the French
under Sebastiani. Some trade is carried on at the place
in wine and wool. Population, 11,521.
ALCALDE (from the Arabic al-cadi, the judge), an
ofiicial title given in Spain to various classes of functionaries
entrusted with judicial duties. Criminal judges, members
of courts of appeal, magistrates, and even parish officers
are all known by the name alcalde — secondary descriptive
titles distinguishing their different positions and functions.
It is to be observed that the word is entirely distinct from
Alcaide, the latter being always employed to designate a
military oflicer.
ALCAMENES ('AXxa/ioT;?), a famous Athenian sculp-
tor, a pupil of Phidias, who is celebrated for his skill in
art by Cicero, Pliny, Pausanias, Lucan, &c. He flourished
from about 448 to 400 B.C., and appears as one of the
great triumvirate of Greek sculptors, Phidias, AJcamenes,
and Polycletus. He is said to have once competed with
his master, the subject being a statue of Minerva. In this
attempt the style of Alcamenes was exquisite in finish,
but he had overlooked the consideration that the statTie was
to be placed on a high column, and there his work would
not bear comparison with that of liis groat master. His
statue of Venus Urania, in the temple of that deity at
Athens, was reckoned his masterpiece.
ALCAMQ, a city of Sicily, in the Italian province of
Trapani, is situated 22 miles E. of Trapani, near the Gulf
of Castellamare. It lies in a district of peculiar fertility,
which produces some of the best wines in the island. The
town is pleasantly situated on elevated ground, but its
internal appearance is mean and dirty. It contains a very
strong castle, and many churches and monasteries. Near
it are thg ruins of the ancient Segcsta, including a Doric
temple and a theatre in good preservation ; and there are
also on the neighbouring hill Moorish towers and other
remains, standing as memorials of the Saracen occupation
of SicUy. Population (1865), 19,518.
ALCANTARA, the ancient Norba Ccesare.a, a town of
Spain, in the province of Caceres, on a rocky height on
the left bank of the Tagus. Alcantara (in Arabic, the
bridge) derived its name from the magnificent Roman
bridge which spanned the Tagus at this point, and which
waa erected, according to the inscription, A.D. 104j in
honour of the emperor Trajan, who was a native of Spain.
This remarkable structure is built entirely of blocks of
granite without cement, and consisted, until its partial
destruction, of sii arches of various span, with a total
length of 670 feet and a height of 210 feet. The second
arch on the right bank was blown up by the English in
1809, and, although temporarily reconstructed, was again
destroyed in 1836 to prevent the passage of the Carlist
troops. The bridge has never since been repaired; and it
is a striking illustration of the want of public spirit in
Spain that the river is crossed by means of a ferry-boat in
the neighbourhood of this grand engineering work, which
it is a national duty to preserve. The population of the
town is 4200.
ALCANTARA, a seaport of Brazil, in the province of
MaranhSo, on the bay of San Marcos. It has a tolerable
harbour; and excellent cotton is grown in tho vicinity,
forming the chief article of commerce. Rice and salt,
obtained from the neighbouring lagoons, are also exported.
Popuktion, 10,000.
ALCANTARA, Knights of ((a CahalUria de Alcan-
tara), an order of knights of Spain, instituted about 1156
fA.v. by the brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Bar-
rientos for protection against the Moors. In 1177 they wera
confirmed as a religious order of knighthood under Bene-
dictine rule by Pope Alexander II L Until about 1213
they were known as the Knights of San Julian del Pereyro ;
but when the defence of Alcantara, newly wrested from
the Moors by Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to
them, they took their name from that city. For a con-
siderable time they were in some degree subject to the
grand master of the kindred order of Calatrava. Ulti-
mately, however, they asserted their independence by
electing a grand master of their own, the first holder of
the office being Don Diego Sanche. During the rule of
thirty-seven successive grand masters, similarly chosen, tho
influence and wealth of the order graduaUy increased until
the Knights of Alcantara were almost aa powerful as the
sovereign. In 1494-6 Juan de Zuniga was pre~Tiled
upon to resign the grand mastership to Ferdinand, who
thereupon vested it, as he had already done that of two other
orders, in his own person as king; and this arrangement was
ratified by a bull- of Pope Alexander VL, and was declared
permanent by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. The yearly
income of Zuniga at the time of his resignation amounted
to 150,000 ducats. In 1540 Pope Paul IIL released the
knights from the strictness of Benedictine rule by giving
them permission to marry, though second marriage was
forbidden. The three vows were henceforth ohedieniia,
castiiat conjugalis, and conversio morum. In modem times
tho history of the order has been somewhat cheouered.
When Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain in 1808, he
deprived the knights of their revenues, which were only
partially recovered on the restoration of Ferdinand Vll.
in 1814. The order ceased to exist as a spiritual body in
1835, though it is BtUl recognised in^its civil capacity.
ALCARAZ, a small town in Spain, in the province cf
Albacete, 34 miles W.S.W. of the town of that name. It
stands on very hilly ground near the river Guadarmena,
and has the remains of a once strong castle and of a mag-
nificent Roman aqueduct. Weaving, iron-founding, and
agriculture are the chief branches of industry. Copper
and rinc are found in the vicinity. Population, 7325.
ALCAVALA, a duty formerly charged in Spain and its
colonies on all transfers of property, whether pu^blic or
private. It was originally imposed by Alphonso XL to secure
freedom from the Moors in 1341, as an ad valorem tax of
10, increased aftervrards to 14 per cent., on the selling
pnce of aU commodities, whether raw or manufactured,
which was chargeable as often aa they were sold or ex-
A L C - A L C
450
ichangei It subjected every larmer, every manufacturer,
every merchant and shopkeeper, to the continual visits and
examination of the tax-gatherers, whose number was neces-
sarily very great. This 'monstrous impost was permitted'
to ruin the industry and commerce of the greater part of
the kingdom down to the invasior. of Napoleon. Catalonia
and Aragon purchased from Philip V. an exemption from
the alcavala, and, though still, burdened with other heavy
taxes, were in a comparatively flourishing state, in con-
sequence of their exemption from this oppressive duty.
(See M'CuUoch On Taxation..)
VLCAZAB DE SAN JUAN, a Spanish town, in the
province of Ciudad Real, 45 miles N.E. of Ciudad Real,
and on the railway between AUcante and Madrid. It is a
weU-built town, and has manufactures of soap, saltpetre,
and gunpowder. This is the Alee of the Romans, taken
by T. Sempronius Gracchus 180 B.C. Population, 7800.
ALCAZAR KEEIR, a city of Marocco in Africa, 80
ailes N.W, of Fez. It was formerly of great note as the
magazine and place of rendezvous for the Moorish invasions
of Spain. It is now greatly decayed, probably on account
of its low and unhealthy situation. Not far from the city is
the river Elmahassen, famous for the battle fought in 1578
between Sebastian, king of Portugal, and the Moors, in
which the Portuguese were defeated and their king slain.
Population, 6000.
ALGESTER, pronounced Auster, a market town in the
county of Warwick, situated at the junction of the Arrow
and Alne, 14 miles W.S.W. of Warwick. Its position on
the Roman way known as the Ickenild Street, and the dis-
covery of numerous remains of ancient art, as well as urns
and coins, make it sufSciently evident that this u-as a
Roman encampment. A monastery was founded herb 1?
1140; but the building has totally disappeared, though
sufficient vestiges remain to indicate its site. The church
is a fine building, and contains several interesting monu-
ments, one of which, to the marquis of Hertford, is by
Chantrey, and is in the best style of that sculptor. The
town possesses a free grammar school and an elegant
market-halL Employment is afforded to about 1200 of
the inhabitants in the manufacture of needles, which is the
chief branch of industry. Fish-hooks are also manufactured.
Population of parish, 2363.
ALCESTIS, or Axceste, the daughter of Pelias and
Anaxibia, and wife of Admetus, king of Pherse in Thessaly.
She consented to die in place of her husband, and was
afterwards restored to life by Hercules. This beautiful
instance of conjugal devotion forms the subject of one of
the best plays of Euripides, the Alcestis, which furnishes
the basis for Robert Browning's Balauslion's Adventure.
ALCHEMY, Chejiy, or Heemetics. Considering the
present state of the science and the advance of public
opinion, the old definition of alchemy as the pretended art
of making gold is no longer correct or adequate.
Modern science dates from three discoveries — that of
Copernicus,, the effect of ■which (to borrow St' Simon's
words) was to expel the astrologers from the society of
astronomers; that of Torricelli and Pascal, of the weighi
of the atmosphere, a discovery wliich was the foundation
of physics; lastly, that of Lavoisier, who, by discovering
oxygen, destroyed the theory of Stahl, the last alchemist
who can be excused for not being a chemist.
Before these three grand stages in the progress of science,
the reign of astrology, magic, and alohemy was universal
and almost uncontested. Even a genius like Kepler, who
by his three great laws bid the foundations for the Copor-
nican system, was guided in his investigations Vy astro-
logical and cabalistic considerations.^ Hence it follows
that a philosophical history of rr.Ddcrn science is certain
^■A ivito the opposite superiation of idolising abstract
reason, if it does not do lull juf.tice to this long and ener*
getic intellectual struggle which began in India, Greece,
and Egj-pt, and, continuing through the dark ages down
to the very dawn of modern enlightenment, preceded and
paved the way for the three above-mentioned discoveries,
which inaugurated a new era.
It was the alchemists who first stated, however con-
fusedly, the problems which science is still engaged iu
solving; and to them, in conclusion, we owe the enormous
service of removing the endless obstructions which a
purely rationalistic method, born before its time and soon
degenerating into verbal quibbles and scholastic jargon,
had placed in the path of human progress.
Alchemy was, We may say, the sickly but imaginative
infancy through which modern chemistry had to pass before
it attaine<^ its majority, or, in other words, became a posi-
tive science. The search for gold was only one crisis in
this infancy. This -Cilsis is over, and alchemy is now a
thing of the past. There is no longer any need to exhort
adventurous spirits, who hope to find Golconda at the
bottom of their crucibles, to leave such visions and turn to
the safer paths of science or industry. The battle has been
fought and won, the problem of the unity of chemical
elements or simple bodies belongs rather to the province
of metaphysics than to that of experimental science. If
here and there an honest student of the black art still
survives, he is regarded as a mad but harmless enthusiast;
^nd as for the pretended searchers for the philosophei-'a
stone, they are, if possible, less interesting objects than the
dupes they stUl continue to cheat. Thus the full time is
come for applying to the occult sciences the same searching
analysis to which the other myths of prehistoric times
have been so rigorously subjected. To trace its earliest
beginnings, to investigate its development by the aid of
modern criticism, is the province of physical science, no
less than of the sister science of morals. Nay, more, we
shall find that both had a common origin. Those ancient
cosmogonies, those poetical systems which the genius of
each nation and race has struck out to solve the problenr
of the universe and of the destiny of mankind, were the
germs of science no less than of literature, of philosophy
as well as of religion. And as in the infancy of science
its various branches were confused and confoiinded, sa in
a lil^e stage of society we often find the same person uniting
the parts of philosopher, savant, and priest. Besides this,
it is evident that in thu absence of all scientific apparatus
or instruments, the ancients, if they had limited them-
selves to the exercise of their reason, must have remained
observers and nothing more. It is true they did observe,
and that widely and well ; but observation alone, even
when aided by the strongest and subtlest reason, can
lead to nothing but contradictory theories, irreconcilable,
because they cannot bo verified. And it is not in human
nature to remain a simple spectator. Curiosity was first
escited by fancy (and the fancy of primitive man, we must
remember, was far more active and vigorous than ours),
and when it found itself baffled by a natural reaction, it
had recourse to divination.
In a word, the ambition of these earliest philosophers
was more intense, because its sphere was narrower. In
the first stages of civilisation the magician was the man of
science. The mysteries of this magic art being inseparable
from those of religion and philosophy, were preserved, as it
were, hermetically sealed in the adjrta of the temple. Its
philosophy was the cabala. Wo must consequently look
on the various cabalas or oral traditions, transmitted from
ago to ago as tho oracles of various faiths and creeds, as
constituting the elements of that theory which tho Jewish
cabala promulgated some centuries Later in a condensed
and mutilated form. Astrology and magic were tht ccf.rts
460
A L C H E JI Y
made m various ways to verify and apply thia theory ;
magic, indeed, or rather magical power, vas at starting
purely coamogouic, i.e., regarded as an attribute of QoJ
or nature, before it was counterfeited by the magicians of
various countries. But, as St Simon has well observed,
chemical phenomena are much more complicated than
astronomical — the latter requiring only obscnation, the
former experiment — and hence astrology preceded alchemy.
But there was then no hard and fast line between the
several branches of science, and hence the most opposite
were united, not, as now, by a common philosophical or
philanthropical object, but by reason of their common
theological origin. Thus alchemy was the daughter of >
astrology, atid'it was not tiU the end of the 16th century
A.D. that she passed from a state of tutelage. Just in the
same way medicine as a magical or sacred art was prior to
alchemy; for, as was natural, before thinking of forming
new substances, men employed already existing herbs,
stones, drugs, perfumes, and vapours. The medical art was
indissolubly bound up with astrology, but, judging from
the natural inventiveness of the ancients, we should have
expected beforehand that chemical preparations would have
played a more important part among the instruments of
priestly *haumaturgy.
As in the- middle agea invention busied itself with instrumenta
of torture, and as in our days it is taken np almost as much witli
the destructive engines of war as with the productive arts of ^eace,
BO in those early ages it applied itself to the fabrication of idols,
to the mechanism and theatrical contrivances for mysteries and
religious ceremonies. There was then no desire to communicate
discoveries ; science was a sort of freemasonry, and silence was effect*
ually secured by priestly anathemas ; men of science were aa jealous
of one another as they were of all other classes of society. If we
wish to form a clear picture of this earliest stage of civilisation, an
age which represents at once the nalveU of childhood and the suspi-
cious reticence of senility, we must turn our eyes to the priest, on
the one hand, claiming as his own all art and science, and com-
manding respect by his contemptuous silence ; and, on the other
■hand, to the mechanic plying the loom, extracting the Tyrian dye,
practising 'chemiiitry, though ignorant of its very name, despised
and oppressed, and only tolerated when he furnished Religion with
her trappings or War with arms. Thus the giowth of chemistry was
slow, and by reason of its backwardness it was longer than any
other art in ridding itself of the leading-strings of magic and astro-
Uifjy. Practical discoveries must have been made many times with-
out bcicuce acquiring thereby any new fact. For to prevent a new
discover/ from being lost there must be such a combination of
favourable circumstancea as was rare in that ago and for many
succeeding ages. There must be publicity, and publicity is of quite
recent gTX)Wtii ; the application of the discovery must be not only
possible but obvious,, as satisfying some want But wants are only
felt as civilisation progresses. ^ or is this all ; for a practical dis-
covery to become a scientific fact, it mtist serve to demonstrate the
error of one hypothesis, and to suggest a new one, t)etter fitted for
the synthesis of existing facts. But old beliefs are proverbially
obstinate and virulent in their opposition to newer and truer theories
which are destined to eject and replace them. To sum up, even
in our own day chemistry rests on a less sound basis than either
physics, which had the advantage of originating as late as the 17th
century, or astronomy, which dates from the time when the Chaldean
shepherd had sufliciently provided for his daily wants to find leisure
for ga-'ong into the starry heavens.
Mter this general introduction we may now proceed to
confeider the subject in detail under the foUowing" heads: —
First, we will cast a rapid glance at certain cosmologies
and philosophical systems, in order to bring prominently
before the reader those points which throw light on
chemical theories. Secondly, we will consider. alchemy at
the moment when it ceased to be purely religious and
began an independent existence ; that is to say, during the
3d and 4th centuries a.d., and in that city which was the
battlefield on which the various philosophical and religious
creeds of the East met. In the fierce struggles which ensued,
in the strange aUiauces which they there made, we shall find
them, by their mutual recriminations, involuntarily revealing
to us their hidden secrets. .As the darkness of the middle
ages approaches, we shall follow our science in itsjonmey to
Arabia ; from Arabia we shsll traco it back to Europe, and
hear it taught with stammering lips and feeble tongue by
subtile or solemn doctors. We shall attempt to analyse it*
ambitious aspirations and its barren performances. During
the Renaissance we shall seo it at its zenith, inspired by a
mad enthusiasm which was near akin to genius, an enthu-
siasm which gave birth to medicine and modern chemistry.
Lastly, in the 17th and 18th centuries we shall see it
degenerate into pure charlatanism. In conclusion, wo
shall attempt to recover the few grains of pure ore wliich
may be extracted from its broken alembics.
L COSMOOOJJIES AKD PSILOSOFHIES.
In India, as is well known, the contempt in which the
caste of artizans was held was still farther increased by the
tendency of religion to consider birth and life, and the
actions and desires which are part and parcel of man's life,
as an unmixed evil. Consequently, outside the workshop,
practical chemistry can have made but little progress.
Nevertheless, among the priests of India, as in later times
in Europe, we find the ordeal of fire and of serpents
commonly practised. It follows that the Brahmins mtist
have possessed some chemical secrets to enable them to
kill or save those they thought guilty or innocent. These
secrets, too, must from time to time have been divulged by
indi.scretion or perfidy, and spread beyond the temple ;
for we read of accused persons escaping unharmed from
the ordeal, even when their accuser was a Brahmin. But
the Mussulman traveller of the 9 th century, who has pre-
served this curious detail, allow^s that the trial was in his
day becoming more elaborate and complicated, and that
it was next to impossible for an accused person to escape.
However this may be, it is certain that the meditative
genius which distinguishes the race had, even before they
conquered the yellow and black races, led theso first
speculators to certain conceptions which have an important
bearing on the present subject. Some had conceived
ether as composed of distinct atoms, others imagined an
ether decomposing itself into atoms by the free play of ita
own forces. These two theories, the one dualistic, the
other unitarian, strangely foreshadow the discoveries of
modern dynamics. AVe find the speculators of another
race indulging the singular fancy that they could observe
in atoms what we may call oscultations of the play of
forces. This, at any rate, is the most natural explanation
of the' ferm nodes by which the Phoenicians designated
atoms. The Persians, who considered the first tree and
the first bull as the two ancestors of man, discovered in
physics generally two antagonistic principles, one male and
one female, primordial fire and primordial water, corre-
sponding to the good and bad principles of their religion.
Over all creatures and all things there were presiding genii,
Tzccls or Feroners. They had already formulated the paral-
lelism between the Sephiroth, the emp)Tean, the pnmum
mobile, the firmament, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Mercury,
Moon, and the parts of the body, the brain, lungs, heart,
ikc In this correspondence between the heavenly bodies
and the human frame which the ancient Persians laid
down, and the Hindu belief in the peregrination ot sinful
souls through the animal, vegetable, and even the mineral
world, till, by these pilgrimages, they at last won absorp-
tion into the Deity, or Moneti, we have, in their original
form, the two fundamental beliefs of alchemy.
The Greeks, imrivalled as they were in poetry, art, and
ethics, made little way in occult philosophy. The Greek
intellect, precise and anthropomorphic, with no leaning to
transcendentalism, was a protest against the boldness of
oriental metaphysics. Thus they contented themselves
with inventing a strange gsmut of deities corresponding to
different types of men. This gamut — Jupiter, Saturn,
A L C H E iJ Y
461
Apollo, Meiciu'y, Mars, and Venus — vas aitcm-aiJ-s com-
plctetl in the cabala by the addition of the moon, typil"viug
the phj.jgniatic character of northern races, and fomis a
connecting link between o^trology and alchemy, oy estab-
Hphiijg 0, double correppondenoo between planets of the
same name and melab, .The whole was systematised in
tlio works of ParacelsiL: and Bokme, and called tne theory
of si(piatures. Whether the Creek philosophers taught
that the principle cf all things was water, like Thales, or
air, like Anaximander, or air and water, as Xenophane^, or
the four elements, earth, air, fire, and wai-er, as the school
of Hippocrates, the tendency of Greek Gpeculatiou was to
establish those profound distinctions which resulted later
in the theory of the four elements, the four humours, &a,
which the discicles of Aristotle held- Hippocrates, for
ezujiple, thought tiiat if nian was composed oi a single
el'jment, he would never be ill ; but as he is composed of
many elements, complex remedies are required. Thus
Hippocrates may be called an anti-alchemist ; and though
the theory of the four elements reigned supreme through-
out the middle ages, it ecsily lent itself to the search for
tiic pliilosopher'S stone and the universal panacea, because
tl'.o oriental idea of the transmutation of elements, from
iliO time when the venous systems of the East were
syncretised at Alexandria and received their final develop-
ment in Arabia in the writings of Geber Rhasis and Ibn
Sina (Avicenna), was a uuiversal article gi belief. But
even in the palmiest days of Greek antliropomorphism
there was a gradual infiltration of Asiatic ideas, partly
through the mysteries of Eleusis, partly through the
doctrines of certain philosophers, who were by nature
susceptive of barbaric influences. For, besides Greece
proper, there was a second Greece in Asia Minor and a
third in Italy, not to mention the Pelasgic tribes who
adhered tenaciously to the primitive ideas of the race.
Among the Greek philosophers, then, who appreciably Influenced
physics, cheniistry, and physiology (the three sciences were then
one), wt ntay nolico in particular — 1. IlcracUtus of £phe3ua, sur-
Eamcd the "Obscure." Maintaining that fire alone was the prin-
ciple of all things, he regarded generation as an ascending road,
i.e., a volatilisation; and decomposition as a descending road, i.e.,
a fixation. Here we have the first idea of Jacob's ladder or *'Homer'8
Chain " of the alchemists. 2. Empedocles, who is indeed the ftrst
who mentions the four elWents; but ho suborduiutea them as
complex products to his prLmordaal indestructible atoms, which
were animated by love and hatied. 3. Democritus, who, Investing
theae atoms with a movement of their o\ni, proceeds to construct
the universe by shocks and harmonies of shocks or vortices. 4.
Anaxagoras, who saw "the all-in-all" (Aristotle, Ifet, 4, 5), the
infinitely ijreat universe in the infinitely small atom, and ingeni-
ously apphed the ja'inciple of analogy to unravel the tangled skein
of ancient science. £. Aristotle, wto added to the four elements a
fifth, ether, eternal and unchangeable, itself the primum inobiU
(ArLil., Ve Coslo, 1, 2). la the 4th century A.D., Kemcsius, bishop
of Emosa (the modem ZToms, on the e^st bank of tha Orontes), is
one of the most distinguished reprosentativ'.:j of Alexandrian syn-,
cretism. A single (Quotation will saflice to show that the idea of
the transmutation ol metals, from the time *vhen Platonism, magic,
and nco-Christianitj' were conibined in a spocies of eclectic mysti-
cism, was regarded as an article of orthodox belief : — "To prevent
tba destruction of elements, or things which are componuded of ele-
ments, the Creator has wisely ordained that elements should be
capable of transmutation one into the other, or into their compo-
nent parts, or that their component parts should be resolved again
into their original elements. Thus the i>erpetujty of things is
secured by the continual succeasiou of these reciprocal generations."
This statement of the pious bishop is all tho moro weighty, inas-
much as the author of T/ie Nature of Man was only treating of
psychology and physiology. Tho study of gnosticism would carry
xw too far ; and one more quotation from this work, which has long
fallen into unmerited oblivion, will prove to what an extent tho
most scientific theories of this day wero tin>(ed and vitiate<l by
mysticism : — "Porphyry, in his treatise on souaation, tolls us that
viiion is produced neither by a cone nor an image, nor any other
objcnt, but that tho miad, beinjj placed en rapjtort with vi:»ibly
object', only aebs itself in thcso objects, which are nothing clso than
tttaJi, ecoing that the mind embracea everything, and t^t all that
exists is nglhiiig but the mind, which contains bodice of all kinds."
Another step, and \Ve are landed in realism. It Is not surprising,
thsn, to find that the alchemists, while worliing in the laboratory,
aspired at the same time to find the "moral quintessence and 7ciify
the doctrines of revealed religion. For mysticism in theory is
nothing but a reaction againbt the pcsitivieni of reason and science ■
the mystic, dissatisfed with these, seeks in nature a refleutioa of his
inner feelings- And in practice mysticism leats ou confusions or cxag-
geratiomj, Uke those of Forphyry, or some such dictvan as the one which
^emesius quotes wirh the following uncritical comment: — "Now,
since Porphyry averts that theie is but one reasoning soul for all
thingS; he is right in saying that the soul sees itself in eyerything, "
Such visionaries, though they may to a certain extent have
observed, were not likely to experiment. Thus, at Babylon, where
similar theories prevailed, tba college of philoscphers was divided
into three classes, the " Hhartuinim," or soothsayers; the "Asa-
phim," vho were more agriculturists than zoologists, more zoologists
than physiciits, more physicists than chemisis ; the "ilechasphim,"
or doctors, who were consulted by the great, as often to rid tocm of
their enemies as to cure their families and dependants; lastly, the
" Chasedira " or Chaldeans, properly so-called ; i.e., the astronomers
or astrologers. In this classincation of sciences as -oursucd at Babylon
by a pecxuiar caste, chemistry was little regarded. Science was the
monopoly of a privileged class before it became the common pro-
perty of the hrman race. A class is sure to cling to a monopoly;
ai individual ia obliged by his feebleness to Impart his knowledge
to others.
In Egypt the doctrine of the Palingehesis was s>-mbolised by the
ScarabKUs, which suggested to St Augustine the lollowing strange
comjiarisun : — "Jesus Ohristus bonus ille scarabaeus mens, non ca
tantum da causa quod unigenitus, quod ipsemet aui anctor mor-
talium speciem indusfrit, std quod in hac fcece nostra sese volutarit
et e\ ipsa nasci homo voluerit. '
These ideis, which St Augustine borrowed from the religions
boUefs of Egypt, were adopted by certair alchemists ; and Egj'ut,
wluch saw in the Scarabceus ''the Father, Kar, a world of triaXa
laider whereby fallen souls may rise," justly claimed to be the
birthplace of encient chemistrv, to ^^ hich it assigned a peculiar rank,
calluig it the "sacred art." But although certain Egyptian priests
may have spread the repoit that they owed their enormods fortunes
to their knowledge of cnemical s€cretr>, this veneration produced but
few practical results. It was, however, this report which made the
emperors Scveros and Diocletian issue an edict that all their
magical books should be burned.
II. The Sacked Art.
Paganism, at the time when it was engaged in its last
struggle with Christianity, had long ceased to be esclu-
eively Greek or Ruman, It had assimilated Mithratic,
Chaldean, and Egyptian mysteries, and even allied itself
to a certain extent with the Helleno-Hebraism of the
Cabala. It was not lively, then, to reject what purer
times wotild have regarded as an utter profanation. The
narrow ground on which the battle was fought, the intel-
lectual affinities between buch men as St Basil and the
emperor Julian rendered the struggle as desperate and san-
guinary as any struggle can be when the combathnts arc
ouly rival creeds. The sacred and divine art (re;^ OiCa
Kot L€pd), the sacred science {eTurnj^iyj Upd), was one of che
mysteries which paganism derived from the dim religious
light of tho temple. But we may presume that the sacred
art of the Alexandrians was no longer the same as that oi
the ancient Egyptians, that their Hermes was not the
Hermes of Egypt, that the pscudo-Democritus is not the
true Democritus, that Pythagoras, as retouched by lamblicus,
is not the original Pythagoras. No epoch was so full of
forgeries as the 3d and 4th centuries A.D. ; and these
forgeries were in one sense fabricated in good faith. ■ An
age of eclecticism is as eager for original documents as a
parvenu is for a coat of arms or a genealogical tree. These
forgeries were no obstacle to human progress; but in an
ago when the learning of Eg)'pt was the fashion, it was
natural that Persian, Jewish, and Platonic doctrines should
be tricked out in an Egyptian dress. One of the masters
of the sacred art, Alexander of Aphrodisia3, invented the
term ckyia (-xyiKov, from ;^c'oj^ to pour, xcvcoi, to fuse or melt),
to describe the oixirations of tho laboratory. Hence the
word chemicsj A word unknown in the 4th century, ana
ouly popular &ome centuries later. The reason is, tliat the
462
A L C H E JI Y
true "etymolo^ ol the word chcmic is logical, and cad
therefore no charms for the psychological spirit of the ago.
Later on, when men began to reflect that the ancient name
for Egypt was Cham or Chemia, because, according to
Plutarch, its soil was black like the pupil of the eye (xtiuta
ToC urjiOdXixov), it flattered the chemists to call chemistry
" the art of tho ancient Chemi." llenco from a false
derivation tho art received a fresh impulse.
Tho discovery of the principal manuscripts of the sacred
art wo owe to tho labour of M. Ferdinand Ilocfer. Wo
can take no safer guide than the judicious and profound
author of tho Ilistory of Clumistry in investigating the
delusions into which a master of the sacred art was most
likely to fall.
"Let us forgot for an ioatant tlie ;.Jvance3 which thia science has
maJo since tho 6th century. Let ua fancy ourselves for a moment
transported to the hiboratory of one of the great masters of tho sacred
art, and watch as neophj'tes some of his operations. \st Expcri-
vuiU. — Some common water is heated in an open vessel. The water
boils and changes to an aeriform body (steam), leaving at the bottom
of the vessel a white earth in the form of powder. Conclusion — water
changes into air and earth. What objection could wo make to this
inference, if wo were wholly ignorant of the substances which water
holds in solution, and waich arc, after evaporation, deposited at the
bottom of tho vessel ) 2d Experiment. — A piece of red-hot iron is
put under a bell which rests in a basin full of water. The water
ttiminislies in volume, and a candle being introduced into tho hell
sets hro at once to the gas inside. Conclusion — water changes into
fire. Is not this the natural conclusion which would present itself to
any one who was ignorant that water is a composite body, consisting
of two gases, one of which, oxygen, is absorbed by the iron, while
the other, hydrogen, is ignited by contact with the flame? Zd Ex-
perinKrU. — A piece of lead, or any other metal except gold or silver,
is burned (calcined) in contact with the air. It immediately loses
its primitive properties, and is transformed into u powder or species
of ashes or lime. Tho ashes, which are the product of the death of
the metal, are again taken and heated in a crucible together with
some grains of wheat, and the metal is seen rising from its ashes
and reassuming its original form and properties. Conclusion— metals
are destroyed by fire and revivified by wheat and heat No objection
could be raisid against this inference, for the reduction of oxides
by means of carbon, such as wheat, was as little known as the
phenomenon of the oxidation of metals. It was from this power of
resuscitating and reviving dead, i.e., calcined metaia, that grains of
wheat were made the symbol of the resurrection and life eternal.
ith Experiment. — Argentiferous lead is burned in- cupels composed
of ashes or pulverised bones, the lead disappears, and at the end of
the operation there remains in the cupel a nugget of pure silver.
Nothing was more natural than to conclude that the lead was trans-
formcdnnto silver ; and to build on this and analogous facts, the theory
of the transmutation of metals, a theory which, later on, led to the
search for the philosopher's stone. &th Experijn^nt. — A strong acid
is poured on copper, tne metal is acted upon, and in process of time
disappears, or rather is transformed into a green transparent liquid.
Then a thin plate of iron is plunged into this liquid, and the copper
is seen to reappear in its ordinary aspect, while the iron in its turn
is dissolved. What more natural than to conclude that iron is trans-
formed into copper? If instead of the solution of copper, a solution
of lead, silver, or gold had been employed, they woxdd have held
that iron was transformed into lead, silver, or gold. 6th Experi-
m£7ii. — Mercury is poured in a gentle shower on melted sulphur,
and a substance is produced as black as a raven's wing. This sub-
stance, when warmed in a closed vessel, is volatilised without chang-
ing, and assumes a brilliant red colour. Must not this curious
phenomenon, which even science in the present day is unable to
explain, have struck with amazement the worshippers of the sacred
art, the more as in their eyes black and red were nothing less than
the symbols of light and darkness, the good and evil principles, and
that the union of these two principles represented in the moral order
of things their God-universe. 7th and last Experivicnt. — Organic
substances are heated in a still, and from tho liquids which are
removed by distillation and the essences which escape, there remains
a solid residuum. Was it not likely that results such as these would
go far to establish the theory which made earth, air, fire, and water
the four elements of the world ? "
Eut neither M. F. Hoefer's explanation of the appearances
which the first master of the sacred art mistook for fact,
nor the metaphysical theory of Nemesius, will enable us to
understand how Zosimus the Theban, in the very infancy
of the art, succeeded in discovering in sulphuric acid a
Kclvcnt of Eietals ; in assigning to mercury (which he
callod "holy water") its proper function, a function which
succeeding generations of alchemists so monstrously exag-
gerated; and finally in disengaging from tho red oside of
mercury oxygen gas, that I'roteus which so often eluded
the grasp of tho alchemists, till at last it was held fast by
the BUDtlo analysis of Lavoisier. For wo must remember
that solid metab were considered as living bodies, and
gases as souls which they allowed to escape. Of all the
ingenious inventions of the Jewess Maria for regulating
fusions and distillations, the only one that has survived is
the Balneum Maria:. The principle it depends on, viz.,
that tho calcination of violent heat is less powerful a.-) a
solvent or component than the liquefaction produced by
gentle heat, was afterwards reasserted by tho Arabian
Gcber, and advocated by Francis Bacon. M. Hoefer ima-
gines that Maria the Jewess discovered hydrochloric acid,
the formidable rival of sidphuric acid. Succeeding writers
on tho history of chemistry have remarked that the band-
ages of Egyyjtian mummies were not more numerous than
the mysteries of the sacred art, and the injunctions not to
divulge its secrets, " under pain of the peach tree," or, to
translate into modem English the language of an ancient
papjTus, under pain of being poisoned by prussic acid.
We should be wrong in thinking that all these allegories
had no meaning for the initiated, and that this mystical
tendency of the sacred art arrested its growth at starting.
Rather the truth is, that these m}-ths, which at a hiter stage
prevented the free development of alchemy, at first served
to stimulate its nascent powers.
Modern critics have pronouncea some traaitional sayings
of Ilermes Trismegistus to be apoerj-phal, but they have
not given sufficient weight to the remarkable circumstance
that it is precisely because these sa)'inga are a medley of
tho cabalistic, gnostic, and Greek ideas with which
Alexandria was then seething, that the seven golden
chapters, the Emerald Table, and the Pimander obtained
their authority — an authority they would never have pos-
sessed had they been only a translation of some obscure
Eg3T)tian treatise. Ko Egyptian priest could have written
a sentence like that we find so often quoted as an axiom
by subsequent alchemists : — " Natura naturam supcrat ;
deinde ver6 natura naturae congaudet ; tandem natura
naturam continet." Plato adds (not the disciple of
Socrates, but a pseudo-Plato in tho famous collection
called Turba Philosopliorum) — " continens autem omnia
terra est." For, translated into modern language, this
means that there may indeed be in this universe things
which pM3 our intellectual ken ; but that all that exists,
all that is produced by the strife and changes of the
elements, aU, in a word, that appears to us supernatural,
is really natural That this is his meaning wo may
gather from the singularly bold comment which Plato
himself adds, and which we may thus translate — " Every-
thing, even heaven and hell, are of this earth." It is true
that the alchemists failed to draw any very definite con-
clusions from thia fundamental axiom. But if we con-
sider it carefully, we shall. see that this earliest doctrine of
the sacred art, which was now rapidly passing into
alchemy, by thus excluding tho supernatural, was making
a great advance in the direction of positive science. This
early advance was, however, counterbalanced by an earb^
error (which itself arose from a noble ambition), viz., that
art is as powerful as nature. The Emerald Table begins
with a sentence no less celebrated than that quoted above : —
" This is true, and far distant from a lie ; whatsoever is
below is like that which is above, and that which is above
is like that which is below. By this are acquired and
perfected the miracles of tho one thing." To understand
the importance of this emphatic and categorical exordium,
we must forget the sharp distinction we now draw between
~N
ALCHEMY
463
art, Bcience, and literature ; we must think of tnat foousn-
ness of which St Paul speaks, by which he sought to save
those that believe, because of the insufficiency of human
reason. The seekers for the philosopher's stone were in
the same case. In. the absence of clear facta and just
notions, reason for them was not sufficient. Thus it was
that they and the masters of the sacred art, and after them
the Arabs, and in later times the alchemists, one and, all
listened eagerly to tha "foolishness" of Trismegistus's'
doctrine, which, in a modern form, would run thus : " We
go further than the Zohar — the sacred book of the cabala
— which says that as soon as man appeared, the world
above and the world beneath were consummated, seeing that
man is the crown of creation and unites aU forms. We go
further than the Zohar, which says in another place that
the lower world was created after the similitude of the
upper world. We perfect the doctrine of a microcosm
and a macrocosm, and declare that there is no such thing
as high or low — as heaven or earth, for the earth is a
planet, and the planets are earths ; we affirm that the
chemical processes of our alembics are similar to those of
the sidereal laboratories. All is in all. Everywhere analogy
infers the same laws." From analogy to identity was an
easy step for the theorists ; and in the full light of the
19th century we find Hegel a devoted admirer of the
mystic Bdhme faUing into this pitfalL If the spectrum
analysis had been known, the Alexandrians, the Arabs,
and the alchemists would have been »ble to verify and
limit the sweeping generalisation by which they established
a vast system of correspondencies between the three worlds,
the physical or material, the rational or intermediary, and
the psychical or spiritual Between the heavens and earth
and man's nature they were ever seeking to discover
affinities, and ignoring differences which would have been
fatal to their system. Thus, according to them, even
heaven — the abode of spirits — was partly physical ; and
even in the mineral world there was a spiritual element —
viz., colour, brightness, or, in their language, tincture.
Neither Linnjeus, BerzeUus, nor Cuvier had yet classified
living beings and things. The distinction between the
animal, the vegetable, and the inorganic world was
unknown, and indeed it was impossible that it should be
known. The alchemists sought for physical conditions in
the invisible and spiritual world, and for a spirit even in
stocks and stones. This explains the magic which they
found in nature, and which they tried to imitate by their
art. But to establish tliis harmony between heaven, man,
and nature, they required some fixed standard or scale, for
in their eclectic system they were bound to find room for
Pythagoras. Where was this scale to be found ! In the
heavens ; for there must be the sphere of true music. Hence
arose chemical, me'dical, and physionomical astrology.
(Sea Astrology.) Hence the sun, which vivifies all
nature, the most ^tive heavenly enejgy, or rather being —
for with them everjrthing had iife-v^in the (rvvyani'a, or
marriage between heaven and earti, represented the male
principle, ita ut coelum agat et terra patiatur ; and
appearing in all terrestrial objects, since everything is
penetrated by heat, fire, or sulphur, presided principally
over the generation of gold — his image or antitype — in the
bowels of the earth. Hence, too, the moon represented
silver, Venus copper. Mercury (the planet and the god) the
metal of the same name. Mars iron, Jupiter tin ; while to
Saturn, the most distant and coldest of the planets, lead,
the most unsightly of metals, was dedicated. It was an
old belief that there was a time when gods and men dwelt
together on earth, a belief, moreover, for which they
could quote chapter and verse. Was it not \vritten iracri.v
ovpart'ot; koiv^i/ ya'avl Further, seeing that there were
throe worlds, it followed that there were three heavens,
mree suns, and three golds. For spirits still engrossed
with matter the philosopher's stone meant the search for
riches — the gold of the third world. For other spirits
which belonged to the first wo.Ii it signified the healing
art — the preservation of himianity by means of the
universal panacea and a universal theory of morals. Hence
two rival systems, the first of which culminated in the
great doctor Paracelsus, the second in the great Illuminato
PosteL Did not Dante, the bitter foe, not of the science
of alchemy, but of that miserable search for gold — for the
riches of this world — which, with keen irony, he calls
Peltro (tin whitened by mercury) — did not Dante himself
write his great poem in order to bring back humanity to
the right road from which it had strayed {svia), misled
by those who should have been its true guides, the pope
and the emperor! For the symbolism of those ancient
masters included an alchemy of morals as weU as . an
alchemy of medicine and metallurgy, though the first was
even less known and less appreciated.
Recurring to our former illustration, it was this " foolish-
ness " of St Paul — this divine madness — which inspired
the Alexandrians, the Arabs, Roger Bacon, Albertus
Magnus, and the host of anonymous alchemists of the
middle ages : such was the madness which cast a ray of
genius over the daring spirit of even a' second-rate autb/^r
like Raymond LuUy, which sustained Robert Fludd,
Paracelsus, and Postel, who tried to find the universal
panacea in universal peace. The fundamental axiom, the
stronghold from which these terribly logical madmen were
never whoUy dislodged, may perhaps be summarised in a
single sentence. The saying of Galen, in natura nihil plani
sincerum, was adopted by his implacable adversaries: —
Nature, they said, is in appearance an illegible scrawl, but
when deciphered there will be found a single element, a
single force, to separate and reunite, to produce decay and
growth — knowledge is power. To know the process of
generation in this triple universe, wherein one world
resembles another ; to know by its signatures this universe,
which is a living organism in the eyes of all alchemists
(save indeed Jacob Bohme, who, anticipating Hegel,
regarded it as a mighty tree); this is the first step towards
counterfeiting nature. Monstrosities are the production of
diseased metals (really alloys), which, if properly treated,
may be ciured, and will turn to gold, or at least silver. The
second stage in this imitation of nature is to obtain by
tincture or projection solid or liquid gold — the cure of all
evils. Finally, to surpass material and rational nature,
this is the crowning end. For God delegates his powc"
to the sage.
Alchemy in Arabia. — How the sacred a. c passed into
Moslem lands it is hard, from dearth of evidence, to say.
Modem criticism now does more justice to the part which
Arabia took in the accimiulation of scientific facts, and in
the scientific theories which we find in the books of Rhazfes
and Geber. It is certain that in their treaties with the
European Greeks of Constantinople the Arabs always
stipulated for the delivery of a fixed number of manu-
scripts. Their enthusiasm for Aristotle is equally noto-
rious ; but it would be unjust to imagine that, in adopting
the Aristotelian method, together with the astrology and
alchemy of Persia, and of the Jews of Mesopotamia and
Arabia they were wholly devoid of originality. On the
other hand, we must not understand Arabia in the ethno-
logical sense of the word, but as signifying an agglomera-
tion of various races united by a common reb'gion. Thus
Djafar (who lived in the middle of the 8th century), better
known to us as Geber, was a Saboean. Avicenna, born in
97S, was a native of Shiraz. The remarkable geographer
and geologist Kazwyny (geology was then a part of al-
chemy), derived his name from his birthplace, Ca:bin, io
464
A L C H E IM Y
I'orsiV.. Muljaimiicd-bon-Zukuria, bo celebrateJ in uicUi-
a3val J5uroi)o under the namo of Khazis, was alnu a Tcrdian.
Til Spain the Jews of the famous achool of Saadia and
JuJa Halevy exercised conaiderablo ir.flucnco over the
■ictidemy of Cordova. Lastly, Europijan historiaiia have
Bystematically exaggerated the ignorance of tho Arabs
before tho tiino of Maboraot and their intolerance after
tho establishment of Moslemism, either from tho zeal
which prompted them to cany on a sort of literary crusade
in honour of Christianity, or because in the 18th century
they directed against Mahomet attacks which wcro intended
for Chrititianity itself.
Alchemy received from the Arabians many Bignificant
titles. It was the science of the kct/, because it opened all
the mysteries of creation, physiology, and medicine ; it was
the science of the letter M (mUam is tho Arabic for
balance), because by means of the balance the gain or loss
of all bodies could bo determined, oven while undergoing
chemical combinatioryi. Later on, as is well known, it waa
by a i it^orous and obstinate use of the balance in the hands
of Priestley, Cavendish, and Lavoisier, that positive che-'
mistry was founded. Lastly, Rhazfes gave to the science
of tho philosopher's etono a name which plunges us again
into the mythological ages of chemistry. Ho called it the
aitrolorfy of the lower world,
Tho didcoveriea of Geber as a chomlat do not form part of oar
subject; but vm may mention, in passing, the infernal stone, tho
corrosive sublimate, tho exact process ot the cupellation of goM
anil silver, and three sorts of distillation by evaporation, condunsQ-
tion, and airaplo filtration. In another direction Geber, by re-
inventing aqua fortis, and by discoverinc aramoniacal salta for his
aqua Tegalis, laid the foundation both of alchemy and chemistry.
The salt of ammonia, so easy to volatilise, was tho source of many
baseless dreams, as is proved by its various names— nni.Twj scnsibilis,
aqua ditorum fratrum ex sorore, cancer^ lapis angcli conjiingcrUis,
&c. Geber beliovod in the parallelism between metals and planets;
he thought that mutals wero all equally composed of mercury,
arsenic, and sulphur, and that in the descending scale frora gold to
load, mercury, arsenic, and suli'liur were each present in a greater
or less dcCTee of purity in proportion to the colour and quality of
each motal. Later on, tho addition of tho four elements — heat,
cohl, dryness, and moisture — compUcatod still more tlio reasonings
by which tho alchemists songlit to prove that the transmutation of
metals was in tho power of riny man who imitated nature — i.e., per-
fected the imperfect metal by correcting its excess of heat or mois-
ture. Geber did not think that an operation of the laboratory
could counterfeit the natural work of purifia-.tion, which demar.ued
a thousand years. But with hira moisture played the s^me part as
phlogiston in Stahl's system. In other words, tho philosopher to
whom all succeeding searchers for tho pliilosopher'a stone swore
allegiance was contented to formulate his theory without consider-
ing the possibility of putting it in practice. He was an alchemist
indeed, nut no gold-sccker. This forerunner of positive science
foresaw the part which the gases would be found to play in the
composition of bodies ; he cahed them spirits — a figure which took
strong hold on the imagination of Geber, as well as of tho masters
of the sacred ait, and which was formalised by the alchemists of the
middle ages. Rhazfcs, who re-invented sulphuric acid and aqua vitce^
was par txe^llentc a doctor. The same remark applies to Avicenna,
who.s6 works are a methodical, but not very profound, systeraatisn-
tion of the current ideas and scjence of his day. Artephius was a
cabalist, as his theory of the apparent and latent parts of man's
raturo shows. Tho author of The Key of JFi-fd&m and A Secret
Book on the Philosopher's Stone was the reputed possessor of an elixir
vit-cc. We do not know whether this was potable gold or a quiut-
essence of all the active elements of tho three kingdoms. Eowuver
this may be, this mysterious alchemist, who lived about 1130, was
the inventor of soap, and, what is of more importance for our eub*
ject the promoter of a new intei-pretation of Jacob's ladder or
Homer's chain. Jlinerals, he said, come from the primitive ele-
ments, plants from minerals, anirtials from plaiits, and as each
body is reaolvod into another body of the order immediately below
it, animals become vegetables and vegetables minerals. We see
tliat in this view of the interdependence of the tliree kingdoms
therd is as much truth as error. "With Calid, the author of the
Book of the Three Words and of the Book of the Secrets of Alchemv,
the parallelism between the metals and planets takes ft retropjraiie
step towards astrojpgy. This Calid, a sci-disa^ king of Kgyjjt,
held that before eng^,'^ne in any operation of alchemy the sUi-s
ought to be consults." Tliis recommendation wa' 'iteraUy f'jUo'.ve'l
by v'up thaumaturgista of tuo middle agea and the XUnaissan^. Tho.
citc'X waa Lta),* if, when Calid or one of his school saw the iiiotAl>
ob-stiiiutoly rcftue to bo purifi'.d in Imb crucible, be did not wait loi
a happy conjunction of constellations above in order to trj' hit
chanco again with the of>erations of inferior astrology.
Tho East, when it accepted from Aristotle tho theory' of form and
matter, invested it with a signification of iXB own never dreamed of
by tho Stflgyiito, and invented, as it were, an Arabian Aristotle —
that is, the Aristotle .of tho middle «gcs. Not only at Alexandria
had tho students of the sacred art evolved the theory of the trana-
mutation of tho four elements (Cicero asi^igna tho (foctrine to tho
Stoi.^s), but in tho Kast the translators oi Aristotlo added to the
theory a corollary more important than tho proposition itaelf, vir,,
that every body by its form and natural motions indicates ita soul,
its natural properties, &c. ; tliat the resemblance between the
external appoarauco of things and beings indicat«^s their natural
likenesses, kc. The idea of destiny, whicTi all nations who accepted
tho doctrine of the Logos exprcsflea by donio term or other iinalogoufl
to tho Latin falum (what is spoken), Mahomet translated by Ids
famous phj'asc nedoub (it was written). We fm<| a Turkish writer,
tho declared enemy of astrology and elixirs, Nobi Elfcndi, in his
remarkable hook, Cou.iseh to my Son, Ahonl Khair, saying that
heaven is covered vdih a writing that only God can read, and ficck-
ing what letter tho eyes, the e^-ebrows, tho jnouth, Ac, form to
find therein the secret of their better use. Like one of tho Tal-
mudibts, the obscure Kallir for instance, he dccompoaes the name
Mahomet in order the better to olfer the prophet, as it were, ths
quintesaenca of praise, more worthy of God, who in that sacred
name, as in all tciTcstrial things, has written at least one letter of
tho Word which will servo as a key to open all their hidden virtues.
By puraning an analogous direction, medicevalism, and more espe-
cially the Renaissance, introduced new subtleties into ths astro-
logical bianch of alchemy — tetragrams, pcntacles, and othei
mysterious charattcra and figures.
It is not surpiising, thcuj to find that Kabi Effendi, who lived in
the second half of tlie I7th century, can produce no other reasons for
dissuading his son h-om joining the alchemists than the fact that
some were poor, others quacks, and, as the most important ground of
all, that God had declared his wrath against tliose who dare to imi-
tate his works. Indeed, the peculiar symbolism of the various nations
of the East had been broken up by revolutions and conquests, and
the ditjecla mtmhra again reunited, so as to form a wonderful phan-
tosDiagoria of ideas and images — a sort of scientific Arahian Nights.
III. Alchemy of the Middle Ages.
The care wo have taken to note down at the moment of
its birth each of the ideas which influenced alcherpy, allows
us to sketch more rapidly tho history of ita decline and
fall Albert Groot, commonly known as Albertus
Magnus (1193-1280), revived the theory oi Geber; and,
in spite of the tendencies of the time, entertained the same
doubts aa his illustrious master on the possibility of traiis-
mutation. He is the first to apeak of the affinity of bodies,
a terra he uses in lefercnce to tho action of sulphur on
metals. Ho gives the savans of the day the sage advice not
to take service with princes, who are sure to treat as thievea
those who do not succeed. And, indirectly, he warns
princes that philosopher's gold is only tinsel. Beginning
with nitric acid, which he calls prime water, and so on,
through a regular series of secondary, tertiary waters, <tc,
he proposed a method for dissolving all metahs. Roger
Bacon, while opposing magic, calls ox>'gen aer cibu^ ignis,
and regards the elixir as a substitute for time, that agent
of which nature takes no account Gold is perfect, becffuse
nature has consummated her work. But Roger Bacon
seems to have turned his genius principally to physics and
mechanism. St Thomas Aquinas, in his theological wTit-
ings, forbids the sale of alchemist's gold, and in his special
treatise on the subject unmasks an imposture of the char-
latans of the day, who pretended to make silver by projecting
a sublimate of white arsenic on copper. Further, Aquinas,
by reducing the primitive elements of metals to two, revives
and corroborates the theory of Galen and Albertus Magnus.
About the same time we find a pope, John XXIL, ai:d
a king, Alpbonso X. of Leon and Castile, occupying
themselves with alchemy. But the pope in a well-known
bull denounced all those searchers for gold "who pro-
mised more thfin they could perform ;" another proof that
aichemv ar.d the search for gold, though distinguished by
A L C H E JJI Y
465
tLe titie alchemist, were confounded by many adepts. It
is evident that the science, as far as the seeker for gold
was concerned, wa& approaching the times of king John
and Philip the Fair, -who found in unscrupulous charlatans
abettors in their debasement of the currency, and that for
disinterested alchemists those evil days were at hacd when,
disgusted at attaining no practical result, the most serious
of them sought in the physiological mysteries of generation,
in tho Adam and Eve, the red man and the ■white woman,
of the first chapters of Genesis, what they failed to find in
Rhaz^, in Geber, and the Arabian Aristotle. The science
was. still called, chemy. It was as a compliment to the
Arabi^n masters, who were still quoted side by side with
Genesis^ that they added to the word th.e Arabic article cU.
The pop^dar etymology of the day was likewise Arabic, or,
mors correctly speaking, Semitic; the Hebrew chom or the.
Arabic cham signified heat. Hence their furnaces for
heating, the alembics for modifying heat, and the Eains-
Marie for imitating the temperature of v/arm blood; for
they could only proceed by analogy. Nevertheless, the
^Tcat men of the day were the alchemists^ The boldneaa
of their actions, the eccentricity of their genius, prove it.
Few novels are as interesting as the story of Raymond Lolly
{1235-1315). .He began life as the passionate iover ofthe Lady
Eleanor of Castello. He was cured of his passion by the lady hep-
self, who discovered to him the ulcer which was eating away her
breast. At her desira he consecrated himself to G«d, to the serrioe
of humanity in general, and especially to the conversion of Mussul-
mans. Christianity, in the mouths of the European disciples of
Geber and Rhazes, was better adapted than it now is for converting
infidels, whoEQ knowledge it respected while deploring all the more
their errors. In his eightieth year Raymond LuUy di«d in sight of
the ishind of Llinorca, from the consequences of a stoning he had
received at Tunis a few days before while preaching the gospeL
This was on his thic^ mission, and he did not hide from Ms mends
that he sought the cro?ni of martyTdom. He had invited tho sup-
port of all the princes of Europe, and in particular of the kings of
France, England, and Castile. Alchemy,- indeed, with him seems
to "have been mainly a means of recommending himself to these
kings, and at the same time a search for the panacea- But his
trust was placed much more in his rhetoric, which he borrowed
fiom the cab? la, in his oriental eloquence, and his Christian faith.
By the irumber of conversions he made at Algiers, at Tunis, and at
Bugia, where dui-ing his second voyage he was snatched from
imminent maityrdcm hy his friends among the converted Mussul-
mans— that is to say, in the very stTongholds of Islamism — he suc-
ceeded in demonstrating that his idea of uniting all worshippers of
the true God in a common faith was not chimerical. LuDy'a prin-
cipal success was with the disciples of Averroea ; and no one who
reflects will be surprised at this. As the moral difficulties of mis-,
Bions were less than they are now, so the practical dangers were
greater. This too needs no explanation.
Raymond Lully's works on alchemy are hopelessly oDscure, not-
withstanding elucidations, compendiums, vade-mecums, and a cer-
tain diaJogus demogorgorij which, if the title is to be believed,
LuUianis scriptis multam prcedarh lucem adfert. Nor need we
wonder at this. Eirenaeua Philalethes, the pseudonym under which
some English adept, whose real name has not been discovered,
wrote, states positively that he has leaiTied nothing from RajTnond
Lully, adding at the same time a curious reason — "Some who are
no adepts give more instruction to a beginner than one whom per-
fect knowledge makes cautious." Eirenaeua is fond of quoting
Uemard of Trevisa, who, he tells us, has given him. more especially
in his letter to Thomas of Bologna, " the main light in the hidilen
secret." But of all writers he gives the palm to Sir George Ripley,
licmard of Trevisa, whom he mentions, spent a long life and a con-
siderable fortune in romantic travels, in the purchase of books, and
in the pursuit of chemical experiments. When depressed and weary
with chnsing shadows which were ever eluding his grasp, he ascd^
Gs a pastime and relaxation, to read tlw Turoa Pkiiosophorum, or
Oio Oreat Rosary, just as Don QuLxote would read the romances of
chivalry. At last, when seventy-five years old, the good Bernard,
for so the adepta called him, thought he had discovered the si^crpt,
— at least thd joy of what he centered a real success wrved for a
while to lull his restless energies. His letter to Thomas of Bologna
shows no ordinary man. "Dissolutions of this- sort," he writes,
*' by acids or aquafortis, are not the tiue foundations of the art of
t^smnting metals ; but rather tho impostiu-cs cf sophistical
ft!chemist8, who tliiuk that in them resides the secret of that sacred
ML They aflBrm that they produce dissolutions {s:>hdic7ie3\ but
what thoy c^in never do is to produce the various kinds of metals in
theu- perfection ; becaiise metals when dissolved by corrosives do
not remain in the same proportion and original form s^ they do
when dissolved by mercury, v/hich may be truly called the water cf
metals. Bodies dissolved by mercury are not decomposed (separa-
huntuT) ; their nature remains hidden in mercury tiU they fill up its
int^rals (u-s^ ad sui TeiTispisaatiomm), Mercuiy contains inter-
stices {lateniia)^ and therefore metaJs can ^e iiidden in mercury."
He then goe^ on to compare the' part that mercury plays in
amalgams -to that of water {simplex aqua) in recretable and nnimal
stmctures. He is well acquainted vath what t^e French now c&U
Veau de composition; but, as uaual, he pushes his analogies too fax.
We may remark in passing that it was his opponents the alchemieta
who, by the discovery of tlieir aquce fortes^ provided modem
chemistiy with one of its most powerful agents.
In speaking of Bernard, we incidentally hit upon a word which
exactly chaiucterises mediaeval works on alchemy — they are
romances, romances full of interminable allegories ; they sometimes
begin and always end with an invocation to Christ and the Trinity,
From time to time, smid'tbe old abortive attempts to read ths
riddle of the universe, we fiiid some new idea cropping up. The
generation of plants and animals had failed to explain the genera-
tion of meials ; so they turned to digestion and fermentation for
analogies, and though they nijver reached their goal, they picked
up much that was valuable on the Way. The road itself ivas
barred, and therefore to profit hy their works we must foLow
them into bypaths and digresaons. Th'os, for instance, we
may study with advantage their dialectic* Whilst refuting their
( adversaries, they were gradually laying the foundations of the
logic of science. True alchemists were generally haughty and con-
temptuous ; the mechanic often grew rich on the scraps vrtdch the
alchemist was too proud to touclL We cannot always make sore
of undersianding them» yet £r*m the medley of their writings more
fi-agments of re^ chemisny may be gathered than is generally sup-
posed. There is rhythm and harmony, a ring of true genius about
the best of their works, which charms us if it does not send us to
sleep with its sweet tnit monotonous music. In reading Laurent
Ventura's book, i>« 2iati(me Conjici^ndi Lapidis Philosophicit we
are tempted for a moment to endorse the strange fancy of the
Dutch Rabbins, "that even if a man do not understand the lan-
guage of the Zohar^ he ought no less to read it ; for this language,
as the cabalists have "written it, is a medicine for the soul."
Often what appeared a work of pure fiction, (as the RoTnan de la
i!o56) concealed a treatise on alchemy; often, on the other hand,
what purported to be a work of pure alchemy was a medium fop
heretical theology, sometimes for the ideas of "Spinosa and Goeihe.
The times, moreover, were sad, and all could appreciate the advan-
tage of a romance. It was not given to every one to follow the
terrible logic of Danstin, the contemporary of Raymond LuUy, the
author of a Rosarius, which has never been published, from which M.
F. Hbfer gives the following extract : — *' AU bodies may be divided
into three classes — 1. Sensible and intellectual beings (animals and
men) ; 2. Vegetables ; 3. ilinerals. Like always tends to unite with
like. Intellectual elements are homogeneous with the Supreme Intel-
ligence ; that is why the soul yearns to be absorbed into the Deity.
The elements of the body are of the same nature as the STirround-
ing physical world ; hence their tendency to imite the one with the
other. Death is then for all a moment to be desired." Dico Amen
tibiy reverende mi Doctor^ to borrow Bernard's favourite expression.
After so much mist and fog we need a bi eath of fresh air. Let us
pass at once, then, to the Luther of science, v/ho reproached so bitterly
the Luther of theology with only going half-way — to ^n epoch which
witnessed the new birth of intellectual life, and to a man who was
carried by the new movement , into every sort of extravagance,
though his errors —ere those of a generous and unselfish nature.
Let us treat of the . maissance and Paracelsus.
IV. Paiuceisus A^^) his j^fluekce.
Tempting as the subject is, we must not linger either
on the philosophical doctrine or the medical system of this
extraordinary man, for fear of encroaching on the article
Medici>'e or the article Paracelsus. We only vrish to
show that he is the pioneer of modem chemists, and the
prophet of a revolution in general science. Thosa ^rho
only know Bacon in manuals of philosophy are never
tired of repeating that the great English philosopher is the
father of experimental science. This is tnie, indeed, in the
sense that Bacon insisted with inexhaustible eloquence oo
the necessity of experimental science, but it is false if t
means that Bacon inaugurated modem science by personal
experiments. It was ihia popular conception of Bacon
which Liebig attacked, and he thus found no difficulty in
drawing up a long and crushing indictment Bacon was
<66
ALCHEMY
the prophet of experimentation, and this title is sufTicient
to secure his fame against the abuse of modern dogmatidls,
who iLink that science increases little by little, with here
a fact anj therfc an idea, without a single pause, a single
relapsu or revolutii)n. Few take the trouble to consider
how far Bacon's philosophy belonjjs to the past ; most are
satiaficd with cut and dried phrases about the part he
played in modern science. Jus? in the same way, Parar
celsus, the great innovator, who thought himself even
more enfranchised from the bo;idage of Aristotle and
Galen than he really was, is dispatched ivith ready-made
phrases, but, unlike Bacon, hj gets nothing but ridicule
and (ibuse. Madman, charlatan, impostor — no name is too
bad for him with the historians ; and yet they are forced
to confess that this impudent adventurer brought about
a necessary revolution. Thomas Thomson is very severe;
he goes so far as to reproach Paracelsus with declining the
word tonitru. Ho would have wished, forsooth, the revolu-
tionist of Baslo to have delivered before his young and
enthusiastic audieijco " the sober lectures of a professor in
a university." Dryasdusts are fond of falling into such
anachronisms ; a far truer estimate of Paracelsus has been
given us by Mr Browning in the drama which bears his
name. There are self-deceived visionaries who are always
thinking that the problem is solved, who compose elaborate
romances with which enthusiasts are enchanted. Raymond
Lully was one of this class. There are spirits of light
who point out and trace the road along which humanity
travels slowly in their wake. Bacon belongs to the first
category, but has played the part of a genius of the second
order. Tliirdly, there ?re souls of fire always enveloped
in clouds, from which ever and anon the lightnings of
genius flash forth, who bear humanity towards a goal
foreseen rather tlian seen by themselves, by a rough and
rugged road with endless turns and windings. Such
a nature was Par'acelsui. His pride was more towering
than the mountains of his native Switzerland. Ho be-
lieved tliat through him a new race, the Germans, were
destined to succeed to science. The Greeks, the Arabians,
and the ItaUans, their immediate disciples, had had their
day with him, and through him tho German era was to
begin. He studied under Trithema, the abbot of Span-
Vim, and under his father, a distinguished alchemist :
igrippa wai his fellow-student. Afterwards he resorted
to strange masters — old wives and workmen, his beloved
jiiners, who confided to him their secrets. He was the
greatest traveller in that age of scientific travellers. Lastly,
he practised medicine as the doctor of the poor, and
inaugurated lectures in the vulgar tongue Van Helmont,
Ms real successor, who inherited his goodness of nature,
established cUnical medicine, i.e., lessons at the bedside of
the patient. Stahl, who inherited his arrogance and his
love of symbolisra, developed from one of the ideas of his
master the phlogistic theory, tho elaboration of which
theory was for chemistry a prosperous period of incubation,
while from tho refutation of this theory the science may
be truly said to date its birth. Paracelsus's work, like his
genius, oscillates perpetually between magic and science,
but what has not been sufficiently observed is, that science
invariably ends by carrying the day. If, for instance, he
is giving us " the green lion," a recipe for inaking gold,
he ends by breaking a lance with the seekers for gold : —
" Away with these false disciples who hold that this divine
science, which they dishonour and prostitute, has no other
end but that of making gold and silver. True alchemy has
But one aim and object, to extract tho quintessence of
things, and to prepare arcana, tinctures, and elixirs, which
may restore to man the health and soundness he has lost."
He beards the " white-gloved " disciples of Galen, and, in
spite of their juleps and draughts, asserts that alchemy is
indispensable, and that without it there is no such thing
as medical knowledge. He rejects tho easy explanation
of the universe by means of an entity, stigmatising it as
jxiganity, meaning thereby a necessary consequence of
paganism, which as a theosophist ho holds in abhorrence.
He rejects tho favourite instrument of the schoolmen, tho
syllogism. Nature, as ho views it, is not a clear and
intelligible system of which the form declares the essence ;
no, it is mysterious. There is a spirit at work beneath the
outside shell. What is written on this shell no one can
read but the initiated who have learned to separate tho
real and the apparent. " At the same time, eveiything is
not active. To separate the active portion (the spirit) of
this oiitsido shell from the passive, is the proper province
of alchemy." Thus we see that with Paracelsus alchemy
ceased to be tha search for the first principles of bodies,
and made one step in advance towards chemistry. His
innate genius for medicine, as he boasted,, but more truly
his noble heart, urged him to learn a study which better
satisiied his pride, but which had not the practical useful-
ness of medical chemistry to recommend it. TTie name iatro-
chimics marks this transition from alchemy to chemistry.
A remarkable saying of Paracelsus shows us the close
connection between his alchemy and his medicine : " Vila
ignis, corpus lir/num." This notion of the yiiportance of
combustion was taken up again by Becker and his disciple
Stahl, the ' inventors of the term phlogiston, which they
thought was of an earthy nature, because resin, phos-
phorus, 8u phur, and other combustible bodies are insoluble
in water. Paracelsus was too well initiated in the cabal-
istic theory ol astral light, which symbolised the universal
agent of light and heat, to have accepted such a gross
materialistic theory. A distinguLhed Frenchman of tho
present centary, who prided himself on being a follower of
tho cabalists, has in one of his novels, called La Peau de
Chagrin, reproduced the theory of Paracelsus, vita ignis,
corpus lignum. Each act, each wish of the possessor of
the talisman, causes the skin to shrink; and Mr Huxley,
in his remarkable lecture on 2^he Physical Basis of Life,
has not been ashamed to borrow this illustration from Balzac
\Vhat renders Paracelsus's saying so valuable is, that it is
neither materialistic nor spiritualistic, but merely dynamical.
Another instance of Paracelsus's oscillating between the
modem and the ancient world is seen in the hesitation he
shows when discussing the influence of the planets over tho
internal organs of the body. Sometimes he seems to take
the symbol for the thing itself, but he ends by admitting
only the parallelism of the macrocosm and the microcosm.
When he assigns the brain to the moon afid the heart to
tho sun, he seems to say: " I do not think with Plato that
the brain is aU; it is but the reflector and guide— the heart
is the regulator of the organism. I place my archeus a
little above the heart, as a connecting-link between the
nervous and sanguine circulation, as Hippocrates has his
enormon." If ho had lived in calmer times, and known tho
true Aristotle, Paracelsus would have allowed that /iop^i;
does not represent the ivriXcxfia of the Stagyrite, that
h/epyiia is the true meaning. But in those times of false
Aristotelianism tho Spagirism of Paracelsus was pitted
against tho Stagyrism of Aristotle. By making the viscera
the seat of diseases, Paracelsus claims to be the founder of
the organicists; by his chemistry of the blood — mercury
which ■ evaporates, sulphur which burns, salt which is con-
stant-7-he ds answerable for the blunderings of Maitre
Purgon; by his archeas, the grand motor and regulator of
the astrology of the body, he is the ancestor in a direct hue
of animism, and collaterally of modem Hippocratism or
vitalism of the Montpellier schooL In short, it is hard to
name anything that cannot be found in the works of this
mad genius, who in spite of the jars and jolts of his wild
A L C — A L C
467
career, Btill manages to Iceep the road without upsetting
either at Paris or Montpeliier. What, we may ask, would
modem therapeutics be without tlie opium and mercury of
Paracelsus — without the laudanum of his disciple Querce-
tan, physician to Henry IV., (fcc.i When this charlatan had
substituted for astrological influence a simple parallelism,
it waa easy for Van Helmont to rid modern science of this
simple parallelism. Besides all this, Paracelsus was a real
doctor. The death of Erasmus's friend, whom he was
attending, did him less harm than the cure of another
patient, who was dining with him ninety-nine days after
he had been pronounced in extremis; more fatal still was
the case of Cornelius do Liechtcnfels, who, when cured by
him of the gout, refused to pay his benefactor the stipulated
price. Paracelsus would not hold his tongue or submit
to the magistrates, and in consequence had to resign his
professorship at Basle. A double interest attaches to this
story; it hastened Paracelsus's death, and it proves that he
would never have accepted the vis medicatrix naturm of
Stahl We have seen that those strange bodies which
escaped from the retorts of the masters of the sacred art
were called by them souls; their successors, on a closer
acquaintance with them, called them spirits. Basil Valentin
and Paracelsus, recognising their importance in the trans-
mutation of bodies, gave to them the name of mercury.
Van Helmont studied them more minutely, and invented
the name gas. He was acquainted with carbonic acid under
the name of woody gas. But his ignoraijce of the action of
the oxygen of the atmosphere prevented him from making
the fundamental distinctions between experiments per-
formed in a closed vessel and in one open to the air. Priest-
ley, Lavoisier, and Scheele by the use of the test-tube and
the balance (both Van Helmont and Stahl had also turned
the balance to good account), weighed and tested the results
of ancient alchemy. Hence modern chemistry was born.
But we must in justice add that the work had already
been begun by men of genius, such as Bernard Palissy,
Boyle the eminent critic and experimentalist, Homberg,
the two Gcoflroys, Margrail, Bcrgmann, Rouclle the master
of Lavoisier, who may be called the Diderot of chemistry.
Moreover, the most imi^ortant discoveries in chemistry have
been made by men who combined with chemical experi-
ments a marked taste for alchemic theories. Wo may
instance Glauber, ablest of mystics; Kunkel, who thought
ho had found in the " shining pOls " of his phosphorus
mirahilis as efficacious a remedy as the potable gold in
which he also believed; Glaser the alchemist, master of
Leraery, who has been called the father of chemistry ;
Hubert Fludd, ic.
It is curious to observe that soon after chemistry was
established as a science there was a regular deluge of
searchers for the philosopher's stone. The limits of this
article p^'event us fpom giving a full list of their names.
Suffice it to mention, among Frenchmen, De Lisle, who
died in the Bastile of the wounds his guardians inflicted
on him to extort his secret; among Englishmen, Dr Price,
who committed suicide to escape from a pubUc tri:\l of his
pretended discovery. As to the theoretical possibility of
making gold, the great French chemist Dumas considered
that a solution might be found in the doctrine of isomer-
ism; and tlie great Engh'sh chemist Sir Humphrey Davy
refused to pronounce that the alcliemists must be wrong.
Before concluding this short sketch of a vast subject, wo
must give a brief list of titles of the most important autho-
rities on the subject, and enumerate the principal words
which alchemy has bequeathed to scientific terminoUgy,
or which have passed into the langiiage of common life : —
AcxnoniTiES. — Roger Bacon, Thesaurus Cliimicus, 8to, Francot,
1003 ; Francia Bacon Lord Vorulam. History of Motal.s, fol.,
London, 1670 ; J. J. Bcchcr, Opera Oumia, Francof., 1680 ; Chyiuia
Philosopluca, Svo, Nuremberg, 1639 ; John F.spagnet, Enchiridion
PMlosophiajHermetiCK, Palis, 103S ; Kobert Fluid, Clavis AlcHmira,
2 vols., Prancof.; T. K. Glauber, Works, Chimistry, foL, London,
1689 ; Hermis Triaraegisti, Traduction par J. Mesnard, Svo, Paiis
(edited by Didier) ; J. Kunkel, Experiments, 870, London, 1705 ;
Paracclsi Opera Omnia (with a remarkable preface by Fred. Bitiski),
2 vols. fol. ; J. B. Porta, De jEris Transmutationibus, 4to,
Romx, 1610; Quercetan, Hcrmetical Physic, 4to, London, 1505 ;
Georgii Ripley, Opera Omnia, Svo, Cassel, 1649 ; J. Trithcmius,
De Lapide Philosophico, Svo, Par. 1611 ; Basil Valentin, Lait
Will, &c., Svo, Loudon, 1671. Of compilations wo may mention —
Artis Auriferffl quam Chemiam vocant Duo Volumina (this work
includes the TUrba Philosophorum), Basilea:, 1010 ; J. J. Hangct,
Bibliotheca Chemica Curiosa, 2 vols, fob, 1702; Thcatrum Chiml-
cum, 6 vols. Svo, Argent., 1662 ; The Lives of the Adepts in
AJchemystical Philosophy, with a critical catalogue of the books in
this science, and a selection of the most celebrated treatises, &c.,
Svo, London, 1814 ; Essai sur la Conservation de la Vie par le
Vcte. Le Lapasse, Svo, Paris. Among the best historical and critical
works with which wo are acquainted we will mention — Petr. Gregor.
Tholozanus Syntaxeon Artis Mirabilis, 2 vols., Lugduni, 1676 ; 0.
Borrichius de Ortu et Proercssu Chemiai, 4to, 1668 ; The History
of Chemistry, by Thomas Thomson, 2 vols. Svo, London, 1830 ;
Eusebe Salveiic, Lea Sciences Occultes, Svo, Paris, 1829 ; Fcrd.
Hoefer, Histoire de la Chimie, 2 vols. Svo, Paris, and an abridg-
ment by the same author ; Histoire de la Physique et de la Chimie,
Svo, Paris, 1872 ; Louis Cruveilhier, Philosophie des Sciences
MMicales, CEuvies Choisies, Svo, Paris, 1862 ; Fred. Morin, Gcneso
de la Science (an important work, which we only know from quota-
tions in French reviews aud encyclopaidias) ; Dumas, Philosophie
Chimique. Lastly, if we wish to trace the transition of alchemy to
chemistry we shall find valuable information in Le Dictionnaire de
Physique, dedicated to Mons. le Due de Berry, 3 vols. 4to,
Avignon, 1761, under the words Alkali, Alum, Chimie,^ Pierre
Phifosophale, Homberg. Tho reader will observe that in this
encyclopajdia, written with the express purpose of propgating the
Newtonian theory in France, the classical science coiild bring no
real arguments against alchemy. He may also consult the remark-
able work of La Jlethcrie, which has been undeservedly forgotten —
Essai Analytiquo sur I'Air pur et Ics DifTerentcs Espfeces d'Air, 3
vols. Palis, 1785; aud The Birth of Chemistry, by G. F. KodwcU,
London, 1874.
Ettmologt. — The idea tnat nature must bo tortured to make
her reveal her secrets is preserved in tho word crucible : Fr. crcusct,
Ital. cruciolo, Span, crisol — all from the Latin crux, a cross. The
word matrass, Fr. malras, is probably from the Celtic malara, an
aiTOW, through the old French verb matrasscr, to harass. Bain-Maris
and amalgam (liiiKay fia) are a legacy of the sacred art. We can
trace the two principles, male and female, of the alchemists in tho
word arsenic (ipireitiKSy, male). From the Arabs we get alcohol (aZ
kohl), properly anything burnt, then a powder of antimony to
darken the eyelids, and lastly, spirits of wine ; alkali, aslics ; borax,
the white substance ; lacker, from lac, resin ; elixir, from cl kesir,
essence ; alembic, Arab, alanbiq. I'olash is obviously the ash of tho
pot, Gavm. potasch : laudanum \s & counyiionoi laudandum. The
derivation of tartar, Fr. tarire, is strange. Paracelsus considcnd
tartar to bo tho cause of the gout, and borrowed tho name from the
infernal regions (Tartaras). , The Spaniards have borrowed from
the Arabs, azoyuc, mercury ; asogar, to overlay with quicksilver ;
azogucro, a worker in mercury ; azogamiento, agitation ; azognda-
mcntc, with .agitation. The same Celtic root which gave to Latin
the word vcrtmgns, used by Martial for greyhound, and to Greek
oufprayos, found in .(Elian, from which Dante tock the word veltro,
has also created a large family of words — the It.-1. pcltro, tin and
mercury; Span, pcltrc, lead and tin; old Yr. ■pcautre = pcltro ;
Eng. pewter, pexctcrer, &c. The Place Maubcrt at Paris derives its
name from the fact that Magister Albertus lived there (Maubcrt =
Ma' Albert). From tho alchemists we get both tho ideas and
the -words aJTinihj (Albertus JIagnus), precipitate (B. Valentin),
reduce (Paracelsus), saturatio}i{\an Helmont), distillation, calcina-
tion, quintessence, aqua vitoi (brandy was originally only employed
as a medicine), aqua regalis, aqua lecunda., gas, cobalt, from Kobolds,
tho genii of mines, &c. ( j, a. )
ALCIATI, Andrea, an eminent Italian jurist, born at
Alzano, near Milan, on the 12th January 1492, died 1550.
,He displayed great literary skill in his exposition of the
laws, forwhicii Do Thou highly praises him. He published
many legal work.s, and some annotations on Tacitu.^. Hi."
Eviblems, a collection of moral sayings in Latin verse, ha?
been greatly admired, and translated into French, Italian,
and Spanish. Alciati's history of Milan, under tho title
Jicrum Patrice, sen Hi-storicE Mediolanemis, libri IV., waa
published posthumously at Milan in 1625.
470
ALCOHOL
Alcohol has the following chemical compcsition :—
Carbon B2'67 per cont.
Hydrogen 12-00 „
Oxygen 34'43 ,,
10000
Its forrmJa in chemical sj-mbols is C,n,0. D'.iring the
fermentation of sugar the change that takes place is ropro-
Bouteil a3 follows : —
C,ir„0, - 2C,I1,0
Grape dugnr. AJeohol.
+ 2 CO,
Carlanlc bdd.
The complex body, grape-sugar, breaks up by the action of
the ferment or yeast into alcohol or carbonic acid, without
anything being added. This kind of chemical change is
Bomctimes called an action of presence, or catalj-tic action,
because the substance inducing it does not enter into the
composition of the products of the reaction. The alcohol
ferment or yeast is a minute cellular plant th.it grows
rapidly in sugar solution, especially if albumenoid matter
is aho present, and during the continu.ance of its vital
functions causos'a rearrangement of the atoms of the sugar.
In order that fermentation may proceed regularly, a tempera-
ture of abo\it CO" Fahr. is required, and an amount of
sugar in solution not exceeding 10 per cent. The sugar
is principally obtained from malt, which is barley that has
been allowed to germinate for a certain time, and is then
arrested in its growth by heating to a high temperature.
During tliis process of germination there is a peculiar
ferment produced called diastase ; this has the remarkable
property of changing starch into grape-sugar. When the
malt is treated mth water, the ferment causes all the starch
originally present in the grain to appear in solution as
grape-sugar. All kinds of starch may be changed into
grape-sugar by boiling with dilute sulphuric acid, which
in this case acts somewhat like a ferment, because it is not
decomposed during the action. The sulphuric acid is
afterwards separated by treating with lime, which produces
insoluble sulphate of lime (gypsum), and leaves the sugar
in solution. In this way sugar for the alcohol manufacture
is now largely made from the potato and other starch-
yielding plants. Cane-sugar is too expensive to be
employed in the di.stiUery. Jlola.^ses, or the uncrystaUisr
able portion of the cane-sugar, is, however, largely used.
Alcohol, when acted, on by other chemical substances,
produces a great variety of new compounds. With acids
a remarkable class of bodies are produced called ethers, of
which ordinary ether is the type. The majority of them
are very volatile fluids, that in many cases have a very agree-
able odour, and are not readily soluble in water. Many
ethers are obtained by simjily heating a mixture of the
acid and alcohol in a closed vessel to a temperature of
212° Fahr., and subsequeutly treating with water. The
water dissolves the alcohol not acted upon, and leai es the
ether floating on the surface.
When alcohol is treated ^-ith chlorine, absorption occurs,
and hydrochloric acid is continuously evolved for many
hours, tho temperaliuro rising considerably dming the
action. Many substances are formed in succession, but
the principal product, after long-contiuued action, is the
substance chloral, novr largely used as an anKstlietic.
Bromine produces a similar body called bromal. Iodine
doe;; not act on alcohol at ordinary temperatures, further
than to pass into solution. When treated ^vith a solution
of chloride of lime, alcohol is violently attacked, and the
result of the action is tho well-known substance chloroform.
Acied on by oxidising agents, alcohol gives two new sub-
Btances — aldehyde and acetic acid. Tho ease with which
acetic acid is produced by heating with a mixture of
bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid gives a dclicat«
method of detecting and estimating very smaU quaatities
of alcohol When tho vapour of alcohol is pa.ssed through
a red-hot tube filled with fragments of pumicestono, com
pleta dccompo.",ition takes place. Among thc^ products are
found naphthaUn, benzol, hydrogen, marsh gas, ethylene,
and other bodies.
Tho synthesis of alcohol has been effected by means of
the hydro-carbon called olefiant gas, which may bo made
directly from carbon and hydrogen. When this gas is
shaken with strong sulphuric acid it gradually combines
with it ; and if it is afterwards diluted with water and
distilled, alcohol passes over.. As olefiant gas is one of
the constituents of common coal-gas, this substance may
be used to make alcohol by tho above method. The action
that takes place is represented thus: —
C,II. +
OlcOaut Gat.
H,0
Water.
C.H.O
Alcohol.
As the value of spirituous liquors depends mainly on tho
quantity of alcohol they contain, it is essential to find some
simple and rapid means of ascertaining tho percentage
amount of the substance present For this purpose three
methods may be employed, viz., specific gravity determina-
tion, temperature of ebullition, or rate of expansion. Tho
easiest plan, and tho most generally used, is tho density
method. Very accurate tables are publi.ihed of the specific
gravity of mixtures of alcohol and water in all proportions,
so that it is only necessary to refer to these tables to get
the percentage composition. In tho case of liquors, like
wines or beers, that contain many othei substances in solu-
tion in addition to alcohol, it is necessary to separate tho
alcohol from tho extractive matters — sugar, salts, ic. — by
distillation, and to take the density of the volatile portion.
As wines contain many volatile ethers that would pass
over with the alcohol in the above process, and interfere
with accurate results being obtained, they are generally
decomposed by heating with an alkali before the distillation
commences.
The physiolo^cal action of alcohol is a subject to which
considerabl'i attention has been directed of late years, and
many investigators have attacked the problem. The most
important contribution to our knowledge of the subject is
due to Dr Parkes, who has made a long series of observa-
tions on soldiers living on a constant diet with and without
the use of alcohol. In these experiments the weight of
the body, the amount of nitrogen in tho urine and fajces,
the amount of urea, tho pulse, and tho temperature of the
body wore all determined daUy. The following are the
principal conclusions deduced from the investigation : —
The elimination of nitrogen during exercise was unaffected hy
brandy ; and since a aimikr result occurred in a series of expsri-
ments made during rest, it aeems ceitain that in healthy men on
uniform good diet 5cohol does not interfere «-ilh the disintegration
of nitro'^enous tissues.
The heat of the body, aa jadged of by the axilla and rectum
temperatura, waa nnaifected by the amount given. _ The apparent
heat after alcohol must therefore be owing to subjective feelings
connected with tho quickened circulation, rather than to an actual
rise of temperature.
Tho pulse was increased in frequency by 4 ounces of "brandy, and
palpitation and breath] e.s.qne3S were brought on by larger doses to
such an extent aa greatly to lessen the amount of work the man
could do, and to render quick movements impossible. As the efiect
of labour alone is to augment the strength and frequency of the
heart's action, it would appear obviously improper to act on the
heart still more by tlcohol. Whether on a heart exhausted by
exertion alcohol would produce good or bad effects is not shown by
these experiments.
Neither exercise nor alcohol produced any effect on the phosnhoric
acid of the urine, or the free acidity, or the chlorine.
As the action of alcohol in dietetic doses on the elimination of
nitrogen and on the bodily temperature is so entirely negative, it
seems reasonable to doubl if alcohol can have the depressing effect
on the excretion of pulmonary carbon which is commonly attributed
to it. It can hardly depress, one would think, the metamorphosis
oi tissues or substances fiu-nishing carbon, without affectin*- "ither
the changes of lug nitrugeaous etructuiea or bodily heaU
A L C — A L C
471
The elimination of alcohol from the body has been a
matter of dispute between different obaervers. Previous to
the year 1860 it was the generally-received opinion that
the greater portion of any alcohol taken was oxidised in
the system, and only a small fraction eliminated unaltered.
In that year Messrs Perrin and LaDemand published an
elaborate memoir on the subject, in which they maintained
that all, or at least nearly all, the alcohol taken is eliminated
tmaltered. ' This subject has been recently reinvestigated
by Dr Austin, Dr Thndichum, and especially by Dr A,
Dupr^r The main results of Dr Dupr^'s series of observar
tions may be summed up as follows : —
The amount of alcohol eliminated per day does not increase
with the continuance of the alcohol diet ; and therefore all the
alcohol consumed daily must of necessity be disposed of daily;
and as it certainly is not eliminated Within that time, it must be
desijoved in the systenL
The' elimination of alcohol following the ingestion of a dose or
deiea of alcohol ceases in from nine to twenty-four hours after the
lasi dose has been taken.
The amount of alcohol eliminated in both breath and urine is a
minute fraction only of the amount of alcohol taken.
In the course of these experiments the author found that, after
six weeks of total abstinence, and even in the case of a teetotaUer,
& subc*ance is eliminated in the urine, and perhaps also in the
breath, which, though apparently not alcohol, gives all the reactions
ordinarily used for the detection of traces df alcohol. The quantity
present in urine is, however, so small th^t the precise nature of the
substance has not as yet been determined, Tne author points out
an apparent connection between this substance and alcohol. It was
found that, after the elimination due to the ingestion of alcohol. had
ceased, the amount of this substance eliminated in'a given time
at first remained below the quantity normally excreted, and only
gradually rose again to the normal standard. , A careful study of
tills connection may perhaps servo to throw some light upon tlie
physiological action of alcohol.
ALCOY, one of the most thriving manufacturlBg cities
of Spain, on the river Alcoy, in the province of Alicante,
21 miles N.N.W. of the town of that name. It is built
on an elevated site at the foot of a gorge of the Sierra de
Ma7-iola, and presents a picturesque appearance. There
are several handsome buildings and a number of public
fountains, but the industry of the place is its chief character-
istic. The principal emplo3Tnent is papermaking. About
200,000 reams are produced annually, the extraordinary
quantity of 180,000 reams being a paper of light texture
used for making cigarettes. Coarse woollen stuffs are also
manufactured. A very curious festival is held annually in
April in honour of St George, the patron Saint of the town.
Population, 27,000.
'ALOUDIA, Majiuel de Godoy, Dctke of, "Prince
of the Peace," Spanish statesman, was bom of poor but
noble parentage at Badajoz on the 12th May 1767 (died
1851). In 1784 he came to Madrid to join the royal body-
guard, and by his handsome presence and agreeable
manners soon attracted notice. The queen regarded him
with great favour, and the weak-minded Charles IV. raised
him rapidly from dignity to dignity, until in 1792, on the
disgrace of Aranda, he became prime minister. One of
the first steps he took on his accession to power was to
declare V(ar against the French convention. Though
success at first attended the Spanish arms, the position of
Blatters was reversed in a second campaign, and the war
■was concluded by the treaty of Basle, signed on the 22d
July 1795, for negotiating which Godoy received his title
cf Prince of the Peace and a large landed estate. He was
also made at the same time a grandee of Spain gf the first
class. In 1796 he formed an offensive and defensive
alliance with the French republic, which involved Spain
in a war with England. Next year ho was married to
!Maria Theresa de Bourbon, niece Of the king by a mor-
ganatic marriage of his brother Luis. As it was under-
Btood that Godoy had already married Dona Josef a
Tudo, this Second alliance, though it brought b^'" nearer
to the. king, did much to increase his unpopuiaiity with
the nation. On the 2Sth March 1798 he found himself
forced to resign his position in the ministry, but he never
lost the favour of the king, wlio appointed hiai grand
admiral in 1799. About the same time he was restored to
power, and entered into an aUiaace with Napoleon, having
for its object the partition of Portugal The war, in which
Godoy himself commanded, was of short duration, the
treaty of Badajoz, signed on the 6t','- June 1801, securing
from Portugal a subsidy to France and a cession of terri-
toi-y to Spain. Godoy was rewarded for his service with
the title of Count of Evoramente, and an annual income of
100,000 piastres. In ISO! he became generalissimo of
the land and sea forces of Spain ; but the honours thus
heaped upon him by the king were accompanied by grow-
ing dislike on the part of the nobility and the people.
The higher classes regarded him with jealousy as a parvenu,
and he was necessarily unpopular with a nation that attri-
buted to him the defeat of Trafalgar, and the stoppage c C
its commerce through the blockade of the ports. A change
of policy, by which he endeavoured to break off his alliance
with France and enter into friendly relations with England,
came too late to save his position. Napoleon determined
to remove the Bourbons from the throne of Spain, and the
invasion of the French troops gave Godoy's enemies the
wished-for opportunity to secure his downfall. The prime
minister had retired from Madrid, and was making arrange-
Hients for tue removal of the king and queen to Mexico,
when the project was discovered by the Prince of Asturias,
the leader of the party opposed to him. On the ISth
March' 1808 Godoy was seized at Aranjuez by the mob,
who were only restrained from executing summary ven-
geance upon him by the promise given them that he should
undergo a fair trial. Napoleon, however, wishing to avail
himself of his influence over Charles, sent Prince Murat to
effect his release. Ho was removed in AprU to Bayonnc,
where on the 5th May he signed the deed by which Charles
I"V. abdicated in favour of the Prince of Asturias. Ho
continued to enjoy the undiminished favour of Charles,
whom he accompanied to Rome, his possessions in Spain
having been confiscated. On the death of his royal master
he removed to Paris, where he received a pension of 5000
francs from Louis Philippe. In 1836-8 he published
memoirs of his life, in which he defends his policy. In
18-17 his tides and the greater part of his estates were
restored to him, and he received permission to return to
Spain. He continued, however, to reside in Paris, where
he died on the 4th October 1851.
ALCUIN, in Latin Albinus, surnamed Flaccus, .an
eminent ecclesiastic and a reviver of learning in the 8th
century, was bom in Yorkshire about 735 (died 804).
He was educated at York under the direction of Arch-
bishop Egbert, as we learn from his own letters, in which
he frequently calls that prelate his beloved master, and
the clergy of York the companions of his youthful studies.
He succeeded Elbert as director of the seminary, and in
later life modelled after it his famous school at Tours.
He survived Bede about seventy years ; it is thereforo
hardly possible that he could have received any part of hia
education under him, as some WTiters of literary history
have affinned ; and it is worthy of observation that ha
never calls ■ Bede his . master, though he speaks of hini
with the highest veneration. It is not well known to
what preferments he had attained in the church before he
left England,- though some say he was abbot of Canter-
bury. He was sent to Rome by Eanbald, the successor of
Ethelbert, to procure the pallium, and, in returning, at
Parma he met Charlemagne, who, as Alcuin had already
visited the French court, was no stranger to Lis citra-
ordinary J merit. The emperor cuuiiacicd so^grcat -ar
472
A L C — A L D
estoom nnil fricndsliip for him that Lc earnestly urged and
at length induced him to take up his residence at court
and iccome his preceptor in the sciences. Alcuin accord-
ingly instnictcd Cliarleniagne and his family in rhetoric,
logic, mathematics, and divinity. He particularly distin-
guished hiuLself by his wTitings in defence of the orthodox
faith against the adoptionists, Felix, bishop of Urgel,
and Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo, convincing the
former of his error after a six days' debate at Aix-la-
Chapello (799), and treating the latter in the most con-
ciliatoiy manner ; and on more than one occasion he was
employed in important missions between Charlemagne and
Olfa, king of Mcrcia. "France," says one of our best
writers of literary hktory, with some degree of truth, " is
indebted to Alcuin for all the pohto learning it boasted of
in that and the following ages. The universities of Paris,
Tours, Fulden, Soi.ssoii3, and many others, owe to him
their origin and increase, those of which he was not the
superior and founder being at least enlightened by his
doctrine and example, and enriched by the benefits he
procured for them from Charlemagne." Alcuin, it is
alleged, however, forbade the reading of the classical poets.
In 790 he went to England in the capacity of ambassador,
and returned to Franco in 792, never again to visit his
native land. After Alcuin had spent many years in the
most intimate familiarity with the greatest prince of liis
age, he at length, in 801, with great difficulty, obtained
leave to retire from court to the abbey of St Martin at
Tours, of which he had been appointed the head by
Charlemagne in 79C. Here he remained and taught till
his <^.eath in 801. In his retirement he kept up a constant
ccrrespondenco with Charlemagne, which displays, on the
part of both, an ardent love of learning and religion, and
great zeal and earnestness in contriving and executing
noble designs for their advancement. Alcuin composed
many treatises on a great variety of subjects, in a style
much superior in purity and elegance to that of most
writers of the age in which he flohrished. His works
were collected and published by Duchesne, in 1 toI.
folio, Paris, 1G17: a better edition is that of Froben, 2
vols, folio, Ratisbon, 1777. They consist of (1) Tracts
upon Scripture ; (2) Tracts upon doctrine, discipline, and
morality; (3) Historical treatises, letters, and poems. It
is not improbable that Alcuin was the writer of the famous
Caroline Books, issued under the name of Charlemagne,
which denounced as idolatrous every form of image-worship.
A JAle of Alcuin, by Lorenz, was published at Halle in
1829, and appeared in an English translation, by Slee,
in 1837.
ALCYONIUS, or Alcionius, x-etecs, a teamed
Italian, bom at Venice in 1487 (died 1527). DLstin-
guished as a classical scholar, he was employed for some
time by Aldus Manutius as a corrector of the press, and in
1522 was appointed professor of Greek at Florence through
the influence of Giulio da MedicL When the latter became
pope, under the title of Clement VII., in 1523, Alcyonius
foUowed him to Rome, and remained there until his
death. Alcyonius published at Venice, in 1521, a Latin
translation of several of t^-e works of Aristotle, which was
shown by the Spaniard Sepulveda to be very incorrect.
He wrote a dialogue entitled Afediccs Legatus, sive de
Jixilio, in connection, with which he was charged with
plagiarism by his personal enemy, Paulus Manurius. The
accusation, which Tiraboschi has shown to bo groundless,
bore that he had taken the finest passages in the work
from Cicero's De Gloria, and that he had then destroyed
the only existing copy of tha original in order to escape
detection. Two orations on the taking of Rome by Charles
v., and another on the knights who perished at the siege
of Rhodes, arc also ascribed to Alcyonius.
rtLDAN, a river of Siberia, in the government of
Yakutsk, which rises about 55° N. lat, and 125° E. lone.,
and after flowing more than 300 miles in a north-cost
direction, turns to the north-west, joining the Lena about
100 miles below Yakutsk. It has a total length of over
500 miles, for a considerable part of which it is nangable.
ALDAN MOUNTAINS, the name usually applied to
a branch of the Stanovoi mountains, which strike.^ off
from the main chain in the direction of the Aldan river,
or to a part of this range. According to some geographers,
however, the continuation of the Stanovoi range-to J5chring
Strait, or even the whole mountain system of eastern Siberia,
ought to receive the name.
ALDBOROUGH, a town of England, in the West
Riding of Y'orkshire, 16 miles W.N.W. of York. It
formerly returned two members to parliament, but was
disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The place is
remarkable only from its numerous ancient remains. It
was the Isurium of the Romans, and here and in the
neighbourhood the remains of aqueducts, spacious build-
ings, and tesselated pavements have been found, as well
as numerous implements, coins, and urns. Population
(1871) of the parish, which extends into the North Riding,
21 05; of the town, 502.
ALDEBURGH, or Aldboeough, a market-town and
watering-place in the county of Suffolk, 25 miles E.N.E.
of Ipswich. The borough was incorporated by a charter
of Kijig Edward VI., and in former times was a place of
considerable extent ; but the old town was gradually sub-
merged by the encroachments of the sea. Further destruc-
tion is now stayed by the accumulated sandbanks, and the
place has become a favourite resort of summer visitors.
Fishing affords employment to many of the inhabitanta.
The town is noted as the birthplace of the poet Crabbe,
who was bora here on 24th December 1754. A marble
bust of the poet has been placed in the parish church.
Aldeburgh was formerly a parliamentary borough, but was
disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. Population of
tfaepari.sh in 1871, 1990.
ALDEGREVER, or Aldegraf, Hedteich, a German
painter and engraver, bom in 1502 at Paderbom, from
which he removed in early life to Soest. From the close
resemblance of his style to that of his master, Albert
Diirer, he has sometimes been called the Albert of West-
phalia. His numerous engravings, chiefly from his own
•designs, are delicate and minute, though somewhat hard in
style, and entitle him to a place in the front rank of the
so-called "Little Masters." Specimens of his painting are
exceedingly rare. The genuineness of the works in the
Vienna and Munich collections attributed to him is at
least doubtful, the only unchallenged example being a
portrait in the gallery at Berlin. Aldegrcver died about
the year 1562.
ALDER, a genus of pilants {Alnus) belonging to the
order Betulacece, the best known of which is the common
alder {A. glutinosa). This tree thrives best in moist soils,
has a shrubby appearance, and grows, under favourable
circumstances, to a height of 40 or 50 feet. Under water
the wood is very durable, and it is therefore used for pOes.
The supports of tha Rialto at Vtnice, and many buildings
at Amsterdam, are of alder-wood. Furniture is sometimes
made from the wood, and it supplies excellent charcoal loz-
gunpowder. The bark is astringent ; it is used as a gargle,
and also in tanning and dyeing.
ALDERMAN, a word derived from the Anglo-Saxon
ealdormari, compounded of the comparative degree of the
adjective eald (old) and man. The term implies the pos-
session of an office of rank or dignity; and among the
Anglo-Saxons, earls, governors of provinces, tmd othej
persons of distinction received this title. Thus we read
A L D — A L D
473
of the aldtrmannus totius J nglice, who seems to have corre-
sponded, to the officer afterwards styled capitali-i jusii-
ciarius Anglice, or chief justice of England ; the alder-
mannus regis, probably an occasional magistrate, answering
to our justice of assize, or perhaps an officer whose duty it
was to prosecute for the crown , and aldermannus comilatus,
I magistrate with a middle rank between what was after-
(Fards called the earl and the sheriff, who sat at the trial
of causes with the bishop, and declared the common law,
while the bishop proceeded according to ecclesiastical law.
Besides these, we meet with the titles of aldermannus
tiviiatis, burgi, castelli, hundredi sive wapentachii, &c In
taoderu times aldermen are office-bearers in the muncipal
corporations of England and Wales, and Ireland. Before
the passing of the Municipal Corporation Act their func-
tions varied according to the charters of the different
burghs. By the statute 6th and 6th WOl IV. c 76, and
3d and 4th Vict. c. 118, the aldermen are elected by the
councUlors from among themselves (in Ireland, by the
burgesses), for six years, one-half going out every three
years. The number of councillors in each borough varies
from 12 to 48, according to its magnitude. One-fourth of
the municipal council consists of aldermen, and three-fourths
of councillors. In the municipal corporations of Scotland
there is no such title as alderman, the office-bearers of
corresponding rank there being termed bailies. The cor-
poration of London was not included in the Burgh Reform
Act, and the antiquated system remains there in full
force. The Court of Aldermen consists of twenty-sir,
twenty-five of whom ire elected for life by the freemen of
the respective wards, who return two persons, one of whom
the Court of Aldermen elect to supply the vacancy. The
city is divided into twenty-sii wards; twenty-four of these
send up one alderman each, the other two combine to
choose a twenty-fifth. The twenty-sixth alderman serves
for the independent borough of Southwark, and is appointed
by the other aldermen, who generally select the senior from
among themselves when a vacancy occurs. The lord mayor
is elected from such of the aldermen as have served the
office of sheriff; of these the Common Hall, which con-
sbts of the freemen of the different wards, select two, and
the aldermen elect one of these to the mayoralty. The
Court of Aldermen act as magistrates for the city of
London, and also possess authority of a judicial nature in
the affairs of the corporation. The aldermen are members
of the Court of Common Council, the legislative body of
the corporation, which consists in all of 232 members, the
remainder being elected annually by the freemen. In the
United States aldermen form as a rule a legislative rather
than a judicial body, although in some cities they hold
courts and possess very considerable magisterial powers.
ALDEENEY, one of the Channel Islands, and the most
northerly of the four, lies between 49° 41' and 49° 45' N.
lat., and 2° 9' and 2° 14' W. long., 7 miles to the westward
m
uti«DZT9
\
TiaTta:iTr<iA,'
•Xoijiubiiaim
XiprttPutf*
of Cape la Hogue, and is separated from the French coast
by a narrow channel called the Race of Aldemoy. The
passage through this strait is rendered very dangerous in
stormy weather by its conflicting cnrtents ; but through it
the scattered remnant of the French fleet under Toiirville
succeeded ki escaping after the defeat of La Hogue in 1692.
The harbour of Aldemey is 20 miles distant from St Peter
Port, Guernsey, 45 miles from St Helen's, Jersey, and GO
miles from Portland Bill, the nearest point of England.
There is regular steam communication with Guernsey. The
length of the island from N.E. to S.W. is Z\ nules; its
width about 1 mile; its greatest elevation is 280 feetj and
the area is about 4 square mUes.
The greater part of Aldemey is a level table-land, more
or less cultivated. The land continues flat to the edge of
the south-eastern and southern cliffs, which present a mag-
nificent succession of broken and perpendicular walls of
rock. Towards the north-west, north, and east, the coast is
less rocky, and is indented by several bays of tame and
naked aspect, of which those of Crabby, Braye, and Longy
are the most noticeable. Sandstone, granite, and por-
phyry are the chief geological formations. From the
importance of the island in a mUitary sense, it has been
fortified by a chain of defensive works, extending round
the northern coast from the Clanque Fort on the west to
Fort Esses on the east. The clifi's of the southern shore
form a very strong natural bulwark. An extensive granite
breakwater has been constructed, protecting the bay of
Braye towards the west, intended to form an additional
defence, and to convert the bay into a secure harbour of
refuge. The works have cost upwards of a million and a
quarter sterling ; but the new harbour is not much resorted
to, and the value of the breakwater as a means of defence
has been questioned. Fort TouraiUe stands on the eastern
side of the new harbour, and is a strong fortification,
mounting 50 heavy guns, with bomb-proof barracks and
powder magazine.
The population of Aldemey has increased rapidly of
recent years, on account of the ettensive public works.
In 1841 it was only 1030, in 1871 it was 2738. The
inhabitants are Protestants, and Aldemey forms part of
the diocese of Winchester. . Though a French patois lingers
in the island, EngUsh is generally spoken and universally
understood. The climate is healthy, and there is abun-
dance of good water. Corn is grown, but much of the
sandy soil is in grass, affording excaUent pasture to
the diminutive but pretty cows for which Aldemey is
famoxis. The only exports are cattle and early potatoes.
St Anne's, the town of the island, is situated at some dis-
tance from the beach, overlooking the new harbour. It is
plainly bmlt, but has a fine new church in the early
English style, erected as a memorial of the. family of Le
Mesurier, long the hereditary governors of the island.
The only other architectural feature worthy of notice i a
Gothic arch built as a memorial of the late Prince Albert
of England,
Aldemey seems to have been known to the Romans as
Ridiina, and Roman as well as Celtic remains have been
discovered. It is subject to the British crown, and is a
dependency of Guernsey. For its history and relation to
English legislation, see the article on the Channei,
IsLANTis. The internal government is vested in a judge
appointed by the crown, and six jurats, chosen for life by
the people; and these, with twelve douzainicrs, who are
popular representatives, but have not the power of voting,
form the legislature. Justice is administered by the same
judge s.ni. jurats, and several other officers. In civil cases
an appeal may be taken to the royal court of Guernsey, while
all criminal cases are refcned to Guernsey for decision.
Two companies of infantry and a battery of artillery com-
pose the local militia.
OflT the western coast of Aldemey there are many unin-
habited rocky islands; and six miles to the westwaid lie
L — 6o
474
A L D — A L 0
the Casquots, a group of rocks extremely dangerous to
ships coming up the English Channel. On these rocks
there are three liglithouses, with revolving lights 112 feet
above the water.
ALDERSHOTT CAMP, a standing garrison for a largo
force, situated about 35 miles from London, on the confines
of Hampshire and Surrey. It was established in May
1855, and was intended as a military training school,
especially for officers of the higher grades. Its germ is
to bo found in the temporary camp on Chobham Ridges,
formed in 1853 by Lord Hardinge, then commander-in-
chief, the success of which convinced him of the necessity
of giving our troops practical instruction in the field, and
affording our generals opportunities of manoeuvring largo
bodies of the three arms. He therefore advised the pur-
chaso of a tract of waste land whereon a permanent camp
might be established. His choice fell on AJdershott, a spot
also recommended by strategic reasons, being so placed that
a force holding it covered the capital Nothing came of
Lord Ilardinge's proposal till the experience of the Crimean
campaign fully endorsed his opinion. The lands at .;Uder-
ehott — an extensive open heath country, sparsely dotted
by fir woods and intersected by the Basingstoke canal — were
then acquired by the Crown. The first occupants of the
camp were two battalions of the Guards and seven of
embodied militia. On the return of the Crimean army,
cavalry, artillery, and infantry of the line arrived and took
possession of the lines of wooden huts and the permanent
barracks, which had by this time been erected. Since then
Aldershott has varied little in its principal features. It is
separated into two grand divisions, styled the north and
south camps. Beyond the latter are the permanent cavalry
and infantry barracks and the queen's pavilion. Farnham
is the nearest town, being only i miles from the south
camp; Guildford and Godalming are 10 and 12 respectively,
Windsor 18|, and Reading 21 miles. The soil on which
the camp stands is a light peat, and a fruitful source of
discomfort to its inhabitants. A little wet turns it into
tenacious mud, while a little sunshine produces a black
dust, not soon forgotten by those who have campaigned
in the " Long Valley." The force stationed at Aldershott
at the beginning of 1874 was composed- of 1 cavalry
anr" 3 infantry brigades ; in the former there were 3 full
regimentSj in the latter a total of 11 battalions, with several
depots of regiments abroad. Besides these, there were 2
batteries of horse and 6 of field artillery, 2 companies of
Royal Engineers, and 4 troops of Royal Engineers' train
(with pontoon, <fec.); 7 companies of the Army Service
Corps and 2 of the Army Hospital Corps — to provide for
transport, and the services of bakehouse and slaughter-
house and hospital — made up the total strength of aU ranks,
as shown ir. ■'he returns dated Ist January 1874, to 10,601
men, 2198 hoi^es, and 48 guns. It is a lieutenant-general's
command, and one highly prized, from its essentially military
character and the practical experience it affords in handling
a considerable force. Sir William KnoUys (afterwards comp-
troller of the household to the Prince of Wales) was its
first chief. He was succeeded by Sir John Pennefather;
Sir James Scarlett followed; then Sir Hope Grant, who
held the command in 1874. Naturally so large a military
colony soon attracted other elements to Aldershott heath.
Within a few years a town of Aldershott sprang up close
by, and increased rapidly. Here the professions aod all
trades are well represented; there are respectable solicitors,
surgeons, bankers, brewers, many schools, a steam printing
press, a weekly military paper, and numerous shops. Dur-
ing tho summer months or "driU season" the camp is a
scene of incessant activity; field-days and parades follow in
rapid succession, and owing to the camp's accessibility
from London, tho troops are often turned out at a few
hours' notice to make a show for royalty or foreign
visitors. Yet there is much to beguile vacant hours; many
clubs — for cricket, croquet, racquets, and the drama — a
gymnasium, and several excellent libraries. Admirable
charities also exist for the assiftance and relief of tho
soldiers' wives and children. (a. g.)
ALDHELM, or Adelm, St, Bishop of Sherborne in the
time of the Saxon heptarchy, was born about tho middle
of tho 7th century. He is said to have been tho son of
Kenred, brother to Ina, king of the West Saxons; but, in
the opinion of William of Malincsbury, his father was no
more than a distant relation to the king. Having received
the first part of his education in the school of Meildulf, a.
learned Irish monk, he travelled in France and Italy for hia
improvement. On his return home he studied some time
under Adrian, abbot of St Augustin's in Canterbury, the
most learned professor of the sciences who had ever been
in England. The fame of his learning soon spread, not;
only in England, but in foreign countries. Learned men.
sent him their writings for his criticism; among others,
a son of the king of Scotland is said to have sent his
compositions to Aldhelm, " entreating him to give them
the last polish by rubbing off their Scotch rust." He waa
the first Englishman who wrote in the Latin language,
both in prose and verse ; and he composed a book for
the instruction of his countrj-men on the prosody of that
language. Bede says that Aldhelm "was a man of universal
eri'dition, having an elegant style, and being wonderfully
well acquainted with books both on philosophical and reli-
gious subjects." His Latin was in later times considered
somewhat barbarous and corrupt. _ From one of his letters
to Uedda, bishop of Winchester, concerning the nr-tvire of
his studies whilst at Canterbury, he appears to have bcca
indefatigable in his endeavours to acquire every c-.ecics
of learning in his power. For a copy of this c;; rictus
epistle see Henry's History, vol. ii p. 320. King A-'ircd
declared that Aldhelm was the best of all tho E.xoa
poets; and a favourite song, which was universally sui.j iii
his time, nearly 200 years after its author's death, w-i of
his composition. He was a musician as well as a poet, and
made his own songs the medium of instruction and refine-
ment to his barbarous countr}-men. After having governed
the monastery of Malmcsbury, of which he was the foui:der,
about thirty years, he was made bishop of Sherborne, where
ho died in May 709.
He wrote — 1. Pe octo VUiis Prindpaliius. This treatise is ertast
in the Bit'tiothica Patrum of Canisius. 2. jEnigmatuin Versus
Mille. Ttiis, with several other poems of his, was published by
Martin Delrio at Mentz, 1"J)1, 8vo. 3. A book addressed t3 &
certain king of Northumberland named Alfiid, on various subjects.
4. Dt Vita MoTiachoTum. 5. De Laudt Sanctorivn. 6. Ve Ari'.fi^
■metica. 7. Dc Astrologxa. S. A book on the mistake of the Britoa..
concerning the celebration of Easter ; printed by Sonius, 157(J-
9. De Laudc Vir^nitatis ; published among Bede's Opuscula,
Besides these, he wrote many sonnets, epistles, and homilies in the
Saxon language.
ALDINE EDITIONS. See ^^A^•^TII7s.
ALDINI, GiovANXi, a distinguished physicist, bom it
Bologna on the 10th April 1762 (died 1834), was the
nephew of Galvani, and brother of the statesman Count
Antonio Aldini. Devoted from bis youth to the study of
natural science, he was chosen in 1798 to succeed his former
teacher Canterzani in the chair of physics at Bologna.
His most important service consisted in the numerous
experiments by which he sought to secure the better appli-
cation of science to practical purposes. The subjects of
galvanism, the illumination of Ughthouses by gas, and aa
asbestos or fireproof fabric engaged his special attention,
and on all of them he published the results of his researches.
He was master of the leading European lancTiages; aiid
most of his works werfe published in Italian, I'rench. &:.d
A L D - A L D
475
Ejiglish. Aldini was one of the founders of the N'ationai
Institute of Italy, and among Lis scientific honours he-
counted the gold medal of the Royal Society of London,
aiid the prize of the Institute of FrSince. In recognition
of his merits, the emperor of Austria made him a knight
of the Iron Crown and a councillor of state at Milan, where
he died on the 17th January 1831. He left by will a
considerable sum to found a school of natural science for
artisans at Bologna,
ALDRED, Ealdeed, or Aleed, a prominent eccle-
siastic iu the 11th century, was successively abbot of
Tavistock, bishop of Worcester, and archbishop of York.
He was promoted to the see of Worcaster'in 1046, and in
1050 was sent on a special mission to Rome by Edward'
the Confessor. In 1054 he went as ambassador to the
court of the Emperor Henry III. with the object of nego-
tiating for the return of Edward the ..Sitheling from Hungaiy,
and remained a year at Cologne. In 1058 he undertook
and accomplished a journey to Jerusalem, a pilgrimage
which no English bishop had ventured on before. He was
appointed archbishop of York in 1060, and proceeded to
Rome to obtain ihe pallium; but the pope at first refused
to confirm the appointment At length, however, Aldred
was duly invested with the robe of ofSce on condition of
his resigning his former see, which he had continued to
hold till that time. On the death of Edward (1066)
Aldred sided with Harold, and ofliciated at his coitnation;
but after the battle of Hastings he made submission to
William, and poured the sacred oil on the head of the
Conqueror ere the year was completed in which he had
crowned Harold. There are several traditions, which may
be regarded as having some foundation in fact, that repre-
sent Aldred as administering rebuke to William in the
interests of his countrymen or iu defence of his church's
rights. At the same time, he remained faithful to William,
and when the English rose in the north against the Nor-
mans, he counselled submission. He died at York, Sept. 1 1,
1069, of grief, it is said, because of the threatened attack on
his city by the combined Jorces of the English and Danes.
ALDRICH, Dr Heney, theologian and philosopher, was
born in 1647 at Westminster, and was educated at the
collegiate school there, under Dr Busby. In 1662 he
entered Christ Church CoUege, Oxford, vnih which he con-
tinued to be intimately connected during his whole life.
He took so conspicuous a part in the controversy with the
Roman Catholics during the reign of James II., that at the
Revolution the deanery of Christ Church was conferred
upon him, Massey, the popish dean, having fled to the con-
tinent. In 1702 he was appointed rector of Wem in Shrop-
shire, but continued to reside at Oicford, where he died on
the 1 4th Dec. 1710. He was buried in the cathedral without
any memorial, at his own desire. Aldrich was a man of
unusually varied gifts. He is best known as the author of
a Compendium Artis Logicce, a work of almost no value in
itself, but historically important as being for upwards of a
century the manual in exclusive use at Oxford. His claims
to distinction as a musician and an architect, though not so
widely recognised, are much better founded than his repu-
tation as a logician. He composed a number of anthem?
and church services of very considerable merit, which are
still frequently sung in cathedrals. He also adapted much
of the music of Pakstrina and Carissimi to English words
with great skill and judgment. The catch " Hark, the
bonny Christ Church bells" is one of his most admired
compositions in the lighter style. Aldrich -nTote a treatise
on architecture; and practical evidence of his skill in the
art may be seen in the church and campanile of All Saints,
Oxford, and in three sides of the so-called Peckwatcr
Quadrangle of Christ Church College, which were creeled
after his desi"n.i.
In classical scholarsiip Dr Aldrich had some reputation. Tlie
Mus(E Ang'ticancE contains two specimens of his Latin verse, the
subjects being the accession of King William and the denth of the
Duke of Gloucester* A humorous Latin version hy Aldrich of the
popular ballad —
"A soliiier ana a sa'lor.
A tinker and a tailor," kc,
has been preserved by Sir John Hawkins. Another specimen of
his wit is furnished by the following cpiCTam, entitled "Causaj
Bibendi," which some, however, have ascribed to Pere Sirmcnd ;—
Si bene quid mcmini^ Causce sunt quinqite hibendi;
Eospitis AdventuSf pracsens Sitis, aXque fvXura^
Aut Vini Bonitas, aut quicUbct altera Cavsft^
The translation runs —
If on my theme I rightly think.
There are five reasons why men drink : —
Good wine ; a friend ; because I'm dry ;
Or lest I sliould be by and by ;
Or — any other reason why.
ALDROVANDI, Ulisse, a celebrated naturalist, bom
of noble parentage at Bologna on the 11th Sept. 1522
(died 1607). While a boy he was page in the family of a
rich bishop, and afterwards apprentice to a merchant io
Brescia. Commercial pursuits soon became distasteful to
him, and he turned his attention to law and medicine,
studying first in his native town and afterwards at Padua.
In 1550, having been accused of heresy, he was compelled
to proceed to Rome in order to vindicate himself before
the Inquisition, which gave him a conditional acquittal.
In Rome he published his first work, a treatise on ancient
statuary. Here he made the acquaintance of the eminent
naturalist Rondelet, from whom it seems not unlikely
that he derived the impulse towards what became from that
time his exclusive study. On his return to Bologna ha
devoted himself specially to botany, under the teaching of
Lucas Ghino, then professor of that science at the univer-
sity. In 1553 he took his doctor's degree in medicine,
and in the following year he was appointed professor of
philosophy and also lecturer on botany at the university.
In 1560 he was transferred to the chair of natural history,
which he continued to occupy until rendered infirm by age.
At his instance the senate of Bologna established in 1568 a
botanical garden, of which he was appointed the first diiector.
He was also instrumental in founding the stQl existing
public museum of Bologna, which contains, especially in
the natural history department, a large number of speci-
mens collected by AldrovandL To procure these it is be-
lieved that he visited personally most of the countries of
Europe, though the details of his journeys have not been
preserved. Some idea of the extent of his labours may be
gathered from the fact that his herbarium occupied sizty
large folio volumes. To the other oiBces held by Al'iro-
vandi was added that of inspector of drugs, in which
capacity he published in 1574 a work entitled Antidoiarii
BononiensU Epitome, deserving of notice as furnishing the
model according to which nearly all subsequent pharma-
copieias have been compiled.
The results of Aldrovandi's various researches were embodied in
his vxagnurii opus, which was designed on the most complete scale,
so as to include everything that was known about natural history.
The first three volumes, comprising his ornithology, were published
in 1599. Three more, treating of insects and moUusca, appeared
diunng the author's lifetime. The seven volumes which completed
the work were compiled from Aldrovandi's manuscript materials,
under the editorship of several of his pupils, to whom the task was
entrusted by the senate of Bologna. The work was enriched by a
large number of pictorial illustrations, prepared at great expense,
the author having, it is said, employed several celebrated artists for
thirty years. Among these were Lorenzo Benini of Florence and
Christopher Coriolanus of Nuremberg. It has been said, indeed,
that the cost of the undertaking was so great 83 to exhaust its
author's mean?, and that he died penniless and blind in the public
hospital of Bokigna. This, however, is prolxibly incorrect, at lea^t
as regards the allegation of poverty. Published records of the senate
of Bologna show that it liberally supported Alilrovandi in his undei--
Ukiug, doublin;; his E.ilarj' soou after liis appoiutment a.s profcssot
476
A L D — A L E
mud b..'stowing on liim from time to time sums aniouuting in all to
40,000 crowna. If, therefore, ho Jiod in tlio public hospital, ho
5rol«bly went there for the better treatment ol hia diaeasc ilia
cath occurred on the lOtli Nov. 1G07.
AlJrovandi was chiefly remarkable for laborious nnd patient
lescarch. He seems to have been totally destitute of tlie critical
faculty ; and hardly any attempt is mode in his great work to cluisify
facts or to distinguish tctwcen the true and the fabulous, the im-
portant nnd tho tririah JIuch is thus included that is of no
Bcicntifio value, but it also contains much iufonnalion of very great
interest to tho naturalist.
ALDSTONE, or Alston Moor, a i?rjrket-town of
England, in the county of Cumberland, situated on au
eminence near tiro South Tyne, 19 miles E.S.E. from
Carlisle, -nith which it is connected by railway. Tho
surrounding country, which is blcik and desolate, contains
lead mines, mostly belonging to Greenwich Hospital, for-
merly ver;i valuable, but now almost exhausted. Thread,
flannel, and shot are manufactured in the town. Popu-
lation (1871) of parish, 5C80 ; of town, 2C27.
ALE, a fermented liquor obtained from an infusion of
malt, and differing from beer chiefly in having a less pro-
portion of hops. Before the introduction of hops into
England from Flanders, about 1024, ale was the name
exclusively applied to malt liquor, the term beer being
gradually introduced at a later period to describe liquor
brewed with an infusion of hops. The two words, however,
arc now used with little distinction of meaning. Ale, the
wine of barley, is said to have originally been made in
Egypt. The natives alike of Spain, France, and Britain
all use an infusion of barley for their ordinary liquor,
which was called ccelia and ceria in the first country,
cerevUia in the second, "and curmi in the third — all
literally importing tho strong water,
" AU the several nations," snj-s Pliny, "who inliabit tho wr.st of
Europe have a liquor with which they intoxicate thciiasclves, made
of com and water. Tho manner of making this li*juor is sometimes
liitferent in Gaul, Spain, and other countries, and is called by many
various names ; but its naturo and properties are everywhere the
8.imo. Tho people of Spain, in particuLir, brew the liijuor so well
that it will keep good a long time. So exquisite is the cunning of
mankind in gratifying their vicious ai)petite9 that they have
thus inyeutcd a method to make water itself intoxicate."
The method in which tho ancient Britons and otlier
Celtic nations made their ale is thus described by Isidorus
and Orosius : —
"The grain is steeped in water, and .nade to germinate, by which
its spirits are excited and set at liberty ; it i^ then dried and
(^ound ; after which it is infused in a certain quantity of water,
wbich, being fermented, becomes a pleasant, wanning, strength-
ening, and intoxicating liquor."
This ale was most commoirfy made of barley, but some-
times of wheat, oats, and niiiiet. Ale was the favourite
liquor of the Anglo-Saxons and Danes. Before their con-
version to Christianity, they believed that drinking large
and frequent draughts of ale was one of the chief felicities
which those heroes enjoyed who were admitted into the
hall of Odin. Anciently the Welsh and Scots had two kinds
of ale, called common ah and spiced ah; tho relative values
of which were thus appraised by law : " If a farmer had
no mead, he sh.-ill pay two casks of spiced ale, or four
casks of common ale, for one cask of mead." By this law
a cask of spiced ale, nine palms in height and eighteen
palms in diameter, was valued at a sum of money iqual in
value to £7, 10s. of 'our present money; and a cask of
common ale of the same dimensions at a sum equal to
.■C3, ISs. This is a suiEcient proof fliat even common ale
at that period was an article of luxury among the Welsh,
which could only bo obtained by the great and opulent.
For details as to the process of manufacture, statisticSj
&c, sea Brewikg.
ALE-COXXEK, an officer appointed yearly at the court-
leet of ancient manors for the assize of ale and ale-measures.
The {luntatores cervieia; — called in dififerent localities by
the different names, " ale-tasters," " ale-founders," and
" ale-conners " — were sworn to examine beer and ale, to
take care that they were good and wholesome and were
sold at proper prices. In London, four alc-conncrs are
still chosen annually by the liverjTnen in common hall
assembled, on Midsummer Day. Since ale and beer have
become excisable commodities the custom of appointing
ale-tasters has in most places fallen into disuse. (For the
means now employed to test the quality of ales, seo
Adultee.vtion, p. 172.)
ALEANDRO, Girolamo (Hieeonymub), cardinal,
commonly called " the Elder," to distinguish him from his
grand-nephew of the same name, was born at Motta, near
Venice, on the 13th of February 1480 (died 1542). He
studied at Venice, and while still a youth acquired great
reputation for learning, in 1508 he went to Paris, on
the invitation of Louis XII., as professor of belles lettres,
and he held for a time the position of rector in the uni-
versity. Entering tho service of tho prince-bishop of
Liege, ho wa* sent by that prelate on a mission to Rome,
where Pope Leo X. retained him, giving him (1519) the
office of librarian of tho Vatican. In the autumn of 1520
he went to Germany to be present as papal nuncio at the
coronation of Charles V., and in the following spring he
appeared at the diet of Worms, where he headed the
opposition to Luther, advocating the most extfeme measures
to repress the doctrines of the Reformer. His conduct not
merely called forth the fiercest denunciations of Luther,
but estranged from him Erasmus, who had been his
intimatff friend at Venice. The edict against the Reformer,
which was finally adopted by the emperor and the dief.
was drawn up and proposed by Aleandro. After the close
of the diet the papal nuncio went to tho Netherlands,
where he kindled the flames of persecution, two monks of
Antwerp, the first mart)TS of tjie Reformation, being burnt
to ashes in Binisscls at his instigation. In 1523, Clement
VII., having appointed him archbishop of Brindisi and
Oria, sent him as nuncio to the court of Francis I. He
was taken prisoner along with that monarch at the battle
of Pavia (1525), and was only released on the payment of
a heavy ransom. He was subsequently employed on
various papal missions, especially to Germany, but was
unsuccessful in preventing the German i)rinces from making
a truce with the Reformers, or in checking to any extent
the progress of the new doctrines. In 1538 Paid III. con-
ferred upon Him the cardinal's hat, when he took the title
of St Chrysogonus. He died at Rome on the 3 1st January
or 1st February .1542.
Aleandro compiled a Lexicon Oi-aco-Lafiiium, and wrote Latin
verse of considerable merit. Tho Vatican libmn,' contains a volume
of manuscript letters and other documents written by him in con-
nection with his various missions ag.iinst Luther. Its l^torical
value renders this the most important of his works.
ALE>L4JN', Lotjis, Archbishop of Aries, and Cardinal of
St Cecilia, was born at Bugey in 1390. He was one of
the presidents of the Council of Basle in 1431, and led tho
party that maintained the supremacy of councils over popes
in opposition to the claims of Eugcnius IV. It was on
his motion that the latter was deposed by the council, and
Felix V. elected in his stead. Eugenius thereupon deposed
th« archpopc, and deprived Aleman of all his ecclesiastical
dignities, but these were restored by Nicholas V. in 1447,
Felis V. having previously resigned, on the advice of tho
cardinal. lo 1527 Aleman was canonised by Pope
Clement Yll.
ALEMANNT, a krge German tribe on the Upper Rhine,
They are first mentioned by Dion Cassius, who relates
that the Emperor Caracalla gained, in 213 A.D., a victory
over them on the banks of the Maine, and thence assumed
A L E — A L E
477
me surname Alenuxnni:-iis. The origin of tMs tribe, and
the country from which they came, are unknown ; but we
have a distinct statement, which is apparently confirmed by
the very name of the. people, that they had flocked together
from all parts, and were a mixed race. They proved most
formidable enemies to the Romans as well as to the Gauls,
their western neighbours, who to this day apply the name
Alemanni (Allemands) to all the Germans indiscriminately,
though the Alemanni, properly so called, occupied only
the country between the Maine and the Danube. In the
reign of Aurelian, 270 a.d., they attempted to invade
Italy, but were repulsed. After the death of that emperor,
however, they renewed their attacks by invading Gaul,
and ravaging the country at diflferent times. Several
undertakings against them were of little avail, until in
357 A.D. the Emperor Julian completely defeated them in
the neighbourhood of Strasburg, where all their forces
were assembled under seven chiefs. This and other defeats,
however, did not break the power of the Alemanni, who,,
being pressed on by other barbarians in the north, were
forced to advance southward and westward to conquer
new countries for tbemselv£3. Hence, after the middle of
the 5th century, we find them established not only in the
country now called Suabia, but also in a part of Switzer-
land and in Alsace. In these countries the Alemanni
have maintained themselves ever since, and the greater
part of the modem Suabians and the northern Swiss are
descendants of that ancient race. '
ALEMBIC (iVrab. alanhiq, cognate to the Greek Sufiii),
an apparatus for distillation, used chiefly by the alchemists,
and now almost entirely superseded by the retort and the
wonn-stUL It varied considerably in form and construc-
tion, but consisted essentially of three parts — a vessel con-
taining the material to be distilled, and called, from its
gourdlike shape, the cucurbit ; a vessel to receive and con-
dense the vapour, called the Iiead or capital ; and a receiver
for the spirit, connected by a pipe with the capital. The
entire apparatus was sometimes constructed of glass, but
as this rendered it very expensive and brittle, it was more
usual to make the cucurbit of copper or earthenware, and
the capital alone of glass.
ALEJITEJO (Spanish Alentejo), a province of Portu-
gal, bounded on the N. by Beira, on the E. by Spanish
Estremadura and Andalusia, on the S. by Algarve, and on
the W. by the Atlantic and Portuguese Estremadura. It
lies between 37° 20' and 39° 40' N. lat., and 6° 45' and 8°
53' W. long., and has an area of 10,225 square nules.
Alemtejo is traversed by several mountain ranges, whose
height does not generally rise much above 2000 feet, though
one of the peaks of the Sierra de Monchique has an elevation
of 4050 feet. The principal rivers are the Guadiana, which,
crossing the Spanish frontier, flows southward through the
province ; and the Sado, which rises in the Sierra de Mon-
chique, and flows to the north. Farther northward are the
Soro and the Zatas, tributaries of the Tagus. All these
rivers receive numerous affluents. There are several exten-
sive plains, notably that of Alemtejo, the largest in Portugal,
lying S.W. from the mountains of Portalegre ; and that of
Ourique, in the southern part of the province. Some por-
tions of these plains are fruitful, others marshy, while large
trav'ts arc mere desokte wastes. The climate in the lower
parti' of the country is exceedingly hot, and is rendered
unhealthy in summer by the stagnant marshes. Towards
the Spanish frontier the soil is fertile, and in the south
the country is covered by extensive forests of oak, pine,
chestnut, cork, and holm, especially, on the sides of the
Sierras de Monchiquo and Caldciraon. la the more fertile
part« of the province, grapes, figs, citrons, pomegranates,
and other fmits are produced. Wheat, maize, and rice are
grown, and some attention is t;iven to the rearing of mules.
asses, goats, cattle, and sheep. Agriculture is, however, in
a backward state, the sparse population being mostly con-
centrated in the towns, leaving extensive districts unculti-
vated and almost uninhabited. Droves of swine are fed
on the waste lands, growing to a great size, and affording
excellent hams. Minerals are to be found in the moun-
tains, but they are little wrought. Manufactures scarcely
exist, being confined to the preparation of olive oil of
particularly good quality, and the making of earthenware,
woollen cloths, and leather. For administrative purposes
Alemtejo is divided into three districts — Eeja, Evora, and
Portalegre; and it contains 50 communal divisions and
315 parishes. The chief towns are Evora, Portalegre, '
Elvas, Beja, Estamoz, and Moura. There are no seaports
of importance in the province. Population in 1SG8,
332,237.
ALENQON, the chief town ol the French ' department
of Ome, situated in a wide and fertile plain, on the Sarthe,
close to its confluence with the Eriante. It is a clean,
regularly-built town, with broad handsome streets. It is
the seat of a bishop ; and the Gothic church of Notre Dame,
called the cathedral, is a fine building of the 16th century.
The only remains of the ancient castle of Alenc^on are
three towers that form part of the present to^vn-halL The
lace known as " point d'Alenjou " is the most noted manu-
facture of {he town, although of late years its importance
has somewhat diminished. Among the other industries
are tanning, spinning, bleaching, linen manufacturing, and
cider-making. The cutting of quartz crystals, often called
Alenfon diamonds, is also carried on. Alenijon was a
place of small importance when it was handed over to the
Normans by Charles the Simple in the beginning of the
10th century. In 1025 it became subject to the De
Belesmes, counts of Alenjon, by whom it was enlarged
and fortified. It was ceded to King Philip Augustus in
1221 by Alice, the heiress of the last count. Tlie duchy
of Aleufon was created about the end of the 14th century,
and remained with the original family, a branch of the
house of Valois, until the middle of the IGth. The town
was repeatedly taken and retaken in wars with Henry V.
and Henry VI. of England, and also in the time of the
League. In the war between France and Germany, Alenyon
was taken by the Germans under the Grand Duke of
Mecklenbtu-g on the 17th of January 1871. The towns-
people did not oS'er much resistance. The mayor and
municipality were, indeed, in favour of yielding without a
struggle ; but the newiy-appointed prefect, an ultra-repub-
lican, insisted on a more martial policy. A feeble skirmish
took place outside the town on the evening of the 16th of
January, and the grand duke entered on the following morn-
ing without any further opposition. The Germans, as a
punishment for the previous resistance, imposed on the
citizens a fine of 300,000 francs, besides a large contribu-
tion of cattle, com, and other provisions. Population
(1872), 16,037.
ALENib, GiuLlo, a missionary of the Jesuit order,
born at Brescia in»1582, died 1649. He became a member
of the order in 1600, and arrived at Macao as a propa-
gandist in 1610. For upwards of thirty years he laboured
to spread Christianityin China, tdopting, in accordance \vith
the principles of his order, the dress and manners of the
country. He was the first who planted the faith in the
province of Kiang-Si, and he built several churches iu the
province of Fo-Kien. He composed a number of works iu
the Chinese language, of which he w.as thorougldy master, the
most important being a Life of Christ and a Cosmography.
ALEPPO, or Hai.eb, a city of SjTia, capital of the
Turkish vilayet of the same name, in 36° 12' N. lat., 37° 12' ^
E. long., 70 miles E. of the Mediterranean, near the N.W.
extremity of the great Syrian desert. It occupies the site
478
A L E — A L E
of the ancient Beraa, and \a a place of great antiquity.
After the destruction of Palmyra it speedily became the
great emporium of the trade between the Mediterranean
and the countries of the East. It was overwhelmed by the
floed of Saracen invasion in C38; and in 12 CO, and again
in 1401, it was plundered and laid waste by the Tartars.
It finally came into the possession of the Turks in 1517.
To the cast of the modern city extensive remains of its
ancient grandeur have been discovered.
Aleppo is built on eight low hillocks, and is encircled
by limestone hills of greater elevation, while beyond these
stretches a fertile plain. The river Koeik, the ancient
Chalui, ilows through the town, and loses itself in a
morass 18 miles distant. It is subject to floods in winter,
•when it overflows its banks, and inundates the neighbour-
ing gardens. The city is surrounded by a stone wall, 40
feet high and 3J miles in circuit, erected by the Saracens.
This wall is flanked by frequent towers, but the ditch is
partially choked up; and the city, being commanded by
the adjacent heights, is entirely indefensible. The wall is
pierced by seven gates, which are known by different
names. Outside the city there are large irregular suburbs,
erected after the great earthquakes of 1822 and 1830, and
increasing the circuit of the place to 7 miles. The city
suffered very severely by the earthquake of 1822; two-
thirds of the inhabitants were swallowed up, the citadel
and many of the mosques were overthrown, and a great
jiart of the town was laid in ruins. Before the occurrence
of these disasters Aleppo was the fairest and cleanest of
Turkish cities; and although it has only partially recovered
from their calamitous effects, it has still an attractive ap-
pearance, especially when the white minarets of its nume-
rous mosques, and its houses, picturesquely placed on the
terraces of the hills, are viewed from a distance. The
houses are built of freestone, with flat roofs, and are gene-
rally of two or three storeys. One of the mosques, that
of Zacharias, is held in peculiar veneration by the Moslem
inhabitants. A new citadel has been erected in the N.W.
part of the town ; and besides many mosijues, warehouses,
and bazaars, there are several Christian churches and
schools, and also Turkish schools, libraries, and hospitals.
Aleppo b the seat of a Greek and Armenian patriarch,
and of a Maronite bishop. The Mahometan, the Chris-
tian, and the Jewish portions of the population dwell in
separate quarters of the town. Water is brought to the
city by an aqueduct from a distance of 8 miles, and sup-
])lie3 upwards of 200 fountains, massive structures stand-
ing in the streets. Among the chief attractions of Aleppo
are its gardens, which extend continuously for about 12
miles S.E. of the city. They are. watered by the Koeik,
and produce abundance of fruit and culinary vegetables;
but their most celebrated production is the pLstachio-nut,
which is regularly cultivated.
Formerly Aleppo stood in the first rank among the
cities of Asia Minor as a place of trade; and it Is still the
emporium of Northern Syria, and has extensive commercial
relations with Diarbekir aud the upper parts of Anatolia,
and also with Mosul and Baghdad. L*arge caravans resort
to Aleppo from these and other eastera places, and the
imported foreign goods are brought by caravans from the
ports of Scanderoou or Alexandretta and Latakia. The
construction of -a carriage-road between Aleppo and Alex-
andretta has been commenced, but no progress whatever
was made with it during 1872. Trade is conducted in
Aleppo by more than 100 mercantile houses, several of
them British; but no commercial bank hjis as yet been
established in the province. The principal manufacture
of the city consists of various kinds of cloth, of silk, cotton,
and wool, some flowered and striped, others woven with
gold aad silver thread. These cloths have long been famous
throughout toe East, and the manufacture of them eciplojo
about G400 looms. A large amount is invested in tha
manufacture of carpets, cloaks, and girdles. There are,
besides, numerous soap, dyeing, and print works, and also
rope-walks. In addition to cloths, the exports include
■wheat, sesame, wool, cotton, oil, scammony, galls, pistachio-
nuts, camels' hair, ic. ; while the imports chiefly consist of
European manufactured goods and colonial produce. The
aggregate value of the trade of the province exceeded
£1,500,000 in 1872.
The air of Aleppo is dry and piercing, out not insalu-
brious. The city, however, as well as the environs, is
subject to a singular epidemic disorder called the boil of
Aleppo. It attacks the inhabitants chiefly in their child-
hood, and the ulcers, which last for a year, commonly
break out on the face. This malady is seldom fatal, and
does not leave any hurtful effects except the scars, by which
almost all the inhabitants are disfigured. The causes of
the disease have not been discovered, though some have
supposed it due to the quality of the water. Aleppo is
also subject to the ravages of the plague, the recurrence of
which is anticipated by the inhabitants every ten years.
Its effects are rendered the more deadly by the blind
fatalism of the Turks, who cannot bo persuaded to take
any precautions against the progress of this dreadful dis-
ease. In the end of last century about 60,000 of the
inhabitants were swept off by one visitation; and that of
1827 was also very severe.
By the visitations of the plague, the earthquakes, tne
cholera of 1832, and the oppression of the Egyptians while
Syria was subject to Mehemet Ali, the population of
Aleppo has been much reduced. In the earlier part of the
century the inhabitants numbered over 200,000; but the
population is now estimated at less than 100,000, of whom
15,500 are Christians, 4000 Jews, and the remainder
mostly Mahometans. Although the Christians enjoy tole-
ration at the hands of the Turkish government, they have
nevertheless been exposed to frequent persecution through
the jealousy of the turbulent Maliometan population. The
tumults of 1850 and 18G2 occasioned some bloodshed, and
could only be suppressed by force of arms. In the former,
property to the amount of a million sterling was destroyed.
ALliS, or Aless (Alesius), Axexandek, a celebrated
divine of the school of Augsburg, was bom at Edinburgh
on the 23d April 1500 (died 1565). His name was origi-
naUy Alane, and that by which he is more generally known
(derived from oAetiVoj) was assumed by him when he went
into exile. He studied at St Andrews in the newly-
founded college of St Leonards, where he graduated in
1515. Some time afterwards he was appointed a canon of
the coUcgiate church, and in this office he at first contended
vigorously for the scholastic theology as against the doc-
trines of the Iteformers. Hb views were entirely changed,
however, on the occasion of the execution of Patrick
Hamilton in 1528. He had been chosen to meet Hamil-
ton in controversy, with a view to convincing bim of his
errors, but the arguments of the Scottish proto-martjT,
and above all the spectacle of his intrepid conduct at the
stake, impressed Alesius so powerfully that he was entirely
won over to the cause of the Reformers, though for a time
he did not make the fact" known. A sermon which he
preached against the dissoluteness of the clergy gave great
offence to Prior Hepburn, who cast him into prison, and
might have carried his resentment- to the extremest limit
had not Alesius contrived to escape to the Continent in
1531. After travelling in various countries of northern
Europe, he settled down at Wittenber", where he made
the acquaintance of Melancthon, and signed the Augsburg
confession. Meanwhile he was tried in Scotland for
heresy, and condemned without a hcarinc In 1533 a
ALE — A L E
479
decree of tte Scottish clergy, prohibiting the reading of
the New Testament by the laity, drew from Alesiua an
ably-argued defence of the right of the people, in the form
of a letter to James V. A reply to this by John Coch-
loeus, also addressed to the Scottish king, occasioned a
Becond letter from Alesius, in which he not only-restates
and amplifies his argument with great force and beauty of
style, but enters at some length into more general questions
connected with the Reformation. In 1535, Henry VIII.
having broken with the Church of Rome, Alesius was
ipduced to remove to England," where he was very cor-
dially received by the king and his advisers Cranmer and
Cromwell. After a short residence at Lambeth he was
appointed, through the influence of Cromwell, then chan-
cellor of the university, to lecture on theology at Cam-
bridge; but when he had delivered a few expositions of
the Hebrew psaims, he was compelled by the opposition
of the papal party to desist. Returning to London, he sup-
ported himself for some time by practising as a physician.
In 1537 he attended a convocation of the clergy, and at
the request of Cromwell, the president, conducted a con-
troversy with Stokesley, bishop of London, on the nature
of the sacraments. His argument, which was marked by
great ability. Was afterwards published at Leipsic. In
1539 Alesius was compelled to flee for the second time to
Germany, in consequence of the enactment of the perse-
cuting statute known as the Six Articles. , He was imme-
diately chosen to fill a "theological chair in the university
of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he was the first professor
who taught the Reformed doctrines. In 1513 he quitted
Frankfort for a similar position at Leipsic, his contention
that it was the duty of the civil magistrate to punish for-
nication having given offence to some of the authorities of
the former university. At Leipsic Alesius remained until
his death, which occurred on the 17th March 1565. He
enjoyed the intimate friendship of Melancthon, to whom
he rendered valuable assistance in many of his disputations
with the Catholic doctors.
Alesius was the author of a large numher of excgetical, dogmatic,
and polemical works. He displnyed his warm interest in his native
laud by the publication (1544) of a Cohnrtatio ad Cmicffrdi'-irn Pirtatis,
inissa in Patriam suam, which had the express approval of Luther.
In 1560 appeared hi5 treatise, Dc Necessitate et J/cii/o Bonorum
Opcrum, a valuable contvib'-tlou to the synergistic side in the
controversy on good works.
ALESSANDRI, Alessandeo (Alexander ah Alexandra),
a learned jurisconsult, born at Naples about the year 1461
(died 1523). He studied at Naples and Rome, and after-
wards practised for a time as advocate in both cities.
At Naples he is said to have been royal proto-notary in
1490. Dissatisfied, aiSfjrding to his own account, with
the corrupt administration of justice, he at length quitted
the bar, and devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits,
especially to the study of philology and antiquities. ^A
sinecure appointment, which he owed to the favour of the
pope, enabled him to lead a life of learned leisure at Rome,
where he died on the 2d October 1523. What is known
of hia biography has been gathered chiefly from detached
statements in his work entitled Dies Gcniales, which
appeared at Rome in 1522, and is constructed after the
model of the l^octes Attica; of Aulus Gellius, and the
Saturnalia of Macrobius. The work consists of a confused
mass of heterogeneous materials relating to philology,
antiquities,, law, dreams, spectres, &c., and shows great
credulity and want of judgment on the part of its author.
ALESSANDRLV, a province of Italy, in the former
duchy of Piedmont, bounded on the N. by Novara, on the
E. by Pavia, on the S. by Gencja, and on the W. by Turin ;
with an area of rJ51 equate miles. There are no hills of
much ckva:ion in the jiroviicc, and the surface generally
is flat. .■ The chief rivers are the Po, the Tanaro, the Belbo,,
the Orba; and the Bonnida. The soU is fertile, the chief
products being wheat, maize, wine, silk, madder, hemp,
flax, and fruit. The capital is Alessandria; population of
the province in 1871, 683,361.
ALESSANDRIA, a city of Italy, the capital of the above
province, is situated in a marshy district near the con-
fluence of the Tanaro and the Bormida. It is a strongly
fortified place, its citadel, on the left bank of the Tanaro, '
being one of the most important in Europe. The town
itself, which lies chiefly on the right bank of the river, is
the scat of a bishop, and contains a cathedral and more
than a dozen other churches, besides monasteries and
nunneries. The principal manufactures of Alessandria
are silk, linen, and woollen goods, stockings, and hats.
Large quantities of fruit and flowers are also produced in
the neighbourhood. The trade of the city is extensive,
and there are two important fairs held every year that are
much resorted to by merchants from all parts of Italy.
Alessandria was budt in 1168 by the Lombard League as
a bulwark against Frederick Barbarossa. It received its
present name in honour of Pope Alexander III., but it
was also called Cesarea for a time. In 1174 it was
unsuccessfully besieged by Frederick Barbarossa, who
nicknamed it in derision Bella Paglia, i.e. "of straw."
It was ceded to Savoy by the peace of Utrecht in 1713,
after having belonged, at difierent periods, to the houses
of Montferrat and MUan. Its fortifications were greatly
enlarged and strengthened by Bonaparte during the French
occupation, which lasted from 1800 to 1814. The citadel
of Alessandria was taken by the Austrians after the battle
of Novara in 1849. Near Alessandria is Marengo, where
Napoleon defeated the Austrians in 1800. Inconsequence
of this defeat the Austrians concluded the armistice of
Alessandria, ceding all Italy north of the Mincio to the
French. Population (1862), 27,027; of commune, 56,545.
ALESSI, Galeazzo (1500-72), a distinguished archi-
tect, born at Perugia, was a pupil of Caporah and a friend
of Michael Angelo. He was an enthusiastic student of
ancient architecture, and his style gained for him a
European reputation. Genoa is indebted to him for a
number of its most magnificent palaces, and specimens of
his skill may be seen in the churches of San-Paolo and
San-Vittoria at Milan, in certain parts of the Escurial,
and in numerous churches and palaces throughout Sicily,
Flanders, and Germany.
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, so called from the Russian
word aleut, signifying a bold rock, is the name given by
the Russian discoverers to a chain of small islands situated
in the Northern Pacific Ocean, and extending in an easterly
direction from the peninsula of Kamtcha*'.-a, in Asiatic
Russia, to the promontory of Alaska, in North America.
This archipelago .has been sometimes divided into three
groups; the islands nearest Kamtchatka being properly
called Alcutia, the central group the Andreanov or An-
drenovian, and those nearest to the promontory the
Fox Islands. They are all included between 52" and
55° N. lat., and 172° E. and 163° W. long. The Aleu-
tian Islands were discovered by the Russian navigator
Eehring in 1728, and were carefully explored in 1760 by
Captain Krenitzin, under a commission from the Empress
Catherine. During his third and last voyage, in the year
1778, Captain Cook surveyed the eastern portion of thp
archipelago, accurately determined the positions of some
of the most remarkable islands, and corrected many errors
of former navigators. Subsequent expeditions of tho
Russians, aided by the settlement of fur traders on the
islands, as well as on the neighbouring coasts' cf the
American continent, have afforded further information as
to this remorkablo chain. The wh-jlo of the islands ace
480
A L E — A L E
bare and mountainoui!; and their coaaU arc rocky and
surrounded by breakers, by which the approach is rendered
exceedingly dangerous. The land rises immediately from
the coasts to steep bald mountains, gradually ascending
into lofty ranges running from east to west. Springs take
their rise at the bottom of the mountains, and cither flow
in broad and rapid streams into the neighbouring sea, or,
collecting in the rocky vales and glens, form ample lakes,
which send o£f their BuperfluouB waters by natural canals
into the adjacent bays. These islands bear evident mark',
of volcanic formation, and several of them have still octiv i
volcanoes, which continually emit smoko and sometimt ■
flames. The most important group of the chain is thr ;
called tie Fox Islands, of which the largest are UnimiL:
and Ounalaska, both near the western extremity of AIobIl*.
The thin argillaceoua soil of the Aleutian Islands produci >
little vegetation, and agriculture is almost unknown. Tl )
climate is subject to sudden changes, and is very unfavon. ■
ALEUTLVN ISLANDS
i e » '
■.Cs .?"
tlTtl 5,
I F I C
able to any attempts at cultivation. Few. trees grow on
the islands, but there are some stunted shrubs of birch,
willow, and alder. The timber required for building
purposes is obtained from the driftwood thrown on the
coasts. The principal occupations of the Aleutians are
fishing and hunting," and the preparation of the imple-
ments necessary for both. Since the end of last century
the fur traders have had settlements here for the capture
of the seal and the sea-otter, which are found in great
numbers on the shores ; and of the Arctic fox, which roams
over the islands. Fish are abundant; and dogs and rein-
deer are common. The population of the whole group is
about 8000, the natives being a k'ndred race to the inhabit-
ants of Kamtchatka. They are described as rather low
in stature, but plump and well-shaped, with short necks,
swarthy faces, black eyes, and long straight black hair.
They have nominally been converted to Christianity by
the missionaries of the Greek Church, but are said to be
unchaste in their habits, and addicted to intemperance
whenever they have the opportunity. Until 18C7 these
islands belonged to Russia, but they were included in the
transfer to the United States of the whole Russian posses-
sions in America made in that year. They now form part
of the United States territory of Alaska. (See Alaska.)
From the position of the Aleutian Islands, stretching like
a broken bridge from Asia to America, some ethnologists
have supposed that by means of them America waa first
peopled.
ALEXANDEK THE GEEAT
ALEXANDER ni, commonly called "The Great," son
of Philip II, king of Macedonia, and of Olj-mpias,
daughter of the Molossian chief Neoptolemus, was born at
Pella, 35 C B.C. His father was a man of fearless courage
and the soundest judgment ; his mother was a woman of
savage energy and fierce superstition. Alexander inherited
the qualities of both his parents, and the result was the
combination of a boundless ambition with the most sober
practical wisdom. The child grew up with the conscious-
ness that he was the heir of a king whose power was
rapidly gromng; and the stories told of him attest 'at the
least the early awakening of a mind formed in the mould
of the heroes of mythical Hellas. Nay, the blood of
Achilles was flowing, as he believed, in his veins ; and
the flattery of his Acamanian tutor Lysimachus, who
addressed him as the son of Peleus, may have strengthened
his love of the immortal poems which told the story of
that fiery warrior. By another tutor, the Molossian
Leonidas, his vehement impulses were checked by a
wholesome discipline. But the genius of Alexander, the
greatest of military conquerors, was moulded in a far
g-'eater degree by that of Aristotle, the greatest conqueror
in the world of thought At the age of thirteen he became
for three years the pupil of a man who had examined the
political constitutions of a crowd of stateii, and who had
brought together a vast mass of facts and observations for
the (Systematic cultivation of physical science. During
these three years the boy awoke to the knowledge that a
wonderiul world lay before him, of which he had seen
little, and threw himself eagerly, it is said, into the task
of gathering at any cost a collection for the study of
natural history. WhDe his mind was thus urged in one
direction, he listened to stories which told him of the
great quarrel still to be fought out between the East and
the West, and learnt to look upon himself as the chamDio"-
of Hellas against the barbarian despot of Susa.
The future conqueror was sixteen years of age when he 340 B.a
was left at home as regent while his father besieged
Byzantium and Perinthus. Two years later the alliance of
Thebes and Athens was wrecked on the fatal field of
Chajronea, where Alexander, now eighteen years of age, en- 838 B.a
countered and overcame the Sacred Band which had been
foremost in the victories of Leuctra and Mantinea (see Epa-
MINONDAS); but the prospects of Alexander himself becama
now for a time dark and uncertain. Philip had divorced
Olympias and married Cleopatra, the daughter of Attaln.i.
This act roused the wrath not only of Olympias, but of htr
eon, who with her took refuge in Epirus. Cleopatra
became the mother of a sou. Her father, Attains, rose
higher in the king's favour, and not a few of Alexander's
friends were banished. But the feuds in his family were
subjects of serious thought for Philip, who sought to(
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
481
counteract their ill effects by a marnage bc'vreen his
daughter and her uncle, the Epirot king Alexander, the
brother of .Olympias. The marriage feast was celebrated
at ^gae. Clothed in a white robe, and walking purposely
apart from his guards, Philip was approaching the theatre
when he was struck down by the dagger of Pausanias.
ItTS certain that Alexander, if he mourned his father's
death at aU, deplored it only as involving himself in
political difficulties ; but he took care to act as if he were
grieved by it, and he revenged it, we are told, by putting
out of the way some whose claims or designs might clash
with his own. The Greeks of Thebes and Athens knew
little what sort of man had taken the place of Philip.
Demosthenes, who, although he was mourning for the
death of his own daughter, appeared in festal attire to
announce the death of the Macedonian king, held up
Alexander to ridicide as a bragging and senseless Margites.
But they had to reckon with one who could swoop on his
prey with the swiftness of the eagle. Barely two months
had passed from the death of his father before the youth
of twenty years stood with his army on the plains of
Thessaly. The argument of the Macedonian phalanx was
not to be resisted. The ThcssaUans recognised him as the
llegem/Jn or leader of the Greeks ; and the young king
passed on to Thebes, the citadel of which had been held
by a Macedonian garrison since the fight at Chjeronea.
Thence ha took himself across the isthmus to Corinth,
llero he was met by Athenian envoys, who brought him
njiolngies more abject and honours more extravagant than
any which had been paid to his father. He received them
In an assembly, from which he demanded and obtained
the title of supreme leader of the Hellenic armies, and to
which he guaranteed, at the utmost with a feigned reluc-
tmce, the autonomy or independence of every Hellenic
ity. Ko one knew better than Alexander that from the
whole armoury of weapons which might be employed ta
reduce Greeks to slavery, none could more effectually do
his work than a theory of freedom which meant dissension,
and of self-government which meant endless feud, faction,
and war.
IV, B.C. Alexander was now eager to carry out his groat design
against Persia ; but ho could not do so with soiety until
no had struck a wholesome terror of his power Luto the
mountain tribes which hemmed in his dominions. His
blows descended swiftly and surely on the Thracians of
Mount Hffimus (the Balkan), on the TribaUians, and on
Bomo clans of Getie, whom he crossed the Danube to
attack. But these expeditions led him away from the
world of the Greeks. Silence led to rumours of his defeat,
and the rumours of defeat were followed by more confident
assertions of his death. At Thebes and at Athens the
tidings were received by some with eager belief. The
covenant made with Alexander was made only with him
personally. The Theban exiles at Athens were anxious to
repeat the attempt which half a century ciirlier had been
made against the Spartan garrison of the Cadmea by
Pclopidas. With help in arms and money from Demos-
thenes and other Athenians, they entered Thebes, and
summoned tlio Macedonian garrison to surrender. The
answer was a blunt refusal, and a double line of circum-
vallation was drawn around the citadel, while envoys were
Ecnt to call forth aid from every quarter; but these efforts
could not affect the tSsuo. The belief in Alexander's
death was to bo dispelled, by no gradual reports of his
escape from tho barbarians, brt by his own sudden
appearance at tho Boeotian Onchestus. Ho had just de-
feated the Illyrians when ho heard of tho revolt, and ho
determined to smite the rebels without turning aside to
takj even a day's rest at PeUa. In little moro than a
fiirtiii;;!it his array was encamned ou tio southern side of
1—17
Thebes, thus cutting off all changes of uid from Athens.
It was his wish to avoid an assault, and he contented
himself with demanding the surrender of two only of the
anti- Macedonian leaders. The citizens generally were
anxious to submit, but the exiles felt or feared themselves
to be too deeply committed ; and the answer took the
form of a defiance, accompanied by a demand for the
surrender of Antipater and Philotas. They had sealed
their own doom. Personal bravery was of no use against
tho discipline, the numbers, and the engines of the enemy.
The defenders were driven back into the city ; the invaders
burst in with them ; and the slaughter which followed was
by no means inflicted by the Macedonians alone. Tho
Platteans, Thespians, and Orchomcnians felt that they had
old scores to settle. To these and to the rest of his Greek
allies Alexander submitted the fate of the city. The
sentence was promptly pronounced. The measure which
tho Thebans had dealt to Plataeae, and would havo dealt
to Athens, should now bo dealt out to themselves. The
whole to\vn was razed to tho ground, the house of tho
poet Pindar being alone spared from demolition, and his
descendants alone allowed to retain their freedom. Alex-
ander had gained his end. The spirit of the Greeks was
crushed ; a great city was blotted out, and the worship
of its gods was ended with its ruin. These gods, it was
believed, would in due time take vengeance on the con-
queror; but for the present tho only hindrance to his
enterprise was removed from his path. Without turning
aside to Athens, he went on to Corinth to receive tho
adulations of the independent Greeks, and to find, it is
said, a less courtly speaker in the cynic Diogenes. Froia
Corinth he returned to Macedonia, having left Greece for
the last time.
Six months later he set off from PeUa, crossed tho Helles- 334 3 0
pont at Sostus, to appease at Ilium by a costly sacrifice tho
wrath of the luckless Priam ; and then marched on, with not
more perhaps than 30,000 infantry and 4000 cavalry, and
with a treasure-chest almost empty, to destroy the monarchy
of Cyrus. With him went men who were to be linked with
the memory of his worst crimes and of his most astonishing
triumphs — Clitus, Hephrestion, Eumenes, Seleucus, Pto-
lemy the son of Lagos, and Parmenion,.with his sons Philotas
and Nicanor. The effects of Macedonian disciphne were to
be seen at once on the banks of tho Granicus, a little stream
flowing to the Propontis from the slopes of Ida.' Losing, it
is said, only 60 of his cavalry and 30 of his infantry, he
annihilated the Persian force, 2000 out of 20,000 foot
soldiers being taken prisoners, and nearly all the rest slain.
The terror of his name did his work as he marched south-
wards. The citadel of Sardis might with ease have been
held against him : before he came within eight miles of thb
city, the governor hastened to surrender it with all its
treasura At Ephesus ho found tho city abandoned by its
garrison. Miletus ho carried by storm. P "ire Hali-
carnassus ho encountered a more obstinate rosis ce from
tho Athenian Ephialtes ; but the generalship of the latter
v.-a3 of no avaiL Alexander entered Halicarnassus, and
tho Rhodian Memnon remained shut up in the citadel.
Leaving Ptolemy with 1000 men to blockade it, he spent
the winter in conquering Lycia, Pamphylia, and Pisidin,
ending his campaign at Gordium, on the river Sangarius.
Here was preserved the ancient waggon of Gordius, tl;o
mythical Phrygian king. Wlioever could untie the knot,
curiously twisted with fibres of the cornel tree, which
fastened -Its pole to tho yoke, ■ivuf, so tho story ran, to bo
lord of Asia, Alexander, as much at a loss as othera to
unloose it, cut it with his sword ; but tho prophecy was
none tho less held to be fulfilled. If ho was thus favoured
by sentiment, he was still more favoured by the infatuation
■which led Darius to abandon tho policy of defence by sea
482
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
(br offonsive vrorruro by land From all parts of lua vast
ompiro was gathered a host, numbering, as some said,
000,000 men ; aiid the despot was as much elated at the
sight as Xerxes, when ho looked down on his motley multi-
luJea at Doriscus. Like Xerxes ho had one (the Athenian
CharidomusJ by his side to warn him that Asiatic myiiads
wore not to bo trusted in an encounter ■\nth the disciplined
thousands of Alexander ; but ho lacked tho generosity
which made Xerxes dismiss Demaratus with a smilo for
his good-wilL Darius seized tho e;:ilo writh his o«-n hand,
ail 1 gave him over to tho executioner. " My avenger,"
said Charidemus, " will soon teach you that I have spoken
tho truth." Tho Persian acted as though ho wished to
bring about tho speediest fulfdment of tho prediction.
The Greek mercenaries wore withdrawn from tho fleet to
bo added to tho land forces ; but although a hundred of
tbcao could have effectually barred tho passage of Alex-
ander across tho range of Taurus, and tho posses of tho
Amanian, Cilician, and Assyrian gates, the invader was
Buffered to cross these defiles without the loss of a man.
Kay, 80 groat was tho contempt of Darius for the few
thousands of tho enemy, that ho wished to givo them a frco
path until thoy reached the plain from which ho would
sweep them away. But ho could not wait patiently for
them in his position to the oast of tho Amanian range.
Alexander had been ill, and ho had work to do in subju-
gating western Cilicia. When at length he set out on
his march to tho southern Amanian pass, Darius, with his
unwieldy train, crossed tho northern pass, and entered
Issus two days after Alexander had left it. He had placed
himself in a trap. In a space barely more than a mOe and
a half in width, hemmed m by tho mountains on the one
eido and the sea on the other, Darius, in liis royal chariot.
In tho midst of multitudes who ha<l scarcely room to move,
awaited the attack of Alexander, who fell suddenly on his
right wing. Tho first onset was enough. Tho Persians .
broke and fled. Darius, thinkmg himself in danger, fled
among tho foremost. The Persian centre behaved well ;
but it mattered little now what they might do. Even the
Greek mercenaries were pushed back and scattered. Four
thousand talents filled the treasure-cheat of the conqueror,
and the wife, mother, and son of Darius, appearing before
him as prisoners, were told that they should retain their
royal titles, his enterprise being directed, not against Darius
personally, but to the issue which was to determine whether
he or Alexander should be lord of Asia.
Tho true value of armed Asiatic hordes was now as clear
to all as the sun at noonday. Parmenion advanced to
attack Damascus, but ho needed not to strike a blow.
Tho governor allowed the treasure in his charge to fall
into his hands, and then surrendered the city. Alexander
himself marched southward to Phoenicia. At Marathus
he replied to a letter in which Darius demanded the
restoration of Ids family and reproached him for Ids
wanton aggression. His answer repeated what he had
aboady said to his wife, adding that, if he wrote again,
Darius must address him, not as his equal, but as his lord.
" I am now master of Asia," he wrote, " and if you will
not ovrn mo as such, I shaU treat you as an evil-doer. If
you wish to debate the point, do so like a man on the
battlefield. I shall take care to find you wherever you
may be." The island city of Aradus was surrendered on
his approach. Sidon opened her gates. From the Tyrians
he received a submission which demurred only to his
632 B.C. entering their city. A siege of seven months ended in its
fall ; and Alexander hanged 2000 of the citizens, it is said,
on the sea-shore. The survivors, with the women and
children, were sold as slaves. Before the cata^jtrophe of
the great Phcenician city he had received a second letter, in
srhich Darius offered him his daughter in marriage, to-
gether with the cession of all lands to tho west of tJ9
Kuphratea. " Were 1 Alexander," said Parmenion (if wb
may believe tho story), " I should take these terms, and
nm no further risk." "So should I," an.swered Alexander,
" if I were Parmenion; but aa I am Alexander, I cannot"
" You offer me," he wrote accordingly to Darius, " part of
your possession, when I am lord of all. If I choose to
marry your daughter, I will do so whether you like it or
not" Darius sent no more letters. Tho issue, he saw,
must bo determined by tho sword. For tho present he
was left to himself. Alexander's face was turned towards
Eg}-pt. Gaza dared to resist ; but a siege of two months
was followed by a ruin as complete as that of Tyre. From
Gaza a march of seven days brought him to Pelusium.
Tho Persian governor opened its gates to receive him ; and
tho Egyjjtians expressed their delight at exchanging a
Persian for a Macedonian master. Marching in tiiumph
to Memphis, he offered solemn sacrifice to tho calf-god
Apis ; and then, with the true instinct of the ruler and the
statesman, he hastened to found for his now kingdom a
new capital, which, after more than two millenniums,
remains a highway for the commerce of three continents.
Success thus unparalleled was, it would seem, already
producing its effects upon him. Calmly re\'iewing tho
course of his march from Sestus and Ihum to Memphis, he
could explain it only on the supposition that he was no
child of a human father, and he determined to obtain from
tho oraclo of Ammon, in tho Libyan Oasis, a solution of
this mystery. The response greeted him as the son, not
of Philip, but of Zeus ; and he returned, it is said, with
the conviction that the divine honours paid to Hercules ^1 &. o.
and Persons were his own by indubitable right. Marclk-
ing back through Phoenicia, he ha.stened to Thapsacus,
and then crossed the Euphrates. Thence turning north-
wards, he made a sweep which brought him to the Tigris
below Nineveh (Mosul), and there, without opposition,
crossed a stream where the resistance of a few hundreda
might have destroyed his army, After a few days' march
to the south-east, ho received the news that Darius, with all
hifl host, was close at hand. Still convinced that mere
numbers must, with ample space, decide tho issue of any
fight, and attributing his defeat at Issos only to the cramped
position of his troops, he had gathered a vast horde, which
some represent as more than a rmlUon, on the broad plaio
stretching from Gaugamela eastwards to ArbeU. His
hopes were further raised by changes made in the weapons
of his troops, and more especially in the array of his war-
chariots. ' For the Macedonians it is enough to say that
they were led by a man whose consummate generalship
had never shone more conspicuously than in the cautious
arrangements which preceded the' battle of Arbek, or
rather of Gaugamela. All went as he had anticipated. As
at Issus, Darius fled ; and the bravery and even gallantry
of the Persians opposed to Parmenion were of no avail
when the main body had hurried away after the king.
So ended the last of the three great battles (if such they
may be termed) which sufficed to destroy tho Persian
empire, or rather to make Alexander king of Persia ; and
so ended the first act in the greait drama of his life.
The victor)' of Gaugamehi opened for the conqueror the
gates of Babylon and Susa. The treasures found in the
former furnished an ample donation for all his men : those
of Susa amounted, it is said, to nearly twelve millions of
pounds sterling. The Persian king had wasted men on
the battlefield ; he had hoarded coin which, freely spent
in getting up a Greek army under Greek generals, might
have rendered the enterprise of Alexander impossible.
From Susa the conqueror turned his face towards Per-
sepoKs, the ancient capital of Cyrus. Before him lay the
fcrticsses of the U.'di, to whom the Persian monarchs had
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
483
teen acciistomed to pay tribute when tney went from
the one capital of tieir kingdom to the other. The same
demand was now made of Alexander, who told them to
come to the pass and take it, and then, following a new
track which had been pointed out to ^im, descended on
their Tillages, and taught them that they had now to deal
with a sovereign of another kind. With Persepolis, Pasar-
gadae, the city containing the tomb of Cyrus, opened its
gates to receive the avenger of the iniquities of Xerxes. As
Buch, he determined to inflict on Darius a signal punish-
ment. Five thousand camels and a crowd of mules bore
away the treasure, amounting, it is said, to nearly thirty
millions of pounds sterling, and then the citadel was set
on fire. The men in the city were killed, the women
made slaves.
"^30 1 c. For a month Alexander allowed his main army to rest
near Persepolis ; for himself there could be no repose.
With his cavalry he overran, and, in spite of the rigours of
winter, subdued, the whole region of Farsistan. Then re-
turning to Persepolis, he set fortV on his march to Media,
where the fugitive king had hoped to be safe from his
pursuit. Darius had left Agbatana (Ecbatana) eight days
before his pursuer could reach it. In this ancient fastness
of the Median and Persian sovereigns Alexander deposited
his treasures, exceeding, we are told, forty millions sterling
in amount, under the charge of a strong Macedonian
garrison headed by Parmenion. He then hSstened on
towards the Caspian gates, and learnt, when he had passed
them, that Darius had been dethroned, and was now the
prisoner of the Bactrian satrap Bessua. The tidings made
Alexander still more eager to seize liim His efforts were
80 far successful that Bessus felt escape to be hopeless unless
Darius could be made to leave his chariot and fly on horse-
back. He refused to obey, and was left behind, mortally
wounded. Before Alexander could reach bim, he was dead.
The conqueror now regarded, or professed to regard,
himself as the legitimate heir and successor of Xerxes. His
course of conquest was still unbroken ; but successful
forays against the Mardians on the northern slopes of
Mount Elburz, against the Arians of the modern Herat, and
de Drangians of the present Seistan, were followed by an
exploit of another sort He had heard that a conspiracy
against himself had been revealed to Philotas, who for two
days had kept the secret to himself. On being asked why
le had done this, Philotas answered that the information
came from a worthless source and deserved no notice _
Alexander professed himself satisfied with the explanation ;
but Philotas, it seems, had spoken freely to his mistress '
Antigone of the large share which he and his father had
had in the conquests of Alexander, and Antigone had in
her turn become an informer. Of real evidence against
Philotas there was none ; and a letter from Parmenion to
lis sons, found when Philotas was treacherously arrested,
could tell against them only in the eyes of one who was
resolved that Philotas should die. But Alexander could
not rest content with his death alone. There had been
nothing yet, even in the way of shadowy slander, to
criminata Parmenion, and he resolved that the needful
charges should be drawn by tortures from his son. Hidden
by a curtain, the conqueror of the world watched the
agonies and scoffed at the screams of the friend who had
iought by his side in a hundred fights. The issue was, or
was said to be, what he desired. Philotas had confessed ;
and Alexander sent off to Ecbatana a man bearing two
despatches, one to cheat Parmenion into a false security,
the other carrying to the officers next to him in command
the real order for his assassination. The old man was
reading the lying letter of the despot when he received a
mortal stab in his back. The soldiers, on hearing of what
iad Spcn done furioiu.'/ demanded the surreuder of the
murderers, and were with difficulty withbeH from taking
summary vengeance on seeing the written orders of
Alerander. Tlie command of I'liilotas, who had been at
the head of the companion-cavalry, was shared between
Clitus and Hephaestion ; and Alexander turned from
private murder to public war. The autumn and wintoi 829 B.a
were spent in overrunning parts of the modern Afghanistan
and Cabul, in the formation of the Caucasian Alexandria,
and in the passage of the Hindu-Kush. He was now in
the satrapy of Bessus. The surrender of Aomus and
Bactra was foDowed by the passage of the Oxus and bj
the betrayal of Bessus, who was sent naked and in chains
to the city which had been his capitaL His next exploit •
(there is but slender ground for calling it into question)
was the slaughter, in Sogdiana, of the descendants of the
Milesian Branchidee, who, having incurred the hatred ol
their fellow Greeks by surrendering to Xerxes the treasures
of their temple, had followed the despot on his retreat, and
by him had been placed in these distant regions. Five
generations had passed away since that time, when Alex-
ander gave the order that not one of them, man, woman,
or child, should bo left alive. From the ruined city, by
way of Maracanda {SamarlanJ), he reached the Jaiartes
(which he believed t© be the Tanais or Don), and having
laid on its banks the foundation of another Alexandria, ho
crossed the river to chase some Scythians who had shown
themselves on the further side. The end of this chase
marked the northernmost point reached in his campaigns.
The winter was spent in the Bactrian city of Zariaspa, 3?d 323
where Alexander, summoning Bessus before him, had his ^c
nose and ears cat off, and then sent him to be killed by
his countrymen at Ecbatana.
In the following summer his army was gathered again
at Maracanda. Repose from field-work left room fos the
display of the overbearing pride to be expected from one
who had convinced himself that he was a god, and for the
boundless flattery of those who found' their interest in
keeping up the delusion. But there were not wanting
others to whom this arrogance and servility were intensely
disgusting, and whose anger was the more fierce from the
necessity of avoiding all open expression of it ; and in the
banquets of the divine son of Ammon there was always a
risk that these pent-np feelings might burst forth like a
winter torrent. The catastrophe Was not long in coming
In a feast at Maracanda, Alexander, boasting of all that ha
had done since the death of his father, took credit further
for the victories of Philip in the later years of his reign.
The patience of Cb'tus had long been severely taxed, and
in the heat of the revel all thought of prudence was cast
aside. He spoke his mind plainly, telling Alexander that
all his exploits taken together were not equal to those of
the man who had found Macedonia a poor and distracted
country, and had left it a mighty and coherent state ; and
that his own greatest victories had been won through the
aid of Philip's old soldiers, some of whom he had murdered.
Stung to the quick, Alexander gave utterance to his rage ;
but his retort only led Clitus to remind him of the battle-
field of the Qranicus, where he had saved him from death
by cutting off the arm of the Persian whose sword was
raised to smite him, and to warn him that, if he could
not bear to listen to the words of truth, he should confine
himself to the society of slaves. Alexander felt for his
dagger : it had purposely been placed out of his reach.
Ho called to his guards to sound an alarm : they hesitated
to obey the orders of a raving drunkard. Some of the
more sober and moderate of the party held him in ihcir
arms, prajing him to do nothing hastily. By way of answer
he reviled them for keeping him a prisoner 'as Bessus had
kept Darius, and shaking himself free, snatched a pike
from one of the guarls, and thrust it throuch the body of
484
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
CUhis, bidding him go to Philip and Parmenion. The
rage of tlio tiger was followed by a furious remorse, in
Trhicb, Tvith cor.siderablo truth, ho denounced himself aa
unfit to live. Frir three days ho ■would neither cat nor
drink ; and the army, alarmed at the threatened starvation
of their king, voted that Clitus had been justly slain,
and that his body should not receive the rites of burial.
Ly reversing this vote, Alexander seemed to feel that h3
had gone a long way towards acquitting himself ; whatever
wight be yet lacking to restore hia self-complaceaca was
supplied by the prophets, who assured him that the disaster
had been brought about wholly by the Thcban winogod
« Dionysus, to whom ho had cfTei-cd no sacrifice on the day
of the banquet.
828 ".0. A few weeks after this murder Alexander captured the
" Sogdian rock, a fastness from which common cave would
have sent him away baffled. Having next reduced the rock of
Choricnes, ho returned to Bactra to celebrate his marriage
with Koxana, the daughter of Oiya;-tes, who had been
327 D.o. aaiong the captives taken on the Sogdian rock. The feast
was seized by Alexander as an opportunity for extracting
from his Greek and Macedonian followers a public acknow-
ledgment of his divinity. It was, arranged that the sophist
Anaxarchus (or, as somo said, the Sicilian Cleon) should
make a speech, advising all to worship at once the man
whom they would certainly have to worsliip after his
death. The speech was delivered. The silence of most
of the Macedonian officers showed their disgust ; but none
ventured to speak until the Olynthian Callisthencs, the
nephew of Aristotle, insisted on the impiety of all attempts
. to confound the distinctions between gods and men. Con-
ceding to the conqueror the highest place amongst military
loaders and the first rank amongst statesmen, he rebuked
Anaxarchus for making a suggestion which ought to have
come from any one rather than from himself. The applause
vrhi'ch his words drew from the Macedonians taught Alex-
ander that open opposition would be useless ; but he was
none the more turned from his purjiose, nor was it long
before he found a pretext for carrying it out. A con-
spiracy was discovered amongst his pages. These un-
fortunate men were tortured (but without extracting from
them anything to implicate Callisthones), and then stoned
to death, — as Alexander would have it, not by his orders,
but by the loyal impulse of his army. Callisthones he was
resolved, he said, to punish himself, together with those
who had sent him, — an insinuation, manifestly, against his
v.ncle Aristotle, possibly also against all other Greeks, for
whom freedom of speech and action had not yet al ogether
lost its value. The philosopher who had extolled Alex-
ander as the greatest of earthly generals and statesmen
was first tortured and then hanged ; and the conqueror
went calmly on to subdue the regions between the Hindu-
Kush and the right bank of the Indus, and to storm the
impregnable rock of Aoruus.
■52B r 0. The next river to be crossed was the Indus. The bridge
v,-as constructed by Hcpha;slion and Perdiccas, probably
near the present Attock. The surrender of Taxila left
Alexander an open path until he reached the Hydaspes
{Jhclum), where Porus was beaten only after a severe
struggle. The Indian prince was taken prisoner, and
treated with the courtesy which the family of Darius had
rtfccived after the battle of Issus. Here died Alexander's
horse Eoukephalos (Bucephalus), and the loss was com-
memorated by the founding of Bucephalia. The passage
of the Acesines (Chenab), running with a full and impetu-
ous stream, was not accomplished without much danger;
that of the Hydraotes (Savee) presented less formidable
difficulties, but he was encountered on the other side by
Tndiaus, who entrenched themselves in their town of Sangala.
Their resistance ended, it is said, in the slaughter of 17,000
and tho capture of 70,000. About 40 miles further ^
tlie south-east flowed the llyphasis (Sutlfj). Alexander
approached ita bank, the limit of tho Panjab, in the full
confidence that a few days more would bring him to the
mighty stream of the Ganges; but he had reached the
goal of his conquests. The order for crossing the rivci
called forth murmurs and protests at once from his ofliccra
and his soldiers, who ex|)ressed plainly their refusal to
march they knew not whither. Alexander in vain laid
before his officers his schemes of further conquest ; and
when ho offered tho sacrifice customaiy before crossing a
river, the signs were pronounced to be unfavourable. Tho
die was cast. Twelve huge altars remained to show that
Alexander had advanced thus far on his conquest of tho
world; and, in the midst of deluges of rain, the army set
out on its westward journey. The reinforcements which Nov. 32f
he found on reaching the Hydaspes might, if they had ■^"g- 32.'>
advanced as far as the Hyphaais, have turned the scale in "■' '
favour of progress to the east; they enabled Alexander to
undertake with greater ease a voyage down tho Hydaspes to
its junction with the Indus after receiving, tho waters of
the Acesines, Hydraotes, and Hyphasis, and thence on-
wards to tho Indian Ocean. From the mouth of the Indus
he ordered his admiral Nearchus to take the fleet along tho
shores of the ocean and the Persian Gulf to the mouth of
the Tigris. The army marched by land through tho
Gedrosian desert, sufi'ering more from thirst and sickness
than they had suffered in all their battles and forced
marches. At length he reached Pasargada;, to find the
tomb of Cyrus broken open and plundered, and to avenge
the insult ofifered to the man whom he now regarded as tho
founder of his own dynasty. Early in tho following year
he entered Susa, and there, celebrating Lis marriage with
Statira, the daughter of Darius and of Parysatia the daughter
of his predecessor Ochus, he offered to pay the debts of
those soldiers who would follow his examjde by taking to
themselves Persian wives — a strange mode of inviting sober
and steady men who had no debts, but an effectual argu-
ment for the spendthrifts and ruffians of his army. His
new levies of Persian youths, armed and disciplined after
the Macedonian fashion, had now made him independent
of his veteran soldiers; and his declared intentionof send-
ing home the aged and wounded among them called lortl
the angry remonstrances of their comrades, who bade him
complete his schemes of conquest with the aid of his fathc;
Ammon. Alexander rushed into the throng, seized somo
and had them executed, and then disbanded the whole
force. For two days he shut himself up in his palace; ou
the third he marshalled his Persian levies (Epigoni, as he
called them) into divisions bearing the JIacedonian mili-
tary titles, under Persian officers. The spirit of the veterans
was broken by this ignoring of their existence. They
threw down their arms at the palace gates, and begged
forgiveness with cries and tears. Alexi^mcr accepted their
contrition, and the restoration of harmony was celebrated
by a sumptuous sacrifice.
But for Alexander past victories were only a stimulus to
further exploits. Arabia stiU remained unsubdued, and
for this conquest a large addition was needed to his fleet.
Orders were sent to Phoenicia for the construction of ships, 321 b c.
which were to be taken to pieces and sent overland to
Thapsacus on the Euphrates, while others were to be built
at Babylon. His journey to Ecbatana was marked by a
violent quarrel between Eumenes and Hephaestion. Their
reconciliation was soon followed by the death of the latter
from an attack of fever. The grief of the conqueror was
as fierce as that of AchiUes, if we may not set it down as
a manifest imitation of it. For two days he neither ate
nor drank ; he cut his hair short, and ordered that tho
horsea and mules in his army should have their mancn
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
485
docked also. Humcn blood could scarcely be shed vdih
prudence on his pyre ; but he was resolved that his friend
Bhould begin his Ufa ''c the unseen world ■with unstinted
wealth, aud me precious things destined to be consumed
on his funeral pile represented, it is said, a sum of nearly
two milUons and a half pounds sterling. Messengers were
sent to the Egyptian oracle to ask if the dead man might
be worshipped as a god, and Eumenes, with many others,
took care to anticipate its answer by offering him such
honours as might fall in with the humour of the divine
mourner. His grief seemed only to render his bursts of
passion more fearful. None dared to address him except
in language of the most grovelling flattery; and, in the
words of Plutarch, his only consolation was found in his
old habit of man-hunting. The diversion was this time
furnished by some mountain tribes between Media and
Farsistan. His march to Babylon steeped him still more
in the intoxication of success. As he advanced on his
road he was met by ambassadors not only from Illyrians
and Thracians, from Sicdy and Sa.-diiiia, from Libya and
Carthage, but from Lucanians and Etruscans, and, as
some said, from Eome itself. The lord of all the earth
could scarcely look for wider acknowledgment or more
devout submission ; but his self-gratulation may have
bean damped by the warning of the Chaldean priests that
it would be safer for him not to enter the gates of Babylon.
For a while he hesitated, but he had more to d6 than to
heed their words. The preparations for his Arabian cam-
paign must be hurried on ; all that might be needed must
be done to improve the navigation of the Euphrates, and a
new city must be buUtto rival, perhaps, the Alexandria which
he had founded by the banks of the Nile. More than aU, he
had to celebrate the obsequies of Hephsestion, whose body
had been brought to Babylon from Ecbatana. The feasting
whfih everywhere accompanied the funeral rites of the
ancient world was exaggerated by the Macedonians, as by
other half rude or savage tribes, into prolonged revelry.
Alexander spent the whole night drinking in the house of
his friend Medius, and the whole of the next day in sleep-
ing off his drunkenness. Throughout the following night
the same orgies were repeated. When he next awoke he
was unable to rise. Fever had laid its grasp upon him,
and each day its hold became tighter, while he busied
himself incessantly with giving orders about his army, his
fleet, his generals, untU at length the powers of speech
began to fail. When asked to name his successor, he said
that he left his kingdom to the strongest. His signet-ring
he took from his finger and gave to Perdiccas. Throughout
the army the tidings of his illness spread consternation ;
old grudges were all forgotten ; his veterans forced them-
selves into his presence, and with tears bade farewell to
their general, who showed by signs thsfX Ke atill knew them.
A few hours later Alexander died, after a reign of less
than thirteen years, and before he had reached the age of
thirty-three.
That the schemes of conquest with which almost to the
last moment he had been absorbingly busied would, if he
had lived, have been in great part realised, can scarcely be
doubted, unless we suppose that causes were at work which at
no distant period would have disturbed and upset the balance
of his military judgment, and deprived him of that marvel-
lous power of combination and of shaping means to cir-
cumstances in which Hannibal and Napoleon are perhaps
his only peers. It would be rash to say that such a
iJaikeaing of his splendid powers might not have been
brought about, even before he could reach middle age, by
habits which, if we may judge from the history of his later
years, were fast becoming confirmed. In truth, except as
a general, he had lost the balance of his mind already
The ruling despot who fancied himself a god, who ccold
thrust a pike through the body of one friend and sneer at
the cries drawn forth from another by the agonies of
torture, was already far removed from the far-sighted
prudence of the politic statesman and ruler. His con-
quests served great ends ; and before he set out on his
career of victory he may have had a distinct vision of these
ends. Desire for knowledge ; the wish to see «ew forms
of human and animal life ; the curiosity of traversing
unknown lands, of lajing open their resources, of bringing
them all vrithin the limits and the influence of the Mace-
donian, or, as he preferred to put it, the Greek world ; tho
eagerness to establish over all known, possibly over aU
unknown, regions a mighty centralised empire, which
should avail itself of aU their forces, and throw down the
barriers which rendered the interchange of their wealth
impossible, — may have mingled with his alleged or his real
purpose of avenging on the Persian king the misdoings of
Xerxes, Darius, and Cjttis. But there is little evidence or
none that these motives retained their power undiminished
as he advanced further on his path of victory, while there
seems to be evidence, only too abundant, that all other
motives were gradually and even fast losing strength as
the lust of conquest grew with his belief or his fancy of
his superhuman power and origin. During his sojourn
with Aristotle he must have learnt that, real knowledge
can be reached and good government insured only where
there is freedom of thought and speech, and where the
people obey their own laws. A few years later he had
come to look on Aristotle as an enemy to be punished
with scarcely less severity than CaUisthenes. But at the
least it must be remembered that his work was left un-
finished ; possibly he may have regarded it as little mors
than begun. Looking at it from this point of view, we
can neither shut our eyes to the solid benefits acciiiing
from his conquests both for the East and the West, nor,
in spite of his awful crimes, can we place him in the rank
of those scourges of mankind among whom Marie and
Attila, Genghiz, Timour, and Napoleon stand pre-eminent.
Of the several accounts of his career which have coma
down to us, not one, unhappily, is strictly contemporary ;
and mere fairness calls upon us to give him the benefit of
a doubt, when doubt can be justly entertained, in reference
even to deeds which carry with them an unutterable horror
and shame. It is impossible to deny that with a higher
sense of duty Alexander would better have deserved the
title of Great; but the judgment which may be passed on
some of his actions cannot affect his t- ascendent glory as
the most consummate general of ancient times, and perhaps
even of all ages.
For an examination of the sources of the history of Alexander the
Great, eee Freeman, Historical £ssays, second series, essay v.
The history itself is presented in various aspects by ThillwalJ,
ffist&ry of Orcece, chaps, xh-ii.-lv. ; Grote, History 0/ Greece, part
ii., chaps. xcL-xciv. ; Niebuhr's Lectures on Ancient History^
lectures xxiv.-lxxx. ', "Williams, Life of Alexander the Orcal; St
Croix, Examen Critique dcs Anciens Historians <£ Alexandre U
Grand; Droysen, Geschiehte Alexanders der Orosscn. See alsD
Finlay, Greece under the Romans, chap. i. ; AmoUl, History of
Rome, chap. xxx. For tho geography of Alexander's Indian cam-
paigns, see Cunningham's Ancient Ocofjraphy of India; and fur tho
scientific results of lus conf^uests, ilumboldt's Kosmos, vol. ii.,'
part ii., section 2. (o, w. 0.)
486
alexa:ndek
ALEXANDER of ApnBODiaiAB, tLo most celebrated
of the Greek commentators on the writings of Aristotle,
and styled, by way of pre-eminence, 6 ((rjyrj-n'if, the Exposi-
tor. He was a native of Aphrodisias in C'aria, and taught
the Peripatetic philosophy at Athens in the end of the
2d and the beginning of the 3d centuries of the Christian
era. Commentaries by Alexander on the following works
of Aristotle are still extant: — The Analylica Priora, L; the
Topica; the Meteorologica; theZ)<5nwu;and the Melaphysica,
L-V., together with an abridgment of what ho wrote on the
remaining books of the Melaphysica. His commentaries
were greatly esteemed among the Arabians, who translated
many of them. There are also eeveral original writings
by Alexander still extant. The most important of these
are a work On Fate, in which ho argues against the Stoic
doctrine of necessity; and one On the Soul, in which
he contends that the undeveloped reason in man is
material (i-oDs i\t/cos), and inseparable from the body. He
identified the active intellect (voCs TroirjnKos), through whose
agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with
God. Several of Alexander's works were published in the
Aldino edition of Aristotle, Venice, 1495-98; his De Fato
and De Anima were printed along with the works of The-
mistius at Venice, 1534; the former work, which has been
translated into Latin by Grotius and also by Schulthess,
was edited by Orelli, Zurich, 1824; and his commentaries
on the Metaphysica by Bonitz, Berlin, 1847. Nourisson
has treated of his doctrine of fate, Paris, 1870.
ALEXANDER of Hales (Alexander Halensis), eut-
namcd Doctor Irrefragahili^ and Fons Vitce, a celebrated
English theologian of the 13th century. Born in Gloucester-
shire, and trained in the monastery of Hales, from which
he takes his name, he was early raised to an archdeaconry.
Relinquishing this position, however, he went, like most
of the scholars of his day, to study at the university of
Paris, wbere he took the degree of doctor, and became cele-
brated as a teacher of philosophy and theology. Among
lu3 pupils was Bonaventura; but it is evident from a
comparison of dates that ho did not teach Duns Scotus
and Thomas Aquinas, as has been frequently asserted. In
1222, when at the height of his fame, Alexander entered
the order of ilinorite Friars, and thenceforward lived in
strict seclusion. He refused, however, to renounce his
degree of doctor, and was the first of his order who con-
tinued to bear that title after initiation. He died in 1245,
and was buried in the convent of the Cordeliers at Paris,
where he had spent the last twenty-three years of Ms life.
The most celebrated work of Alexander was his Summa
Theologiae (Nuremberg, 1452; Venice, 1576), undertaken
by the orders of Popa Innocent IV., and approved by
Alexander IV., after he had submitted it to the examina-
tion of seventy learned theologians as a system of instruc-
tion for all the schools in Christendom. Based on the
Sentences of Peter Lombard, ij is dinded into four parts;
the first treating of the nature and attributes of the Deity;
the second of the creation and of the various orders of
creatures ; the third of the scheme of redemption, the
incarnation of Christ, the law, and grace; and the fourth of
the sacraments. The form is that of question and answer,
and the method is rigidly scholastic.
ALEXAJs'DER of Tealles (Alexan-dee Tealllantts),
a medical writer, was a native of Tralles, a city of Lydia,
and lived probably about the middle of the 6th century.
He is the author of a work, divided into twelve books, in
which he treats of bodily distempers. He was the first to
open the jugular vein, and to use cantharidss as a blister
for the gouti, Dr Freind, in his History of Physic, styles
him one of ihe most valuable authors since the time of
Rippocrates.
*ce also Dr UUwBrd's Tralliaiua Scviriiuns; or, An AiccnaU
of Alexander Trallian, me <f tlu Orai JFriUrt that fiov.i-ijut
after Galen, being a Supplement to Dr Prcindi History of Phytic^
London, 1731, 8vo. The Greek teit of his rrincipil work was firat
published by Jac Goupylus, Lutct li48, fol. It was reprinted,
and was then accompanied wilh a Latin version by Jo. Guinterius,
Basil, 1556, 8to. Ue ia likewise the author of an eplsUe on worma,
Dt Lumbricis, which was published, in Greek and Latin, by Mer-
curialis, in his KanVz Lectiones, Venct 1570, 4to.
ALEXANDER BALAS (a Burnamo that probably
means "lord"), a man of low birth who professed to bo
the son of Antiochus E]iiphanc3, and eventually became
king of Syria, His claims were recognised by the Romans,
who desired to revenge themselves on Demetrius Soter ;
and their example was followed by the king of Egypt and
other monarchs. Demetrius was at first victorious, but in
150 B.C. was slain in battle, and Balas obtained possession
of the kingdom. The new king soon made himself hateful
to his subjects by his voluptuousness and debauchery, and
this encouraged Demetrius Nicator, the eldest son of
Demetrius Soter, to claim his father's crown. Alexander
took the field against him, but was defeated in a pitched
battle, and fled to Abie in Arabia, where he was murdered
by the emir, with whom he had sought refuge, 145 B.C.
ALEXANDER JANN^US, king of the Jews, suc-
ceeded his brother Aristobulus in 104 B.C., and died in
79 B.C. His reign, which he commenced by putting to
death one of his brothers who claimed the throne, was
disgraced by the cruelties that he perpetrated in order to
keep himself in power.
ALEXANDER SEVERUS, Roman emperor. See
Severus.
ALEXANDER was the name of eight Popes : —
Alexander L, bishop of Rome, succeeded Evaristus in
108 or 109 A.D., and, according to Eusebius, suffered
martyrdom under Hadrian in the year 119. Catholic
writers ascribe to him the introduction of holy water, aiid
of the custom of mixing sacramental wine with water.
AlexaJvDee II., whose family name was Anselmo
Baggio, was bom at ililan, and occupied the papal chair
from lOGl to 1073. He had preWously, as bishop of
Lucca, been an energetic coadjutor with Hildebrand in
endeavoiuing to suppress simony, and to enforce the
celibacy of the clergy; and his efforts to augment the
influence of the Roman see prepared the way for the com-
plete ascendancy wUch was established by his celebrated
successor. The impirial sanction being withheld from
Alexander's eleciion, a council at Basle chose as anti-pope
Cadolaus, bishop of Parma, who assumed the name of
Honorins II., and marched to Rome. He was deposed,
however, by a council hi Id at Mantua, and Alexander's posi-
tion remained unchallenged. Alexander was succeeded by
his associate Hildebrand, who took the title of Gregorj' VIL
Alexaxdee IIL {Rdando Ranuci of Siena), cardinal
and chancellor of the Roman church, was elected to the
popedom in 1159, and reigned until 1181. His career is
of great historical importance on account of the vigour and
viltimate success with which he carried out the ideas and
policy of Hildebrand in opposition to Frederick Barbarossa
and Henry II. of England. Three anti-popes f\'ictor IV.,
1159; Pascal m., 1164; Calixtus in., 1168) were con-
firmed by the German emperor in succession. Alexander,
however, steadfastly maintained his rights, though com-
peUed to take refuge in France between the years 1 1 02
and 1165. The contest between pope and emperor was
continued with varying forttme until, on the 29th May
1176, Frederick was decisively defeated at Legnano, when
he at once withdrew his support from the anti-pope and
submitted to Alexander. On the 1st August 1177 the
emperor yielded the customary homage to the 'pope at
Venice by kissing his foot, and was freed from the ban of
A L E X A N D E R
487
excommnnicatlon under which he had been placed ten
years preriously. There seems to be no historical autho-
rity for the common story that during the ceremony
Alexander placed his foot upon the emperor's neck.
In England the papal supremacy was strenuously main-
tained against Henry IL by Thomas k Becket. Here, as
in the case of Germany, the struggle was protracted and
severe, but in the end the victory lay with the pope.
A Becket was canonised soon after his assassination, and
Henry 11. was compelled to submit to a humiliating
penance. A contest with William the Lion of Scotland,
who insisted on instituting his chaplain Hugo, and not
the papal nominee, into the see of St Andrews, ended in
the excommunication of the king in 1181.
Alexander introduced several important changes in the
organisation and administration of the church. Chief
among these were the restriction of the right of canonisa-
tion to the pope alone, the still-existing law requiring the
votes of two-thirds of the cardinals for a valid papal elec-
tion, and the exemption of the clergy from civil control
and of church lands from civil burdens. Several of these
measures were ratified by the third general council of the
Lateran, summoned by Alexander in 1179.
Alexaitdee IV., Count Binaldo de Segni, cardinal-
bishop of Ostia, occupied the papal chair from December
1254 tUl his death in May 1261. He seems to have been
of a weak character, and in the struggle against the house
of Hohenstaufen, which he inherited from his predecessors,
he did little to strengthen the position of the papacy. The
opposition which he offered to Manfred, naturah son of
Frederick 11., proved unavailing, although he obtained the
aid of England by promising the disputed sovereignty of
the Two. SicUies to the English Prince Edward. Manfred
was crowned king at Palermo in 1258, and in 1260 he
invaded the States of the Church, and compelled the pope
to recognise him as legitimate sovereign. The ecclesiastical
administration of Alexander was signalised by his efforts
to unite the Greek and Latin churches, by the establish-
ment of the Inquisition in France (1255), and by the
support he gave to the orders of Mendicant friars. The
last years of his pontificate were passed at Viterbo, where
Jie was compelled to take refuge on account of the violent
struggles at Rome between the factions of the Guelphs and
the GhibeUines.
Alexander V. (Pieiro Philargi), a native of Candia,
enjoyed the dignity of Pope for only ten months, from the
26th June 1409 to the 3d May 1410. Bom of poor
parentage, he owed his admission to a religious house to a
Franciscan monk, who noticed him begging. He studied
at Paris and Oxford, where he acquired such reputation
for scholarship, that on his return to Italy he was rapidly
promoted from dignity to dignity. In 1402 he was
appointed, through the influence of Galeazzo Yisconti, to
the archbishopric of Milan, and in 1405 he was made a
cardinal by Innocent VIL The council of Pisa, after
deposing Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII., elected him
pope on the understanding that he would set himself to
reform the abuses of the church. The weakness of his
character and the shortness of his pontificate, however,
prevented anything effectual being done. He died, as was
generally believed, of poison administered by Balthasdr
Cossa, who became his successor under the title of John
xxin.
Alexaitoeii VI. (Rodriffo Borgia), memorable as the
most characteristic incarnation of the secular spirit of the
papacy of the 15 th century, was born at Xativa in
Valencia, Ist January 1431. His biographers all but
nnanimously assert his patronymic to have been Lenzuoli
(in Its original Yalencian form, Llancol), and the name of
Borgia for more properly Borja) to have been n^ourncd on
his adoption by his maternal uncle. Francisco Escolano,
however, a compatriot, positively afiirms [Cronica, lib. vL
cap. 33), that Llanyol was his mother's name, and that his
father was Giofr6 Borja. It is also disputed whether he
originally followed the legal or the military profession ;
the former appears more probable. In either case, his
career was determined by his uncle's elevation to the
papacy as CalLxtus III, 8th April 1455, and his own
immediate summons to Rome, where he was reserved in
petto as cardinal in the ensuing February, publicly pro-
moted in September, and by an unparalleled act of nepotism
elevated to the lucrative and dignified ofiice of vice-
chancellor in the following July. He also succeeded his
uncle as archbishop of Valencia. An elder brother, Pedro
Luis, was made generalissimo of the papal forces by land
and sea. The animosity created by so invidious an exalta-
tion prepared Rodrigo's subsequent feud with the Roman
patriciate. For the moment he was all-powerful, and
the letters of that dexterous courtier ..Eneas Sylvius attest
the importance attached to his good word. We must here
notice the ridiculous fiction concerning the parentage of
Borgia's natural children, which owes its currency to the
uncritical credulity of Gordon, his first formal biographer.
An anonymous SlS. romance, professing to record the
secret history of the Borgia family, exists in many Italian
libraries ; a copy is in the British Museum. Gordon fell
in with this fiction, and whether from lack of judgment ot
love of marvel, adopted it into his narrative. According
to this version, Rodrigo, when sunamoned to Rome, was
living with a beautiful Yalencian courtesan, Rosa Yanozza,
by whom he had already had several children. Despatch-
ing his family to Venice under the care of a major-domo,
he entered upon a course of austere hypocrisy, designed to
secure his exaltation to the papacy, thus remaining apart
from his mistress and children for a period of nearly forty
years 1 This legend, originally circulated as a prime piece
of scandal, has been accepted as a vindication by Rodrigo's
apologists. Yanozza, they contend, was not his concubine
but his wife, and her decease must have preceded his ordi-
nation : Cssar and Lucrctia were consequently legitimate.
The Abb6 OUivier goes a step further stiU, and disposes
of two scandals at a stroke by identifying Yanozza with
Giulia Farnese, whose charms, during Alexander's pontifi-
cate forty years afterwards, notoriously procured her
brother's elevation to the cardinalate. It is sufficient to
reply that in this case the beautifid Lucretia must have
espoused the Duke of Ferrara at forty, and have borne
him children at sixty. The date of Caesar's birth, more-
over is known to an hour, being fixed by the horoscope
preserved in Junctinus (tom. L p. 171) at 18th September
1475. Nor is the history of Yanozza any longer a secret.
It is known that her family name was De' Cattanei ; that
after bearing five children to Alexander she was twice
married, on each occasion to a petty official about the papal
court ; that she possessed houses and other property in
Rome ; that she survived Alexander many years, and made
use of the name of Borgia (i?fumon?, Bd. 3, pp. 202, 203).
The fortune of the Borgia brothers seemed menaced
with eclipse on the death of their uncle, 8th August 1458.
Pedro Luis, who had incurred the bitter enmity of the
Orsini family, escaped under the escort of Cardinal Barbo
to Civitk Vecchia, where p. fever soon carried him o£F.
Rodrigo remained for the conclave. No papal election ia
more dramatically narrated ia that edifying collection,
Condavi de' PorUefici Romani, than the one which resulted
in the choice of Jilneas Sylvius (Pius 11.) Borgia's share
in it had earned "Pius's gratitude ; he was, nevertheless,
compelled to submit to some diminution of the authority
and emoluments of the vice-chancellorship ; and a subse-
quent indiscretion in the too public indulgence o£ his
488
ALEXANDER VI.
taste for fcir.,ile society while discharging a legation at
Siena procured hirn one of the Eeverest reprimands ever
addressed to a cardinal by a pope. Pius's reproof is pre-
served in Eaynaldu9 (Append, ad ann. I4G0, num. 31),
and alono refutes the fiction of Borgia's religious hypocrisy.
Cardinal Barbo, however, who succeeded as Paul 11., was
the same spirited patrician who had befriended the Borgias
in their hour of need, and his ostentatious pontificate
ushered in the era of Eodrigo's unbroken pro-sperity.
" Ho is," writes at this time Caspar Veronensis (Muratori,
'torn. iiL pt. 2, p. 1037), "a comely man of cheerful
countenance and honeyed discourse, who gains the affec-
tions of all the women he admires, and attracts them as the
loadstone does iron ; it is indeed supposed that he proceeds
310 further." A sup[iosition rather pious than probable.
On the death of the jovial Paul (U71), Borgia is men-
tioned, along with Cardinals Oraino and Gonzaga, as one
of the three who chiefly contributed to place the tiara on
the brows of the then famous preacher and exemplary
ijscetic Sixtus IV., who immediately (per fuffgire I'ingrati-
tudine) bestowed on him the opulent abbey pf Subiaco,
and raised him to the dignity of cardinal-bishop. About
the same time must have commenced his intimacy with
Vanozza. In r473 he undertook a legation to Spain,
avowedly with the purpose of visiting his diocese and of
composing differences between the kings of Castile and
Portugal, but in reality to display his magnificence to his
countrjTnen. His demeanour on this occasion is repre-
sented in the most unfavourable light by the cardinal of
Pavia, who had previously composed for him that elegant
oration to his Valcncian flock which the Abbij OUivier
has the simplicity to attribute to Borgia himself. The
cardinal, however, is too much of a time-server and a
rhetorician for his account to be altogether trustworthy.
More certain is the occurrence of a tremendous tempest on
Borgia's return, in which part of his retinue perished,
while he himself narrowly escaped. Innocent VIII., the
successor of Sixtus, owed his election to Borgia's coalition
with the late pope's nephew, and the fortunes of the
former remained unimpaired throughout his tranquil ponti-
ficate. The long malady which terminated it afforded scope
for the intrigues of aspirants to the succession ; and when
the cardinals entered into conclave (August 1492), already
the rumour ran that a Spaniard would bo pope. The
sirnoniacal character of the election is indisputable. We
need not believe that the opulent and high-spirited
Cardinal Ascanio Sforza was tempted with four mule-loads
of silver, but his instant elevation to the vice-chancellorship
speaks for itself. Cardinal Orsino was bought with Borgia's
palace in Rome ; Cardinal Colonna with the abbey of
Subiaoo ; money gained the minor members of the Sacred
College ; five cardinals alone are recorded as incorruptible.
Borgia's uneasiness was betrayed by his hasty assumption
of the pontifical vestments, and premature announcement
of the election to the expectant crowd. He assumed the
name of Alexander VL His allocution to the cardinals
breathed spirit and dignity : an admonitory discourse to
his son Caisar, which may be read in Gordon, is an inven-
tion of the anonymous romancer. The pomp of his coro-
nation far surpassed preceding examples, and the compli-
ments of foreign ambassadors on the majesty of his mien
and the maturity of his wisdom were echoed by a public
accustomed to simony, relieved at their dcUverance from
a period of anarchy, and sensible of their need of a firmer
hand. This hope Alexander justified and surpassed. Ere
long he had divided Rome into judicial districts, placed a
magistrate at the head of each, and himself established a
weekly audience, at which, by the admission of the mal-
content Infessura, " he admiiiistered justice after a marvel-
lous sort."
Alexander's pontificate might have been less eventful
but for a circumstauco beyond his control. The political
system of Italy was on the eve of dissolution. Ludovico
the Moor, anxious to confirm himself in his ill-gotten
duchy of Milan, was already tempting the French monarch
across the Alps by the bait of the kingdom of Naples.
As of old in Greece, so now dissensions and political cor-
ruption were about to cast down the civilisation of Italy
at the feet of the stranger. The passion for family
aggrandisement on this occasion impelled Alexander to a
patriotic course. His third son Giofr6 had espoused the
illegitimate daughter of the king of Naples, and received
as dower the principality of Squillace. When, therefore,
the French envoys demanded the investiture of Naples,
they met with a flat refusal. This encouraged AJexamier's
enemies. Cardinal della Rovere (Julius II.) withdrew
from the papal court, seized upon Ostia, and from thence
addressed urgent appeals to the French king to march
upon Rome, convene a council, and purge Christendom of
the sirnoniacal pope. On this side Alexander felt himself
indeed vulnerable. Casting about for alliances, he de-
spatched an envoy to the Sultan ; the ambassador was
arrested as ho returned \(ith a favourable reply ; and the
publication of his instructions created a fresh scandaL
Others still, had Pioman manners been less lax, might have
arisen from the marriage of the pope's acknowledged
daughter Lucretia to the Lord of Pesaro, under the
auspices of the whole Sacred College, and from the elevation
of his second son Ca;sar to the cardinalate at the age of
eighteen, unblushing perjury being employed to conceal
his illegitimate birth. Yet, at the same period, the suc-
cessor of Peter appeared for the last time in history as the
undisputed bestower of kingdoms and the ultimate tribunal
of appeal for Christian nations. Spain and Portugal
resorted to him for the adjustment of their claims to the
New World ; and by tracing a line upon a map he dis-
posed of three-fourths of the human race. Never, accord-
ing to mediaeval ideas, had a pope exerted his prerogative
with equal grandeur ; but the mcdiajval conception of the
papacy was passing away, and no one's faith in it was
feebler than the pope's.
Charles VIII. passed the Alps in the autumn of 1494;
city after city fell before him, and by the end of the year
Rome was added to the number. Alexander had retired
into the castle of St Angelo. His deposition was uni-
versally expected, most of all by himself. But Charles's
minister, Brifonnet, had been gained by the promise of a
cardinal's hat. On 16th January the reconciliation of
king and pontiff was officially celebrated : they rode
together through the city ; but distrust still prevailed
between them. With really surprising firmness Alexander
continued to refuse the investiture of Naples, with which
Charles may have thought himself able to dispense.
Nothing, indeed, could have been more rapid than his
conquest, except his loss of that kingdom. By March the
triumph of the French seemed complete : on Gth July
their retreating army cut its way through the Italian hosts
at Tare in Upper Italy ; on 7th July the King of Naples
re-entered his capital. Nothing remained of the French
incursion except a fatal contagion, and the more fatal
revelation of the weakness of Italy.
The retreat of the French left Alexander at liberty to
pursue what must have been the main object of any pope
of intelligence and spirit in his place — the extirpation of
the petty feudal vassals of the church, and the establish-
ment of the temporal independence of the papacy. This
was in truth but a phase of the greai struggle of the
crown and the people against the aristocracy, universally
a characteristic of that age; but the pope's principal motive
was unquestionably the insatiable appetite of family
ALEXANDER VI.
489
aggrandisement. The incurable vice, however, of his
policy was Imposed upon him by the lack of men and
money to carry it into effect. To obtain the former, he
was compelled to incline alternately to France and Spain,
degrading the majesty of the Holy See, and forfeiting his
liberty of action as a member of the ItaUau body politic.
The finances had to be recruited by the sale of offices and
spiritual privileges of every kind. Such practices had long
been prevalent at Rome, but never had they attained the
enormity, the effrontery, or the method imparted to them
by Alexander.
His enterprise was at first unfortiinate. After some
petty successes the papal forces were routed by the Orsini,
January 1497. Spanish aid was invoked; the Great
Captain checked the Orsini and recovered Oatia. Alex-
ander's spirits rose ; on 7th June he alienated Benevento
in favour of his eldest son, the Duke of Gandia. That
day week the duke disappeared ; his body, pierced with
wounds, was soon found in the Tiber. The pubbo voice
attributed the murder to the pope's second son, the
Cardinal Caesar Borgia, but on no other grounds than his
capability of any atrocity, and the gain that accrued to
htm by this. Some historians know what he said to. the
pope in confessing his fratricide, and can report the pope's
rejoinder; so is history written. Alexander secluded
himself in a passion of grief. He talked of -abdication,
and actually appointed a commission to inquire into the
abuses of the Church. While it ineffectually deliberated
on reforms, the stake was preparing for a real reformer.
The history of Savonarola must be related elsewhere ; it
can only be said here that Alexander appears to have been
most unwilling to proceed against him, and only to have
consented to do so when the Dominican's hostile attitude
rendered further forbearance impossible.
Caesar Borgia, meanwhile, was bent on improving the
opportunity which he had found or made. Three months
after Savonarola's death he propounded to the assembled
cardinals his desire to renounce ecclesiastical orders for his
soul's health, and was soon at liberty to contract a royal
alliance. After encountering a refusal from the daughter
of the King of Naples he repaired to France, and there
(May 1499) espoused a princess of the house of Navarre,
receiving the title of Duke of Valentinois from the French
king. Lucretia also benefited by her family's enlarged
views ; her alliance with the lord of Pesaro was dissolved
on a pretext of nullity, and she married the Duke of
Bisceglia, a natural son of the King of Naples. This had
occurred a year previously, when Alexander stiU attached
weight to the Neapolitan alliance ; but the political horizon
was now changed. In October 1499 a French army crossed
the Alps and conquered Lombardy, almost without resist-
ance. The watchword was thus given for the papal
campaign In the Romagna. Caterina Sforza, regent
of Imola and Forli, received a summons to discharge
certain arrears long owing to her suzerain. Csesar Borgia
followed with an army on the heels of the messenger, and
although the intrepid princess defended herself stoutly by
sword and poison, she was compelled to succumb to the
" Gonfalonier of the Church." The Borgias' enterprise
coincided fortunately with the commencement (according
to the then method of reckoning) of the new century
and the mighty concourse of pilgrims to Rome for the
jubilee, each representing some substantial contribution to
the papal exchequer. France and Spain, meanwhile, had
concerted their secret arrangement for the dispossession of
the King of Naples, and Caesar Borgia prepared to remove
the only obstacle to his own participation in it. In July
1600 the Duke of Biscegli.i, Lucretia's Neapolitan husband,
was attacked by assassins in broad day, and left desper-
ately wounded. The pope placed guards over the prince ;
1 — ! 7*
Lucretia and her sister-in-law prepared his food to avoid
poison ; but none the less " quum ex vulneribus sibi
datis mori noluisset" — Alphonso of Bisceglia was strangled
by men in masks. "AH Rome," writes the Venetian
ambassador, " trembles before the duke." The worst
times of the empire seemed retiu-ned, even to the amusa-
ments of the amphitheatre, where Cssar, whose tastes
were those of a Spaniard, despatched six bulls successively,
severing the head of one from the shoulders at a stroke.
The pope looked on helplessly at the Frankenstein of his
own creation ; " he loves and hugely fears his son,"
reports the Venetian, who adds that Caesar had pursued
his father's favourite secretary to his arms, and there
butchered him, the pope's robe being saturated with the
gushing blood. Alexander's easy temper stood him in
good stead. " The pope," according to the same authority,
" grows younger every day, and is extremely cheerful ;
his cares and troubles endure only for a night ; he thinks
continually of aggrandising his children — ne d'altro ha
cura." In his conversations with foreign envoys he
excused his son's violence as the error of youth. " The
duke," he said, " is really a good fellow ; it is only a pity
that he cannot endure to be offended." Lucretia is
extolled by all as " lovely, discreet, and bountiful."
Rumour, indeed, imputed to her an incestuous connection
with her brother ; but this aspersion, like all others upon
her, is to this day utterly destitute of proof.
" These devils cannot be xast out by Holy water,"
Cardinal Juan Borgia had formerly reported of the turbu-
lent occupants of the Romagna. The experiment of casting
out Satan by Beelzebub remained to be tried. In April
1501 Csesar entered upon his second campaign, and by
perfidy or force quickly added Pesaro, Rimini, and Faenza
to his former possessions. Attentive to the maxims of
sagacious tyranny, he governed with substantial justice.
If his coffers had to be fiUed by oppression, the odium
would be ca,3t on some subordinate agent, whose body,
his mission fulfilled, would be found dismembered in
the market-place. France and Spain, meanwhile, pro-
ceeded to the spoliation of the defenceless king of Naples,
and Caesar (July 1501) shared in the conquest and the
booty. In September Alexander himself undertook a
campaign against the Colormas, and humbled those haughty
patricians by the capture of all their castles. Lucretia, to
the general scandal, represented him in his absence. Worse
scandals were in store, could we implicitly credit the con-
temporary diarist's account of the scenes enacted in the
apostolic palace after Alexander's return, but the passage
is probably interpolated. At this period th« papal court
was engrossed with preparations for Lucretia's marriage to
Alphonso, son of the Duke of Ferrara, which was celebrated
by proxy in December, The pope's daughter, cardinals
and prelates in her train, undertook a stately progress
through Italy to Ferrara, where she was received- with
extraordinary splendour. Piombino was reduced at this
time, and in JAily Ctesar treacherously rendered himself
master of Urbino. Immediately afterwards his power
received a severe shock from the defection of his principal
ccmdottieri. Caesar temporised until, to the admiration of
Machiavelli, then Florentine envoy at his camp, his adver-
saries were decoyed into his hands, seized, and executed
(Slst December 1502). The news gave the signal at Rome
for the arrest of the Orsini and the occupation of their
castles ; thus was the humiliation of the Roman aristocracy
completed. Cardinal Orsino was committed to Saint
Angolo, where the . services of the papal master of the
ceremonies were soon required for his interment. " But
I," remarks Burcardus with quaint naivete, " turned the
business over to my assistant, for I did not -srant to know
more than was g(K)d for me." It must be owned that in
4yu
ALEXANDER
tliat agb it would havo beca impossiblo to bring a cardinal
publicly to the block. Thia apology does not apply to the
cliargea of secret poisoning which have mainly given the
Borgias their sinister celebrity, and which became fearfully
rife in Alexander's latter yeara. They are unproved aa yet,
but are certainly countenanced by the opulonce of the
supposed victims, and tho avidity with which the pope
pounced upon their effects, especially in tho case of his
rapacious datary, Cardinal Ferrari.
By May 1503 Spain had dispossessed Franca of her
share of ill-gotten Naples. A general war seemed imminent ;
Alexander and Coesar leaned to tho side of Spain. Tho
Sacred College was already full of Spanish cardinals, docile
instruments of their countryman, and Alexander might well
deem that he had fettered tho Church to tho fortune of his
house. Men looked for the proclamation of Ca;sar as king
of Romagna, and the division of tho temporal and the
spiritual power. The ancient mutual relations of pupo
and emperor would have been revived, but on tho narrow
area of Central Italy. But this was not to be. On the
morning of 12th August " Pope Alexander felt ill;" so did
Caesar Borgia. Every one knows the story of the supper
given to tho ten cardinals in the villa, and the fatal
exchange of tho poisoned flask. This picturesque tale is
almost certainly a fiction. An attempt to destroy ten
cardinals at once is inconceivable ; it would bo easier to
believe Cardinal Castellesi's assertion that he was to have
been tho victim, as his sickness at tho time is confirmed
from an indepenrlent source. But his character does not
stand high, and the symptoms of his disorder, as described
by himself, differ totally from Alexander's, which were those
of an ordinary Roman fever. The progress of the pope's
malady may be minutely traced in the diary of Burcardus
and tho despatches of tho Ferrarese envoy. He expired
on the evening of 18th August, duly provided with all the
needful sacraments of the ChurcL From Ms own point
of view his life probably appeared fortunate and glorious ;
but the vicissitude of human affairs is ever dramatically
illustrated by the death of a pope. Ere the corpse was
cold the pontifical apartments were pillaged by the
satellites of Cssar Borgia ; at the funeral a brawl between
priests and soldiers left it exposed in the body of the
church ; when placed before the altar, its shocking decom-
position confirmed the surmise of poison ; finally, stripped
of its ceretnents and wrapped in an old carpet, it was forced,
Vi-ith blows and jeers, into a narrow coffin, and flung into
an obscure vault. The remains were subsequently trans-
ferred to the Spanish church of St Mary of Montserrat,
where they repose at this day.
Alexander has become a myth, and his "acts" are in
some respects almost as legendary as those of the primitive
saints and martyrs. The peculiar odium attached to his
memory rests partly on the charge of incest, of which he
must be acquitted; partly on that of secret poisoning,
which is at least not established; partly on the confusion
between his actions and Ciesar Borgia's. Nearly every-
thing actually criminal in his pontificate is subsequent to
the preponderance of the latter. Profligate alike in public
and private life, he was no malignant tyrant, — affable,
familiar, easy, he justly took credit for his moderation
towards notorious malcontents, and his indifference to
personal injuries. These virtues, however, as well as his
family affection, were merely constitutional with him, — as
the many beneficial acts of his administration were rather
prompted by a sense of policy than a sense of duty. His
ability as a ruler is evinced by the tranquillity he main-
tained in Rome, his effectual provision against dearth, the
regular discharge of financial obligations, the energetic
prosecution of useful public works. As a statesman he
ranks high in the second class. He was too destitute of
morality to havo tho least insight into the tendencita oi
hia timea; but from the point of view of political cxpo-
diency, his policy was eminently sagacious and adroit
He cannot be accused of preparing tho misfortunes of
Italy, but he did not disdain to profit by them. Hia
licentiousness and contempt of ecclesiastical decorum are
partly palliated by the circumstances of hia initiation into
the Church. He was untrained to tho ecclesiastical pro-
fession, never felt himself a priest, and was wholly regard-
less of the Church's interest as such. In this respect he
is almost unique among the successors of St Peter. Were
controversies regulated by reason rather than by con-
venience, the parties to this would change sides, — Alex-
ander's accusers would become his advocates, and hia
advocates his accusers. Tho Church in her secret heart
must rate him the lowest of her chiefs; the world must
feel tlmt he deserves much better of it than manT much
better popes.
The principal contemporary authority for the rei^ of Alexander
ia the diary of the papal master of the ceremonies, Joannes Bur-
cardus, a record replete with trivialities and not exempt from inter-
polations, but containing iudiaputable evidence of perfect candour.
An excellent edition, commenced in 1855 by the AbW Gennarelli,
was -discontinued after the publication of a few parta. The un-
critical histories of Gordon and Tomasi are indebted to Burcardua
for any value they possess. The paltry productions of modern
Roman Catholic apologists (Jorry, Favl, Ccrri, ic.) are beneath
contempt Tho Ahhi Oljivier (Alexandre VI. ct Its Borgia, torn,
i., Paris, 1870) excites respect by his good faith and amusement by
his strange alliance of perverse ingenuity with infantine unsuspi-
ciousness. Of lata years tho archives of tho Italian courts have
become accessible, and the transactions of Alexander's reign havo
been sngaciously investigated from this Boiirca by two German
scholars, Von Keumont {Die Sladt Rom, Bd. 3, Abth. 1, Berlin,
1868) and Gregorovius (Rom in MitUlalter, Bd. 7, Stuttgart, 1870).
Tlie latter ia the more copious, but his general estimate of Alex-
ander is much too low. By far the ablest English contribution
to tho history of Alexander is a notice of Gregorovius in the
North Rriiish Review, vol hi., entitled The Borgias and ikeir Latest
Misloriart, . (b. o.)
Alexander VII. (Fabio Chigi), was bom at Siena on
the' 13th February 11599, and occupied the papal chair
from the 7th April 1G55 to the 22d May 1GC7. Before
his elevation he had filled successively the offices of
inquisitor at Malta, vice-legate at Ferrara, and nuncio to
Germany at the conference of Munster. The conclave
elected him ia the belief that he was strongly opposed to
tho nepotism and other abuses that had characterised the
reign of his immediate predecessor, Innocent X., and at
the beginning of his pontificate he went so far in this
direction as to forbid his relatives even to visit Rome.
In a year, however, all was changed, and nepotism pro-
vailed to as great an extent as under any former pontilT.
Alexander was a patron of learning, and himself wrote a
volume of Latin poems which appeared at Paris in 1656
under the title Philomathi Lahore^ Juveniles. He also
encouraged architecture, and in particular constructed tho
beautiful colonnade in the piazza of St Peter's. The most
noteworthy events of his pontificate were the reception of
the ex-queen Christina of Sweden into the Catholic Church,
the promulgation of a buU against the Jansenists, and a
protracted dispute with Louis XIV. of France, during
which the papal see lost possession of Avignon (1662).
Alexander canonised Francis of Sales in 1665.
Alexanbeb VIIL (Pielro Ottoboni), bom at Venice
in 1610, was raised to the pontificate in October 1689
in succession to Innocent XL He assisted his native state
in its wars with the Turks. Although an enemy of the
Jansenists, he condemned certain doctrinal errors of the
Jesuits as advanced by Professor Bougot of Dijon. He
carried nepotism to such an extent that the salaries and
gifts bestowed on his relatives during his reign, short
though it was, exhausted the papal treasury. . He added
ALEXANDER
491
ty purchase tlie books and manuscripts of Queen Christina
CO the Vatican libraiy. He died in Feb. 1G91.
ALEXANDER I., King of Scotland, son of Malcolm
Canmore, succeeded his brother Edgar in 1107, and died
in 1124. He was better educated than any of his prede-
cessors, owing to the care of his mother, the amiable Mar-
garet of England. All the qualities of his nature, both
good and bad, were strongly marked; from the terror he
inspired, he was styled by his subjects the Fierce. His reign
is distinguished by the determined opposition he offered
to any interference on the part of English bishops in the
affairs of the Scottish Church. He contrived by energy
and valour to subdue the turbidence of his kingdom;
specially noticeable are the promptness and vigour he dis-
played in suppressing the insurrection of Angus, grandson
of Lulach, a son of Macbeth's queen. He died at Stir-
ling, and, being childless, was succeeded by his Jirother
David I.
Alexander II., King of Scotland, was born at Had-
dington in 1198 (died 1249), and succeeded his father,
William the Lion, in 1214. Though still young, he exhi-
bited the same prudence and firmness which marked his
whole conduct in life. He was excommunicated in 1216
for associating with the English barons in their opposition
to King John; but his prudence enabled him to recover
the good opinion of the pope, and placed hifh on the
best footing with the English king, Henry IIL, John's
successor. His fidelity to Henry was shown by the
assistance he rendered him in protecting, during Henry's
absence, in France, the northern borders of England, and
the friendUness of the kings was strengthened by the
marriage of Alexander to Henry's sister Joan (1221).
Joan died in 1238, and in May 1239 Alexander married
Mary de Coucy. In 1244 Henry marched against Scot-
land to force from Alexander the homage due to him for
the lands he held in the north of England, but in August
a peace was concluded at Newcastle. Like Alexander I.,
he was zealous in defence of the privileges of the Scottish
Church; and in 1222 he put to death 400 persons who
had been implicated in the murder of the bishop of
Caithness. While engaged in quelling an insurrection in
Argyleshire, he died of fever in the island of Kerrera in
1249.
Alexander III., King of Scotland, son of Alexander
IL by his second wife, Mary de Coucy, was born at Rox-
burgh on the 4th September 1241 (died 1286), and suc-
ceded to the throne on the death of his father in 1249.
The fact that in this case the succession of a minor was
unopposed is noteworthy, as showing that the hereditary
principle had now established itself. By a provision of
the treaty of Newcastle Alexander had been betrothed in
infancy to the daughter of the king of England, and it
suited Henry's policy to insist on an earl)'»^ fulfilment of
the contract. Notwithstanding the extreme youth of the
parties, the marriage was celebrated at York on the 25 th
December 1251. On this occasion Alexander is said by
Matthew Paris to have done homage 'for his estates in
England, and to have refused homage for his kingdom of
Scotland, on the ground that he had not consulted on the
matter with his proper advisers. The story, however,
seems inconsistent with Henry's policy at the time, and is
therefore questionable. With a king so young, in times
so unsettled, the hopes and efforts of contending factions
were naturally stimulated. At the commencement of his
reign Alexander was under the power of the Comyns, the
most influcnti.ll family among the Scottish nobility. A
rival party, under the leadership of Durward the justiciar,
was supported by England, and in 1254 succeeded in seizing
Edinburgh castle, and freeing the king and queen from the
domination of the Comyns. Meanwhile Henry had him-
self marched to Scotland with an army, and ia September
he met Alexander at Roxburgh. There a regency waB
arranged, from which the Comyns were entirely excluded.
In 1257, however, the latter regained their ascendancy,
and obtained possession of the person of the king, whom
they kept prisoner at Kinross and Stirhng. In the fol-
lowing year a new regency was formed, in which both the
opposing parties were represented, and the king was
liberated. In 1260 he and his queen paid a visit to the
court of England. While at Windsor the queen gave
birth to a daughter, Margaret, afterwards married to Eric
of Norway. An account of the invasion of Scotland in
1263 by Haco, king of Norway, and of the disastrous
defeat at Largs, belongs rather to the history of the
country than to the personal biography of the king. Three
years after the invasion, Magnus, king of Norway, ceded
to Alexander the Isle of Man and the Western Isles,
receiving in return a ransom of a thousand marks and an
annual rent of a hundred marks. The Orkney and Shet-
land islands stQl remained under the dominion of Norway.
Alexander was involved in a protracted and on the_ whole
successful struggle with the papal power for the independ-
ence of the Scottish Church. The chief matter in dispute
was the proper valuation of church lands for the purpose
of taxation. In connection with this, Boiamund or Bagi-
mond came from Rome in 1275 with a commission to draw
up the valution known as Bagimond's roU, which remained
the basis for the taxation of church lands down to the time
of the Reformation. The internal condition of the country
seems to have improved greatly during the latter years of
Alexander's reign. A wise and vigorous administration
ensured peace and consequent prosperity. The prospect of
Scotland was perhaps never brighter in all her early his-
tory than towards the close of his reign, but it was sud-
denly overcast. A series of calamities, following each other
in quick succession, left the nation at the mercy of its foea
within and without. In 1275 Alexander's wife died, and
a few years later he lost both his children. The succession
in the direct line was thus left to the precarious chance of
the single life of the infant princess knov/u in history as
the "Maid of Norway." In 1285 Alexander married
Joletta, daughter of the Count of Dreux. Any hope of
strengthening the Succession by this union was, however,
destroyed by the calamitous event of the following' year.
On the 12th March 1286 the king was killed by a fall
from his horse while riding on the coast of Fife opposite
Edinburgh. A spot near Kinghorn, known as the King's
Wud End, is pointed out as the scene of the tragical
event. The death of Alexander was a turning-point in
Scottish history. 'The national independence, which he
maintained so steadfastly against the insidious claims of
England, while avoiding an open rupture, was once more
placed in jeopardy. The popular estimate of the calamity
is well (expressed in the following lines, believed to be the
earhest specimen of Scotch poetry extant : —
*' Quhen Alysaader our kyng was dede,
'I'hat Scotland led in luve and le,
Awaye waa sons of ale and brede.
Of wyne and wax, of ganiyn and gU
Our gold was changj'd into lede.
Cryst, born into virgynyto,
Succour Scotland and remede,
'fhat stad ia ia Dcrplexyte."
ALEXANDER, Paulovich, Emperor of Russia — bom
on 28th December 1777, died 1825 — was the son of Paul,
afterwards emperor, by Maria, daughter of Prince Eugene
of WUrtembcrg. His early education was conducted undei
his excellent mother, and afterwards was carefully directed
by his grandmother, the Empress Catherine II., who'cult
492
ALEXANDER
fided its general Buperintendcnce to Frederick Cmsar do
La Harpe. On the assassination of his father Paul in
1801, Alexander succeeded to the Russian throne, lie
had been married in 1793 to the Princess Louisa Maria of
Baden, but the union nroved an onhaouy one, and liad no
issue.
The policy oi the young emperor was indicatcQ by his
concluding a peace with Britain, against which his futher
had declared war. In 1805 ho joined Austria and Sweden
in a coalition with Great Brit.iin against the preteubions
of Franco. The war that followed was di.'s.istrous to the
allies. The armies of Austria were totally defeated in a
succession of battles between the Cth and 13th October of
that year; and the combined Austrian and Russian armies,
under the two emperors, were defeated by Napoleon in the
great battle of Austerlitz on the 2d December. Austria
concluded a separate treaty of peace, and Alexander led
the remains of his army into his own dominions. Prussia,
wliich had injudiciously stood neutral while Franco was
humbling Austria and Russia, nushly engaged in ho.stilities
with Napoleon in 180C, while her aliics, the Ru.saiau3,
•vero still beyond the Vistula ; but the defeats at
Aucratadt and Jena laid Prussia prostrate ; and in the
succeeding year the battles of Eylau and Fricdland, in
which tho Russians were fairly beaten, led to the di-s-
memberment of Prussia, and tho treaty of Tilsit with
Russia. A few days after the last battle, Ale.tander and
Napoleon met on a raft anchored in the river Niemcn, and
agreed to the treaty, which was signed at TiLsit on Jidy 7.
l!y a secret article of this treaty Alexander was not only
to withdraw from his connection with Britain, but to
liecomo her enemy; and ha declared war against her on
tho 2Cth October.
Fur nearly five years Alexander appeared ' attached to
the alliance of France; but the privations of his subjects
by the interruption of the commerce with Engla-.d, and
the intolerable load of Napoleon's " Continental System,"
at length induced him to return to his old alliance, and to
declare war against France on March 19, 1812. On the
24th April ho left St Petersburg to join his armies on the
■v.j.-.t frontier of Lithuania. Napoleon ossembled the most
nun orous ^ud magnificent army th.at had ever been brought
el" *bor ill n><) lem times, augmented by the unwilling
levi>.'<. 01 I'lM^ ia auci AiLstrm, and entered Russia on the
25th Jane lbl2. The first encouuter was at Borodino,
where thcr:? was .i well-contested action, in which each
army eufTered tho loas of 25,000 men. The burning of
Moscow, and the subsequent retreat of Napoleon, during
which his anuy was all but anniliilated, are among the
bii-it known events of modem history.
In 1813 tho advancing Rus-sians were successively joined
by tho forces of PriLssia, Austria, and Sweden. Alexander
continued with the allied armies, and in particular was
present at tho battles of Dresden and Leipsie. Napoleon
had made wonderful exertions to repair his losses in
tho early part of 1814; but the victories of Wellington
in Spain, and his advance into the heart of France,
favoured tho progress of the aliics ; and on March 30,
1814, 150,000 men of the allied armies took possession of
Pari=i, which was entered next day by Alexander and the
king of Prussia.
After the deposition of Napoleon the allied sovereigns
visited England. By the treaty of Vienna, Alexander was
acknowledged king of Poland; but before the congress
of Vienna broke up, Napoleon had escaped from Elba,
and was enthusiastically received at Paris. The two
eastern emperors and the king of Prussia remained to-
gether until tho battle of Waterloo gave peace to Europe.
Ou the advance of the British, and Prussians to Paris, the
three .allied soverelens aeain made their entry into that
capital, where they concluded, on September 2G. the treaty
which has been designated l/ie l/o/i/ Allianct.
Alexander was hcuccfor^\ard chiefly occupied in the
intcriial administration of his vast dominions, which dor-
tainly improved more during the twenty-fivo years of his
reign than under any of his predecessors from the time of
Peter L Tho gradual abolition of the feudal servitude of
tho peasantry, begun by tho most enlightened of his jiro-
deccsaors, was continued under Alexander. Education,
.agriculture, manufactures, commerce, were also greatly
extended ; while literature and tho fine arts were liberally
encouraged. Ills di.sposilion has been re])re. 2ntcd by his
subjects as mild and merciful ; yet his influence in tlie
aflairs of Europe was not exerted in tho cause of public
liberty. But this could hardly bo expected from the
autocrat of an unmitigated despotism in his own terri-
tories. " He will, however, bear very favourable comparison
with any Rusaian soveicign, or even with any contem-
porary monarch.
Early in the winter of 1825 he left St Petersburg for
the last time on a tour of inspection of his southern pro-
vinces. About the middle of November ho was attacked
by a violent intermittent fever, which proved fat.al at
Taganrog on December 1, 1825. In foreign countries his
dc.-xth has been attributed to poison ; but this is refuted
by tho history of his disea.»e, and is very improbable, from
his great popularity with his countrymen. He- was suc-
ceeded, in accordance with a familv compact, by his second
brother Nicholas.
ALEXANDER JAROSLAWITZ NEVSKI, S.unt,
Grand Duke of Wladimir, second son of the Grand Duke
Jaroslaw II., was born at Wladimir in 1219, and died
14th November 12G3. Ho became prince of Novgorod
on the resignation of his father in 1239, his elder brother
having died. ^Vllile Batu IChan was sweeping with his
Tatars over tho south, tho Swedes, Danes, and Livonian
knights took advantage of this to oppress the north of
Russia ; Alexander accordingly directed his arms against
them, and gained a brilliant victory with his small army
on the 15th July 1240. His surname of Nevihi was
derived from this event, which took place near the Neva,
and in the vicinity of the modern St Petersburg. In a
second campaign in 1241 he was no less successful, and
drove his enemies out of Pleskow in Kiew. In a third
campaign he defeated them near lake Peipus (1242), and
forced the Livonian knights to sue for peace and retire from
tho district of P.^kow, which they had conquered a short
time before. On his father's death in 1247, a younger
brother (Andrew) opposed Alexander, and seized the
duchy of Wladimir; but in 1251 the latter was estab-
lished in his rights by the khan of Kaptchak, the district
which the Mongolian Batu had taken under his immediate
authority. He firmly opposed the proposal of Pope Inno-
cent rV. to unite the Greek with the Roman church. He
died at Gorodetz, 14th November 1263, on his return from
a visit to Kassimcow. Towards the close of his life ho is
said to have taken holy orders, but the tradition rests on
no sure basis. At his death the people universally spoke
of him as their father and protector, and afterwards
recorded his deeds in their songs, and honoured him as a
saint. Peter the Great, when founding St Petersburg,
erected a magnificent monastery to the east of the city in
honour of the victory won there by hjs great predecessor,
and created in 1722 one of the eight Russian orders, that
of jUexander NevskL The monastery is now one of the
wealthiest in Russia, and has, according to Eckhardt. a
yearly revenue of half a million silver roubles.
ALEXANDER, Aechibaid, D.D., a Presb3rterian divine
of America, was bom of a famDy, originally Scotch, in
Rockbridge county, Virginia, on the 17th April 1772 fdied
A L E — A L E
493
1851). After comploting his preliminary eaucation at
Timber Ridge, he came under the influence of the religious
movement knowii as the " great revival," and devoted
himself to the study of theology. Licensed to preach in
1791, he was engaged for seven years as an itinerant
missionary in liis native state, and acquired during this
period the facility of ■ extemporaneous speaking for which
he was remarkable. For a time president of Hampden
Sidney College, he resigned that position in 1807 to
become pastor of Pine Street church, Philadelphia. In
1810 the degree of doctor of divinity was conferred upon
him by the college of New Jersey, and in the following
year he was appointed first professor in the newly-estab-
lished Presbyterian theological seminary at Princeton. He
filled the chair until his death in 1851. Dr Alexander
wrote a considerable number of works in theology, which
have had a large circulation. Among these may be men-
tioned liis Outlines of the Evidences of Christianity (1823),
which has passed through several editions, and been trans-
lated into various languages; and his Treatise on the Canon
of the Old and New Testament (1826). He was also a
frequent contributor to the Biblical Repertory, edited by
Professor Hodge.
ALEXANDER, Joseph Addison, D.D., third son of
the preceding, one of the most eminent biblical scholars
of America, was born in Philadelphia in 1809 (died 1860).
He studied at New Jersey, devoting himself specially to
Hebrew and other Oriental languages. He graduated in
1826, and from 1830 to 1833 was adjunct professor of
ancient languages and literature in his alma mater. In
1838 he was appointed professor of biblical criticism and
ecclesiastical history in the theological seminary at Prince-
ton. He was transferred in 1852 to the chair of biblical
and ecclesiastical history, which he occupied till his death
in January 1860. Dr Alexander wrote several valuable
works in his own department, the most important being a
Translation of and Cof/imentary on the Psalms, a Critical
Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah, and a treatise on
[irimitive church government. He also contributed nume-
rous articles to the Biblical Repertory and the Princeton
Revietv. At the time of his death he was engaged along
with Dr Hodge in the preparation of a commentary on the
New Testament.
ALEXANDER, Sir William, earl of Stirling, poet.
The family of Alexander of Menstrie — i.e., of the poef>—
is of ancient lineage, " tracing its descent from Somerled,
lord of the Isles, in the reign of Malcolm IV., through a
misty Highland genealogy, to John, lord of the Isles, who
married the Princess Margaret, daughter of King Robert
II. Their son, Alexander, was father of Angus, who
founded the family of Macalister of Loup, and of Alex-
ander, who obtained from tlie Argyle family a grant of
the lands of Menstrie in Stirlingshire, and settled there —
his descendants assuming his christian name of Alexander
as their surname. The fifth in descent from this personage
was Alexander Alexander, whose successor was his son,
William Alexander, the poet " (Works : Introductory
Memoir, vol. i. p. ix., 1870). From his (rare) engraved
portrait, William was, it appears, aged 57 in 1637; so
that he must have been born (at Menstrie House, where
afterwards was bom Sir Ralph Abercromby) in 1580.
The grammar school of neighbouring Stirling probably
furnished his early education ; of his later, it is simply
known that he attended the university of Glasgow. On
leaving it lie proceeded on his travels with Archibald,
seventh earl of Argyle. It is supposed that it was during his
sojourn on the Continent ho composed his series of sonnets,
afterwards published under the title of Amora (1604).
Ho was tutor to the young earl. Upon his return he pro-
ceeded to court, and won for himself speedily a name as
a gentleman of parts and learning. The first of Lis
Monarchicke Tragedies had been published at Edinburgh
in 1603, viz., The Tragedie of Darivs, which, like his
Parendsis- to the Prince (1604), bore on the title-page
simply, "By WUliam Alexander of Menstrie." In 1604
he reprinted Darivs along with a new tragedy of Ccesar,
giving the two the afterwards more celebrated title of
Monarchicke Tragedies ■ — ultimately increased by The
Alexandraen and Julius Ccesar (1607). In 1607 he
describes himself as " William Alexander, gentleman of
the prince's privy chamber." King James was much taken
with him. He held his ofiSce with the prince of Wales until
his lamented death in 1612, on which he published his
Elegie on the Death of Prince Henrie (Edinburgh, 1612).
In 1612 he was made master of bequests, and knighted;
his title-page of the Elegie bearing to be by " Sir William
Alexander of Menstrie." In 1614 appeared his Doomesday ;
or, the Great Day of the Lord's Ivdgement (Edinburgh).
In 1621 (September 21) he received the most prodigious
"gift" ever bestowed on a subject, viz., "a gift and
grant" of Canada, inclusive of Nova Scotia, or Acadie,
and Newfoundland — a fact declarative of royal ignorance
of what the gift reaUy was. Yet was it subsequently
confirmed by Charles I. In 1624, Alexander, in relation
to his grant, published An Encouragement to Colonies —
twice at least reprinted (1625 and 1630). The gift and
grant belong to history rather than biography, and their
later results to the romance of the peerage and of law.
In 1626 he was appointed Secretary of State for Scotland,
and in 1630 created a peer, as Lord Alexander of Tulli-
body, and Viscount Stirling. In 1631 he was made na
extraordinary judge in the Court of Session. In 1632 he
built Argyle House, a quaint building, which remains
one of the "lions" of StirHng. In 1633 he was advanced
a step in the peerage, being created Earl of Stirling and
Viscount Canada; and in 1639 Earl of Dovan. In 1637
he collected his poetical works, and issued them as Recrea-
tions with the Mtises, "by William, Earle of SterUne," with
his portrait engraved by Marshall This folio did not
include either Avrora or the Psalms of King David (Oxford,
1631), although there seems little doubt that he, rather
than King James, was the main author of the latter. It,
however, first gave his second sacred poem (incomplete) of
Jonathan. He died in London on 12th February 1640,
and later his remains were transferred to Stirling. Lauded
by Sir Robert Ayton and William Drummond of Haw-
thoruden, the Earl of Stirling, nevertheless, soon fell out of
men's memories. The recent careful and beautiful edition
of his Poetical Works (3 vols.) ought to re\'ive his fame ;
for while there is too often a wearying wordiness, the
student-reader is rewarded with " full many a gem of
purest ray serene." His Doomesday has some grand things;
his Avrora suggests comparison with Sidney's Astrophel
and Stella. (Works as above; Laing's Baillie's Letters
and Journals, iii. 529; Drummond MSS., by Laing;
Hunter's MSS., in Brit. Museum.) (a. b. o.^
ALEXANDRETTA. See Scandekoon.
ALEXANDRIA, a city of Lower Egypt, and for a long
time its capital, was situated on the Mediterranean, 12
miles west of the Canopic mouth of the Nile, in 31° 11'
N. lat., and 29° 52' E. long. The ancient city was oblong
in form, with a length from east to west of 3 to 4, a breadth
from north to south of 1, and, according to Pliny, a circum-
ference of 15 miles. Lake Mareotis bathed its walls on
the south, and the Mediterranean on the north ; on the
west was the Necropolis, and on the east the Hippodrome.
The city was laid out in straight parallel streets, one of
which, about 200 feet wide, ran westward from the Canopic
gate to the Necropolis. This street was decorated with
magnificent houses, temples, and public buildings, and
494
ALEXANDRIA
was intersected by another of the samo breadth and magni-
ficence, running from south to north. Ancient Alexandria
was divided into three regions: (1.) The lUyio JuJaorum,
or the Jews' quarter, forming the north-cast portion of
the city. (2.) Jihacolis on the west, occupied chiefly by
Egyptians. Its principal building was the Serapeum, or
temple of Serapis, conUining an imago of the god, brought
probably from Pontus. A large part of the famous library
of Alexandria was placed in the Serapeum. (3. ) Sruc/ieum,
the Boyal or Greek quarter, forming the remaining and
most magnificent portion of the city In the Brucheum
were the chief public buOdings of Alexandria, the most
noted of which was the splendid palace of the Ptolemies,
on a peninsula called the Lochias, which stretched out
into the Mediterranean towards the east of the city ; the
library proper, and the museum, a sort of college, with a
dining -halj and lecture-rooms for the professors (see
Libraey); the Cifsarium, or temple of the Cxsars, where
divine honours were paid to the emperors ; and the
Dicasterium, or court of justice. An artificial mole, called
the Septastadium, nearly a mile in length, stretched from
the continent to the isle of Pharos. Between this mole
and the peninsula of Lochias was the greater harbour ; on
the other side of the mole was the harbour called Eunoslos,
or Safe Return. The two were connected with each
other by two breaks in the mole, crossed by two bridges,
which could be raised at pleasure. Within the harbour of
Eunostos was an artificial basin called Kihotos, i.e., the
Chest, communicating with lake Mareotis by a canal, from
which a separate arm stretched eastward to the Canopic
mouth of the Nile. On the eastern point of the island of
Pharos was the famous lighthouse, said to have been 400
feet high. It was begun by Ptolemy Soter, and finished
by his successor, Philadelphus. It cost 800 talents, which,
if Alexandrian, is equivalent to £2-18,000. In the time of
Diodorus Siculus (50 b,c.), the population of Alexandria
was estimated at 300,000 freemen, with crobably at least
as many slaves.
The city was founded by Alexander the Great 332 ac. ;
but the island of Pharos was from an early period a refuge
of Greek and Phoenician sea-rovers, a fact commemorated
in the name " Pirates' Bay," given to a deep indentation
OQ the north side of the island ; and on the mainland
was the little town of Rhacotis, subsequently incorporated
in the quarter of that name. The architect employed by
Alexander was the celebrated Dinocrates, who had acquired
a high reputation by rebuilding the temple of Diana at
Ephesus. The new city prospered greatly as a centre both
of conunerce and of learning, particularly during the reigns
of the earlier Ptolemies, to whose enUghtened liberality,
indeed, its liteiary importance was largely due. But the
later monarchs of the house of Lagus were mostly weak
and vicious men, under whom the city declined in influence.
In 80 B.C. Ptolr.my Alexander bequeathed his city to the
Romans ; but the bequest did not immediately take effect
owing to the civil convulsions in Italy, into which Alexandria
itself was eventually drawn, and it was not until 30 a a
that the city submitted to Augustus. It was by him made
an imperial city, governed by a prefect appointed by the
emperor, while the functions of the Alexandrian senate
were suspended, a state of matters which continued until
196 A.D., -when Severus restored its municipality.
Alexandria seems from this time to have regained its
old prosperity, becoming an important granary of Rome,
which, doubtless, was one of the chief reasons that induced
Augustus to place it directly under the imperial power.
In 215 A.r). the emperor Caracalla visited the citv ; and,
in order to repay some insulting satires that the inhabitants
had made upon him, he commanded his troops to put to
death all youths capable of bearing arms. This brutal
order eecms to have been exrried i/Ut even beyond the
letter, for a general massacre was tno result. Notwith-
standing this terrible disaster, Alexandria soon recovered
its former splendour, and for a time was esteemed the
first city in the world after Rome. As the power of the
Cxsars decreased, however, their hold over Alexandria was
weakened, and the city itself sufl'ered from internal com-
motions and insurrections, which gradually destroyed its
importance. In CIC it was taken by Chosroes, king of
Persia ; and in CIO by the Arabians, under Amru, after
a siege that lasted fourteen months, during which Ilerac-
lius, the emperor of Constantmoi)le, did not send a single
ship to its assistance. Notwithstanding the losses that the
city had sustained, Amru was able to write to his master,
the caliph Omar, that he had taken a city containing " 4000
palaces, 4000 bUhs, 12,000 dealers in fresh oil, 12,000
gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 theatres or
jjlaces of amusement" The following story, relating to the
destruction of the library, is told by Abul/aragius ; — John
the Grammarian, a famous Peripatetic philosopher, being
in Alexandria at the time of its capture, and in high
favour with Amru, begged that he would give him the
royal library. Amru told him that it was not in his power
to grant such a request, but promised to write to the
caliph for his consent. Omar, on hearing the request of
his general, is said to have replied that if those books
contained the same doctrine witli the Koran, they could
be of no use, since the Koran contained all necessary
truths ; but if they contained anything contrary to that
book, they ought to be destroyed; and therefore, what-
ever their contents were, he ordered them to be burnt
Pursuant to tliis order, they were distributed among the
public baths, of which there was a large number in the city,
where, for six months, they served to supply the fires.
Shortly after its capture, Alexandria again fell into the
hands of the Greeks, who took advanUgo of Amru's
absence with the greater portion of his army. On hearing
what had happened, however, Amru returned, and quickly
regained possession of the city. About the year C4G
Amru was deprived of his government by the caliph Oth-
maiL The Egyptians, by whom Amru was greatly beloved,
were so much dissatisfied by this act, and even showed
such a tendency to revolt, that Constantine, the Greek
emperor, determined to make an efl'urt to reduce Alex-
andria. The attempt proved perfectly successful, Manuel,
Constantine's general, capturing the city with inconsider-
able loss. The caliph, perceiving his mistake, immediately
cestored Amru, who, on his arrival in Egypt, drove the
Greeks within the walls of Alexandria, but was only able
to capture the city after a most obstinate resistance by the
defenders. This so exasperated him that he completely
demolished its fortifications, although ho seems to have
spared the lives of the inhabitants as far as lay in his
power. Alexandria now rapidly declined in importance.
It was captured by Andalusian adventurers in 823 ; by
the Moghrebins in 924, and again in 928. The building
of Cairo in 969, and, above all, the discovery of the route
to the East by the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, nearly
ruined its commerce; and after this we hear little of the
city until the beginning o'f the present century.
Alexandeia, the modem city, stands partly on wnat
was the island of Pharos, now a peninsula, but mostly on
the isthmus by which it is connected with the mainland.
This was originally an artificial dyke connecting the
island with the land opjxjsite ; but. through the constant
accumulation of soil and rains, it has attained its present
dimensions. The principal public and government build-
ings are on the peninsula. The ancient city was situated
on the mainland, adjacent to the modem town, and the
extent of the ruins that still exist suflicicntly attests ita
ALEXANDRIA
4di
greatness. Tha general appearance of AJexandna is by
no means striking; and from its situation its environs are
sandy, flat, and sterile. It was formerly surrounded by
strong turreted walls, with extensive outworks, but in
various parts the walk have Utely been destroyed to make
way for improvements. In the Turkish quarter the
streets are narrow, irregular, and filthy, and the houses
mean and ill-buUt. The Frank quarter, on the other
hand, presents the appearance of a European town, having
handsome streets and squares, and excellent shops. The
streets have been much improved lately by being nearly
all paved. The principal hotels, shops, and offices are
situated in the Great Square, the centre of which forms a
very agreeable promenade, being planted with trees, and
well provided with seats. It has also a fountain at each
end. In the suburbs are numerous handsome villas, with
pleasant gardens. Among the principal public buildings
are the palace of the pasha, the naval arsenal, the naval
and mUitarj' hospitals, custom-bouse, bourse, two theatres,
several mosques, churches, coni ents, &c. There is an im-
portant naval school, and a number of other educational
institutions. Among the charities worthy of mention is
the hospital of the Deaconesses of Kaisersworth. Formerly
the town was supplied with water by means of the ancient
reservoirs formed under the old city, which are in many
cases as perfect now as when first made, 2000 years
ago. These were annually filled with water by means of
the canal from the Nile, at the time of inundation; but a
system of water-works has been formed by a public com-
pany, and a constant supply of water is now obtained from
the canal at some distance from the town. The principal
streets, squares, and railway stations, are lighted with gas.
Few of the remains of the ancient city are now visible.
Most of those that were to be seen a few years ago have
since disappeared, but frequently in making excavations
portions of ancient masonry, broken columns, and frag-
ments of etatuss are discovered. Among the best known
of the ancient relics are the two obelisks commonly called
" Cleopatra's Needles." They were originally brought
from Heliopolis to Alexandria in the reign of Tiberius,
and were set up in front of the temple of Ca;sar. They
are of red granite, and covered with hieroglyphics.
.One is still standing, and is 71 feet high and 7 feet 7
Laches in diameter at the base. The other, which is folloa
and covered with debris, is in a lesa perfect state, and not
quite so long as the former. It was offered to the English
government by Mehemet Ali, but after some consideration
was declined. Near the obelisks are the ruins of an old
round tower, commonly called the " Roman Tower." But
the most striking of the ancient monuments is the column
styled " Pompe/s Pillar." It stands on a mound of earth
about 40 feet high, and has a height of 98 feet 9 inches.
The shaft consists of a single piece of red granite, and is
73 feet long and 29 feet 8 inches in circumference. Tha
capital is Corinthian, 9 feet high, and the base is a square
of about 15 feet on each side. From an inscription it ■
appears to have been erected in honour of the emperor
Diocletian, and it was formerly surmounted by a statue of
that monarch. To the S.W. of the city are the catacombs,
which served for the burial of the dead, and are formed by
excavations in the calcareous rock of which the shore is
composed. They are of great extent, and one of the
chambers is remarkable for its elegance. The climate oi
Alexandria is mOd and salubrious. The heats of summer
are modified by the N.W. winds from the sea, which prevail
during nine months of the year, the thermometer seldom
rising above 85° Fahr. In winter a good deal of rain falls,
and throughout the year the atmosphere is generally moist,
being saturated with a saline vapour from the sea.
Alexandria has been mainly indebted. for its prosperity
to the advantages of its position for trade. It was this
that first attracted the attention of its far-seeing founder
to the site, and its subsequent history in no way belied his
penetration. It soon rose to be the most important com-
mercial city in the world, and the great emporium of trade
between Europe and the East. Subsequently its fortunes
fluctuated with those of its possessors, but the great blow
to its prosperity was the discovery of the route to India by
the Cape of Good Hope, and under the Turks it sank into
insignificance, numbering only about 6000 inhabitants.
Soon after Mehemet Ali became ruler of Egypt he turned
his attention to the restoration of Alexandria. One of the
most important works that he affected with this view wa'j
the opening of the Mahmoudieh Canal in 1820. This wa3
accomplished at a cost of about £300,000, and, for want of
p-oper management, at a melancholy loss of human life.
I.", ia about 50 miles in length, with an average width of
about 100 feet, and communicates with the Kosetta branch
of the Nile at the viUago of Atfeh, Since Alexandria
became the centre of the steam communication between
Europe and Indo, and the principal station on the Over-
land Route, its progress has been rapid. It has now regular
communication with England, Marseilles, Brindisi, Con-
stantinople, <tc. In 1851 Mr Stephenson was instructed
to form a railway between Alexandria and Cairo, which
was accomplished, and the line opened for traffic, in 1850.
This was shortly afterwards extended to Suez, and several
extensions have since been made to the cotton districts of
the Delta, A short line of railway (not belonging to tho
government) connects the town with Ramleh, a sea-bathing
village about 7 miles distant
Alexandria has two ports, an eastern and a western.
Tho latter, called also the Old Port, is by far the larger
and better of the two. It extends from the town vrest-
ward to Marabout, nearly G nules, and is about a mile and
a-half in width. It has three principal entrances. The
first, or that nearest tho city, has about 17 feet of water,
but is narrow and diificult of access, and only used by
small vessels and boats. The second or middle, which is
also the principal entrance, is about a quarter of a mile
wide, and has, where shallowest, 27 feet of water. The
eastern side of this entrance is marked by buoys, and there
are landmarks for guiding to tho channel. Tho third or
western entrance has its western boundary about thrc^
496
A L E — A L E
eighths of a milfc from Marabout Island, is about half a
mile wide, aiid has from 26 to 27 feet of wutor whuro
ehallowest Within the harbour Bhijjs may anchor cluse
to the town in from 22 to 40 feet of water. Further im-
provements, in course of construction by a firm of English
contractors (at a cost to the Egyptian govomment of little
short of two millions sterling), will eventually render this
one of the finest and most capacious harbours on the Medi-
terranean. Among these arc the formation of a breakwater,
extending in a south-westerly direction parallel to the
shore for 2550 yards south-west of the lighthouse on Cape
Eunostos ; a molo, spriupng from the shore, and extending
in a northerly direction for 1 100 yards, and having a width
of about 100 feet; and the construction of nearly 3 miles
of quays and wharves, for Vessels of the largest size, and
with railway connection. The foundation-stone of the
breakwater was laid by the viceroy on 15th May 1871.
The area of deep water, 30 feet and upwards, enclosed
within the outer breakwater, is 1400 acres; the area of
28 feet of water, enclosed by the harbour mole, will be
177 acres. The workshops of the company are at the
quarries of Mex, about 3 miles west of the town. In
the harbour is a magnificent floating dock, nearly 600
feet long and 100 feet broad. The old lighthouse, on
the site of the ancient Pharos, having been found insuffi-
cient, a new lighthouse has been erected on Ras-el-teen
(1842), bearing a one-minute revolving light, visible at a.
distance of 20 miles. The eastern or new port, formerly
the only port open to Christians, is now little used, being
Oxposed to the northerly gales, and having very limited
space for anchorage.
In 1861 the total value of the exports wa« £2,638,822; and in
1871 this had risen to £10,251,608, of which £7,706,442 was to
England. Tlie value of the imports for the latter year was
£5,753,020, of which £2,468,026 was from England. The piiji-
cipal articles of export were cotton (£6,402,756), cotton seed
(£1,008,278), beans (£753,462), corn (£673,766), sugar (£379,456),
gums (£307,932), coffee (£122,110), ivory, wool, linseed, senna,
and other drugs. The principal articles of import were manufac-
tnred goods (£1,695,870), wvl (£307,495), oils (£251,168), wines
and liqueurs (£239,944), raw silk, fruits. During that year there
•ntcred 1841 sailing vessels and 883 steam vessels with cargoes,
and 143 sailing vessels and 54 steam vessels in ballast; and there
left 1085 sailing vessels and 843 steam vessels with cargoes, and
797 sailing vessels and 62 steam vessels in ballast. The total
tonnage of the vessels that entered was 1,262,602; and that left,
1,267,381. The opening of the Suez Canal will no doubt serve to
withdraw a portion of the trafilc from Alexandria, but the improve-
ments that are now being made on its harbour, and its direct rail-
way communication with Suez, must still give it certain advantages
over the other route, while it must continue to be the great emporium
for the rapidly extending trade of Egypt itselt
The population of Alexandria is of a veiy mixed cha-
racter, consisting, besides the native Turks and Arabs, of
Armenians, Greeks, Syrians, Italians, French, English,
Germans, &c. At one time the ancient city is believed to
have contained 600,000 inhabitants; but at the beginning
of this century the number probably did not exceed
6000. In 1825 this had increased to 16,000, in 1840 to
60,000, and in 1871 to 219,602, of whori 53.829 were
foreigners.
ALEXANDRIA, a town of Scotland, in the pariah of
Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, pleasantly situated on the west
bank of tne river Leven, about 3 miles from Dumbarton,
with which it is connected by a branch railway. It is a
place of comparatively recent growth, owing its origin
G.iiiost entirely to the cotton print and bleaching works of
the vicLoity, for which there is an abundant supply of
excellent water. Pdpulation (1871), 4660.
ALEXAirDRIA, a town and port of entry of the United
ijtates, capital of Alexandria county, Virginia, is beautifully
aitvmted on the right bank of the Potomac, 7 miles below
Washington. It is neat and well-boilt, with a good har-
bour, and exports considerable quantities of grain and fioiir ;
but its foreign trade has decreased. The Chesapeake and
Ohio canal begins here, and the town is connected with
Washington by railway. Popuktion (1870), 13,570.
ALEXANDRIAN MS. (Codtx AUxandrinta), the namf
given to a Greek manuscript of the Old and New Testa-
ments, now in the British Museum. This celebrated
MS. ia known to biblical scholars as Codex A. This
abbreviation of Alexandrinus was first employed by Uishop
Walton to indicate the various readings of this MS., aj>
pended to the text of the Septuagint and of the New
Testament in his great Polyglott Bible, and was adopted
by Wetstein in conformity with an arrangement, since fol-
lowed by all editona of the Septuagint and Greek Testa-
ment, by which the capital letters of the alphabet are
applied to designate the uncial MSS. of the Greek Bible.
The MS. was presented in the year 1628 to King Charles
L through his ambassador at the Porte, Sir Thomas Rowe,
by Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople. There
seems no good reason to doubt that Cyrillus had brought
the document from Alexandria, where he had held the
office of patriarch, although Wetstein is of opinion, upon
what seems inadequate evidence, that he procured it from
the monastery of Mount Athos, where he had resided prior
to his coming to Alexandria. It was transferred in 1753
from the king's private library to that of our national
museum, where the volume containing the text of the New
Testament is now, or was lately, open to public inspection
under a glass case. The entire MS. consists of four small
folio volumes, three of which contain the text of the Old,
and one that of the New Testament. The portion, how-
ever, containing the Old Testament is more complete than
that which contains the New, the tacunm in the former
occurring chiefly in the book of Psalms ; while in the New
Testament the following portions are wanting — viz., the
whole of Matthew's Gospel up to chap. xxv. 6, from John
vi 50 to viii 52, and from 2 Cor. iv. 13 to xiL 6. Occa-
sionally, also, single letters, as well as the titles of certain
divisions, have been destroyed by the operations of the
bookbinder. The material of which the MS. is composed
is very thin vellum, the page being about 13 inches high
by 10 broad, containing from 50 to 52 lines in each page,
each line consisting of about 20 letters. The number of
pages is 773, of which 610 are occupied with the text of
the Old Testament, and 1 33 with that of the New. The
characters are uncial, but larger than in the Vatican MS.
B. There are no accents or breathings, no spaces between
the letters or words save at the end of a paragraph; and
the contractions, which are not numerous, are only such as
are found in the oldest MSS., and are indicated by a Hne
drawn over the word which is abbreviated, as ©2 for
©COS. "The punctuation consists of a point placed at the
end of a sentence, usually on a level with the top of the
preceding letter. As regards the date of the MS. very
opposite opinions have been held. One critic placed it as
low down as the 10th century, but this supposition has
been justly characterised by Trcgelles as so opposed to aU
that is known of palaeography as not to deserve a serious
refutation. From tie circumstance that the MS. does not
exhibit any traces of stichonietry — a mode of arranging the
text in lines consisting of a larger or smaller number of
words, at the end of which the reader waS to pause,
which was applied to the Pauline epistles by Euthalius of
Alexandria in the year 458, and which soon came into
general use — it has been inferred that the MS. is not of
later date than the middle of the 6th century. Again, the
presence, in the text of the Gospels of the Ammonian
sections and Eusebian canons, and of the epistle of
Athanasius (who died in 373) to Marcellinus, which is
prefixed to the Psalms, dicwa that it could not be oldes
ALEXANDRIAN MS.
497
thnn tlie end of the 4th century. In addition to this
external testimony, pala30graphic reasons, Such as the
general style of the writing, and the formation of certain
letters, would seem to refer the MS. to about the middle of
the 5th century, and this date is now generally acquiesced
in by scholars. There is an Arabic inscription, indeed,
written on the Jiage which contains the list of the various
bonks of the Old and New Testament, which states that
the MS. was written by the hand of the martyr Thecla,
while a Latin inscription by Cyril himself gives the tradi-
tion that the Thecla who wrote the MS. was a noble
Egj-ptian lady who lived shortly after the Council of Nice.
No reliance, however, can be placed on these statements,
for, according to Scrivener,
"TrcgcUos exjtlains the on^an of the Arabic inscription on ii-hich
Cyril's btaleraeiit ap]icar3 to rest, by romarlcing that the New
Testament iu our MS. at present commences with Matt. xxv. 6,
tins lesson (llatt. xxv. 1-13) being that appointed by the Greek
Church for the fcslivol of St Thecla. Tlie Egyptian, therefore, who
n-roto this Arabic note, observing the name of Tliecla in the now
ninlilated upper margin of the codex, where siicli nibrical notes are
commonly placed by later hands, hastily concluded that she wrote
the book, and thus has perplexed our biblical critics. It is hardly
too much to say that Tvugelles's shrewd conjecture seems to be cer-
tain, almost to demonstration."
This MS. contains the last twelve verses of St Mark's
Gospel. It is defective in that part of St John's Gospel
where the pericopo adidterce occurs in the ordinary text,
but Scrivener shows by an enumeration of the letters
in each page that the two missing leaves did not contain
the suspected passage. It is almost unnecessary to say
that 1 John v. 7 is not found in this or in any uncial MS.
of the New Testament. The reading of the MS. in
1 Tim. iiL 16 has given rise to a good deal of discussion.
Woide in his fac-simile edition gave the reading 02 for
0EO2. The element of uncertainty was whether the cross
bar of the theta had not been added by a later hand, so that
the original reading may have been OS. Bishop EUicott
carefully examined the passage with the aid of a strong
lens, and the result of his investigation, as given in a note
appended to his Critical Commentary on First Timothy, in
his edition of the Pastoral Epistles, was to satisfy him
that the original reading was o?, the cross bar of the theta
having arisen from the central line of e in the word
eva-cfie!a, which is directly opposite, shining through the
leaf, and being mistaken by a scribe for part of the theta,
and being touched up accordingly, — a view which was
maintained by Wetsteiu. On the other hand, both Tregelles
and Scrivener, who made the same investigation, are of
opinion that the stroke of the cpsilon cuts the theta much
too high to bo mistaken by any ordinary scribe for the
cross bar of the theta. When critics of such distinguished
reputation differ, the question of the original reading will
probably remain for ever uncerlaiji.
The first use that was made of the M.S. for critical
purposes was by Bishop Walton, who had the various read-
ings which it presents inserted in liis gieat Polyglott Bible,
under the texts of the Septuagint and New Testament
respectively. It was collated by both Mill and Wetstein
for their editions of the Greek Testament. In 17SG the
N'ew Testament was published in a fac-simile edition, by
Dr Woide, at that time librarian to the British Museum:
'.he types of this edition were cut so as to represent the
general appearance of the letters; and the edition exhibits
the MS. page tor page, line for line, and letter for letter.
The work was accompanied by valuable prolegomena on
the history, ago, &c., of the MS.; and is allowed to have
been executed with remarkable accuracy. In 1S28 the
r>ev. H. II. Baber completed the publication of the Old
Testament portion in three largo folio volumes (1810-1828)
also in fac-simile, with useful prolegomena and notes.
Tischendorf considers the editorial accuracy of Baber a.i
inferior to that of Woide, and enumerates a number of
instances where the readings of the original have been
incorrectly given by Baber (Prolegomena to Tischendorf's
4th ed. of the Septuagint, p. 69, sq.) In 1860 the text
of the New Testament was published in common type by
B. H. Cowper, the defective portions being supplied from
Kiister's edition of Mill's Greek Testament, and some
inaccuracies in Woide's edition corrected from the original.
In 1864 there was published at Oxford, under the editor-
ship of Mr Hansell, the text of the Codex Alexandrinus,
along with that of three of the most ancient MSS., viz.,
Codd. B, C, D, with the Dublin Cod. 7i, and a collation of
the Cod. Sinaiticiis. The work is arranged in parallel
columns, and thus presents, at one view, the readings of
four of our earliest authorities for the text of the New
Testament. (f. c.)
For more minute information regarding this MS. we refer to the
prolegomena of Woide and Baber; to Scrivener's Introduction to ths
Criticism of the New Testament, Cambridge, 1861 ; to the fourth
volume of Homo's Introduction to tlie New Tcstatiunt, by Tregelles,
London, 1866; and to Davidson's Biblical Criticism, vol. ii., Edin-
burgh, 1852. We subjoin a list of the books of the Old and New
Testament in the order in which they are found in the MS. : —
Peyeirij Kocriiov Genesis.
E^oSoj AtyvTTOv ...I'.xodus.
^(vtTiKoif Leviticus.
A/JI0/XOI Numbers.
£,fvT€poyofiiov Deuteronomy.
I.jffoyi NauTj Josliua, son of
Nun.
KpiTot Judges.
Pau$ Ruth.
Tom. L
' BatTiXt icav a Samuel I.
Kings I.;
BaaiKfioiv B' Samuel IL (or
Kings II.)
BatrtKeitiii/ 7'. ..Kings L (or 111.)
BatriKetuv 5'. ..Kings II. (or IV.)
Tlapa\( tirofitywy o' Chronicles J
X\apa\enrou.fy(iiv ^ Chronicles 1 1
^OM. II.
ncrijt Hosca.
A/1W5 Amos.
Mixaios Micah.
lwV7\ Joel.
A55€(ou .' Obadiah.
\itivat Jonah.
Naoi/;i Nahum.
A/^BaKOv/x H abakkuk.
2o(povta^ Zephaniah.
A77ai(js Haggai.
Zaxaptas Zccliaiiah.
Ma\axias ilalachi.
Haains Isaiah,
lepi^tas Jeremiah.
Bapovx Barueh.
Qpnvoi Lamentations.
ZiniTToKri Ifpe/ifou Epistle of Jere
mi.ah.
l^(fKtr]\ Ezekiel.
Aaf(7j\ Daniel.
Ead-qp Esther.
Tai/3iT Tobit.
lovS€t8 Judith.
Zcopas a Esdras I.
EaSpai B' Esdraa II., in-
cluding Nfefita, and part of
the canonical Book of Ezra.
MaKKaBaiaiv a Maccabees I.
MaHicaBaiafv 0' Maccabees IL
MaKKuBatwv y Jilaccabees 111
Mo«icay3ai«i' 5" Maccabees IV.
Tom. in.
AfiarafTioy EitkttoXt; Epistle of Athanasius to Marcclllnus or
tlie Psalms.
Ei/Te3ioii TiroSrjrfi! (si'c) ,. Ilypolhesfs of Euscbius on the I^alms.
^aXxTipiov ixfT CiZwv Psalms 151, Hymns 15.
Ia./3 Job.
Uapaifxia Proverbs.
EKK\T)tria(rTTiy Ecclesiastcs,
Atr^o AtT^aToiv Canticles.
Stxjxa ZoKonuvTii Wisdom of Solomon.
^o<pta IrifTov viov 'S.tpax Ecclesiasticus, or Wisdom of Jesus, son
of Sirach.
CvayyiXtov Hara VlarOaiov
^yayye\iov Kara VlapKov..
^uayyfXiov Kara AovKav .
E.vayyt\tov Kara la/ayyijv
npa^eir AtrocroAuv
ETri(7To\ai KaOo\tKat (' ..
ZirtffToXat TTauAou iB',,,,
AfroKaAi/t^ir luafyov
KAij^CfTol EttkttoXij a'..
KVij^ffToi ExkttoAti B' .
^oA/ioi SoAo/i&ifTos ri'...
Tom. 17.
Matthew.
Hark.
Luke.
John.
Acts of tho Apostles.
.Seven Catholic Enistlca,
2 of Peter, 3 of John, i
Fourteen Epistles of Paul
.Revelation of John.
Ist Epistle of Clement to the Covinthinni
,2d Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians.
Eight Psalms of Solomon.
I. - 63
, viz. , 1 of Jdinen
and 1 of Judc.
498
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL
ALKXANDKIAN SCHOOL. Under this title are
generally included certain strongly-marked tendencies in
literature and science which took their rise in the city o(
Alexandria. That city, founded by iUcxander the G-rcat
about the time when Greece, in losing her national inde-
pendence, lost also her intellectual supremacy, was in every
way admirably adapted for becoming the new centre of the
world's activity and thought. Its situation brought it into
commercial relations with all the nations lying around the
Mediterranean, and at the same time rendered it the one
communicating link with the wealth and civilisation of the
East. The great natural advantages it thus enjoyed
were artificially increased to an enormous extent by the
care of the sovereigns of Egypt. Ptolemy Soter (reigned
306-285 B.C.), to whom, in the general distribution of
Alexander's conquests, this kingdom had fallen, began to
draw around him from various parts of Greece a circle of
men eminent in literature and philosophy. To these ho
gave every facility for the prosecution of their learned
researches. Under the inspiration of his friend Demetrius
Phalercus, the Athenian orator, this Ptolemy laid the
foundations of the great library, and originated the keen
search for all wTitten works, which resulted in the forma-
tion of a collection such as the world has seldom seen,
lie also built, for the convenience of his men of letters,
the Museum, in which, maintained by the royal bounty,
they resided, studied, and taught. This Museum or academy
of science was in many respects not unlike a modem univer-
sity. The work thus begun by Ptolemy Soter was carried
on vigorously by his descendants, in particular by his two
immediate successors, Ptolemy Philadelphus and Ptolemy
EuergetCs. Philadelphus (28.5-247 B.C.), whose librarian
was the celebrated Callimaclnis, bought up all Aristotle's
collection of books, and also introduced a number of Jewish
and Egyptian works. Among these appears to have been
a portion of the Septuagint. Euergetcs, (247-222 B.C.)
largely increased the library by seizing on the original
editions of the dramatists laid up in the Athenian archives,
and by compelling all travellers who arrived in Alexandria
to leave a copy of any work they possessed.
The intellectual movement so originated extended over
a long period of years. If wo date its rise from the 4th
century B.C., at the time of the fall of Greece and the
fotindation of the GroDco-Maccdonian empire, we must look
for its final dissolution in the 7th century of the Christian
era, at the time of the fall of Alexandria and the rise of
the Mahometan power. Eut this very long period falls into
two divisions. The first, extending from about 306 B.C.
to about 30 B.C., includes the time from the foundation of
the Ptolemaic dynasty to its final subjugation by the
Romans; the second extends from 30 B.C. to 640 A.D.
The characteristic features of these divisions are very clearly
marked, and their difference affords an explanation of the
variety <ind vagueness of meaning attaching to the term
Alexandrian School. In the first of the two periods the
intellectual activity was of a purely literary and scientific
nature. It was an attempt to continue and develop, under
new conditions, the old Hellenic culture. This direction
of effort was particularly noticeable under the early Ptole-
mies, Alexandria being then almost the only home in the
world for pure literature. During the last century and a
half before the Christian era, the school, as it might be
called, began to break up and to lose its individuality.
This was due partly to the state of government under some
of the later Ptolemies, partly to the formation- of new lite-
rary circles in Rhodes, Syria, &c., whose supporters, though
retaining the Alexandrian peculiarities, could scarcely be
included in the Alexandrian school. The loss of active
life, consequent on this gradual dissolution, was much in-
creased when Alexandria feU under Roman sway. Then
the influence ot the Bchool was extended over the whole
known world, but men of letters began to concentrate at
Rome rather than at Alexandria. In that city, however,
there were new forces in operation which produced a
second grand outburst of intellectual life. The new move-
ment was not in the old direction — had, indeed, nothing
in common with it. With its character largely determined
by Jewish elements, and even more by contact with the
dogmas of Christianity, this second Alexandrian school
resulted in the speculative philosophy of the Nco-Platonists
and the religious philosophy of the Gnostics and early
church fathers.
There appear, therefore, to be at least two definite signi-
fications of the title Alexandrian School; or rather, there
are two Alexandrian schools, distinct both chronologically
and in substance. The one is the Alexandrian school of
poetry and science, the other the Alexandrian school of
philosophy. As regards the use of the word " school" to
denote these movements, it must bo observed that the term
is misleading It has not the same meaning as when
applied to the Academics or Peripatetics, the Stoics o»
Epicureans. These consisted of a company united by
holding in common certain speculative principles, by having
the same theory of things. There was nothing at all cor-
responding to this among the Alexandrians. In literature
their activities were directed to the most diverse objects;
they have only in common a certain spirit or form.
There was among them no definite system of philosophy.
Even in the later schools of philosophy proper there is
found a community rather of tendency than of definite
result or of fixed principles..
Alexandrian School of Literature. — The general character
of the literature of the school appears as the necessary con-
sequence of the state of affairs brought about by the fall
of Greek nationality and independence. The great works
of the Greek mind had formerly been the products of a
fresh life of nature and perfect freedom of thought. All
their hymns, epics, and histories were bound up with their
individuality as a free people. But the Macedonian con-
quest at Chffironea brought about a complete dissolution of
this Greek life in all its relations, private and political.
The full, genial spirit of Greek thought vanished when
freedom was lost, with which it was inseparably united.
A substitute for this originality was found at Alexandria in
learned research, extended and multifarious knowledge.
Amply provided with means for acquiring information, and
under the watchful care of a great monarch, the Alexan-
drians readily took this new direction in literature. With
all the great objects removed which could excite a true
spirit of poetry, they devoted themselves to minute
researches in all sciences subordinate to literature proper.
They studied criticism, grammar, prosody and metre,
antiquities and mythology. The results of this study
constantly appear in their productions. Their works are
never national, never addressed to a people, but to a circle
of learned men. Moreover, the very fact of being under
the protection, and, as it were, in the pay of an absolute
monarch, was damaging to the character of their literature.
There was introduced into it a courtly element, clear traces
of which, with all its accompaniments, are found in the
extant works of the school One-other fact, not to be for-
gotten in forming a general estimate of the literary value
of their productions, is, that .the same writer was frequently
or almost always distinguished in several special sciences.
The most renowned poets were at the same time men of
culture and science, critics, archaeologists, astronomers, or
physicians. To such writers the poetical form was merely
a convenient vehicle for the exposition of science.
The forms of poetical composition chiefly culrivated by
the Alexandrians were epic and lyric or elegiac. Great
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL
49^
apic3 arc wanting; but in their place, as might almost have
been expected, are found the historical and the didactic or
expository epics. The subjects of the historical epics were
generally some of the well-known mytlis, in the exposition
of which the writer could exMbit the full extent of his
learning and his perfect command of verse. These poems
are in a sense valuable as repertories of antiquities ; but
their style is on the whole bad, and infinite patience is
required to clear up their numerous and obscure allusions.
The best extant specimen is the Argonautica of ApoUonius
Khodius; the most characteristic is the Alexandra or Cas-
sandra of Lycophron. the obscurity of which is almost
proverbial.
The subjects of didactic epics were very numerous ; they
suum to have depended on the special knowledge possessed
by the writers, why used verse as a form for unfolding
their information. Some, e.g., the lost poem of Callimachus,
called AiTia, were ou the origin of myths and religious
observances; others were on special sciences. Thus we
have two poems of Aratus, who, though not resident at
Alexandria, was so thoroughly imbued with the Alexan-
drian spirit as to be with reason included in the school ;
the one is an essay on astronomy, the other an account of
the signs of the weather. Nicander of Colophon has also
left us two epics, one on remedies for poisons, the other on
the bites of venomous beasts. Of many other epic poets
only the names are known, as Dicaearchusf Euphorion,
Rhianus, Dionysius, Oppianus. The spirit of all their
productions is the same, that of learned research. They
are distinguished by artistic form, purity of expression,
and strict attention to the laws of metre and prosody,
qualities which, however good in themselves, do not com-
pensate for want of originality, freshness, and power.
In their lyric and elegiac poetry there is much worthy
of admiration. The specimens we possess are not devoid
of talent or of a certain happy art of expression. Yet, for
the most part they either relate to objects thoroughly
incapable of poetic treatment, where the writer's endeavour
is rather to expuuud the matter fully than to render it
poetically beautiful, or else expend themselves on short
isolated subjects, generally myths, and are erotic in cha-
racter. The earliest of the elegiac poets was PhUetas, the
sweet singer of Cos. But the most distinguished was Calli-
machus, undoubtedly the greatest of the Alexandrian
poets. Of his numerous works there remain to ua only
a few hymns, epigrams, and fragments of elegies. Other
lyric poets were Phanocles, Hermesianax, Alexander of
.^tolia, and Lycophron.
Sumo of the best productions of the school were their
epigrams. Of these we have several specimens, and the
art of composing them seems to have been assiduously
cultivated, as might naturally bo expected from the court
life of the poets, and their constant endeavours after terse-
ness and neatness of expression. Of kindred character
were the parodies and satirical poems, of which the best
examples were the 2t\Xoi of Timon.
Dramatic poetry appears to have fiourisned to some extent.
There are still extant three or four varying lists of the seven
groat dramatists who composed the Pleiad of Alexandria.
Their works, perhaps not unfortunately, have perished. A
ruder kind of drama, the amcebaean verse, or bucolic mime,
developed into the only pure stream of genial poetry found
in the Alexandrian School, the Idylls of Theocritus. The
name of those poems preserves theii' original idea; thev
were pictures of fresh country life.
The most interesting fact connected with this Alexan-
drian poetry is the powerful influence it exercised on
Roman literature. That literature, cspecLilly in the
Augustan ago, is not to bo thoroughly understood without
due appreciation of the character of the Alexandrian School
Before the Alexandrians had begun to produce original
works, their researches were directed towards the master-
pieces of ancient Greek literature. If that literature was
to be a power in the world, it must be handed down to
posterity in a form capable of being understood. This
was the task begun and carried out by the Alexandrian
critics. These men did not merely collect works, but
sought to arrange them, to subject the texts to criticism,
and to explain any allusion or reference in them which at
a later date might become obscure. The complete philo-
logical examination of any work consisted, according to
them, of the following processes : — Sto'pCtuo-i;, arrangement
of the text; umyi'ajo-ts, settlement of accents; rc^urj, theory
of forms, syntax; i^riyr}<ji%, explanation either of words or
things ; and finally, Kpia-i.%, judgment on the author and hia
work, including all questions as to authenticity and integ-
rity. To perform their task adequately required from
the critics a wide circle of knowledge ; and from this
requirement sprang the sciences of grammar, prosody,
lexicography, mythology, and archeology. The service
rendered by these critics is invaluable. To them we owe
not merely the possession of the greatest works of Greek
intellect, but the possession of them in a readable state.
The most celebrated critics were Zenodotus; AristophaiiCj
of Byzantium, to whom we owe the theory of Greek
accents; and Aristarchus of Samothrace, coiifessedly the
Coryphaeus of criticism. Others were Alexander of ^tolia,
Lycophron, Callimachus, Eratosthenes, and many of a later
age, for the critical school long survived the literary.
These philological labours were of great indirect import-
ance, for they led immediately to the study of the natural
sciences, and in particular to a more accurate knowledge
of geography and history. Considerable attention begau
to be paid to the ancient history of Greece, and to all the
myths relating to the foundation of states and cities. A
large collection of such curious information is contained in
the Bibliotheca of .ApoUodorus, a pupil of Aristarchus,
who flourished in the 2d century B.c. Eratosthenes was
the first to write on mathematical and phj'sical geography ;
ho also first attempted to draw up a chronological table
of the Egyptian kings, and of the historical events of
Greece. His Egyptian chronology, along with that of
Manetho, is still of great interest to scholars ; and Bunseii
speaks with the highest ad.miration of his. researches iii
Greek history. The sciences of mathematics, astronomy,
and medicine were also cultivated with assiduity and
success at Alexandria, but they can scarcely be said to
have their origin there, or in any strict sense to form a
part of the peculiarly Alexandrian literature. The founder
of the mathematical school was the celebrated Euclid :
among its scholars were Archimedes ; ApoUonius of Pcrga,
author of a treatise on Conic Sections ; Eratosthenes, to whom
we owe the first measurement of the earth ; aud^Hipparchus,
the founder of the epicycUcal theory of the heavens, after-
wards called the Ptolemaio system, from its most famous
expositor, Claudius Ptolcmeus. Alexandria continued
long after the Christian era to be celebrated as a school of
mathematics and science.
Alexandrian School of Philosoj>hy. — Although it is not
possible to divide literatures with absolute rigidity by
centuries, and although the intellectual life of Alexandria,
particularly as applied to science, long survived the Roman
conquest, yet at that period the school, wliich for some
time had been gradually brealcing up, seems finally to have
succumbed. The later productions in the field of -pure
literature bear the stamp of Rome rather than of Alexan-
dria. But in that city, for some time past, there had been
various forces secretly working, and these coming in con-
tact with great spiritual changes occurring in the world
around, produced a second outburst of intellectual activitv.
.500
A L E- A L E
Among the natives of foreign countries transplanted to
Alexandria by its founder had been a few Jews. These
gradually increased in number, until, about the time of the
Christian era, they formed an influential part of the populace
of Kgypt, inhabited two of the five quarters of the capital,
and held high ollices in the state. They had been well
treiited by the Ptolemies, and for some time experienced
similar treatment from the Romans. The new move-
ment of thought was in great measure duo to the
presence cf this Jewish clement. The contact of froo
Greek speculation with the peculiar Jewish ideas of the
transcendence of God, of a special revelation, and of a
singular subjective ecstasy, the prophetic state, could not
fail to have a strong effect on the mode of thought of the
most highly cultured Jews. From many causes they were
more than ordinarily open to receive foreign ideas. Their
isolated position had been broken in upon by their long
residence as a small minority in the midst of an atmo-
sphere of Greek custom and thought, and in the most
hii.'lily cultivated city in the world. Their separation from
their native country had tended to broaden their views by
weakening the strong political convictions which united
their destiny and their sacred writings with a definite laud.
It was a necessary consequence that they should endeavour
80 far as possible to assimilate their principles to Greek
ideaa The two systems were not, they found, in total
contradiction ; they had several points in commoa. This
was specially the case with the Platonic writings. There
thus arose among the Jews a constantly increasing tendency
to modify or widen their doctrines so as to admit of
Greek conceptions, and then, with the aid of these concep-
tions, to systematise their own somcwhnt vague religious
views. In 'this way philosophy and religion would bo
united or identified. There is truth in all philosophy, for
philosophy is but a mangled reproduction of the sacred
record in which all truth is contained. The Scriptures
contain all philosophy, but not explicitly; they require to
be interpreted. The system thus developed has a philo-
.sophical aspect, yet never ceases to be essentially Jewish,
for the ultimate resort is always to a body of doctrine
expressly revealed. Progresi in this direction was possible
in two ways. First, the pure Greek metaphysical thought
rejected a body of truth said to have been revealed to a
special people, but retained the idea of revelation to the
individual thinker. A doctrine was thus evolved which
contained most of the oriental or Jewish theosophical
ideas, but in logical sequence and based for the most part
on the earUer works of Greek thinkers. Religion was
retained, but was explained or had a meaning given by
philosophy. To this powerful movement of thought the
name Neo-Platonism is given ; its chief representatives
were Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus, Porphyry, Jamblichus,
and Proclus. Second, the introduction of the peculiar
Christian dogmas could not fail to produce a lively effect
on the Alexandrian thinkers. These dogmas had to be
reconciled with philosophy, or the one must yield to and
be absorbed by the other. The attempt to solve the pro-
blem of their mutual relation gave rise to Gnosticism in
all its phases, and was the cause of the speculative element
in the works of such fathers as Clement of Alexandria
and Origen.
To the whole of this great movement the title Alexan-
drian philosophy must be given, although that term is
sometimes identified with Neo-Platonism. Of the exact
historical origin of it we have no certain notice. Some
thinkers are of opinion that even in the Septuagint traces
of rationalism can be discovered. . (See Frankel, Bistorisch-
kritische Studien sur Septuaginta, 1841.) In Aristobulus
(160 B.C.) is found a thproughgoing attempt to show that
«aarly Greek speculations were la harmony with the divine
record, because they had been borrowed from it. Tracer
of allegorical interpretation are abo found in him, but
no conception of a theosophical system. In the peculiar
tenets of the I'herapeuta, so far as these can be known, may
perhaps be traced another stream of influence, the Neo-
Pythagorcan. The complete representative of the Jewish
religious philosophy was Philo, eurnamed Judajus, who
lived at Alexandria during the Christian era. In him are
found a complete and elaborate theosophy fusing together
religious and metaphysical ideas, a firqt conviction that all
truth is to be found in the sacred writings, and a constant
application to these writings of the principle of allegorical
interpretation. His system is a syncretism of Oriental
mysticism and Greek metaphysics, and the effort at such
a combination from the Jewish side could go no further.
After Philo Juda^us there remained as possible courses
either Neo-Platonism or Gnosticism.
Of Alexandrian literature there are notices in histories of
Greek literature, as MUller and Donaldson, or Bciuuaruy ; ol
Alexandrian philosophy, in general histories of pnuosophy
and of early Christianity. Special works, which, however,
devote most attention to the Neo-Platonists, are —
Matter, Hisloire dc I'Ecole d' AlcxandrU, 2d cd. 3 vols.
1840-44 ; Simon, Uistoire de CEcole d'AtexandrU, 2 vols.
1844-45 ; Vacherot, Uisloire critique de I'Ecole d'Alex-
andrie, 3 vols. 1846-51 ; Kingsley, Alexandria and Iter
Schools, 1854; Gfrcirer, Philo und die Alexandrinisclit
Theosophie, 1835; Daehne, Gcschicht - Darslellung de>
Jiidisch-Alfxandrinischenlieliijionsphilusophie, 2 vols. 1834.
ALFXANDRINE VERSE, a name given to the leading
measure in French poetry. It is the heroic French verse,
used in epic narrative, in tragedy, and in the higher comedy.
There is some doubt as to the origin of the name; but
most probably it is derived from a collection of romances,
publi.shed early in the 13th century, of which Alexander of
^lacedon was the hero, and in which he .was represented,
somewhat like our own Arthur, as the pride and crown of
chivalry. Before the publication of this work most of the
trouvero romances appeared in octo-syllabic verse. The
new work, which was henceforth to set the fashion to
French literature, was written in lines of twelve syUables,
but with a freedom of pause which was aftenvards greatly
curtailed. The new fashion, however, was not adopted all
at once. The metre fell into disuse until the reign of
Francis I., when it was revived by Jean Antoine de Boeuf,
one of the seven poets known as the Pleiades. It was not
he, however, but Ronsard, who made the verse popular,
and gave it vogue in France. From his time it became
the recognised vehicle for all great poetry, and the regula-
tion of its pauses became more and more strict. The fol-
lowing is an example of the verse as used by Racine —
" Oh euis-je ? qu'ai-je fait ? II que dois-je faire encore T
Quel transport me saisit ? II quel cliagrin me devore ? "
Two inexorable laws came to be established with regard to
the pauses. The first is, that each line should be divided
into two equal parts, the sixth syUable always ending with
a word. In the earlier use of this metre, on the contrarj,
it frequently happened that the sixth and seventh syllables
belonged to the same word. The other is, that, except
under the most- stringent conditions, there should be none
of what the French critics call enjamhement, that is, the
overlapping of the sense from one line on to the next,
Ronsard completely ignored this rule, which was after his
time settled by the authority of Malherbe. Such verses as
the following by Ronsard wcvJd be intolerable in modern
French poetry —
" Cette nyropne royaie est digue qu'on lui drcssc
Dc3 autcls. . , .
Lea Parques se disoient: CharUii, qui doit vcnir
Au monde. . . .
A L E - A L F
501
Je veui, s'il est possible, atteindre la louague
De celle. . . .
Michael Drayton, who was twenty-two years of age when
Ronsard died, se - med to think that the Alexandrine might be
as pleasing to English as it was to French ears, and in this
metre he wrote a long poem in twenty-four boolis called
the Polyolbion. The metre, however, failed to catch the
English car. Our principal measure is a line of ten
syllables, and we use the Alexandrine only occasionally to
give it variety and weight. In our ordinary heroic verse
it is but rarely introduced ; but in the favourite narrative
metre, known as the Spenserian, it comes in regularly
as the concluding line of each stanza. In English
usage, moreover, it is to be observed that there is no fixed
rule as to the position of the pause, though it is true that
most commonly the pause occurs at the end of the sixth
syllable. Spenser is very free in shifting the pause about;
and though the later poets who have used this stanza are
not so free, yet, with the exception of Shenstone and of
Byron, they do not scruple to oKiterate all pause between
the sixth and seventh syllables. Thus Thomson (Castle 0/
Indolence, i. 42): —
** And music lent new gladness to the morning air."
The danger in the use of the Alexandrine is that, in
attempting to give dignity to his line, the poet may only
produce heaviness, incurring the sneer of Pope-»-
'* A needless Alexandrine ends the song,
That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along."
(e. s. d.)
ALEXIS, an ancient comic poet, born about 394 B.c.
at Thurii in Magna Grsecia, the uncle and instructor of
Menander. Plutarch says that he Hved to the age of 106
years, and according to Suidas he wrote 245 plays, of
which the titles of 113 are known. The fragments that
have been preserved by Athenseus and Stobseus attest the
wit and elegance of the author. The plays were frequently
translated by the Latin comic writers. (See Meineke,
Fraym. Com. Grcec. voL i.)
ALEXIUS I., the nephew of Isaac Comnenus, and the
most distinguished member of the Comnenus family, was
born in 1048, and died in 1118. In early life he signalised
himself in the wars against theenemiesof hiscountry; but the
nrean jealousies of the ministers of the emperor Nicephorus
(sumamed Botaniates) drove him to take up arms against
a sovereign whose cause he had thrice gallantly defended
against powerful insurgent leaders; and he ascended the
throne of Constantinople in 1081. His character has been
too partially drawn by his favourite daughter, Anna Com-
ncna, who has, however, justly remarked that the disorders
of the times were both the misfortune and glory of Alexius,
and that he paid the penalty for the vices of his pre-
decessors. In his reign.the Turks extended their conquests
from Perda to the Hellespont; on the north the empire
was assailed by hordes of barbarians from the Danube, and
ou the west by the Norm.ans; while Europe pressed on
Asia by way of Constantinople, in the excitement of
the first crusade. Amid these disturbances Alexius
managed the affairs of the state with a dexterous and
courageous hand, though his policy was ascribed by
the Latins to cowardice or treachery. He was politic
enough to derive solid advantages from the romantic valour
of the crusaders. Alexius outlived the love of his sub-
jects, and thoir»paticnco was all but exhausted in the latter
part of his long reign. The nobility were irritated by the
extravagance of his relations; the people by his severity
and exactions; and the clergy murmured at his appropria-
tion of the church funds to the defence of the state.
ALFANI, DoMENico, an Italian painter, born at Perugia
towiirds the close 'of the fifteenth century. The precise
date is uncertain, but he was a contemporary of Raphael,
with whom he studied in the school of Perugino. Th&
two artists lived on terms of intimate friendship, and the
influence of the more distinguished of the two is so clearly
traceable in the works of the other, that these have fre-
quently been attributed to EaphaeL Towards the close
of his life Alfani gradually changed his style, and approxi-
mated to that of the later Florentine school. The date of
his death, according to some, was 1540, while others say he>
was aUve in 1553. Pictures by Alfani may be seen in
collections at Florence, and in several churches in Perugia.
AL-FARABI, Asv Nase Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan,
one of the earliest Arabian philosophers, flourished during-
the former half of the 10th century. Philosophy, among
the Arabs, was originally an extension of the related
sciences of astronomy and medicine, and the first philo-
sophers were physicians. The more eminent of them were
coujt physicians, and to this they doubtless owed their
protection against the jealous suspicions of the Maho-
metan sects. Al-Farabi is supposed (for the detailed
accounts of his life are legendary) to have concerned him-
self more with the theory than the practice of medicine ;
but he is known to have been a physician at the court of
Seif-Eddaula, and died when it was at Damascus in 950.
Unlike some of his successors, notably Aviceuna, he was
an ascetic, and his philosophy, which has a slight Platonic
infusion, bears traces of the contrast. He was unsystematic,
and the sketches and aphorisms of his which have come
down to us (many of his treatises are still in MS.) only
partially enable us to reconstruct his philosophy. In his
opusculum De Sciendis he enumerates six orders of
sciences : — (1.) Language, by which he means little more
than grammar. (2.) Logic, which he names as an art,
conceives generally as a science,' and confounds in its details
with the corresponding art, with rhetoric, and with criticism.
(3.) The mathematical sciences, embracing geometry,
arithmetic, optics, the science of the stars, music, and the
sciences of weights and of capacities [ingenia). Arithmetic
is abstract and concrete ; geometry is active, passive, and
speculative; and the science of the stars includes astronomy,
astrology, the science of climates, and of dreams and
auguries. (4.) The natural sciences, ten in number. (0.)
Civil science, including judicial science and rhetoric. (6.)
Divine science, or metaphysics. This hierarchy has striking
approximations to the most modern classifications. Logic
and mathematics, the most abstract sciences, are near the
beginning, if not quite first ; what stands for social science
follows the physical concrete sciences ; and the distinction
between abstract and concrete, which Comte made one of the
bases of his classification, and which has been more accurately
discriminated by Spencer, is on the whole clearly seized.
But art is throughout confounded with science ; supe.-sti-
tions are mixed up with facts ; physical and mental
phenomena are not always separated ; the subjective and
the objective (learning and science) are confused, as
they afterwards were by Bacon ; and there is no science of
man — man was not yet conceived, metaphysically, as an
individual. This agrees with Al-Farabi's science of politics-
as expounded in another work, in which he follows his-
master, Aristotle, in denying the permanence of the-
individual soul, and anticipates the Averrhoistic doctrine-
of the unity of souls. For his metaphysics is Peripatetic,.
as Perijiateticism was interpreted by the Neo-Platonist
commentators on Aristotle. Starting with the distinction
between the possible and the necessary, he assumes that-
there must be some supreme necessary existence which
accounts for all actual existence. This supreme exist-
ence has infinite life, wisdom, power, beauty, goodness,
itc.,l)nt it is an absolute unity, and is without distinguish-
able attributes. How docs the world, with its infinite-
502
A L F — A L t'
inultiplicity and diversity, issue from this ansolutely one
and ijeutical being 1 Hero Al-Farabi neo-plntonises. It
[iroceeds by emanation. The absolute Being knows itself,
and in virtue of this knowledge the first intelligence exists.
He does not explain how self-consciousness conies to bo
inseparable from necessary existence, but his dynamic, at
this and all the lower stages, is self-knowledge ; and indeed
the act of knowing and the resultant ejcistcnce appear at
this height of abstraction to bo all but-identical. The first
intelligence, intrinsically a unity, contains multiplicity,
because it is no longer devoid of attributes. In so far aa
it .necessarily exists, it evolves the second intelligence ; in
so far as it is merely potential being, and knows itself, it
evolves the world-soul and the uppermost world-circle,
which is moved by that souL Similarly descending intel-
ligences, ever-wider world-circles and the corresponding
souls, are evolved -by the same process of emanation, down
to the active reason, which is mo.st nearly related to the
earthly elements and human souLs. The active rjason,
by its contact with matter, impresses on it forms, of which
the human soul is one, with greater or less permanence
according to the degree in which it is immersed in, or
rises above, matter. The forms decline in permanence the
further we descend below the active reason, and the matter
which has least form is the limit of emanation. There is
here nothing like what is now called evolution : the con-
ception of the universe is, as in all theories of emanation,
really statical, not dynamical, for the ideas of cause and
perpetual causation do not yet e.ust; and of course the
process is the reverse of that implied in the modern
development theory. (For information on Al-Farabi, seo
Munk, Melanges, pp. 341-52; and Steinschueider, Memoires
de I'Acadcmie de St Petershourff, vii. sirio, torn. xiii. Two
of his opuscula have been translated by Sehmolders,
Documenta Philosophim Arahum, and two are contained in
Alpharahii Opera Omnia, Parisiis, 1638.)
ALFIERI, VlTTOMO, chiefly celebrated as the author
who raised the Italian tragic drama from its previous state
of degradation, was born on the 17th January 1749, at
the town of Asti, in Piedmont. He lost his father in
early infancy ; but he continued to reside with his mother,
who married a second time, tUl his tenth year, v/hen he
was placed at tjje academy of Turin. Alter he had passed
a twelvemonth at the academy, ho went on a short visit
to a relation who dwelt at Coni ; and during his stay there
he made his first poetical attempt, in a sonnet chiefly
borrowed from lines in Ariosto and Metastasio, the only
poets he had at that time read. When thirteen years of
age ho was induced to commence the study of civil and
canonical law ; but the attempt only served to disgust him
with every species of application, and to increase his relish
for the perusal of French romances. By the death of his
uncle, who had hitherto taken some charge of his education
and conduct, he was left, at the age of fourteen, to enjoy
\vithout cpntrol his vast paternal inheritance, augmented
by the recent accession of his uncle's fortune. He now
began to attend the riding-school, where he acquired that
rage for horses and equestrian exercise which continued to be
one of his strongest passions tiU the close of his existence.
After some time spent in alternate fits of extravagant
dissipation and Hi-directed study, he was seized with a
desire of travelling ; and having obtained permission from
the king, he departed in 1766, under the care of an English
preceptor. Restless and unquiet, he posted with the
utmost rapidity through the towns of Italy ; and his
improvement was such as was to be expected from his mode
of travelling and Ms previous habits. Hoping to find
in foreign countries some relief from the tedium and ennui
with which he was oppressed, and being anxious to become
acquainted with the French theatre, he oroceededto Paris.
But He appears to have been completely dissatisfied
with everything he witnessed in France, and contracted a
disUke to its people, which his intercourse in future years
rather contributed to augment than diminish. In Holland
he became deejjly enamoured of a married lady, who
returned his attachment, but who was soon obliged to
accompany her husband to Switzerland. Alfieri, whoso
feelings were of the most impetuous description, waa in
despair at this separation, and returned to his own country
in the utmost anguish and despondency of mind. While
under this depression of spirits ho was induced to seek
alleviation from works of literature ; and the perusal of
Plutarch's Lives, which he read with profound emotion,
inspired him with an enthusiastic passion for freedom and
independence. Under the influence of this rage for liberty
ho recommenced his travels ; and his only gratification, in
the absence of freedom among the Continental states,
appears to have been derived from contemphiting the wild
and sterile regions of the north of Sweden, where gloomy
forests, lakes, and precipices conspired to excite those
sublime and melancholy ideas which wore congenial to his
disposition. Everjrwhere his soid felt as if confined by
the bonds of society > he panted for something more free in
government, more elevated in sentiment, more devoted in
love, and more perfect in friendship. In search of this ideal
world he posted through various countries, more \vith the
rapidity^ of a courier than of one who travels for amuse-
ment or instruction. During a journey to London, ho
engaged in an intrigue with a married lady of high rank ;
and having been detected, the publicity of a rencounter
with the injured husband, and of a divorce which followed,
rendered it expedient and desirable for him to quit
England He then visited Spain and Portugal, where he
became acquainted with the Abb6 Caluso, who remained
through life the most attached and estimable friend he
ever possessed. In 1772 Alfieri returned to Turin, where
he again became enamoured of a lady, whom ho loved with
his usual ardour, and who seems to have been -as undeserv-
ing of a sincere attachment as those. he had hitherto adored.
In the course of a long attendance on his mistress, during
a malady with which she was afllicted, he one day wrote a
dialogue or scene of a drama, which he left at her house.
On a difference taking pbce between them, the piece was
returned to him, and being retouched and extended to
five acts, it was performed at Turin in 1775, under the
title of Cleopatra.
From this moment Alfieri was seized with an insatiable
thirst for theatrical fame, and the remainder of his life
was devoted to its attainment. His first two tragedies,
Filippo and Polinice, were originally WTitten in French
])rose ; and when he came to versify them in Italian, he
found that, from his Lombard origin, and long intercourse
with foreigners, he expressed himself with feebleness and
r.pacouracy. Accordingly, with the view of improving his
Italian style, he went to Tuscany, and, during an alternate
residence at Florence and Siena, he completed his Filippo
and Polinice, and conceived the plan of various other
dramas. While thus employed, he became acquainted with
the Countess of Albany, who then resided with her husband
at Florence. For her he formed an attachment which, if
less violent than his former loves, appears to have been
more permanent. With this motive to remain at Florence,
he could not endure the chains by which his vast posses-
sions bound him to Piedmont. He therefore resigned hh
whole property to his sister, the Countess Cumiana, reserv-
ing an annuity which scarcely amounted to a half of his
original revenues. At this period the Countess of Albany,
urged by the ill-treatment she received from her husband,
sought refuge in Rome, where she at length received pe'r
mission from the pope to live apart from her tormentor.
A L F - A L F
503
Alfieri followed the countess to tliat capital, where he com-
pleted fourteen tragedies, four of which were now for the
iirst time printed at Sienna.
At length, however, it was thought proper that, by leav-
ing Rome, ne should remove the aspersions which had
heen thrown on the object of his affections. During the
year 1783 he therefore travelled through different states of
Italy, and published six additional tragedies. The interests
of his love and Kterary glory had not diminished his rage
for horses, which seems to have been at least the third
passion of hia souL He came to England solely for the
purpose of purchasing a number of these animals, which
he carried with him to Italy. On his return he learned
that the Countess of Albany had gone to Colmar in Alsace,
where he joined her, and resided with her under the same
roof during the reat of his life. They chiefly passed their
time between Alsace and Paris, but at length took up
their abode entirely in that metropolis. While here, Alfieri
made arrangements with Didot for an edition of his trage-
dies ; but was soon after forced tc quit Paris by the storms
of the Revolution. He recrossed the Alps with the
countess, and finally settled at Florence. The last ten
years of his life, which he spent in that city, seem to have
been the happiest of his existence. During that long
period his tranquillity was only interrupted by the entrance
of the Revolutionary armies into Florence in 1799. Though
an enemy of kings, the aristocratic feelings^ of Alfieri
rendered him also a decided foe to the principles and
leaders of the French Revolution ; and he rejected with
the utmost contempt those advances which were made
with a view to brin» him over to their cause. The con-
cluding years of his life were laudably employed in the
study of the Greek literature, and in perfecting a series of
comedies. His assiduous labour on this subject, which he
pursued with his characteristic impetuosity, exhausted his
strength, and brought on a malady for which he would
not adopt the prescriptions of his physicians, but obstinately
persisted in employing remedies of his own. His disorder
rapidly increased, and at length terminated his Ufe on the
8th October 1803, in the fifty-fifth year of his age.
The character of Alfieri may be best appreciated from the
portrait which he has drawn of himself in his own Memoirs
of his Life. He was evidently of an irritable, impetuous,
and almost ungovernable temper. Pride, which seems to
have been a ruling sentiment, may account for many
apparent inconsistencies of his character. But his less
amiable qualities were greatly softened by the cultivation of
literaUire. His application to study gradually tranquillised
his temper and softened his manners, leaving him at the
same time in perfect possession of those good qualities
which he had inherited from nature, — a warm and dis-
interested attachment to his family and friends, united to
a generosity, vigour, and elevation of character, which
rendered him not unworthy to embody in hia dramas the
actions and sentiments of Grecian heroes.
It is to hU dramas tbat Alfieri is chiefly indebted for the high
reputation ho has attained- Before his time the Italian language, so
hannonious in the Sonnets of Petrarch, and so energetic in the
Commcdia of Dante, had been invariably languid and prosaic in
dramatic dialogue. The pedantic and inanimate tragedies of the
16th century were followed, d\iring the iron age of Italian litera-
ture, by dramas of which extravagance in the sentiments and im-
probability in the action were the chief characteristics. The pro-
digious success of the Merope of Maffei, which appeared in the
commencement of the lust century, may be attributed more to a
comparison with such productions than to intrinsic merit. In this
degradation of tragic taste the appearance of the tragedies of Alfieri
was perhaps the most important literary event that had occurred in
Italy during the 18th century. On these tragedica it is difficult to
pronounce a judgment, as the taste and system of the author under-
went considerable change and modification during the intervals
which elapnrd between the three periods of their publication. An
exroaftive harshness of style, an asperity of sentiment, and total
want of poetical ornament, are the characteristics of hia first foar
tragedies, Filippo^ Polinice, AntigoTiey and Virginia, Th%e faults
were in some measure corrected in the six tragedies which he gave
to the world some years after, and in those which he published along
with Saul, the drama which enjoyed the greatest success of all his
productions ; a popularity which may be partly attributed to the
severe and unadorned manner of Alfieri being well adapted to the
patriarchal simplicity of the age in which the scene of the tragedy is
placed. But thoagh there be a considerable difference in his dramas,
there are certain observations applicable to them alL None of the
plots are of hia own invention. They are founded either on mytho-
logical fable or history ; most of them had been previously treated
by the Greek dramatists, or by Seneca, Rosmunda^ the only one
which could be supposed of hia own contrivance, and which is
certainly the least happy effusion of his genius, is partly founded
on the eighteenth novel of the third part of Bandello, and partly on
Prevost's Memoires d'un Homme de QualiU. But whatever subject
he chooses, his dramas are always formed on the Greciikn model, and
breathe a freedom and independence worthy of an Athenian poet.
Indeed, his Agide and Brulo may rather be considered oratorical
declamations and dialogues on lil^erty than tragedies. The unities
of time and place are not so scrupulously observed in his as in the
ancient dramas ; but he has rigidly adhered to a unity of action and
interest. He occupies his scene with one great action and onp
ruling passion, and removes from it every accessary event or feeling.
In thia excessive zeal for the observance of unity he seems to have
forgotten that its charm consists in producing a common relation
between multiplied feelings, and not in the bare exhibition of one,
divested of those various accompaniments which give harmony to
the whole. Consistently with that austere and simple m.inntr
which he considered the chief excellence of dramatic composition,
he excluded from his scene all coups de thidtrCy all philosophical
reflections, and that highly ornamented versification which had
been so assiduously cultivated by his predecessors. In his anxiety,
however, to avoid all superfluous ornament, he has stripped hia
dramas of the embellishments of imagination ; and for the harmony
and flow of poetical language he has substituted, even in hia best
performances, a style which, though correct and pure, is generally
harsh, elaborate, and abrupt ; often strained into unaatural energy,
or condensed into factitious conciseness. The chief excellence of
Alfieri consists in powerful delineation of dramatic character. In
his Filipjjo he has represented, almost with the masterly touches oi
Tacitus, the sombre character, the dark mysterious counsels, the
suspensa semper et ohscura. verba, of the modem Tiberius. In
Polinicey the characters of the rival brothers are beautifully con-
trasted ; in Maria Siuarda, that unfortunate queen is represented
unsuspicious, impatient of contradiction, and violent in her attach-
ments. In Mirra, the character of Ciniro is perfect as a' father and
king, and Cecri is a. model of a wife and mother. In the representa*
tion of that species of mental alienation where the judgment has
perished, but traces of character still remain, he is peculiarly
nappy. The insanity of Saul is skUfully managed ; and the horrid
joy of Orestes in killing ^gisthus rises finely and naturally to mad-
ness, in finding that, at the same time, he had inadvertently slain
his mother.
Whatever m^ be the merits or defects or Alfieri, he may be con-
sidered as the founder of a new school in the Italian drama. Hia
country hailed him as her sole tragic poet ; and his successors in
the same path of literature have regarded his bold, austere, and
rapid manner, as the genuine model of tragic composition.
Besides his tragedies, Alfieri published during his life maoy
sonnets, five odea on American independence, and the poem of
Elruria^ founded on the assassination of Alexander I., duke of
Florence. Of his prose works the most distinguished for animation
and eloquence is the Panegyric on Trajan, composed in a transport
of indignation at the supposed feebleness of Pliny's eulogium. The
two books entitled La Tirannide and the Essays on Literature and
Government, are remarkable for elegance and vigour of style, but
are too evidently imitations of the manner of MachiaveL His
Antigallicany which was written at the same time with his Defenco
of Louis XVI., comprehends an historical and satirical view of the
French Revolution. The posthumous works of Alfieri consist of
satires, six political comedies, and the Memoirs of his Life — a work
which will always be read with interest, in spile of the cold and
languid gravity with which he delineates tho most interesting
adventures and the strongest passions of his agitated life. See
Mem. di. Vit. Alfieri ; Siamondi L>e la Lit. du Midi de V Europe ;
Walker's Memoir on Italian Tragedy; Giorn. de Pis<u tom. Iviii. ;
Life of Alfieri, by Centofanti (Florence, 1842) ; and Vita, Oiomuli,
Letters di Alfieri, by Teza (Florence, 1861).
ALFORD, Henry, D.D., Dean of Canterbury, one of
the most variously-accomplished churchmen of his day —
pi"vet, preacher, painter, musician, biblical scholar, critic,
and philologist — was bom at 25 ^Vlfred Place, Bedford
Row, London, October 7th, 1810 (died 1871) lie cjirao
r)04:
A L F O 11 D
01 a Somersctsliiie family, tivo generatinns o! whrcli, in
direct succession, contributed clergymen of some distinction
fo the English Church. The earliest of these, his great-
great-grandfatlicr, Thomas Alfurd, who died in 1708, was
for many years tha vicar of Curry Rivell, near Taunton — a
living that passed from one to another of his descendants.
Tho father of Dean Alford studied for tho bar, but after
practising for a short time, followed the course of his
predecessors by taking holy orders; and, until his death at
a venerable ago in 1802, had long been familiarly known
and revered in his part of the country as the rector of Aston
Sandford in Buckinghamshire. His first wife, tho dean's
mother, whoso ma'den name was Sarah Eliza Paget, was tho
younger daughter of a well-to-do banker of Tamworth in
Staffordshire. A twelvemonth after their marriage, her
husband, then practising as a special pleader, was by her
premature death in childbed left a widower. The newly-born
infant, who remained to the last tho bereaved parent's only
child, was confided in the first instance to the oflcctionato
care of tho home-cirelo in the house of his maternal grand-
father. Towards the close of 1813 ho was taken back to the
lonely hearth of his father, who had now entered upon his
clerical duties as curate of Steeple Ashton, near Trowbridge
in Wiltshire. Being the only son of a secluded scholar,
tho boy's education was from an unusually early period
sedulously cared for; his father being his first instructor,
and at the outset his constant companion. So exceptional
was his precocity that at si.x lie had already written a little
MS. volumo entitled (in round hand) the Travels of Hi
Paul. Before ho was eight ho had penned a collection of
Latin odes in miniature. Whoa he was scarcely nine
he had compiled, in the straggling characters of a school-
boy, a compendious History of the Jews; besides drawing
out a chronological scheme in which were tabulated the
events of the Old Testament. Prior to the completion
of his tenth year he actually produced a scries of terse
sermons or laconically outlined homilies, the significant
title of which was Looking unto Jesus. During the absence
of his father, who Lad gone abroad as the travelling chaplain
of Lord Calthorpe, Henry, at seven years of age, began
tho round of three academies, at Charmouth and Hammer-
smith ; the happiest time of all for him as a schoolboy
being three years and upwards passed in the grammar-
school at Hminster. His character was already displaying
a marked individuality. He could repeat not only readily
but appreciatively an astonishing number of lines in Greek,
Latin, and English, selected from what were ther, and always
afterwards his favourite classic authors. He indulged, too,
in those early days, in the luxury of original versification.
Then it was also that ho first began to manifest that
singular capacity for ingenious contrivance and that sur-
prising neatness and dexterity of manipulation for which
he was afterwards remarkable. It was said of him later
in life, that he could construct an organ and then play
upon it ; and when his reputation for profound scholarship
had been long established, his constructiveness was
curiously manifested by his adaptation to the purposes of
utility of the seemingly ordinary walking-stick ho carried
when travelling on the Continent. In its upper joint he
secreted hb surplus mcney and his drawing materials; in
its lower joint, pens, ink, wax, and pencils. Strangely
contrasting with this ineradicable passion for nicety and
precision was his delight at all times in giving himself up
to the most diversified occupations, a?id in yielding, often
at an instant's notice, as he sometimes notes with regret,
to the temptation of mere discursiveness.
It was in the October of 1827 that the university life
of Alford commenced. At seventeen he went up to Cam-
bridge, having won his scholarship, and had his name
fc^.tered at Trinity College. During tho midsummer of his
fourth year at Cambridge, in tho Juno of 1831, he had
obtained tho second prize essay. As the autumn deepened
into winter ho was nervously preparing to go in for
honours at tho examinations. In tho possibility of his
success ho had not the slightest confidence, yet on the
2l8t January 1832 ho appears as thirty-fourth wrangler;
while on the 25th February his name comes out eighth on
tho first-class list of tho classical tripos. He now began to
take pupils, and within tho interval which elapsed between
his taking his degree and giving liimself up more completelj
to tho great work of his life — the elaboration of his editioi.
of tho Greek New Testament — it is believed that he had
under his charge at least sixty. These included barristers,
clergymen, peers, and members of parliament; many of
whom afterwards attained positions of eminence, all of
them having their characters moulded more or less under
tho inspiring influence of hia. In his twenty-sixth year he
was united in marriage to his cousin Fanny, a daughter of
his uncle, tho Picv. Samuel Alford, who was then, as his-
father and his great-grandfather had been before him, vicar
of Curry RivelL Surviving her husband after nearly thirty-
five years of wedded life, during which she had seen tho
development of his intellectual powers and tho realisation
of some portions at least of his many-sided ambition, she
brought out in 1872 his journals and correspondence, care-
fully edited by herself. A curiou.^ly characteristic side-light
is thrown upon Alford's inner nature, both moral and intel-
lectual, by tho circumstance there recorded — that, with a
view to enable his future wife to read the New Testament
in Greek, he wrote with his own hand, in the interval be-
tween betrothal and marriage, an elementary Greek gram-
mar of sixty folio pages. The incident is all the more
interesting as affording the earliest glimpse of what soon
proved to be Lis dominant aspiration. His researches in
secular scholarship were at this time becoming every year
more and more adventurous. He shrank not from proclaim-
ing even then that he regarded Niebuhr as " one of the
greatest men in this ignorant and obstinate world." Mean-
while, in the midst of his excursive inquiries as a student
in tlie most opposite directions, he was indulging at every
available opportunity in the lotos-delight of his own day-
dreamings ; and in February 1833, he published his maiden
work as a lyrist, Poems and Poetical Fragments. Simply as
an instructor he was working steadily seven hours a-day;
but the time came when, in furtherance of his favourite
researches, he was known to toil at the desk sometimes
twelve or fourteen.
Resolved from childhood to tread tne path of life in
the footsteps of his forefathers, Alford was ordained deacon
on the 2Gth October 1S33, and at once began active pro-
fessional work as curate of Ampton. So modest was bio
own estimate of his intellectual capabilities, that it was with
unaffected surprise he found his name second on the list ol
the six Fellows of Trinity who were elected on the 1st of
the following October. On the 6th November he was
admitted to priest's orders, and four months afterwards,
upon the 4th March 1835 — scarcely * week before his
marriage — entered upon his parochial labours of eighteen
years' duration as vicar of Wymeswold in Leicestershire.'
Twice during the interval of his scholarly seclusion in that
quiet vicarage he was vainly tempted with the offer of a
colonial bishopric, first in 18'11 as bishop of New Zealand,
and again in 1844: as bishop of New Brunswick. Ho con-
tentedly drudged on for years together in comparative
obscurity among his pupils and parishioners. Although
a ripe scholar, and remarkable for his splendid versatility,
it was less by the brilliancy of his achievements than by
the sheer force of the most diligent perseverance that he
pushed his way eventually into the front rank, and com-
manded at last the recognition of hia contemporaries.
A L F O R D
505
ViTiatever he put Lis hand tc he carried out with a zeal
that at times looked almost like dogged determination.
Thrown from his horse in the February of 1847 when
going to deliver his first lecture, although very seriously
shaken and disfigured, he nevertheless punctually appeared
before his audience with his face and head covered with
surgical bandages, and — resolutely lectured. His reputa-
tion as a lecturer of exceptional power was within a few
years from that time thoroughly established. Several of
his discourses, notably one on Saul of Tarsus, with others
on themes as varied as astronomy, music, scenery, and
Christianity, acquired in the end a certain amount of
celebrity. For two years together, in 1841 and 18-12, he
held the chair at Cambridge of Hulsean lecturer. As the
result of his labours in that capacity, two substantial
volumes afterwards made their appearance. Meanwhile, in
the midst of his more serious avocations, he was at uncertain
intervals making good his claim to be regarded as one of
the more subtle and tender of the minor religious poets of
England. Adopting an old forgotten title of Quarles's, he
brought out, on his arrival at Wymeswold (1835), Ln two
volumes, his School of the Scart, coupled with a reissue
of his miuor poems and sonnets. In 1838, he edited, in
SLS vols., the works of Donne, prefixing a luminous preface,
at once critical and biographicaL Throughout the year 1839
and part of 1840 he edited a monthly magazine called
Dcarden's Miscellany. In 1841 he published/'with other
new poems, his Abbot of Iiltichelnaye. A collection of Psalms
and Hymns appeared from his hand in the spring of 1844.
A couple of years before that, in 1842, he had first entered
upon his duties at Somerset House, where he acted for
many years as examiner in logic and moral and intellectual
philosophy in the university of London. So youthful was
his appearance at the date of his first receiving this appoint-
ment, that on his enteruig the apartment where he was
awaited by the candidates, he was mistaken for one of
themselves.
What eventually proved to be the noblest of all his
literary undertakings, his new edition, with running
commentary, of the Greek Testament, engrossed his atten-
tion for fully tweuty years together, from 1841 to
1861. Originally designed for the use of students in
the universities, the work, from its modest first projec-
tion, grew in his hands to enormous proportions. He
fancied at starting that a single year might witness its
completion, and that a couple of thin octavos might embrace
both text and commentary. By the time the expanding
scheme was actually realised twenty years had elapsed, and
the work had swollen into four pondcro\is tomes, the con-
tents of which were as weighty as they were comprehensive.
The idea of the work was suggested to Alford's mind as he
listened one day to a sermon at Cambridge. What he pro-
posed to himself at the outset was simply to adopt the
main text, and to combine with it the greater part of the
readings of Phihpp Buttmann and Karl Lachmann. This,
however, led to a more extended plan of critical labour and
research, including a comprehensive digest of ihe various
readings founded on the latest collations of the principal
manuscripts, the Codex Vaticanus, the Codex SinaiticuJ,
the Codex Alexandrinus, and others. With a view to
illustrate more clearly than ever the verbal and idiomatic
or constructional usages of the sacred text, an entirely new
collection of marginal references was compOed. Added to
this there was a copious abundance of English notes, both
exegetical and philological. Conscious of the vast stores of
learning that had been accumulating in Germany, Alford
from an early date determined to render himself as
thoroughly as possible a master of the German language
and at home in German literature. This intention was
fairlv carried out at Bonn before the close of the summer
of 1847. Then, but hardly till then, he felt himself at
last duly qualified to edit the Greek Testament. From
that time he prepared in earnest to open up system^ically
to the contemplation of English readers the wealth of
German criticism, actually made plain for the first time in
our language through his Prolegomena and subsequent inci-
dental commentary. In November 1849 (the month the
author took his B.D. degree at Cambridge), vol L of the
Greek Testament was published, containing the four Gospels.
Through it theological students in this country had placed
within their reach in an epitomised form the latest result^
of the labours of continental critics on the Greek text,
including portions even of those of Constantine Tischendort
Issued from the press volume by volume, the work, aa
already remarked, was not completed tili long afterwards.
In January 1861 the fourth or final volume, beginning with
the Epistle to the Hebrews and ending with the Book of
Revelation, made its appearance. What is chiefly notice-
able in regard to the work is its strictly critical character.
It is the production of a philologist rather than of a theo-
logian. Abbreviations, punctuations, elisions of ortho-
graphy, systematic ellipses, the merest turns of the pen in
this or that manuscript, are weighed against microscopic
scruples in the balance of his judgment. There can be little
question that the work appreciably increased the aggregate
amount of the biblical knowledge of Alford's immediato
contemporaries. So carefully matured were his researches
in the regions of exegesis, already crossed and recrossed
by the footprints of countless commentators, that the work
is regarded as in many respects authoritative even among
those who differ from him widely on many important
questions.
Early in 1853 Alford first preached in Quebec chapel,
London, the building in which his father had been ordained
deacon forty years before. Before the year was out, on tho
26th September, he had removed from his picturesque
church in the wolds of Leicestershire to the plain con-
venticle in Tybumia. There he remained for nearly four
years, toiling assiduously, preaching twice every Sunday to
a large and cultured congregation. Seven volumes, issued
from the press at intervals, have, under the title of The
Quebec Chapel Sermons, preserved 153 of "the more remark-
able of these discourses — those preached by him in the
morning — all of which were carefully prepared beforehand.
As a preacher his style was severe and earnest rather than
eloquent or impassioned. Peihaps the finest discourse he
ever delivered was the one on the text, " A great multitude
which no man could number." It was preached from the
cathedral pulpit shortly after his advancement by Lord
Palmerston, in March 1857, to the deanery of Canterbury.
Throughout his bfe, but especially towards its close, his
chief delight intellectually appears to have been the rapid
alternation of his pursuits. While he was yet in the midst
of his biblical researches he was, simultaneously, at tho
beginning of 1851, translating the Odyssey, arranging Ms
poems, with additions for their American republication, and
preparing an article for the Edinburgh Review on the St
Paul of Conybeare and Howson. A series of ingenious
lectures, delivered by him in his capacity of philologist, on
being compacted into a manual of idiom and usage, entitled
The Queen's English, attained a high degree of popularity.
Nevertheless, in spite of their wholly unpretentious and
essentially humorous character, these mere casual notes
on spelling and speaking drew down upon their author
one of tho sharpest criticisms he ever provoked, sarcas-
tically entitled The Dean's English. The Contemporary
Review was inaugurated under his editorship; and from
January 1806 to August 1870 was conducted by him as a
sort of neutral ground for religious criticism. Under tl.»
title of The Year cf Prayer, Alford in 1866 published a
I. — 64
506
A L F — A L F
Imok of family devotion; and in 18G7, a, collection of
orii^inaT hymns called 7'ha Year of Praise, works of little
luetension, but by which his name was widely popularised.
His latest poetic efTusion of any considerable length was
The Children of tlie Lord's Prayer, which appeared in
18G9 as the letterpress accompaniment to designs by V. R.
Pickersgill, R.A. The miscellaneous papers ho had con-
tributed to periodicals were, the same year, collected under
the name of JEMaya and Addresses. Ho brought out, in
1865, his Letters from Abroad, eminently characteristic
records of travel, mainly descriptive of Italian cities and
scenery; and in 1870, a collection of B])irited pen and pencU
sketches of The JUviera, the latter being reproduced from
hia water-colour dramngs by the aid of chromo-litho-
graphy. The artist faculty, it. has been observed, and
nut extravagantly, "would have made him a great land-
Kcnpe painter had he not, either from preference or neces-
sity, become a great Greek scholar and a dean." Such
were the pliancy and the resilience of his nature that ho
would turn with zest, after hours of severe study given to
the collation of a Hebrew manuscript or to the examination
of the exegctical subtleties of a German commentator on
the Greek Testament, to doctoring the hall clock and
making it strike the h.alf-hours, to tuning the piano in
the drawing-room, or to playing games with his children
in the nursery. The wooden front of the organ (which
instrument he could play with the hand of a master) was
carved according to his own ingenious design and by his
own dexterous chiselling. A Masqxie of the Seasons, per-
formed as a holiday pastime on New Year's Day 1861, in
the deanery, owed to him both the words and the music —
be himself, besides, enacting iii it the part of " Father
Christmas." A couple of years before his death he appeared
as a novelist, conjointly with his niece producing, the story
of Nelherion on Sea. The last work of any niagnit\ide upon
whicli he adventured as a biblical scholar was his Com-
mentary on the Old Testament. In the diversity of his avoca-
tions, and the thoroughness with which they were, one and
all, carried to a successful issue, he was his own severest
t-<-kmaster. Throughout life, until he was stretched upon
hM 'leathbed, he never seemed to indulge in the luxury of
inaction. The end came at length to him calmly, on the
12th January 1871, and five days afterwards his remains
were interred under a yew tree in St ^[artin's churchyard,
<vithin view of the towers of Canterbury Cathedral. It is
significant of the tender poetical quaintncss of his whole
character, that there is inscribed above his tomb, in obedience
to his own directions, " Diversorium Viatoris Hierosolymara
Proficiscciitis." A statue of the dean, by PfyfTers, was un-
veiled, before the year of his demise had run out, in a niche
on the west front of the most ancient of our cathedrals.
Dean Alford was a man as variou.sly accomplished as any of
his generation; and he would unquestionably have risen to
far greater eminence than ho ever achieved in poetry, in
oratory, in mu-sic, in painting, in theology, or in general
literature, if he had aimed at excelling in one or two alone
of those arts or sciences, instead of endeavouring to shine
in all of tlicm alike. (c. K.)
ALFRKIJ, or yELPiiEn, the Great, the youngest son
of .(I'vlhelwulf, king of the West Saxons, was born at
Wantage in Berk.sliire in 849 a.d. At an early age he
was summoned to the assistance of his brother .^thelred
against the Danes. These formidable enemies, whose
object hitherto had been mere plunder, were now aiming
at a permanent settlement in the country, and after ravag-
ing and subduing Northumbria, East Anglia, and the
greater part of Morcia, they fell with their united forces on
Wessex itself. A series of encounters took place, in which
.iMfred greatly distinguished himself, especially at Ashdown,
"here the Danes were routed with great siaURhtcr, and
left several of their most famous leaders dead on the field
of battle. TEthelrcd dying in the midst of the struggle,
Alfred was unanimously elected king (871), in the twenty-
second year of his age. About a month after his accession
he met the enemy at Wilton, where, after a long and
doubtful struggle, ho was defeated. Both parties were now
becoming tired of the war. Immense loss had been
suffered on both sides, and although the Danes on the
whole had been victorious, their victories had brought
them no substantial results. A treaty of peace was con-
cluded, and the Danes withdrew to London.
On the cessation of hostilities, Alfred was enabled to
turn his attention to naval affairs. The sea was swarming
with pirates, and their descents on tho coast kept the
country in a state of perpetual alarm. To cope with them
successfully Alfred resolved to meet them on their own
clement, and a naval victory which ho gained over seven
Danish rovers in 875 is tho first on record won by
Englishmen. In tho following year the peace of 871 was
broken. An army of Danes from East Anglia, under their
king, Guthrum, sailing along tho south coast, landed in
Wessex, seized upon Wareham, and afterwards upon Exeter,
then the centre of a disaffected Celtic population, and it
was not till 877 that tho country was once more free from
the invader.
The year 878 was the most eventful in the course of
Alfred's reign. At mid-winter, without any warning, the
Danes came pouring into Wes.';cx from the north, seized
Chippenham, and making it the centre of their operations,
quickly overran tho country. Many of the inhabitants, in
despair, fled into foreign lands, and Alfred, totally unpre-
pared to meet the storm, retired to tho marshes of Somerset.
Never at any other period, either before or after, were hia
fortunes so low, and tho national existence itself was at
stake. Had Alfred, like his kinsman Burhcd of Mercia,
left his people in their hour of need, the heathen Dane
in all probability would have acted like the heathen
Englishmen before him — a new race would have possessed
the land, and the names ©f England and Englishmen would
have disappeared from the page of history. Alfred's mis-
fortunes only roused him to fresh exertions, and hia
military skill and valour enabled him to carry his people
in safety through this momentous crisis Fortifying him-
self at Athelney about Easter, he secretly matured his
plans for meeting the enemy, and seven weeks after,
having collected his forces at Brixton near Selwood, he
rapidly advanced in a north-easterly direction, and waa
close upon the Danes before they had any intelligence of
his approach. A fierce conflict ensued at Ethandun, now
Edington, in which the Danes were entirely defeated; and
about fourteen days after this they were compelled to sue
for peace. By the treaty of Wedmore, Watling Street (the
old road running across the island from London to Chester
and the Irish Channel) was to bo the boundary between
Alfred and the Daues, the latter were to be vassals to the
kings of Wessex, and their chiefs to receive baptism. This
treaty was observed by the Danes with much greater fidelity
than those of an earlier date had been. Guthrum their king
and about thirty of their chiefs were baptised at Wedmore,
and Alfred, who siood sponsor for Guthrum, gave him the
name of jEthelstan. The Danish army after this slcmly
withdrew, and eventually csttled down peaceably in East
Anglia. The acceptance of Christianity by their chiefs
seems indeed to have broken for a time the fierce crusading
energy which gave a special animus to the piratical expedi-
tions of the heathen Danes.
As soon as peace had been concluded Alfred turned his
attention to the internal affairs of his kingdom. He
vigorously s^t to work to put the country in a complete
state of defence. Old fortifications were repaired and new
A L F - A L G
507
aces raised in suitable lac&liUea. TLe fleet viaa brought
into a state of greater efficiency, and it was Alfred indeed
that laid the foundation of England's naval greatness. He
cleared the land of the bands of robbers that infested it,
and took care that justice was impartially administered to
all his subjects, severely punishing any wilful perversion of
it on the part of the judges. In his code of laws, which
is a compilation from those of his predecessors, he wisely
abstained fron. introducing much of his own, giving as his
reason that he was afraid it might not be accepted by
posterity. He greatly encouraged commerce, and took a
lively interest in geographical discovery. We have from
his pen a minute account of two voyages of Ohthcre,
especially of the one round the North Cape into the White
Sea, and also of a voyage of Wulfstan to the Baltic. And
it is to Alfred that we are indebted for the best account that
has reached us of the Germany of the 9th century.
Alfred's devotion to learning, and his exertions in the
cause of education are among the most remarkable featxires
of his reign. So deep was the popular ignorance when
Alfred ascended the throne that, according to his own
testimony, hardly any one south of the Thames could under-
stand the ritual of the church or translate a Latin letter.
It was one of the strongest and most cherished of his
purposes that this atate of matters should be entirely
changed, and that every free-bom English youth who had
the means should qualify himself to read English correctly.
In order to accomplish this, he rebuilt the monasteries
which had been cast down in the late wars, and whicji
were the great centres of education in those days, invited
learned men from all quarters to his court, and by their
assistance completed a number of works for the diifusiou
of knowledge throughout his dominions. These were not
original compositions but free translations of Latin authors
that were held in much esteem at the time, and the fact
that Orosius and Bede are two of the works he selected,
shows the high value he set upon an acquaintance with
history and geography. A copy of his versiop of Gregory's
Pastoral Care was sent to every diocese for tlie benefit of
the clergy. It is in the preface to that work that Alfred
gives his touching account of the decay of learning, and
expresses his desire for its revival But the work which
seems to have had the greatest attraction for him was
The Consolations of Philosophy by Boethius. In his
translation of this work Alfred gives us more of his own
original composition, and a deeper insight into his thoughts
and feelings, than in any other of his works. His Manual
or Handbook, which is known to have been in existence in
the 12th century, is lost, and this is the more to be
regretted since, besides the extracts from Latin authors
which it contained, it is believed that he had inserted in it
not a few compositions of his own.
In occupations such as these fifteen years of comparative
tranquillity, disturbed now and then by troubles with the
Danes, passed away. A fresh swarm from abroad had landed
in Kent in 885 and besieged Eochester, but on the king's
approach thoy raised the siege and returned to their ships.
The next eight years were years of uninterrupted peace ;
but the Danes, suffering a severe defeat at the hands of
Amulf, king of the East Franks, sailed for England in two
divisions in 893. One of these divisions was under the
command of the terrible Hastings. Their arrival was a
signal to the Danes of Northumbria and East Anglia,
who rose in groat numbers to aid their kinsmen. Alfred,
however, was better prepared to meet the danger than ho
had formerly been. His towns were bo strong that the
Danes seem studiously to have avoided them. A body of
the enemy was routed by Alfred at Famham in Surrey.
Another gieat host, moving to the west in the Une
of the Thames, was followed by tlireo of Alfred's alder-
men to ButtLagton in Montgomeryshire and completely
defeated. Those who escaped made their way to Essex.
Leaving their wives and children there, and receiving con-
siderable additions to their numbers, they crossed the
country once more and established themselves within the
fortifications of the old Koman town of Choster, which
was then uninhabited. There they remained fur the
winter, when, provisions failing them, they removed to
Wales, and with the harvest of plunder they gathered there
they retreated mto Essex by way of the friendly districts
of Northumbria and East Anglia. So rapid had their
movements been that Alfred's army was tmable lo keep
up with them. The same year (895), before winter set in,
the Danes sailed up the Thames into the Lea, and selecting
an advantageous position on the banks of the latter stream,
constructed a fortress about 20 miles above London. As
this proved a considerable annoyance to the citizens, they
attacked it the following summer, but were repulsed with
great loss. During harvest the king was obliged to encamp
in the neighbourhood of the city to protect the reapers
while gatheiing in their crops. He afterwards raised two
forts on each side of the Lea, and so effectually blocked
up the passage of the river that the enemy abandoned their
vessels and proceeded to Bridgenorth on the Severn. In
the summer of 897 the great Danish host broke up, and
part of them returned to the continent. The rest dis-
persed through Northumbria and East Anglia, and for
some time gave Alfred no little trouble by their piratical
excursions. By means of vessels formed after a model of
his own, of unusual length and speed, he succeeded at
last in curbing his Danish foes, but not tiU after a
desperate encounter with them on the south coast, in
which the advantage was not all on his side. The war was,
as usual, accomparded by pestilence, and great nucibers
perished, many being persons of the highest rank in the
state. The rest of Alfred's reign, about which we know
^Jmost nothing, seems to have been passed in peace. He
died in the year 901, at the age of fifty-two, and was
buried at Winchester.
The memory of Alfred has ever been gratefully cherished
by his countrymen. There never perhaps was a monarch
so highly esteemed ; and traditional stories of the most
fascinating description cluster around his name, in which
he appears almost to as much advantage as in real history.
Institutions that existed long before his time, but whose
origin it is impossible to trace, have erroneously been
attributed to him; and in the times of Norman oppres-
sion, when the people were groaning under the burden of
slavery, they fondly called to mind the "Darling of the
EngUah," to whom they ascribed all those rights and
privileges which they so highly valued, and of which they
had been unjustly deprived. Time but adds to Alfred's
praises. With one consent our historians agree in char-
acterising hitn as the wisest, best, and greatest king that
ever reigned in England.
The following is a Hat ol Alfred's works : —
1. Manual or Handboolc, of which no copy is known to exist
2. Laws (sfio "Wilkin's Leges An^lo-Saxoniccc, 1721, and Thorpe's
Andcnt Laws and T:istitiUis of Englavd^ London, 1840). Transla-
tions into Old English (Anglo-Saxon) of the following : — 3. Bede'a
Ecclesiastical History^ edited by "WTicloc, Cambridge, 164S-4, and
by Smith, Cambridge, 1722. 4. The Universal History of Orosius,
edited by Thorpe, London, 1857. 5. The Cmsolations of Philosophy,
by Boctaius, edited by Fox, London, 1864. 6. Gregory's Pastoral
Care, edited by Sweet for the Early English Text Society, London,
1871-2.
For furthor information about Alfred see Pauli's Life of Alfred and
Freeman's Old English History and History of tht Norman C(r.'.qi:csl,
KLQM, or Hydkophyta, a large order of cellular,
fiowerless, cryptogamic plants, found in the sea (seaweeds),
in rivers, lakes, marshes, hot springs, and moist places, all
over the world. They consist of a brown, red, or green,
508
A L G iE
flattened, cellular, leaf-kke erpansion, called a tludlus,
sometimes stalked, which beara the organs of reproduction.
Some have root-like processes by which they are attached
to rocks. These do not act like the nourishing roots of
flowering plants ; they simply fix the plants and enable
them to sway about in the water. This is markedly the
case with tUe Laminarias, or large tangles of our coasts.
The leafy appendages of seaweeds are called fronds. They
vary in size, colour, and consistence. Some of the red and
green delicate fronds form beautiful objects when carefully
dried and laid out on drawing-paper. In order to dry sea-
weeds they must bo first washed carefully in fresh water
to separate saline matters, and then placed within drying-
paper and subjected to pressure. Very delicate seaweeds
should be floated out in water, drawing-paper being placed
under them, and their fronds being carefully arranged on
the paper before they are raised out of the water. They
must then be dried partially in the air, and afterwards under
pressure between sheets of drying-paper.
Seaweeds are composed entirely of cells, which in some
instances become elongated so as to have the appearance of
tubes. Some Alg® are uni-ceUular, that is, are composed
of a single cell, as occurs in some Desniidieae, as Closterium.
At other times they are composed of numerous cells, which
are kept together by a gelatinous matter, but separating
easily from each other so as to have an independent exist-
ence. This is observed in the red snow plant [Protococcus
or Palmella nivalis). The celb of seaweeds are sometimes
joined together so as to form a linear series, and to give
them a thread-like appearance ; and in such a case, when
the divisions between the cells are marked, the whole
appears like a beaded necklace of cells. When the ceUs
are united both lengthwise and laterally they then form
an expanded flat frond. In some instances the frond is
gelatinous.
The germinating bodies or spores of seaweeds are cells
often contained in cavities (Fig. 2). They vary in colour,
and the fronds have frequently the same colour as the
spores. In reference to their colour, Algse have been
divided into three sub-orders : 1. Melunosperme®, brown
coloured seaweeds (Fig. 1), with olive-brown spores; 2.
Rhodospermese, rose-coloured seaweeds, with red spores ;
3. Chlorospermeoe, green-coloured seaweeds, with green
spores.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 3.
ns. I.— Thallus, It, of Fucul talcuJona, the common Bladaer Seaweed, with
ftir-Tcslcle, V, and masses of cooceptaclesconstltutlnp the (rnctification, /V-./r,
which is eoraetimes called Rlcba. Fiff. 2. — Fructification of a Seaweed, con-
ti\ininK spores, which are ultimately discharged at an opening, o. • Fig. s.^
Tctraspore of one of the rose-coloured Seaweeds.
Algas are multiplied by the division of cells and by
■spores. . By cell-division there is a multipUcation of cells, '
.aiid by separation from the parent plant these cells may |
bear buds. True fertilisation is effected by means oi
union of ceUs, or wlnt is called conjugation. In this pro-
cess two kinds of cells unite by means of a tube, and the
contenta of the one passes into the other, thus giving rise
to germinating spores. This is seen in Conferva;, such as
the green matter ofteu seen in ;)onds, and called silk-weed.
There are also observed in Algoe two kinds of fertilising
bodies, one set called Antheridia, containing moving fila-
ments or spermatozoids ; and the other called Archegdnia,
containing a rudimentary cell, which, after contact with
the spermatozoids, becomes a spore forming a new plant.
The spores produced by some Algas move about in
water, and have been called Zoospores. Their spontaneous
movements are efl'ected by means of vibratilo slender
threads called cilia. These zoospores are contained in a
cell, which ultimately bursts and scatters them. The pro-
cess is well seen in a green Alga called Voucheria. The zoo-
spores move about for a certain time, and ultimately the
spores get fixed to a rock or the wood of a pier, and then
the cilia disappear. CUia sometimes occur in pairs at one
end of a spore, numbering two or three ; at other times
they are placed round the whole circumference of the spora
Spores have a tendency to divide into four ; such com-
pound spores are called tetraspores (Fig. 3). They are
common in the sub-order Rhodospermcie. They seem to
difl'er from ordinary spores, and to be more of the nature of
buds. In some Algae, such as Corallines, there is a coating
of calcareous matter which conceals their tissue. This can
bo removed by means of hydrochloric acid. Diatoms, a
subdivision of Algae, are so called from two Greek words
signifying to cut through, in allusion to the modO of divi-
sion into two valves. They ere microscopic one-cellod
bodies, covered externally by a siliceous or flinty coat.
They are on the confines of the animal and vegetable king-
doms, and have been referred sometimes to the one and
sometimes to the other. Their mode of reproduction by
conjugation and spores seems to indicate their alliance
with Algae, although some still place them among infusorial
animalcules. The siliceous markings of Diatoms are very
beautiful microscopic objects. After exposure to the action
of fire or nitric acid, the sUex remains unaltered, and in that
state the streaks of the covering are easily observed.
Many of the Algae supply nutritious food. M/iodymenia
palmaia, one of the red seaweeds, is the dulse of the
Scotch, the diUcsk of the Irish. Chondrus (Sphuerococcus)
crispus and C. mammillosus, two Rhodosperms, receive the
name of carrageen or Irish moss. Their fronds consist in
part of a substance aUied to starch, which is extracted by
putting them in water, and on cooling it forms a jelly.
Species of Ulva, one of the Chlorosperms, supply the green
laver. Species of Caulerpa furnish food to turtles. Lamina
aria di-gitata, and Laminaria saccharina, jinder the name
of tangle, are eaten in the north of Europe. Dulse
and tangle was formerly a common cry in the streets of
Edinburgh. D'Urvillcea ulilis is used as food in Cluli
Alaria esculenta, a British species, is also edible. Gigarlina
speciosa is used for jelly in the Swan River settlement
Gracilaria lichenoides, under the name of Ceylon moss, is
used for soups and jellies. Gracilaria spinosa supplies
the Agar-Agar in China. NoUoc edule is a Chinese article
of diet. The edible nests of China are supposed to bo
formed from seaweeds. Plocaria ienax is used in China
to furnish glue. Indaea edulis is edible. Laurencia pin-
natifida is called- pepper-dulse on account of having
pungent qualities. Seaweeds form an excellent manure.
They are used on many farms situated near the sea-shore;
Seaweeds after burning yield bariUa, an impure carbonata
of soda. , Kelp was for many years prepared from sea-
weeds in Scotland, more especially in the Western and
Northern Islands.
A L G — A L G
509
A3 regards the distribution of seaweeds, some are cosmo-
politan or pelagic, as Gpecio3 of Ulv:; and Enteromorpha,
which are equally abundant in high northern and
southern latitudes, as they are under the equator and in
temperate regions. Many Diatomacese are distributed
from pole to pole. In general, however, seaweeds are more
or less limited in their distribution, so that different marine
floras exist in various parts of the ocean. The marine
species have been estimated at about 6000, and they are
distributed in various regions. The Northern Ocean, from
the pole, to the 40th degree, the sea of the Antilles, the
eastern coasts of South America, those of New Holland,
the Indian Archipelago, the Mediterranean, the Eed Sea,
the Chinese and Japanese, seas, all present very large
marine regions, each of which possesses a peculiar vegeta-
tion. The degree of exposure to light, and the greater or
less motion of the waves, are important in the distribution
of Algse. The intervention of great depths of the ocean
has an influence on sea plants similar to that of high moun-
tains on land plants. Melanc3permeae increase as we
approach the tropics, where the maximum of the species is
found. Ehodospermeaa chiefly abound in the temperate
zone ; while Chlorospermese form the chief marine
vegetation of the polar zone, and abound in the colder
temperate zone. The green colour is characteristic of
those Algsa which grow either in fresh water or in the
shallower parts of the sea ; the oHve-colouied Algfo are
abundant between the tide-marks ; while the red-coloured
species occur chiefly in the deeper and the darker parts of
the sea.
Some seaweeds are worthy of note on account of the
mode of their growth and distribution. Chorda Filum, a
long cord-Uke seaweed, lies in beds of 15 to 20 miles in
length, and only about 600 feet in breadth, in the North
Sea and the British Channel Sargassum hacciferum con-
stitutes the Gulf-weed, which has been noticed by all who
have crossed the Atlanjic. The Qulf-weed has never been
seen attached, but always floating. From the abundance
of this seaweed its locality is called the Sargasso Sea.
The most remarkable of the seaweeds, as regards size and
the extent of range, are Macrocyslis pyrifera and Lami-
naria radiata. Masses of Macrocystis, like green meadows,
are found in eveiy latitude. Many specimens have been
seen about 300 feet long ; some even extend to 700 feet
or upwards. A tree seaweed, Lessonia fuscescens, with a
stem 10 feet long, 12 inches in circumference, and its
fronds 2-3 feet long and 3 inches broad, is found in im-
mense masses off the Patagonian regions. jyUrvillcea
ulilis is another large Antarctic seaweed, which, along with
Lessonia;, occurs at the Falkland Islands, formed by the
surf into enormous vegetable cables, several hundred feet
long, and thicker than the human body. In Britain we
have a marked distribution of seaweeds as regards depth.
There is a httoral zone Ij'ing between high and low water
marks, divided into sub- regions characterised by the follow-
ing seaweeds : — 1. Fucus canaliculatus ; 2. Fuctis vesicu-
losus ; 3. Fucus nodosus ; 4. Fucus serratus. Secondly,
there is a laminarian zone, commencing at low-water
mark, and extending for a depth of 7 to 15 fathoms.
llere we meet with the great tangle seaweeds, such as
Laminaria digilata and L. saccharina, along with deep-
water Fuci. (.T. H. B.)
ALGAllDI, Alessandeo, one of the most celebrated
sculptors of Italy, was born at Bologna in 1602, and died
in 1654. While ho was attending the school of the Caracci
his preference for the plastic art became evident, and ho
placed himself under the instruction of the sculptor Con-
venti At the age of twenty he was brought under the
notice of Duke Ferdinand of Mantua, who gave hiin
several commissions. He was also much employed about
the same period by jewellers and others in modelling in
gold, sOver, and ivory. After a short residence in Venice,
he went to Eome in 1625 with an introduction from the
Duke of Mantua to the pope's nephew, Cardinal Ludovisi,
who employed him for a time in the restoration of ancient
statues. The death of the Duke of Mantua left him to his
own resources, and for several years he earned a precarious
maintenance from these restorations and the commissions
of goldsmiths and jewellers. In 1640 he executed for
Fietro Buoncompagni his first work in marble, a colossal
statue of San FUippo Neri, with kneeling angels. Imme-
diately after, he produced a similar group, representing the
execution of St Paul, for the church of the Barnabita
Fathers in Bologna. These works, displaying great tech-
nical skill, though with considerable exaggeration of
expression and attitude, at once established Algardi'a
reputation, and other commissions followed in rapid suc-
cession. The turning-point in Algardi's fortune was the
accession of Innocent X., of the Bolognese house of Panfili,
to the papal throne in 1644. Ho was employed by
Camillo Panfili, nephew of the pontifi", to design the
ViUa Doria PanfiU outside the San Pancrazio gate. The
most important of Algardi's other works were the monu-
ment of Leo XI., a bronze statue of Innocent X. for the
Capitol, and, above all. La Fuega d'Atlila, the largest
alto-riUevo in the world, the two principal figures being
about 10 feet high. The great technical excellence of
these works is considerably marred by an exaggeration of
expression resulting from the vain endeavour to produce
in marble effects which can only be legitimately brought
out on canvas. From an artistic point of view, he is most
successful in his portrait-statues and groups of children,
where he is obliged to follow nature most closely. In his
later years he became very avaricious, and amassed a great
fortune.
ALGAKOTTI, Fkaucesco, Count, was born at Venice
on the 11th December 1712. He went abroad in his
youth, and in 1733 visited Paris, where he issued his
Newtonian Philosophy for the Ladies, in the work entitled
The Plurality of Worlds. He was much honoured by
Frederick the Great, who, when crowned at Konigsberg in
1740, created him a count of Prussia. He died at Pisa on
the 23d of May 1764, and, by his own directipn, the follow-
ing inscription was placed upon his tomb : — Hie jacet
Algarottus, sed non omnis. He is allowed to have been a
great connoisseur in painting, sculpture, and architecture;
and he contributed much to the reformation of the Italian
opera. His works (6 vols., Leghorn, 1764 ; 17 vols.,
Venice, 1791-4) are numerous, and on a variety of sub-
jects, abounding with vivacity, elegance, and wit.
ALGAE VE, the most southerly province of Portugal, is
bounded on the E. by the Spanish province cf Seville,
from which it is separated by the river Guadiana ; on the
N. by Alemtejo ; and on the W. and S. by the Atlantic
Ocean. Its length from east to west is 85 miles, the
average width is 22 miles, and the area, according to the
most recent measurement, 1865 square miles. In 1808
the population was 177,342, giving the small proportion
of 95 to the square mile.
The Sierra de Caldeiraon and the Sierra de Monchiqua
extend across the northern part of the province, and,
sweeping to the south-west, terminate in the lofty pro-
montory of Cape St Vincent, the south-west extremity of
Europe. Between the mountainous tracts in the north
and the southern coast stretches a narrow plain, watered
by numerous rivers flowing southward from the liiUs. In
the hilly districts the roads are had, the soil unsuited for
cultivation, and the inhabitants few. Flocks of goats are
reared on the mountain sides. The level country along
the southern coast ia more fertile, and produces in abun-
510
A L G — A L G
('ince grapes, figs, oranges, lemons, oUtos, almonds, and
. aloes, and ov£n the plantain and tko data. The land is,
however, not well euited for the production of cereals;
little wheat or other corn is grown in the province, and its
grain supplies are chielly derived from Spain. On tlio
■ coast the people derive their subsistence in great measure
from the fisheries, tunny and sardines being caught in
considerable quantities. Salt is also made from sea-water.
There is no manufacturing or mining industry of any
impcrtanco. The harbours are bad, and the whole foreign
trade is carried on by ships of other nations, although the
inhabitants of Algarve are reputed to be the best seamen
and fishermen of Portugal. The chief exports are dried
fruit, wine, salt, tunny, sardines, and anchovies.
The name of 7flgar\'e is derived from the Arabic, and
signifies a land lying to the west. The province was taken
from the Moors in 12.')3 by Alphonso III., king of Por-
tugal, who then assumed the additional title of king of
Algarve. It is sometimes designated the district of Faro,
and is subdivided into fifteen communes and sixty-two
parishes. The chief town is Faro, and among the other
towns are Castro Marino, Tavira, Portimao, Lagos, and
Sagres, all on the coast or on the estuaries of the rivers,
and Silves, on the river Portimao, the ancient Moorish
capital of Algarve.
ALGAU, or Alloau, the name now given to a compara-
tively small ■ district forming the south-western corner of
Bavaria, and belonging to the province of Swabia and Neu-
burg, but formerly applied to a much larger territory, which
•extended as far as the Danube on the north, the Inn on
the south, and the Lech on the west. The Algau Alps
contain several lofty peaks, the highest of which is Miidele-
Gabel, 8611 feet above the sea. The district is celebrated
for the cattle, milk, butter, and cheese that it produces.
AL-GAZALI, Abu Hamed MuuAMMAD,usuallydescribed
as an Arabian philosopher, was really a Moslem theologian
who met the heretical philosophers on their own ground.
He was born in 1058, and belonged to the sect of the
Ascharites, or extreme right of the Motecallemin, who
(and not the philosophers) were the real Arabian school-
men. At thirty-three he became the head of a theological
college at Baghdad, where his professor's chf.ir was sur-
rounded by eager crowds, including all the imams of the
country. It was a time of keen speculation, when philo-
sophic scepticism was encouraged in high places ; and the
l^remature convictions of Al-Gazali gave way under a
violent reaction against the orthodox creed. Driven by
mental inquietude, he escaped from Baghdad on the plea of
-making a pilgrimage to Mecca, but went to Syria, and
(after visiting, though a Mahometan, the Holy Sepulchre
at Jerusalem) settled at Damascus, where he spent ten
years in seclusion and meditation. Recalled by his private
.afifairs as he was on his way to Egypt, he returned to
Baghdad, reluctantly resumed teaching (which he continued
for fifteen years), then retired to Tous, his native to^vn,
and devoted his remaining years to the contemplative life
of the Sufis, who had been his earliest instructors. He
died in 1111. His outer Life, so restless and unquiet, was
the reflex of a mental history disturbed by prolonged agita-
tion. Kevolting, in the height of his success, against the
current creed, he began to examine the foundations of
knowledge. ^Tiere could certainty be found 1 In the
perceptions of the senses 1 But these are contradicted by
one another, and disproved by reason. In the notions of
reason 1 Reason, indeed, professes to furnish us with
necessary truths ; but what assurance have we that the
verdicts of reason may not be reversed by some higher
authority 1 Al-GazaU then interrogated all the sects in
succession to learn their criterion of truth. He first applied
to the theological schoolmen, who grounded their religion
on reason ; but their aim was only to preserve the faith
from heresy. Ho turned to the philosophers, and examined
the accepted Aristotelianism in a treatise which has cume
down to us — The Destruction of the Philosophers. He
assails them on twenty pointa of their mixed physical and
metaphysical peripateticism, from the statement of which,
in spite of his pretended scepticism, we can deduce some
very positive metaphysical opinions of his own. He claims
to have shown that the dtjgnias of the eternity of matter
and the permanence of the world are false ; that their
description of the Deity as the' demiurgos is unspiritual ;
that they fail to prove the existence, the unity, the sim-
plicity, the incorporeality, or the knowledge (both of
species and accidents) of God ; that their ascription of
souls to the celestial spheres is unproved ; that their theory
of causation, which attributes effects to the very natures of
the causes, is false, for that all actions and events are to
bo ascribed to the Deity ; and, finally, that they cannot
establish the spirituahty of the soul, nor prove its mortality.
These criticisms disclose nothing like a sceptical state of
mind, but rather a reversion from the metaphysical to the
theological stage of thought. He denies the intrinsic
tendencies, or souls, by which the Aristotehans exphiined
the motion of the spheres, because he ascribes their motion
to God. The sceptic would have denied both. Mr Lewes
rightly censures M. Renan for asserting of Al-Gazali'g
theory of causation — " Ilvme u'a rien dit plus." It is
true that Al-Gazali maintains that the natural law accord-
ing to which effects proceed inevitably from their causes
is only custom, and that there is no necessary connection
between them. So far the Eastern and the European
sceptic are on the same ground. But while Hume abso-
lutely denies the necessity, Al-Gazali merely removes it
one stage further back, and plants it in the mind of the
Deity. This, of course, is not metaphysics, but theology.
Having, as he believed, refuted the opinions of the philo-
sophers, ho next investigated the pretensions of the AUe-
gorists, who derived their doctrines from an imam. Thc^e
Arabian ultramontanes had no word for the doubter. Did
he ask for the proof of their doctrine, they could only
answer that " thus it was written." They could not, he
says, even understand the problems they sought to resolve
by the assumption of infallibility, and he turned again, in
his despair, to the instructors of his youth — the Suiis. In
their mystical intuition of the laws of life, and absorption
in the immanent Deity, he at last found peace. This
pathetic close of his stormy career negatives the idea that
he ever wrote the philosophical work he once contem-
plated on The Bases of Belief, and at the same time shows
the true character of the treatise which, alike in mediicval
and modern times, has been quoted as containing an
ejiposition of his opinions. The work called 77(3 Terv-
dencies of the Philosophers, and which was translated in
1006, with the title Logica et Philosophia Algazclis Arabis,
contains neither the logic nor the philosophy of Al-GazalL
It is a mere abstract or statement of the Peripatetic
systems, and was made preliminary to that Destruction of
which we have already spoken. With this work Arabian
philosophy in the East came to an end ; but it revived
in the new Arabia which had been planted in the West —
in Mahometan Spain. If, therefore, Al-Gazali was the
Oriental Descartes in being the first desti-uctive sceptic
of the old, he was its Descartes no less in being the
initiator of the new philosophy.
For direct knowledge of Al-Gazali, see his Destructto, &c. , in the
ninth voh of Averrhoes's worts, but especially his spiritTial auto-
biofjrapbj*, translated by Schmblders ia his Essai sur Ics Ecoles
Philosophiqxus cJuiz les Arahes. See also Von Hanuner, introduction
to 0 Kind ; Munk, M^n-ngcs ; and fiosche in Ahhandbmgen der
Kimig, AkiuL- .tier tVisscnscha/ten zu Berlin, 1868.
511
ALGEBRA
Oiflnition. A LQEBRA is that branch of the mathematical sciences
XA. which has for its object the carrying on of operations
either in an order different from that which exists in arith-
metic, or of a nature not contemplated in fixing the bound-
aries of that science. Tho circumstance that algebra has
its origin in arithmetic, however widely it may in the end
differ from that science, led Sir Isaac Newton to designate
it " Universal Arithmetic," a designation which, vague as it
is, indicates its character better than any other by .which it
has been attempted to express its functions — better certainly,
to ordinary minds, than the designation which has been
applied to it by Sir William Eowan Hamilton, one of t'je
greatest mathematicians the world has seen since the days
of Newton — "the Science of Pure Time;" or even than
the title by which Da Morgan would paraphrase Hamilton's
words — "tho Calculus of Succession."
To express in few words what it is which effects the
transition from the science of arithmetic into a new field is
not easy. It will serve, probably, to convey some notion
of the position of the boundary line, when it is stated that
the operations of arithmetic are aU capable of direct inter-
pretation per ge, whilst those of algebra are in many cases
interpretable only by comparisoij with the assuntptions on
which they are based. For example, multiplication of
fractions — which the older writers on arithmetic, Lucas de
Burgo in Italy, and Eobert Recorde in England, clearly
perceived to be a new application of the term multiplication,
scarcely at fiist sight reconcilable with its original definition
as the exponent of equal additions, — multiplication of
fractions becomes interpretable by the introduction of the
idea of multiplication into the definition of the fraction
itself. On the other hand, the independent use of the sign
minus, on which Diophantus, in the 4th century, laid the
foundation of the science of algebra in the West, by placing
in the forefront of his treatise, as one of his earliest defini-
tions, the rule of the sign minus, "that mireMS multiplied by
minus produces jd/m«" — this independent use of the sign has
no originating operation of the same character as itself, and
might, if assumed in all its generality as existing side by
side with the laws of arithmetic, more especially with the
commutative law, ha^e led to erroneous conclusions. As
it is, the unlimited applicability of this definition, in con-
nection with all the laws of arithmetic standing in their
integrity, pushes the dominion of algebra into a field on
which the oldest of the Greek arithmeticians, Euclid, in his
unbending march, could never have advanced a step with-
out doing violence to his convictions.
In asserting that the independent existence of tne sign
minus, side by side with the laws of arithmetic, might have
led to anomalous results, had not the operations been subject
to some limitation, we are introducing no imaginary
hypothesis, but are referring to a fact actually existing.
The most recent advance beyond the boundaries of algebra,
as it existed fifty years ago, is that beautiful extension to
which Sir W. E. Hamilton has given the designation of Qua-
ternions, tho very foundation of which requires the removal
of one of the ancient axioms of arithmetic, " that opera-
tions may bo performed in any order."
HISTOEY.
At what period and in what country algebra was invented!
is a question that has been much di.scu.ssed. Who were the
earliest writers on the subject? What was the progress of
its improvement 1 And lastly, by what means and at what
period was tho science diffu.sed over Europe? It was a
oiminon opinion in the 17th century that the ancient Greek
mathematicians must have possessed an analysis of the
nature of modem algebra, by which they discovered the
theorems and solutions of the problems which we so much
admire in their writings ; but that they carefully concealed
their instruments of investigation, and gave only the re-
sults, with synthetic demonstrations.
This opinion is, however, now exploded. A more inti-
mate acquaintance with the writings of the ancient geo-
meters has shown that they had an analysis, but that it
was purely geometrical, and essentially different from oui
algebra.
Although there is no reason to suppose that the great
geometers of antiquity derived any aid in their discoveries
from the algebraic analysis, yet we find that at a consider-
ably later period it was known to a certain extent among
the Greeks.
About the middla of the 4th century of the Christian era,
a period when the mathematical sciences were on the decline,
and their cultivators, instead of producing original works of
genius, contented themselves with commentaries on the
works of their more illustrious predecessors, there was a
valuable addition made to the fabric of ancient learning.
This was the treatise of Diophantus on arithmetic, con- Diophan-
sisting originally of thirteen books, of which only the '■'*•
first six, and an incomplete book on polygonal numbers,
supposed to be the thirteenth, have descended to our
times.
This precious fragment does not exhibit anything like a
complete treatise on algebra. It lays, however, an exceUent
foundation of the science, and the author, after applying hia
method to the solution of simple and quadratic equations,
such as to "find two numbers of which the sum and the
sum or difference of the squares are given," proceeds to
a peculiar class of arithmetical questions, which belong to
what is now called the indeterminate analysis.
Diophantus may have been the inventor of the Greek
algebra, but it is more likely that its principles were not
unknown before his time ; and that, taking the science in
the state in which he found it as the basis of his labours, he
enriched it with new applications. The elegant solutions of
Diophantus show that he possessed great address in tho
particular branch of which he treated, and that he was able
to resolve determinate equations of the second degree.
Probably this was the greatest extent to which the science
had been carried among the Greeks. Indeed, in no country
did it pass this limit, untU it had been transplanted into
Italy on the revival of learning.
The celebrated Hypatia, the daughter of Theon, com-
posed a commentary on the work of Diophantus. This,
however, is now lost, as well as a similar treatise, on
the Conies of Apollonius, by this illustrious and ill-
fated lady, who, as is commonly known, fell a sacrifice
to the fury of a fanatical mob about the beginning of the
5th century.
About the middle of the IGth century, the v.ork of
Diophantus above referred to, written in the Greek lan-
guage, was discovered at Rome in the Vatican library, having
probably been brought there from Greece when the Turk*
possessed themselves of Constantinople. A Latin transla-
tion, without the original text, was given to the world by
Xylander in 1575; and a more cor.iplete translation, by
Bachet do Mezeriac (one of the earliest members of the
French Academy), accompanied by a commentary, cppoarBd
in 1621. Bachet was eminently skilful in the indeterminate
analysis, and therefore well qualified for the work he haJ
undertaken ; but the text c5l Diophantus was so much in-
512
ALGEBRA
[history.
lurcyl, that !io was frequently obliged to guess the mean-
ing of tlio author, or supply tlio deficiency. At a later
period, the celebrated French matlicmatician Fcrmat supplo-
monted the commentary of Bachct by notes of his own on
tlio writings of the Greek algebraist. These are extremely
valuable, on account of I'ermat's profound knowlcdgo of
this particular branch of analysis. This edition, the best
which exists, appeared in 1G70.
AraDiaii Although the revival of the writings of Diophantus was
w.lers. on important event in the history of mathematics, yet it
was not from them that algebra became first known in
Europe. This important invention, as well as the numeral
characters and decimal arithmetic, was received from the
Arabians. That ingenious people fully appreciated the
value of the sciences; for at a period when aU Europe was
enveloped in the darkness of ignorance, they preserved
from extinction the lamp of knowledge. They carefully
collected the writings of the Greek mathematicians ; they
translated them into their language, and illustrated them
with commentaries. It was through the medium of the
Arabic tongue that the elements of Euclid were first in-
troduced into Europe ; and a part of the writings of
ApoUonius are only known at the present day by a trans-
lation from the Arabic, the Greek original being lost.
The Arabians ascribe the invention of their algebra to one
of their matl'.ematicians, Mahomraed-ben-Musa, or Moses,
called also Mahommed of Buziana, who flourished about
the middle of the 9th century, in the reign of the Caliph
Almanroun.
It is certain that this person composed a treatise on this
subject, because an Italian translaticm was knovm at one
time to have existed in Europe, although it is now lost.
Fortunately, however, a copy of the Arabic original is
preserved in the Bodleian Library at O.xford, bearing a date
of transcription corresponding to the year 1342. The title-
. page identifies its author with the ancient Arabian. A
marginal note concurs in this testimony, and further
declares the work to be the first treatise composed on
algebra among the faithful ; and the preface, besides in-
dicating the author, intimates that ho was encouraged by
Abnamoun, commander of the faithful, to compile a com-
pendious treatise of calculation by algebra.
The circumstance of this treatise professing to be only a
compilation, and, moreover, the first Arabian work of the
kind, has led-tp an opinion that it was collected from books
in some other language. As the author was intimately
acquainted with the astronomy and computations of the
Hindoos, he may have derived his knowledge of algebra
from the same quarter. The Hindoos, as we shall presently
see, had a science of Algebra, and knew how to solve in-
determinate problems. Hence we may conclude, with some
probability, that the Arabian algebra was originally derived
from India.
The algebraic analysis, having been once introduced
among the Arabians, was cultivated by their own writers.
■One of these, Mahommed Abulwafa, who flourished in the
last forty years of the 1 0th centurj', composed commentaries
on the writers who had preceded him. He also translated
the writings of Diophantus.
It is remarkable, that although the mathematical sciences
were received with avidity, and sedulously cultivated during
a long period by the Arabians, yet in their hands they
received hardly any improvement. It might have been
expected that an acquaintance with the writings of Dio-
phantus would have produced some change in their algebra.
This, however, ■ did not happen : their algebra continued
nearly in the same state, from their earliest writer on the
subject, to one of their latest, Behaudin, who lived between
the years 953 and 1031.
Writers on the history of algebra were long under a
mistake ai to the time and manner of its introduction into lutroduo-
Europc. It has now, however, been ascertained that the tiou into
science was brought into Italy by Leonardo, a merchant of J- "fp" by-
Pisa. This ingenious man resided in his youth in Barbary, ""'^'^"'•
and there learned the Indian method of counting by the
nine numeral characters. Commercial afi"air8 led him to
travel into Egypt, Syria, Greece, and Sicily, where we may
suppose he made himself acquainted with everything
known respecting numbers. The Indian mode of computa-
tion appeared to hira to be by far the best. He accordingly
studied it carefully ; and, with this knowledge, and some
additions of his own, and also taking some things from
Euclid's Geometry, ho composed a treatise on arithmetic.
At that period algebra was regarded only as a part of arith-
metic. It was indeed the sublime doctrine Of that science;
and under this view the two branches were handled in
Leonardo's treatise, which was originaUy written in 1202,
and again brought forward under a revised form in 1228.
When it is considered that this work was composed two
centuries before the invention of printing, and that the
subject was not such as generally to interest mankind, we
need not wonder that it was but little known; hence it has
always remained in manuscript, as well as some other works
by the same author. Indeed it was not known to exist from
an early period until the middle of the last century, when
it was discovered in the Magliabecchian library at Florence.
The extent of Leonardo's knowledge was pretty much
the same as that of the preceding Arabian writers. He
could resolve equations of the first and second degrees, and
he was particularly skilfid in the Diophantine analysis.
He was well acquainted with geometry, and he employed
its doctrines in demonstrating his algebraic rules. Like
the Arabian writers, his reasoning was expressed in words
at length ; a mode highly unfavourable to the progress of
the art. The use of symbols, and the method of combin-
ing them so as to convey to the mind at a single glance a
long process of reasoning, was a much later invention.
Considerable attention was given to the cultivation of
algebra between the time of Leonardo and the invention of
printing. It was publicly taught by professors. Treatises
were composed on the subject; and two works of tho
oriental algebraists were translated from the Arabian
language into Italian. One was entitled the Itule of
Atgebra, and the other was the oldest of all the Arabian
treatises, that of Mahommed-ben-Musa of Coraean.
The earliest printed book on algebra was composed by Lucas Ja
Lucas Paciolus, or Lucas de Burgo, a minorite friar. It Burg'-'-
was first printed in 1494, and again in 1523. The title
is Surama de Arithmctica, Geomclria, Proportioni, et Pro-
portionalila.
This is a very complete treatise on arithmetic, algebra,
and geometry, for the time. in which it appeared. Tho
author followed close on the steps of Leonardo ; and, in-
deed, it is from this work that one of his lost treatises has
been restored.
Lucas do Burgo's work is interesting, inasmuch as it"
shows the state of algebra in Europe about the year
1500 : probably the state of the science was nearly the same
in Arabia and Africa, from which it had been received.
The power of algebra as an instrument of research is in
a very great degree derived from its notation, by which all
the quantities under consideration are kept constantly in
view ; but in respect of convenience and brevity of expres-
sion, the algebraic analysis in the days of Lucas de Burgo
was very imperfect : the only symbols employed were a few
abbreviations of the words or names which occurred in
the processes of calculation, a kind of short-hand, which
formed a very imperfect substitute for that compactness
of expression which has been attained by the modern
notation.
HISTOEY.J
ALGEBRA
513
The application of algebra was also at this period very
limited ; it was confined almost entirely to the resolution
of certiin questions of no great interest about numbers.
No idea wa^ then entertained of that extensive application
which it has received in modem times.
The knowledge which the early algebraists had of their
science was also circumscribed : it extended only to the
resolution of equations of the first and second degrees ; and
they divided the last into cases, each of which was resolved
by its own particular rule. The important analytical fact,
that the resolution of all the cases of a problem may be
comprehended in a single formula, which may be obtained
from the solution of one of its cases, merely by a change of
the signs, was not then known : indeed, it was long before
this principle was fully comprehended. Dr Halley ex-
presses surprise, that a formula in optics which he had
found, should by a mere change of the signs give the focus
of both converging and diverging rays, whether reflected
or refracted by convex or concave specula or lenses; and
Molyneux speaks of the universality of Bailey's formula
as something that resembled magic.
The rules of algebra may be investigated by its own prin-
ciples, without any aid from geometry; and although in
some cases the two sciences may serve to illustrate each
other, there is not now the least necessity in the more
elementary parts to call in the aid of the latter in etqjound-
ing the former. It was otherwise in former times. Lucas
de Burgo found it to be convenient, after the example of
Leonardo, to employ geometrical constructions to prove the
truth of his rules for resolving quadratic equations, the
nature of which he did not completely comprehend ;
and he was induced by the imperfect nature of his nota-
tion to express his rules in Latin verses, which will not
now be read with the kind of satisfaction we receive
from the perusal of the well-known poem, " the Loves of
the Triangles."
As Italy was the first European country where algebra
became known, it was there that it received its earliest Im-
provements. The science had been nearly stationary from
the days of Leonardo to the time of Paciolus, a period of
three centuries ; but the invention of printing soon excited
a spirit of improvement in all the mathematical sciences.
Hitherto an imperfect theory of quadratic equations was
the limit to which it had been carried. At last this
boundary was passed, and about the year 1505 a particular
case of equations of the third degree was resolved by Scipio
I'erreas. Ferreus, a professor of mathematics in Bononia. This was
an important step, because it showed that the difficulty of
resolving equations of the higher orders, at least in the case
of the third degree, was not insurmountable, and a new
field was opened for discovery. It was then the practice
among the cultivators of algebra, when they advanced a
step, to conceal it carefully from their contemporaries, and
to challenge them to resolve arithmetical questions, so
framed as to require for their solution a knowledge of their
own new-found rules. In this spirit did Ferreus make a
secret of his discovery : he communicated it, however, to a
favourite scholar, a Venetian named Florido. About the
year 1535 this person, having taken up his residence at
lartalea. Venice, challenged Tartalea of Brescia, a man of great
ingenuity, to a trial of skill in the resolution of problems
by algebra. Florido framed his questions so as to require
for their solution a knowledge of the rule which he had
learned from his preceptor Ferreus ; but Tartalea had, five
years before this time, advanced further than Ferreus, and
was more than a match for Florido. He therefore accepted
the challenge, and a day was appointed when each was to
propose to the other thirty questions. Before the time came,
Tartalea had resumed the study of cubic equations, and had
discdvered the solution of two cases in addition to two which
1—18
he knew before. Florido's questions were such as could
be resolved by the single rule of Ferreus ; while, on the
contrary, those of Tartalea could only be resolved by one or
other of three rules, which he himself had found, but which
could not be resolved by the remaining rule, which was also
that known to Florido. The issue of the contest is easily
anticipated ; Tartalea resolved all his adversar/s questions
in two hours, without receiving one answer from him in
return.
The celebrated Cardan was a contemporary of Tartalea. Cardaiu
This remarkable person was a professor of mathematics at
Jlilan, and a physician. He had studied algebra with great
assiduity, and had nearly finished the printing of a book
on arithmetic, algebra, and geometry ; but being desirous
of enriching his work with the discoveries of Tartalea, which
at that period must have been the object of considerable
attention among literary men in Italy, he endeavoured to
draw from him a disclosure of his rules. Tartalea resisted
for a time Cardan's entreaties. At last, overcome by his
importuQity, and his offer to swear on the holy Evangelists,
and by the honour of a gentleman, never to publish them,
and on his promising on the faith of a Christian to commit
them to cypher, so that even after his death they would not
be intelligible to any one, he ventured with much hesitation
to reveal to him his practical ndes, which were expressed
by some very bad Italian verses, themselves in no small
degree enigmatical. He reserved, however, the demonstra-
tions. Cardan was not long in discovering the reason of
the rules, and he even greatly improved them, so as to
make them in a manner his own. From the imperfect
essays of Tartalea he deduced an ingenious and systematic
method of resolving all cubic equations whatsoever ; but
with a remarkable disregard for the principles of honour,
and the oath he had taken, he published in 1545 Tartalea's
discoveries, combined with his own, as a supplement to a
treatise on arithmetic and algebra, which he had published
six years before. This work is remarkable for being
the second printed book ou algebra known to have
existed.
In the followmg year Tartalea also published a work on
algebra, wKich he dedicated to Henry VIU., king of
England.
It is to be regretted that In many instances the authors
of important discoveries have been overlooked, while the
honours due to them have been transferred to others hav-
ing only secondary pretensions. The formula for the
resolution of cubic equations are now called Cardan's rules,
notwithstanding the prior claim of Tartalea. It must be
confessed, however, that he evinced considerable selfishness
in concealing his discovery ; and although Cardan cannot
be absolved from the charge of bad faith, yet it must be
recollected that by his improvements in what Tartalea
communicated to him, he made the discovery in some
measure his own ; and he had moreover the high merit of
being the first to publish this impprtant improvement in
algebra to the world.
The next step in the progress of algebra was the dis-
covery of a method of resolving equations of the fourth
order. An Italian algebraist had proposed a question which
co-old not be resolved by the newly invented rulas, because
it produced a biquadratic equation. Some supposed that
it could not be resolved at all ; but Cardan was of a different
opinion. He had a pupil named Lewis Ferrari, a young man Fcr/art.
of great genius, and an ardent student in the algebraic
analysis : to him Cardan committed the solution of this
difficult question, and he was not disappointed. Ferrari
not only resolved the question, but he also found a general
method of resolving equations of the fourth degree, by
making them denend on the solution of equations of the
third degreei
614
A L G E B K A
[histobi
Tliia was another great improvement; andalthougli the
precise nature of an equation was not then fully under-
Htood, nor was it indeed until half a century later, yet,
in the general feaolution of equations, a point of progress
■was then reached which the utmost efforts of modem
analysis have never been able to pass.
Dombelli. There was another Italian mathematician of that period
■who did something for the improvement of algebra. This
was Bombelli. Ho published a valuable work on the
subject in 1572, in which he brought into one view what
had been done by hia predecessors. He explained the
nature of the irreducible case of cubic equations, which
had greatly perplexed Cardan, who could not resolve it by
his rule ; he showed that the rule would apply Bomotimos
to p.irticular examples, and that all equations of this case
admitted of a real solution ; and he made the important
remark, that the algebraic problem to be resolved in. this
case corresponds to the ancient — oblem of the trisection
of an angle.
There were two German mathematicians contemporary
■with Cardan and Tartalea, viz., Stifelius and Scheubelius.
Their writings appeared about the middle of the IGth
century, before they knew what had been done by the
Italians. Their improvements were chiefly in the notation.
Stifelius, in particular, introduced for the first time the
chamcters which indicate addition and subtraction, and
the ."(ymbol for the square root.
First Tlio first treatise on algebra in the English language was
Bngliiih written by Robert Recorde, teacher of mathematics and
KoVnl^ o^ practitioner in physic at Cambridge. At this period it was
Cambridge, common for physicians to unite with the healing art the
studies of mathematics, astrology, alchemy, and chemistry.
This custom was derived from the Moors, who were equally
celebrated for their skill in medicine and calculation. In
Spain, where aTgebra was early known, the title of physician
and algebraist were nearly synonjinoua. Accordingly, in
the romance of Don Quixote, when the bachelor Samson
Carasco was grievously wounded in his rencounter ■with
the knight, an algebrista was called in to heal his
bruises.
Recorde published a treatise on arithmetic, which was
dedicated to Edward VI. ; and another on algebra, with
the title. The Whetstone of Wit, &o. Here, for the first
time, the modem sign for equality was introduced.
By such gradual steps did algebra advance in improve-
ment from its first introduction by Leonardo, each succeeding
writer making some change for the better ; but with the
exception of Tartalea, Cardan, and Ferrari, hardly any one
\"t:\A. rose to the rank of an inventor. At length came Vieta, to
whom this branch of mathematical learning, as well as
others, is highly indebted. His improvements in algebra
were very considerable ; and some of his inventions,
although not then fully developed, have yet been the germs
of later discoveries. He was the first that employed
goneijl characters to represent kno^wn as well as unkno^wn
quantities. Simple as this step may appear, it has yet led to
important consequences. He must also be regarded as the
first that applied algebra- to the improvement of geometry.
The older algebraists had -indeed resolved geomelrical pro-
blems, but each solution was particular; whereas Vieta, by
introducing general syipbols, produced general formulie,
which were applicable to all problen^s of the same kind,
without the trouble of going over the same process of
analysis for each.
This happy appLcation oi algebra to geometry pro-
duced great improvements : it led Vieta to 5ie doctrine of
angular sections, one of the most important of his dis-
coveries, which is now expanded into the arithmetic of sines
or analytical trigonometry. He also unproved the theory
of algebraic equations, and he was the first that gave a
general method of resolving them by approximation. As
ho lived between the years 1540 and 1603, hia ■writings
belong to the latter half of the IGth century. He printed
them at his own expense, and liberally bestowed them on
men of science.
, The Flemish mathematician Albert Oirard was one of OinnL
the improvers of algebra. He extended the theory of
equations somewhat further than Vieta, but he did not
completely unfold their composition ; he was the first that
showed the use of the negative sign in the resolution of
geometrical problems,' and the first to speak of imaginary
quantities. He also inferred by induction that every equation
has precisely as many roots as there are units in the
number that expresses its degree. His algebra appeared
in 1629.
The next great improver of algebra was Thomas Harriot, Harriot
an Englishman. As an inventor he has been 'the boast of
this country. The French mathematicians have accused the
British of giving discoveries to him which were really due
to Vieta. It is probable that some of these may be justly
claimed for both, because each may have made the discovery
for himself, without knowing what had been done by the
other. Harriot's principal discovery, and indeed the most
important ever made in algebra, was, that every equation
may be regarded as formed by the product of as many sim-
ple equations as there are units in the number expressing
its order. This important doctrine, now familiar to every
student of algebra, developed itself slowly. It was quite
within the reach of Vieta, who unfolded it in part, but left
its complete discovery to Harriot.
We have seen the very inartificial form in which algebra
first appeared in Europe. The improvements of almost
400 years had not given its notation that compactness and
elegance of which it is susceptible. Harriot made several
changes in the notation, and added some new signs : he
thus gave to algebra greater symmetry of form. Indeed,
as it came from his hands, it differed but little from its
state at the present time.
Oughtreed, another early English algebraist, was a con- Ooghtraed
temporary with Harriot, but lived long after him. He
wrote a treatise on the subject, which was long taught in
the universities.
In tracing the history of algeora, we have seen, that in
the form under which it was received from the Arabs,
it was hardly distinguishable as a peculiar mode of reason-
ing, because of the want of a suitable notation; and that,
poor in its resources, its applicability was limited to the
resolution of a small number of uninteresting numeral
questions. Wo have followed it through different stages of
improvement, and we are now arrived at a period when it
was to acquire additional power as an instrument of
analysis, and to admit of new and more extended applica-
tions. Vieta saw the great advantage that might be
derived from the application of algebra to geometry. The
essay he made in his theory of angular sections, and the
rich mine of discovery thus opened, proved the importance
of his labours. He did not fully explore it, but it has
seldom happened that one man began and completed a dis-
covery He had, however, an able and illustrious successor
in Descartes, who, employing in' the study of algebra that Descartes,
high power of intellect with which he was endowed, not
only improved it as an abstract science, but, more especially
by its application to geometry, laid the foundation of the
great discoveries which have since so much engaged mathe-
maticians, and have made the last -two centuries evei
memorable in the history of the progress of the humar
mind.
jJescartes' grand improvement was the application of
a-'^ebra to the doctrine of cuwe lines. As in geography we
refer every place on the eai-th's surface to the equator, and
v.]
ALGEBRA
515
to a. determinate meridian, so he referred every point of a
curve to some line given by position. For example, in a
circle, every point in the circumference might be referred
to the diameter. The perpendicular from any point in the
curve, and the distance of that perpendicular from the
centre or from the extremity of a diameter, were lines which,
although varying with every change uf position in the point
from which the perpendicular was drawn, yet had a deter-
minate relation to each other, which waa the same for all
points in the curve depending on its nature, and which,
therefore, served as a characteristic to distinguish it from
all other curves.
The relations of lines drawn in this way could be readily
expressed in algebraic symbols ; and the expression of this
relation in general terms constituted what is called the
■equation, of the curve.
This might serve as its definition; and from the equation
by the processes of algebra, all the properties of the curve
could be investigated.
Descartes' Geometrt/ (or, as it might have been named,
the application of algebra to geometry) appeared first in
1637. This was six years after the publication of Harriot's
discoveries, which was a posthumous work. Descartes
availed himself of some of Harriot's views, particularly the
manner of generatingan equation, without acknowledgment;
and on this account Dr WaUis, in his algebra, has reflected
with considerable severity on the French algebraist. This
spirit has engendered a corresponding eagerness in the
1 rench mathematicians to defend him. Montucla, in his
history of the mathematics, has evinced a strong national
prejudice in his favour ; and, as usually happens, in order
to exalt him, he hardly does justice to Harriot, the idol of
his adversaries.
The new views which the labours of Vieta, Harriot, and
Descartes opened in geometry and algebra were seized with
avidity by the powerful minds of men eager in the pursuit
of real knowledge. Accordingly, we find in the 17th
century a whole host of writers on algebra, or algebra coin-
bined with geometry.
Our limits will not allow us to enter minutely into the
claims which each has on the gratitude of posterity.
Indeed, in pure algebra the new inventions were not so
conspicuous as the discoveries made by its applications to
geometry, and the new theories which were siiggested by
their union. The curious speculations of Kepler concerning
the solids formed by the revolutions of curvilinear figures,
the Goometiy of Indivisibles by Cavalerius, the Arithmetic
of Infiuites of Wallis, and, above all, the Method of Fluxions
of Newton, and the Differential and Integral Calculus of
Leibnitz, are fruits of the happy union. All these were
agitated incessantly by their inventors and contemporaries;
by such men as Barrow, James Gregory, Wren, Cotes, Taylor,
UaUoy, De Moivre, Maclaurin, Stirling, and others, in this
country ; and abroad by Roberval, Fermat, Huyghens. the
two EeniouUis, Pascal, and many others.
The first half of the 18th century produced little in the
way of addition either to pure algebra or to its applications.
Men were employed rather in elaborating and working out
what Newton, Leibnitz, and Descartes had originated,
than in exercising themselves in independent investigations.
There are, indeed, to.be found some names of eminence
associated with the science of algebra, such as Maclaurin,
but their eminence will be found to depend on their con-
nection with the extensions of the science, rather than witli
Ugrange. the science itself. It was reserved for Lagrange, in the latter
part of the century, to give a new impulse to extension in
pure algebra, in a direction which has led to most impoi'tant
results. Not only did he, in his 'J'raiti Je la Urioluti'm Jcs
Equations Numiriquca, Lay the foundation on which Budan,
Fourier Sturm, and others, have built a goodl^ fabric after
the pattern of the Universal Arithmetic of Newton, but in
his Thioriedesfonctions analyliques, and Calcul des fonctioiia,
he endeavoured, and with a large amount of success, to
reduce the higher analysis (the Fluxions of Ne%vton), to
the domain of pure algebra. Nor must the kbours of a
fellow-workman, Euler, be forgotten. In his voluminous Ealor,
and somewhat ponderous writings wiU be found a perfect
storehouse of investigations on every branch of algebraical
and mechanical science. Especially pertinent to our present
subject is his demonstration of the Binomial Theorem in
the Novi Commentarii, vol xix., which is probably the
original of the development that Lagrange makes the
basis of his analysis (Calcul des fonctions, leyon seconde),
and which for simplicity and generality leaves nothing to
be desired.
This brings the history down to the close of the last
century. We have been as copious as our limits would
permit on the early history, because it presents the interest-
ing spectacle of the progress of a science from an almost
imperceptible beginning, until it has attained a mag-
nitude too great to be fully grasped by the human
mind.
It will be seen from what precedes, that we have not
limited "algebra" to the pure science, but have retained
the name when it has encroached on the territories of
geometry, trigonometry, i^nd the higher analysis. To
continue to trace its course through all these branches dur-
ing the present century, when it has extended into new
directions within its own borders, would far exceed the
limits of an introductory sketch like the present. We
must, therefore, necessarily limit ourselves to what has
been done in the Theory of Equations (which may ba
termed algebra proper), and in Determinants.
Theory of Equations. — That every numerical equation Tlicovy of
has a root — that is, some quantity in a numerical form, real Equ.itionSj
or imaginary, which, when substituted for the unknown
_quantity in the equation, shall render the equation a
'niunerical identity — appears to have been taken for granted
by all writers down to the time of Lagrange. It is by no
means self-evident, nor is it easy to afford evidence for it
which shall be at the same time convincing and free from
limitations. The demonstrations of Lagrange, Gauss, and
Ivory, have for simplicity and completeness given way to
that of Cauchy, published first in the Journal de I'Ecole
Pohjtechnique, and subsequently in his Cours d' Analyse
Algibrique.
The demonstration of Cauchy (which had previously Cauchjl
been given by Argand, though in an imperfect form, in
Gergonn^s Annales des Mathcmaliqiics, vol. v.) consists in
showing that the quantity which it is wished to prove
cap.able of being reduced to zero, can be exhibited as the
product of two factors, one of which is incapable of assum-
ing a minimum value, or, in other words, that a less value
than one assigned can always bo found, and therefore
that it is capable of acquiring the value zero. This
argument, if not absolutely free from objection, is less
objectionable than any of the others. The reader may
consult papers by Airy and De Morgan, in the tenth
volume of the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society.
Admitting, then, that every equation has a root, it be- General
comes a question to what extent are we in possession of solution of
an analysis by which the root can be ascertained. If the ''3"!''''i"^,^
question be put absolutely, wo fear the answer must be, "^j ^^J^^^
that Ln this matter wo are in the same position that we orders, stjl
have held for the last three centuries. Cubic and biquad- a Ucbiaeii-
ratic equations can be solved, whatever they may be; but '""'•
equations of higher orders, in which there exists no relation
ambngst the several coefficients, and no known or assumed
connection between the different'roots, have balTled, all
516
ALGEBRA
[histokt.
attempts at their solution. Much skill and ingenuity hare
been displayed by writers of more or less eminence in the
attempt to clabonito a method of solution applicable to
equations of the lifth degree, but they have failed; whether
it be that, like the ancient problems of the quadrature of the
circle, and the duplication of the cube, an absolute solution
is an imposaibiUty, or whether it is reserved for future
mathematicians to start in the research in some new path,
Rnd reach the goal by avoiding the old tracks which appear
to have been thoroughly traversed in vain.
It is scarcely necessary to refer to such writers aa Hoono
de Wronski, who, in 1811, announced a general method of
solving all equations, giving formula without demonstra-
tion. In 1817, the Academy of Sciences of Lisbon proposed
as the subject of a prize, the demonstration of Wronski's
formida). The jjrizo was in the following year awarded to
M. Torriani for the refutation of thera.
The reader will find in the fifth volume of the Reports of
the British Association, an elaborate report by Sir W. R.
Hamilton on a Method of Decomposition, proposed by Mr
O. B. Jerrard in his Malhanatical Researches, published at
Bristol in a work of great beauty and originality, but
which Hamilton is compelled to conclude fails to effect the
desired object. In fact, the method which is valid when
the proposed equation is itself of a sufficiently elevated
degree, faib to reduce the solution of the equation of the
lifth degree to that of the fourth.
But although the absolute solution of equations of higher
orders than the fourth remains amongst the things un-
ellected, and rather to bo hoped for than expected, a very
great deal has been done towards preparing the way for
approximate, if not for absolute solutions.
In the first place, equations of the higher orders, when
they assume certain forms, have been shown to bo capable
of solution. An equation of this kind, to all appearance
of a very general and comprehensive form, had been solved
by De Moivre in the Philosophical Transactions for 1737.
Binomial equations had advanced under the skUful hands
Gauss. of Gauss, who, in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, which
appeared in 1 80 1 , added largely to what had been done by
Vandermonde in the cliissiticatiou and solution of such
Abel. equations ; and subsequently, Abel, a mathematician of
Norwegian birth, who died too early for science, completed
and extended what Gauss had left imperfect. The collected
writings of Abel published at Christiania in 1839, contain
original and valuable contributions to this and many
other branches of mathematics.
Bdt it is not in the solution of equations of certain
forms that the greatest advance ha.s been made during the
present century. The basis of all methods of solution
must evidently be found in the previous separation of the
roots, and the efforts of mathematicians have been directed
to the discovery of methods of effecting this. The object
is not BO much to classify the roots into positive and
negative, real and imaginary, as to determine the situation
and number of the real roots of the equation. The first
writer on the subject whose methods appeared in print is
BudaiL Eudan, whose treatise, entitled Nouvelle mitkode pour la
resolution des Equations num<!riqiies, appeared in 1807.
But there is evidence that Fourier had delivered lectures
on the subject prior to the pubUcation of Budan's work,
and consequently, without detriment to the claims of
Budan, we may admit that the most valuable and original
contribution to the science is to be found in Fourier's
posthumous work, published by Navier in 1831, entitled
Analt/se des equations determinees. The theorem which
Fourier. Foucier gave for the discovery of the position, within narrow
limfts, of a root of an equation, is one of two theorems,
each of which is known by mathematicians as "Fourier's
Theorem." The other is a theorem of integration, amd occurs
in the author's magnificent work TTUorie de la Cluileur,
During the inter^■al between the publication of Budan's
work and that of Fourier, there appeared a paper in the
Philosophical Transactions of tlie Royal Society for 1819, by
W. G. Horner^ uj)on a now uiethod of solving arithmetical Horuer.;
equations. From its being somewhat obscurely exprebsed,
the great originality of the memoir did not at once ap'pear.
Gradually, however, Mr Horner's method came to be appre-
ciated, and it now rankB as one of the best processes,
approaching, in some points, to Fourier's. In the Mimoirta
des savant etrangers for 1835, appears a memoir, which,
if it does not absolutely supersede all that had been
previously done in assigning the positions of the real roots
of equations, yet in simplicity, completeness, and imi-
versality of application, surpasses them alL The author,
M. Sturm, of French extraction, but bom at Geneva, has Stonn.
in this memoir linked his name to a theorem which is likely to
retain its place amongst the permanent extensions of the
domain of analysis as long as the study of algebra shall
last. It was presented to the Academy in 1829.
Determinants. — The solution of simultaneous equations Dctermiai
of the first degree may be presented under the form of a ""'*■
set of fractions, the numerators and denominators of which
are symmetric products of the coefficients of the unknown
quantities in the equations. These products were originally
known as resultants, a name applied to them by Laphice,
and retained as late as 1841 by Canchy in his Exercicet
d^ analyse et de physique mathilmatique, voL n. p. ICl, but
now replaced by the title determinants, a name first ajjplied
to certain forms of them by Gauss. In his Court
d'ana.lyse algebrique, Cauchy terms them alternate func-
tions. The germ of the theory of determinants is to be
found in the writings of Leibnitz, who, indeed, was far- LeibaUs
seeing enough to anticijate for it some of the power which,
about a century after his time, it began to attain. More
than half that period had indeed elapsed before any trace
of its existence can be found in the writings of the
Liathematicians who succeeded Leibnitz. The revival of
the method is due to Cramer, who, in a note to his Cramer
Analyse des liffnes courbes algihriques, published at Geneva
in 1750, gave the rule which establishes the sign of a
product as plus or minus, according as the number of dis-
placements from the typical form has been even or odd.
Cramer was followed in the last century by Btzout, Lapkce,
Lagrange, and Vandermonde. In 1801 appeared the
Disquisitiones Arithmeticae of Gauss, of which a French Gauss.
translation by M. Poullet-Delisle was given in 1807. Not-
withstanding the somewhat obscure form in which this
work was presented, its originality gave a new imj>etua
to investigations on this and kindred subjects. To Gau>a
is due the establishment of the important theorem, that the
product of two determinants both of the second and third
orders is a determinant. Binet, Cauchy, and others followed,
and applied the results to geometrical problems. In 182C,
Jacobi commenced a series of papers on the subject in J^cobL
Crelle's Journal. In these papers, which extended over a
space of nearly twenty years, the subject was recast and
made available for ordinary readers; and at the same
time it was enriched by new and important theorems,
through which the name of Jacobi is . indissolubly asso-
ciated with this branch of science. Following the steps of
Jacobi, a number of mathematicians of no mean power
have entered the field. Pre-eminent above all others are
two British names, those of Sylvester and Cayley. By Sylrester.
their originality, by their fecundity, by their grasp of all Caylet.
the resources of analysis, these two powerful mathematicians
have enriched the Transactions of the Royal Society, CrdUt
Journal, the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal,
and the Quarterly Journal of Matherruitics, with papers on
this and on kindred branches of science of such value as
HISTOEY.^
ALGEBRA
il7
to have placed theii authors at the head of living mathe-
maticians. The reader will iind the subject admirably
treated in Ealtzer'a Theorie uiid Anwendung der Deler-
7m/ienien ; and more briefly in Salmon's Higher Algebra.
Elementary treatises have also been published by Spottis-
woode in 1851, by Brioschi in 1854, by Todhunter in his
Theory^of Equations in 18C1, and by Dodgson in
18G7.
paian The attention of tue learned has, during the present
»!ssbra> Century, bean called to a branch of the history of algebra,
in no small degree interesting ; we mean the cultivation of
the science to a considerable extent, and at a remote period,
in India/
We are indebted, we believe, to Mr Reuben Burrow for
some of the earliest nptices whicl^reached Europe on this
very curious subject. His eagerness to Ulu^rate the history
of the mathematical sciences led him to collect oriental
manuscripts, some of which, in the Persian language, with
partial translations, were bequeathed to his friend Mr
Dalby of the Royal Military College, who communicated
them to such as took an interest in the subject, about the
year 1800.
In the year 1813, Mr Edward Strachey publishedin this
■coimtry a translation from'the Persian of the Bija Ganita
(or Vija (?«rti(a),>a Hindoo treatise on algebra; and in
1816 Dr John Taylor published at Bombay a translation
of Lelaivati (or Lilavati), from the Sanscrit origtnal. This
last is a treatise on arithmetic and geometry, and both are
the production of an oriental algebraist, Bhascara Acharya.
Lastly, in 1817, there came out a work entitled Algebra..
Arithmetic, and Mensuration, from the Sanscrit of Brahmcr
gupta and Bhascara, translated by Henry Thomas Cole-
brooke, Esq. ''This contains four different treatises, origi-
naUy written in Sanscrit verse, viz., the Vija Ganita and
Xitavati of Bhascara Acharya, and the Ganitad'haya and
C uttacad^ hijaya of Brahniegupta. The first two form the
preliminary jjortion of Bhascara's Course of Astronomy,
entitled Sidd'hanta Siro'mani, and the last two are the
twelfth and eighteenth chapters of a similar course of
astronomy, entitled Brahma,-sidd' hanta.
The time when Bhascara wrote is fixed witu great pre-
cision, by his own testimony and other circumstances, to
a date that answera to about the year 1150 of the Chris-
tian era. The works of Bialimegupta are extremely rare,
and the age in which he lived is less certain. Mr Davis,
an oriental scholar, who first gave the public a correct
view of the astronomical computations of the Hindoos, is
of opinion that he lived in the 7th century ; and' Dr
William Hunter, another dihgent inquirer into Indian
science, assigns the year 628 of the Christian era as about
the tiine he flourished. From various arguments, Mr
Colebrooke concludes that the age of Biahmegupta was
autecedeut to the earliest dawn of the culture of the
sciences amoug the Arabians, so that the Hindoos must
Lave possessed algebra before it was known to that
nation.
Brahmegupta's treatise is not, however, the earliest
work known to have been written on this subject. Oanessa,
a distinguished astronomer aud mathematician, and the
mjst eminent scholiast of Bhascara, quotes a passage from
a much ol^er writer, Ai-ya-Bhatta, specifying algebra under
tlie desiguatiijii of i'ija, aud making separate mention of
Outtaca, a problem subservient to the resolution of inde-
terminate problems of the first degree. He is understood
by another of Bhascara's commentators to be at the head
of the older-.ivritera. tb'i'hey appear to have been able to
rcstjlve quadratic equations by the process of completing
the square ; 'and hcuco , Mr Colebrooke presumes that the
treati.se'of Arya-1'.liatta then extant extended to quadratic
Cf^Uations iu the determinate aiialvsis. and to indetcmdnate
equations of the first degree, and probably to those of th»
second.
The ejact period when Arya-Bhatta lived cannot bo
determined with certainty; but Mr Colebrooke'thinks it
probable that this earliest of known Hindoo algebraists
wrote as far back as the fifth century of the Chiistian era,
and perhaps earlier. He lived therefore nearly as early
as the Grecian algebraist Diophautus, who is reckoned to
have flourished in the time of the emperor Julian, or
about A.D. 3G0.
Mr Colebrooke has instituted a comparison between the
Indian algebraist and Diophantus, and found reason to
conclude that in the whole science the latter is very far
behind the former. He says the points in which the
' Hindoo algebra appears particularly di-stinguished from the
Greek are, besides a better and more' convenient algo-
rithm, \st, the management of equations of more than one
unknown quantity; Id, the resolution of equations of a
higher order, in which, if they achieved little, they had
at least the merit of the attempt, and anticipated a
modem discovery in the resolution of biquadratics; 3(/,'
general methods for the resolution of indeterminate pro-
blems of the first and second degrees, in which they went
far indeed beyond Diophantus, and anticipated discoveries
of modern algebraists; and 4//i, the application of algebra to
astronomical investigations and geometrical demonstration,
in which also they hit upon some matters which have been
re-invented in modem times.
When we consider that algebra made little or no pro-
gress among the Arabians, a most ingenious people, and
particularly devoted to the study of the sciences, aud that
centuries elapsed from its first introduction into Europe
untU it reached any considerable degree of perfection, we
may reasonably conjecture that it may have existed in
one shape or other in India long before the time of Aryaj
Bhatta; indeed, from its close connection with their doc-
trines of astronomy, it may be supposed to have descended
from a very remote period along with that science. Pro-
fessor Plaj-fair, adopting the opinion of Bailly, the eloquent
author of the Astronomic Indienhe^ with great ingenuity
attempted to prove, iu a Memoir on the Astronomy of the
Brahmins, that the observations on which the Indian
astronomy is founded were of great antiquity, indeed mora
than .3000 years before the Christian era. The very remote'
origin of the Indian astronomy had been strongly ques-
tioned by many in this country, and also on the Continent;
particularly by Laplace, and by Delainbre in his JlisU-ire
de I' Astronomic Ancienne, tome i. p. 400, <tc., and again in
llistoire de V Astronomie du Moyen Age, Discours I'rilimi^
naire, p. 18, ic, where ho speaks slightingly of their
algebra; and in this country, I'rofessur Leslie, in hia
Philosophy of Arithmetic, pp. 225 and 226, calls the Lilavuti
" a very poor peifonuaiiLe, coutaiuing merely a few scanty
precepts couched iu obscure memorial verses." We are
disposed to agree with Professor Leslie as to the value,'
and with Professor Playfair as to the antiquity of this
Hindoo algebra. That it should have remained in a slate
of iufancy for so many centuries is accounted for by the lattur
authu. in^the following pa.ssage : — " In India everything [aa
well as algebra] seems equally insurmountable, and truth and
error are squally assured of permanence in the stations they
have once occupied. The politics, the laws, the religion,
the science, and the manners, seem all nearly the^same aa
at the remotest period to which history extends. Is it
because the power which brought about a certain degrep
of civilisation, and advanced science to a certain height,
has either cea.5ed to act, or has met with such a resistance
OS it is barely able to overcome 1 or is it because the dia-
coveriss which the Hindoos are in possession' of are an
iuheritunce from some more inventive aiid_mcro_ancient
518
ALGEBRA
people, of- whom DO memorial rcmaina Wursome of theii
attaiumeDts m* science T
WhUri on Algebra,
Uiophantus, Arithmetico'
rum Lihri scx^ about A.D*. 360
(First eJiliua of hia writ-
ings, 1576; the beat,
1670.)
Leonardo Bonacci (lusworka
dcacribed in Cossali) 1202
Lucas Paciolua, or De Burgo,
iS'ufrimo de Aritkriutica^
&c UQ\
Rudolff, ilZ(7<r6ra 1622
Stifclius, Arithmetica In-
tegra^ kc 1544
Cardan, Ara Magna quam
vulgo Cossain vacant 1545
Ferrt'us 1545
Ferrari (firbt r(*olvcd bi-
quadratic equations) 1545
Tartalea, Quesiti cd Inven-
tionijdivcrse 1646
Scheubclius, Algebra Com-
pendivsa 1551
Rccorde, Whetstone of Wit 1657
Peleturiiis, De Occulta parte
Numcrorum 1558,
Butco, De Logistica 1559
Riimua, Arithmtiicae Libri
duo et tolidem A lgcbra€... 1560
Pedro Nuguez or N'ounius,
Libro de Algebra, kc. ...1567
Jossalin, De Occulta parte
Mathematicorum 1576
BombtlU 1579
Clavius IjSO
Bernard .Solignac, Arith.
Libriii. et Algebtae toti-
dem 1580
Stevinua, Arithmitiqu*^ <tc.
aussi I'Algibre 1585
Vieta, Opera Mathematical 1600
Folinus, Algebra, site Liber
de Rebus Occu^Uis 1619
Van Ceulen 1(319
BacUet, Diophantus cum
Commentariis 1621
Albert Girard, Invention
Kouvclle en Algibre 1629
Ghetaldus, De lUsolutione et
ComposHion4 MaXhcwxi-
tica 1630
Harriot, Artia Analyticae
Praxis 1631
Ough treed, Clavis Mathe-
matica 1631
llerigonius, Cursus Mathe-
maticus 1634
Cavalerius, Oeomctria In-
divisibilibus Continuo-
rum, dc 1635
Descartes, Qcomctria 1637
Franciscu3 & 8chooten,
Florimond de Beaunc,
Erasmus Bertholinus, Job.
Hudde, F. Rabuel, Jamca
Bernoulli, John de Witt,
&c. — Commentators on
Descartes.
Roberval, De Becogniiione
Aequationum, kc 1640
De Billy, Nova Geom^ricae
Clavis Algebra 1643
Renaldinus, Opus Algebrai-
cum 1644
Pascal 1654
Wallis, Arithmetica Injini-
torum, 1655 ; Algebra, 16S5
Sluiius, Mcsolabum, 1659
lUioiiius, Algebra (trans-
lated into English) 16p9
Rinckbausen, used as a text-
book by Sir I; Newton. ..1661.
Sir Isaac Newton, Tfu^Bi-
nomial Theorem .1666
Frcniclo, Various papers in
Mem. of French Acad. ...1666
Pell (translated and im-
proved Rhoniua' Algebra) 1668
Jamca Gregory, £xercila
lioncs OeomAricae 1668
Morcator, Logarithmotcch-
nia 1668
Barrow, ia Lectiones Qco-
mctricae 1669
Kersey, Elements of Algebra IQ7 3
Prcacot, Nouvcaux Ellens
de MatlUviatiqucs 167fl
Leibnitz, in Leipsic Ads,
&c 1677
Format, in Varia Opera
Mathematica 1679
BuUiald, Opus Novum ad
Arithmeticam Injinito-
rum 16S2
Tschirnhausen, in the Leip-
sic Ads 1683
Baker, Oeometrical Key, &C.1684
Dr Ilalley, in Philosophical
Transactions ...1637 and 1694
Kolle, Une Mithode pour la
Resolution des Equations
Indderminies 1690
Ra]>hsoD, Analysis Aequa-
iionum Universalis 1690
Dechalps, Cursus $cu Mun-
du3 Mathematicus 1690
De Lagny, various pieces on
Equations 1692
Alexander, Synopsis Alge-
braica 1693
Ward, Compendium of
Algebra, 1695 ; young
Mathematician's Ouide 1706
Do Moivre, various Memoirs
\n Phil. Trans. .. .1097-1730
Sault, New Treatise of
Algebra 1698
Christopher, De Ccnistruc-
tiovc Aequationum
Ozanam, Nouveaux EUmcTis
d'Algebre 1702
Harris, Lexicon Technicum 1704
Guisnee, Application de
I'Algibre d la Oiomdric.. 17 05
Jones, Si/nopsis Palmari-
orum Mathcseos 1706
Newton, Arithmetica Uni-
versalis 1707
L'liapital, TraiU Analg-
tique des Scdio)isConiques 1 707
l\cyi\c:ixi, Analyse DimontrielJO^
Brooke Taylor, Methodus
Incrementorum 1715
Stirling, Lineae Terlii
Ordinis, 1717; Methodus
Diffcrentialis 1730
Nicole, Ou Cubic Equations,
in Mim. Acad. des Scienccsllll
S'Gravcsande, Algebra 1727
Wolfius, Algebra: Cursus
Mathematicus ; 1732
Kirby, Arithtnelic and
Algebra 1735
James Gregory 1736
Simpson, Algebra, and
various works 1740, 1742
Saundersoc, Algebra, 2 vols.
4to 17<0
La Caillc. Algebra in Lemons
de MaUUyuatiqucs <'...1741
De Gua, On the Roots of
Equations, In Mim. Acad.
des Sciences 1741
Ckiraui, ^Wm*ru (f 4 ;.
gibrt..... 1746
Maclaurin^ .^^jutra 1747
Fontaine, L''Art de Risoudre
le$ Equations: 1747"
Donna Maria Gaetana Ag^
sesi, Instituzioni Anali^
tichi 1748
Boscovich, in Elemenia
Univcrsae Mathcseos 1764
Segner, Berlin Mem 1756
Caatillon, Arithmetica Uni-
versalis Newtoni cum
Commentario 1761
Emerson, Algebra, dc .1763
Landen, liesidual Analysis,
kc 17C4
Lagrange, Traiti de la JU*
solution des Equations
Numiriqucs, Pccucil des
M&m. de I'Acad. de
Berlin 1767
Do. republished with
Notes, Paris 1797
Eulcr, Algebra 1770
"Waring, Meditations Alge-
braical, kc 1770, 1776
Soladini, Compendio d'Ana-
lisi 1775
Paoli, Elementi cC Algebra ..1794
Ruflini, Tcoria delle Equa-
zione Algeb 1799
[niffTORt
'Budon, NouveUe Mithods
pour-.'ta. Risolution de$
Equdtuma NunUriquca .-..1807
Gonipertz, 'Principles and
Application q/ Imaginary
Quantities 1817 and 1818
Biot, Qergonnt't Annales, vol vi.
HorucT, Philos. Trans 1819
Dundeliiy, Mtm. de I'Acad.
Hoy. de Bruxcllcs 1£2«
Swinburne and Tylecote,
on the Binomial Theorem 1827
Warren, on the Qeometric
lifprcsenlation of the
Square Roots of Neyatite
Quantities 162?
Abel, Mhnoire sur les
Equations Alglbrigues,
Christianift 182ft
and in Crelle, vol. 1. 4.
Fourier, Analyse des Equa-
tions DUermindes (post-
humous), with preface by
Navier 1831
Malfalti, Mem. della Soc.
Ital., vu). xi.
Davics Gilbert, Philos.
Trans 1831
Stur.il, Mim. prisentls par
les Savajis Etrangers 1835'
Lockhart, Resolution oj
Equation ...1S37
To ike preceding Ikt of writers, which contains almost all
oj an early date, the following are to U added: —
Arbogast, Calcul des Dlrivations.
The Bernoullis, Begnalt, Ber-
trand, Bezout {CoitrsdcsMaihi-
matiques), Bossuet, Burja,
Brunacci, Babbace, Bridges,
Bland, Budan, lionnycastle,
Bourdon, Barlow (on the
Thccrry of Numbers), Baltzer
(on Determinants).
Cousin, Cauchy, Coignet, Car-
not, Cayley, Cockle.
Dcgraave, Ditton, Dodgsoa (on
Determinants).
Frisius, Francoeur, Fread
Gauss, Disquisitio-'xes Arithrne-
ticae, 1801.
Heraischius, TIales, Hirach,
Button, Huldred, Uoruer,
Hargreaves.
Kuhnius, Kramp, Kaestner.
Laloubre, Lorgua, Lo Blonde,
Lee, Lacroi.x, Ludlam, Le-
gendre (on the TJieory of
Numbers), L'Huillicr, Leroy.
Mcscher, Malebrauche, Maufredi,.
Mastres, Muiphy.
Nicholson, Nicuwcntijdt, {Ana-
lysis Infnitorum).
PoUeti, PoigTiard (on Magic
Squares), PlayTair.
Rowning, Reimcr.
Suremain-Misscry (on Impossilh
Quantities), Schonerus, Sali>{-
nut, Sturm, Scrret, Salmon,
Sylvester.
Trail, Tedenat, Thacker.
Vilent, VanJcmionde.
Warren, Wells, Wilson, Wood,
Woodhouse.
Young.
Elementary Treatises of Br)-ce,
Colcnso, Do SIor;;an, Hind,
KeUand, Peacock, Todhunter.
Writers on the History of Algehrc^
Wallis, in his Algebra; Maserec,
Scriptores Logarithmici, 1792,
llontucla, in Histoire des
MathlmatuiMcs ; Boseuet, Jlis-
toire des MatJihnatiques;
Cossali, Originc, Trasporto in
Italia, e Primi Progressi in
Essa dell' Algebra, 2 vols,
printed, in 1797; Hutton, in
his Dictionary, and more
diffusely in his Tracts, vol. iL;
Zibri Histoire des Science*
Mathhnatiqucs en Ilalie, Parift.
1838.
Terquem, Bulletin de Billio-
graphie.
Peacock, Report of British
Association, 1833.
For the titles oi works ou Algebra, consult MurharJ,
Bibliothcca Matheviatica ; and for Memoirs on Algebra, in
Aeademical Collections, see Reuss, Repertorium Commeii-
tationum, torn, vii. ; Smith (on tlie Tlieory of Numbers)^
Brit. Assoc. 1859-60, 1S62-G3.
NOXATIOJf AKD FIRST PKnfCIPLES.
1. In arithmetic there are ten characters, which being
variously combined, according to certain rules, serve to
denote all numerical magnitudes whatever. But this me-
thod of espresting quantities (a phrase used to designate
FIRST, PEIMCIP.LES.]
ALGEBRA
519
something more than mere numbers), is found to be inade-
quate, taken by itself, to the more difficult cases of mathe-
matical investigation; and it is therefore necessary, in
many inquiries concerning the relations of magnitude, to
have recourse to that more general mode of notation, and
more extensive system' of ooerations, which constitute the
science of algebra.
In algebra quantities of every kind may be denoted by
Euiy characters whatever, but those commonly used are the
letters of the alphabet; and as in the simplest mathe-
matical problems there are certain magnitudes given, in
order to determine other magnitudes which are unknown,
the first letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, itc, are used to
denote known quantities, while those to be found are
represented by v, x, y, &c- the last letters of the alphabet.
Cefinitions 2. The sign -I- (plus) denotes, in arithmetic, that the
of sigus. quantity before which it is placed is to be added to some
other quantity. Thus, a + b denotes the sum of a and b ;
3 -t- 5 denotes the sum of 3 and 5, or 8.
The sign - (minus) signifies that the quantity before
which it is placed is to be subtracted. Thus, a-b de-
notes the excess of a above b; 6-2 is the excess of 6
above 2, or i.
Quantities which have the sign + prefixed to them are
called positive, and such as have the sign - are called
negative. ,
When no sign is prefixed to a quantity, -V is always
anderatood, or the quantity is to be considered as posi-
tive.
Quantities which have the same sign, either -H or - ,
are said to have like signs. Thus, -)- a and -h h have like
signs, but -t- a and - c have unlike signs.
3. A quantity which consists of one term is said to be
timple; but if it consist of several terms, connected by the
signs -H or - , it is then said to be compound. Thus, + a
and —c are simple quantities ; and b-i-c, and a + b- d,
are compound quantities.
4. To denote the product arising from the multiplica-
tion of quantities, they are either joined together, as if
intended to form a word, or else they are connected to-
gether, with the sign x or . interposed between every
two of them. Thus, ab, or a x b, or a . b, denotes the pro-
duct of a and i ; also abc, or a x 6 x c, or a.b .c, denotes
the product of a, b, and c. If some of the quantities to
be multiplied be compound, each of these has a line drawn
over it called a vinculum, and the sign x is interposed, as
before. Thus, ay,c + dxe -/ denotes that a is to be con-
sidered as one quantity, the sum of c and d as a second,
and the difference between e and/ as a third; and that
these three quantities are to bo multiplied into one another.
Instead of placing a line over such compound quantities as
enter a product, we may enclose each of them between two
parentheses, so that the last product may be otherwise
expressed thus, a(c + d)(e -/); or thus, ax (c + d) x (e-f).
A number prefixed to a letter is called a numerical co-
ejicient, and denotes how often that quantity is to be
taken. Thus, 3a signifies that a is to be taken three
times. When no number is prefixed, the coefiicient is
understood to be unity.
5. The quotient arising from the division of one quan-
tity by another is often expressed by placing the dividcvd
12
above a line, and the divisor below it. Thus, -— denotes
the quotient arising from the division of 1 2 by 3, or 4 ; -
denotes the quotient arising from the division of b by a.
6. The equality of two quantities is expressed by putting
the sign ■= between them. Thus, a + b^c-d denotes
that the sum of a and b is equ,il to the excess of e
above d.
7. . Simple quantities, or the terms of compound qcanti-
ties, are said to be like, which consist of the same letter
or letters taken together in the same way. • Thus, + ab and
- 5ah' are like quantities, but + ab and + abb are unlike.
There are some other characters, such as > for greater
than, < for less than, .: for therefore, which will be
explained when we have occasion to use them; and in
what follows we shaU suppose that the operations and no-
tation of common arithmetic are sufficiently understood.
8. As the science extends itself beyond its original Eitensioo
boundaries, it begins gradually to appear that the limits of defini-
imposed by these definitions have been transgressed, so *'"""•
that almost insensibly the symbols have acquired for them-
selves significations much more comprehensive than those
originally attached to them. Thus, were + o to signify a
gain of £a, — a would signify a loss of the same sum ;
were +a to signify motion forwards through a feet, — a
would signify motion baehoards through the same space.
The e.xtended definitions of + and - may now be such
as the following ; + and — are collective symbols of
operations the reverse of each other. From similar con-
siderations to those by which the signification of + and
- has been extended, we extend that of x and -=- to
something like the following : x and -i- are cumulative
symbols of operations the inverse of each other. We may
now exhibit the most general definition of the four sym-
bols in the following form : + and — are symbols of
operations prefixed to algebraical symbols of quantity, and
are such that +a- a= +Q or -0, where -I- 0 means
simply or very nearly increased by 0 ; — 0, diminished bj
0. X and -=- are symbols of operations prefixed to alge-
braical symbols of quantity, and are such that x a -=- o =
X 1 or ^1, where x 1 means simply or very nearly multi-
plied by 1 ; ^1, divided by 1.
9. The laws by which the symbols are combined are the Laws of
same as in arithmetic. It is desirable, however, to exhibit combina-'
them. They are three, — '
Law I. Quantities afi"ected by the signs + and - are
in no way influenced by the quantities to which they are
united by these signs.
Lav/ IL The Distributive Law. — Additions and subtrac-
tions may be performed in any order.
Law III. The Commutative Law. — Multinlicatlona and
divisions may be performed in any order.
We may remark that these laws are assumed for algebra,
so that the science is limited by their applicability. Algebra
has been extended into the science of quaternions by freeing
it from part of the limitation imposed by the third of these
laws. In this new science ab is not the same thing as ba.
We add a few examples of the substitution of numbers Examplea
for letters. (Ex. 3 aud 4 involve processes that will be
explained later.)
.^x. 1. If 0 = 1, i = 2, c = 3, find the value oi{a + b + c).
(a + 1.b-c).(b + '2c-a).
It is (1 -1-2 4- 3). (1-1-4 -3). (2 + 6-1) = 84.
Ex. 2. n a = i, 6 = 4, c = i, a = 0 find the value of
a h c „
J C o
It is f -(- f + i + 0 = SJ
Ex. 3. With the same data as in example 2, find the
value of r—
X x'
The first term is infinite, and the second is infinitely
greater than the first, because x- = xxx .: the answer is
Ex. i. If X = - = ■' = C; find the value of
520
ALGEBRA
[rtrSDAMZNTAE
Write down tlie ex^'ession in x by putting - for y, &a
)ft becomes
,+ <tc.
«> 3 • because » «■ 0,
J
3 1
_2 + ?i+x«-
Sect. I. — Fundamental Operations.
The primary operations in algebra are the same as In
common arithmetic — namely, addition, subtraction, multi-
plication, and division ; and from the various combinations
of these four, all the others are derived.
I. Addition.
10. In addition there may be three cases: the quanti-
ties to bo added may bo like, and have Lke sijpis; or they
may bo like, and have unlike signs; or, lastly, they may
be unlike.
C<ue 1. To add quantities which are like and have liico
signs.
IhtU. Add together the coefficients of the quantities, pre-
fix the common sign to the sum, and annex the letter or
letters common to each term.
Examples.
Add togetbor
Add together
{I
2<Tj;
ax
Sax
12ax
Sum, -(-13a Sum, -20ax
Case 2. To add quantities which are like, but have unlike
signs.
Kulf. Add the positive coefficients into one s\Ua, and the
negative ones into another; then subtract the less of
these sums from the greater, prefix the sign of the
greater to the remainder and annex the common letter
or letters as before
Add togetl-er
ExAMPija.
2ax
ax
Sax
dax
Add together <
Gah+ 7
4ab+ 9
ab- 5
lab-U
Sum of the pos. +llax Sum of the pos. -I-I4a6-|-16
Sum of the neg. — 4ax Sum of the ncg. - iab - 1 8
Sum i-equired, + 7 ax Sum required, -h lOaJ - 2
Case 3. To add unlike quantities.'
jKafe. Put down the quantities, one after another, in any
order, with their signs and- coeffioie"t3 prefixed.
Examples.
2a
36
-4c
ajc + 2ay,
bb - 3bz
Sum, ax + 2oy + bb-3bz
Sum, 2a -I- 36 -4c
n. Subtracti^
1 1. General Rule. — Change the signs of the qnautities to
be subtracted, or suppose them .changed, and then add
them to the other quantities, agreeably to the rules of
addition.
Example
from 5a- 126
Subtract 2a - 56
From Sr- iy + i
Subtract 2x+ 9v-2
Kemaindcr 3a-
5xy-2-H 8x-
3xy-%- 8x-
76
y
3y
Remainder 4x-
aa-ax- yy
66 -by + zz
17v-hS
2xy + 6-l-lGx-<- 2y aa-ax-yy-bb + by-a
The reason of the nile for subtraction may be explained
thus. Let 'it be required to subtract 2d - 3} from m + n.
If we subtract 2p from m + n, there will remain m + n- 2p,
but if ,we are to subtract 2p - Zq, which is less than 2p, it
is ei-iclent that the remainder will be greater by a quantity
equal to Zq; that is, the remainder wiU h6m + n-2x> + Zq,
hence the reason of the rule is evident
ITL ifuUiplication.
12. General Rule for the Signs. — If the qtiantities to be Itule of
multiplied have like signs, the sign of the product is -I- ; >ign«.'''
but if they have unlike signs, the sign of the product
is-.
This rule, which is given by Diophantus' as the definu
lion of + and - , may be said to constitute the basis of
nlgobra as distinct from arithmetic.
If we admit the definitions given above^ the rule may
bo demonstrated in the following way : —
(1.) -(- a X -f 6 = -t- ai is a-ssumed.
(2.) -(-ax —6 will have the same value, whatever -6
may be connected with, as it has when - 6 is connected
with +b (Law 1).
Now +ax( + b-b)= +ax -(-0 = 0 (Def.)
But -(■ax(-(-6-6)= +ax +b, and +ax -b
(Law 2).
.'. +a y +b and +a x -h make up 0 •
i.e., + ah and +ax —b make up 0.
Now + ab — ab = 0, .'. + a X — b= — ih
(3.) Similarly -ax -6= +ab.
The examples of multiplication may be referred to two
cases ; the first is when both the quantities are simple,
and the second when one or both of them are compound.
Case 1. To multiply .simple quantities
Rule. Find the sign of the product by the general rule,
and annex to it the product of the numeral coefficients;
then set down all the letters, one after another, as in
one word.
Ex>MPLE3.
/"Multiply
+ a
+ e
+ ob
- 4a
3.
3ax
7a6
(.Profiuct +ae (,-20a6 \-2\aahx
Case 2. To multiply compound quantities.
Rule. Multiply every term of the multiplicand by all the
terms cf the multiplier, one after another, according to
the preceding rule, and collect their products into one
sum, which will be the product required.
Examples.
1. Mult. 2x +y
By X -2y
Prod. 2xx + xy
- ixy - 2yy
.2. a -h +e
a +b -e
.aa - ab + ac
\.+ ab
9rjr-— Zry- 2yy,
■bb + be.^
+ bc -ee
^aa
* -bb + 2be-ce
Srt^%it raiu Xir\t/f.-=Pioph»ntiis, £d. Fermat, Tolosa, 1670, p.Jli
Dcf. 9. "
3hoit«r
OPEEATIONS.j
When several quantities are multipiiea togetlier so as to
constitute a product, each of them ia called a factor of that
product : thus a, h, and c are factors of the product abc ;
also, a + a and h- x are factors of the product (a + ») .
ifi-x).
The products arising from the continual multiplication
of the same quantity are called powers of that quantity,
which is called the root. Thus era, aaa, aaaa, &c., are
powers of the root a. These powers are commonly ex-
pressed by placing above the root, towards the right hand,
a figure, denoting how often the root is repeated. This
figure serves to denominate the" power, and is caUed its
index or exponent. Thus, the quantity a being considered
as the root, or as the first power of a, we ha^e aa or a^ for
its second power, aaa or a^ for its third power, aaaa or a*
for its fourth power, and so on.
The second and third powers of a quantity are generally
called its square and cube.
By considering the notation of powers, ana the rules for
multiplication, it appears that powers of the same root are
multiplied by adding their exponents. Thus a x o' = a*,
also x' X ar* = x' ; and in general a" x a* = a""*".
When the quantities to be multiplied appear under a
symmetrical form, the operation of multiplying them may
sometimes be shortened by detached coefficients, by symmetri/,
and by general considerations suggested by the particular
examples under consideration.
13. Detached Coefficients.
Ex. 1. Multiply X* - 3x3 + 2x2 _ 7x + 3 by x2 - 5x + 4.
Here the powers of x occur in regular order, so that we
need only write down the coefficients of the several terms
during the operation, having it in our power to supply the
t^i whenev3r we require them ; we write, therefore, —
ALGEBRA
521
1-
1-
-3+ 2-
-5+ 4
7+ 3
1-
-3+ 2-
-5 + 15-
-K 4-
- 7+ 3
■10 + 35-
-12+ 8-
-15
-28 + 12
1-
-8 + 21-
29 + 46-
-43 + 12
The last line (for which the result might have been
written down in full at once) is equivalent to
x»-8a^ + 21z<-29r> + 46x2_43x + 12.
When any terms are wanting, they may be supplied by
zeros ; thus,
Ex. 2. Multiply a:<- 7a:' + »-l bya'-2! + 2.
We write
1 -7 +0+ 1 - 1
1 +0 - 1 + 2
7 +0+"^ - 1
_ 1 -f. 7 - 0 -1+1
+ 2 -14 +0+2
1
■2
tie product required!
14. Symmetry.
We may take advantage of symmetry by two considera-
tions either separately or combined.
(1.) SymmHry of a Symbol.
Ex. Find the sum of fa + i - 2c)2 + (a + e- 25)= +
{h + e-laf.
Here a' occurs with 1 as a multiplier in the first square,
with 1 as a multiplier in the second square, and with 4 a-s
a multiplier in the third square,
,•. 6a^ is part of the result :
f— 18*
ai occui-3 with 2 as a multiplier in the first square, with
- 4 in the second, and with - 4 in the third
.*. - 6a6 ia part of the result.
But a-, }?, (?, are similarly circumstanced, aa also ab, ae,
be ; hence the whole result must be 6(0^ + i^ + c^ - ai - ae
-be).
(2.) Symrnetry of an Expression.
Ex. Find the sum of (a + 6 + c) (x + y + j) + (a + 6 - e)
{x + y-z) + {a-b + c){x - y + s) + ( - a + ft + c)( - z + y + j).
First, the product of (a + i + c) by x + y + z is to be
found by multiplying out term by term.
It is ax + ay + az + bx + by + bz + ex + cy + cz.
The product of (a + b-c) {x + y -i) is now simply
written down from the above, by changing the sign of every
term which contains one only of the two quantities aflTected
with a — sign, i.e., in this case c and z.
Lastly, the four products may be arranged below each
other, the signs alone being written down ; thus,
ax + ay + az + bx + hy + bz + cx + cy + cz
+ + -+ + --- +
.^u--j-_.t--. + _ +
-}---- -^ + - + +
and the sum required is therefore iax + ihy + ia.
15. General Considerations.
Ex. Find (a + 6 + cf.
By multiplying out we get
(a + 6)' = a' + 3a2J+
Now a, b, c are similarly involved in (o + i + c)'; .". If
and c^ must appear along with a', Za-c, Zb^a, itc, along
with Za^b, and hence we can at once write down all the
terms except that which contains abc. To obtain the co-
efficient of abc, we observe that if a, b, and c, are each equal
to 1, (a + 6 + c)^ is reduced to 3' or 27. In other words,
there are 27 terms, if we consider Za-b and every similar
expression as three terms; and as the terms preceding abc
are in this way found to be 21 in number, we require 6abc
to make up the full number 27;
.: {a + b + cy = a^ + b3 + c3 + Za'b + Za^c + Zb-a + Zb-c +
3c-a + Zc^b + 6abc.
It is desirable to introduce here some examples of the
application of the process of the substitution of a letter
for any number or fraction to the properties of numbers,
mequalities, &c,
16. Properties of Numbers.
Ex. 1. If unity is divided into any two parts, the dif-
ference of their squares is equal to the difl'erence of the
parts themselves.
Let X stand for one part ; 1 - a: for the other.
Now (l-x)'-x-^\-2x + x--x-''l-2x = {l-x)-x.
i.e., the difiference of the squares of the carts is equal to
the difl'erence of the parts.
Ex. 2. The product of three consecutive even numbers
is divisible by 48.
Let 2n, 2» + 2, 2a + 4, be the three numbers .". their pro-
duct is 8n(n + l)(n + 2). Now, of three consecutive
numbers, n, n + 1, n + 2, one must be divisible by 2, and
one by 3, .'. ii(n + l)(tt + 2) is divisible by 6, whence the pro-
position.
Ex. 3. The sum of the squares of three consecutive
odd numbers, when increased by 1, is divisible by 12, bu^
never by 24.
Let 2» - 1, 2r + 1, 2n + 3, be the three odd numbers.
522
ALGEBRA
[fusdauental
The Bum "of tlioir squares when increased by 1 is
12;r + 12n + 12 = 12(K' + »+,l)=12(n.n+l + l).
Now, either n or n + 1 is oven, .'. n(n + 1) + 1 is odd;
hence the eum under consideration is 12 times an odd
number, whence the proposition.
Additional Examples in Sijmmelry, d-c.
/Tj;. 1. (a + 6 + c)2 + fa + 6 - r)' + (a + c - 6)2 + (i + c - «)=
~i{a^ + V- + €"■).
This is ^rritten down at once, from observing that a-
occurs in each of the four expressions, and that 2ah occurs
with a + sign in two, and with a - sign in the other two.
There is no other form.
JCx. 2. (a + ft + c)' + (a + J - c)' + (a + c - 6)» + (i + c - a)'
= 2(a' + 6' + c') + 6(a=6 + a-c + b"a + Vc + c'^a + c-b) - 1 2ahc.
\it, a' occurs + in three, and - in one term.
2d, 3a-b occurs + in three, and - in one term.
3d, When a, b, c are all units, the number resulting is
30; .-. there are 30 terms, and as {\st) and {2d) make up
42, there fall to bo subtracted 12, i.e., the coefficient of
abc is - 12.
£x. 3. {ax + b!/ + «)' + (ax + ct/ + i?)' + (6x + ay + czY +
(bx + ct/ + as)' + (ex + az/ + bz)^ + (cx + bt/ + az)'' = 2(a' + 6^
+ C-) (ar^ + y2 + j5) + i{ab + ac + be) (ry + X2 + yz).
Ex. 4. The difference of the squares of two consecutive
numbers is equal to the sum of the numbers.
Ex. 5. The sum of the cubes of three consecutive num-
bers is divisible by the .sum of the numbers.
Ex. 6. If X is an odd number, x' - x is divisible by 24,
and(x2 + 3)(x2-l-7)by 32.
Ex. 7. \i{pq- rf + i(p-- q)(pr - q)- = 0, then will
Mp'-qy = {2p'-Zpg + ry-,
and i{q' - pr)' = {2f - 3pqr + t^y.
Ex. 8. Given x-t-y + z = 0, X + Y + Z = 0, to prove that
(x' + X'')yz + {y- + Y')zx + (j^ + Z"-)xy = (x' -^ X^YZ +
' (y- + Y^)ZX + {z"- + Z-^)XY.
Let the left band side eoual the right +u ; then multi-
plying out,
xyz{x -'ry + z) + XV-- + Yhx + V-xy =
X!YZ(X + Y -i- Z) -I- x^YZ -f y^ZX -I- 2=XY -m,
i.t., XV + Y2ix-H(X-HY)2xy =
x^YZ -f y^ZX -1- (x -I- y)2X Y -I- a ,
or, XV(2 + ^)+YM-'-l-y) =
3:2Y(Z-l-X)-t-y2X(Z-l-Y)-l-«,
or, XV - Y2x2 = - z=Y2 - y2X2 + u
.: u = 0.
Ex. 9. If 4a26V(x= + y' + :'-) (a^x' -f Ih/- + ch^) =
{(b'- + c'')aV- + {<fi + a^jb-'f + {a2 -i- b-)ch)Y\
when a is greater than b, and b greater than c ; then is y
= 0. As the argument concerns y, multiply out, and
arrange in order of powers of y. After reduction this
results in
'a' - c2)6V + 2 { (o2 - c=)(l2 - c')a V + (a' - c')(o» - h^cV } i'y'
-t- { (6^ - c>2jJ _ (aS _ fc2)cV} 2 = 0.
Now each of these three terms is a positive quantity, if it
he not zero, and as the sum of three positive quantities
cannot be equal to zero, it follows that each term must be
separately equal to zero,
i.e., y = 0, and (l^ - c'')a'^x' = (a' - b'-)cV.
17. Inequalities.
The demonstrations of inequalities are of so simple and
instructive a character, that a somewhat lengthened exhibi-
tion of them forms a valuable introduction to the higher
processes of the science. In all that follows -under this
head, the s}'nibol3 x, y, z stand for positive numbers or
fructiohs, usu.iUv unequal.
Ex. 1. x'-^y''>2J•y.
Uccause (z - y)'' ia -^ , whether z be greater or leas toan
y, it follows that j? - ixy + y' b +, i.e., is some positive
number or fraction,
.-. z'-fy=>2zy.
It will be remarked that when x and y are equal, the in-
equality rises into an equality, and this is common to all
inequalities of the character under discussion.
Cor. - -I- - > 2 ; i.e., th e sum of a fraction and ita recipro
y X
cal is greater than 2.
Ex. 2. x' + y^ + z'>xy + xz + yz.
For x'^ + y^>2xy, x'' + z^>2xz, y' + :->2yz; which
being added and divided by 2, gives the result required.
Ex. 3. x-+"-f y-+">x-i/"-fx'y-.
For (x" - y") (x" - y") is +, whether x bo greater or leas
than y.
As a particular case x? + i/ >x'y + zy'.
Ex. 4. z*'H-l>x^''-f-x^.
For (z'— " - 1) (z" - 1) is positive.
Cor. 1. z"-l--.>x— "-)- — - .
Cor 2. Similarly, z* -h -. >z^' + -._, ,
i.e., aa n increases *" + z, increases, .•. as a particular caae
ir + -,>x+--
X X
Ex. 5. If a, b, c are the sides' of a triangle, a- + b- + (*
>ab + ac + bc<2{ab + ac + bc). The former inequality is
proved in example 2. For the latter we have
(Euclid, L 20), a<b + c .: a^<ab + ac.
Similarly, ^Kab + hc, c"<a« + bc .
.: a' + b'' + c'<2{ab + ac + ic).
Ex. 6. The arithmetic mean of any number of quantitiaa
(all positive) is greater than the geometric.
(The arithmetic mean ia the sum of the quantities
divided by their number ; the geometric is that root of
their product which is represented by their number.) Let
the quantities be denoted by .Ti, Zj, Zj, . . . z., the num-
bers 1, 2, 3, placed under the x, indicating order only, so
that Zi may be read the first x, x, the second z, itc. Ex-
ample 1 gives ' '> ^x^Xi, if we suppose the x and y
of that example to be ^Xx, Jx2 of the present
T^ , ^1 + ^2 x, + x,
It also gives „ +
In the same way we prove the proposition for 8, IG or any
number of quantities which is a power of 2.
For any other number, such, for instance, aa 5, the
following process is employed : — The numbr"- is made up
to 8 by the insertion of three quantities, each equal .to the
■ , • ■• 1 .1 /• x,+x, + x, + x, + x.
arithmetic mean of the other live, viz., -' ' — -f — " — *
Call ihia quantity y • then
Xi+x,+ .. . x^+3y
8
i.e.,
> V XiX, . . . x^yy
8y.
. x.tf
'>x.x.
xjr
OPEBATI0N8.]
ALGEBRA
523
y°>a;^, . . . x.
y or
'ii+^-<
'- > ^X,X,X^^Xy
Cor. As a particular case, x" + y' + 2* > 3«j/j.
^x. 7. Givea XjX, . . . x. = y", to prove that (1 +!,)
.(l+x,)...(l+x.)>(l+y)".
The demonstration will be perfectly general in fact,
though limited in form, if we suppose the number of
quantiti'ea to be 5 ; in which case,
X,Xj. . . x^ = f.
Make the number up to 8 by introducing three y's ; then
(1 +x,) (1 +Xj) >(1 + Jx^x,f by example 1.
(1+X3)(1+^J>(1+ V^.)'
(l+x.)(l+y) >(1+ Jx^f
{\+y){\+y) -{\+ Jyyf
:. Multiplying these products together, and combining the
.right hand factors two and two,
(l+x.)]l+xj {\+x,){\+yY
>{(1+ Vx.x,)(l+ s/^)(l+ N/^)(l+y)}'
>{{\ + ^iJx,x,x,x:,{\+ ijx^)}^
>(1+ i/x^x^x.JC^x^f
>(!+#
.-. (l+x,)(l+x,)... .(l+x.)>(l+y)».
Ex. 8. If the sum of n fractions makes up 1, the sum of
leir reciprocals is greater than the square of their
4Umber.
Let x, + Xj + .
1 1
■+— +
I ^
then.
But
x„=i,
1
N^XjXj
■ x.<-
>n ^ (example G).
- ' ^ — " " ' (example 6)<-
V X
whence
— >",
1 1
— + — +
•>n'.
Ex. 9.
l + x2 + x'+ . .
n+\
('■*i)>"i:r'("l>
z + x'+. . . i^"-' 2n
Let the numerator and denominator of this fraction be
'designated by N and D. N may be divided into pairs of
terms, at the same distance from either end, viz., 1 + x",
.t' + x"*"', itc, with or without a middle term, each of
which (after 1 + x**) is, by example 4, less than that
.quantity ; the middle term, if there be one, being less than
i(l+x'"),
in either case N<— — (1 ^-x*")
Again (example C), D >?i l^xx* . . . x"~' >nx
. . the fraction — < — — ( x + — )•
D 2n, \ x'J
(!■)
(2.)
To prove the second proposition, that the fraction is
» + l / 1\ . .
greater than —— I ^ + • )i '' ^ omy necessary to multi-
ply up and reduce the result ; thus,
iin
n + U,. N
<
•n
<N.
'Whence the proposition.
N -■- (by 1)
E.t.
>t(ab + ac + be) (xy + xz + yi^
Additional Examples.
;. 1. (x + y + z)-< 3(x2 + y^ + z'), and generally,
(x + y + z)'<3'-\x' + y' + 2"). (See Induction.)
Ex. 2. (x + y) (y + s) (z + x) > Sxyj < -(x^ + / + s').
Ex. 3. ^x<-ry' + z^)>xy.-(x + y + 2).
Ex. i. (a' + b' + c2) (x2 + y2 + z^} > {ax + by + czf .
Ex. 5. The arithmetic mein of the pVh powers of n
positive quantities is greater than the ;>th power of their
mean, and also greater than the mean of their combina-
tions p together.
Ex. 6. (ax + by + czf + {ax + cy + hz)- + (hx + ay + c2"^
+ (bx + cy + azy + (ex + ay + bzf + (ex + 6y + az)~
ac-^bc) (xy + XZ + yi^
18. Induction.
It will be noted that the numerical multiplier of the
second term of the powers of a + x already obtained is the
same as the index. It is easy to see that this law is
general. To demonstrate the fact formally we employ the
method of induction.
The argument may be divided into four diatinct steps —
1. Inference; 2. Hypothesis; 3. Comparison; 4. Conclusion.
The first step, inference, is the discovery of the pro-
bable existence of a law.
The second step, hypothesis, is the assumption mat that
law holds to a certain point, up to which the opponent to
the argument may be presumed to admit it.
The third step consista in basing on this assumption the
demonstration of the law to a stage beyond what the
opponent was prepared to admit.
The fourth step argues that as the law starts fair, and
advances beyond a point at which any opponent is prepared
to admit its existence, it is nece3aD,rLly true.
Ex. 1. To prove that [a + xf = a" + na"^x + , ie.
I. By multiplication we get
[a + xY = a* + 4a'x + , iBcx
II. Let it be granted that (a + x)" = a" -f ma''~''x + , ikc,
where m is the extreme limit to which the opponent will
admit of its truth.
IIL By multiplying the equals by a -I- x, we get
(a + x)"+' = o""'"' + ma'x + , &.C.,
+ a''x + , ic,
■=0""*"' + {m + \)a'x + , oic,
i.e., if the law be admitted true for m it is proved true for
m -I- 1 ; in other words, at whatever point the opponent
compels us to limit our assumption, we can advance one
step higher by argument.
IV. Now, the law is true for 4, .•. it is proved true for 5 ;
and being true for 5, it is proved true for G, and so on, ad
infinitum.
Ex. 2. The sum of tlie cubes of the natural uuiiibora la
tne square of the sum of the numbers,
13 + 2' = 9 = (l■^2)2 = (^=^j
I. Let us assume thai
l' + 2' + ,<tc., .x' = (i(^y
II. // this be so, men by adcung (x -I- 1 )' we get
1' + :
+ (x-H)' = (^')V(x.H)»
III. Hence, if the law be true for any one number j:, i
is also true for x -h 1.
524
ALGEBRA
IV. But it is true for 2, .'. for 3, .-. for 4, ,!ic.
£x. 3. To prove the inequality,
(i + y + i)-<3"-'(-c" + y" + »").
From the second example of inequalities wo get at once
Let U3 assume that (jr + y + z)-< 3— '(*■ + jT + z"), then
by multipUcation we, get
(x + y + 2)-+'< 3— '(x-+'+y-+" + ;-+'+ ir-y + y-j: +
x'l + 2"x + y'z + j"y).
Now, inequality, example 3, gives
x"y + y"x<x"+' + y"+', <fec.
.•. x'y + y'i + x'l + z'x + y'z + z'y< 2(x"+' + y"'*'' + z"^'),
(uid (■r + y + «)"+' < 3-(x-+' + y-+' + 2-+'),
i.e., the law is true for m+ 1, if true for m; but it is true
lof 2, .". it is always true.
IV. Division.
19. General Rule for the .Signs. — If the signs'of the
divisor and dividend be like, the sign of the quotient i3 + ;
but if they be unlike, the sign of the quotient is -
This rule is derivud from the general rule for the signs
in multiplication, by con-sidering that the quotient must be
such a quantity as, when multiplied by the divisor, shall
produce the dividend, with its proper sign.
This definition of division is the same as that of a
fraction ; hence the quotient arising from the division of
one quantity by another may be expressed by placing the
dividend above a line, and the-divisor below it ; but it may
also be often reduced to a more simple form by the follow-
ing rules.
Case 1. When the divisor is simple, and a factor of every
term of the dividend.
Rule. Diride the iCoefficient of each term of the dividend
by the cjefticient of the divisor, and expunge out of
each term the letter or letters in the divisor: the result
is the quotient.
Ex. Divide 16a'xy- 28o'xj' + 4aV by 4a«x.
The process requires no explanation. It is founded'on
I.iaws II. and III., together with the rule of signs.
The quotient is 4ay- T^ + x'.
If the divisor and dividend be powers of the same quan-
tity, the division will ■evidently be perfonned by subtract-
ing the exponent of the divisor from that of the dividend.
Thus a*, divided by a', ha« for a quotient a'-' = a''.
Case 2. When the divisor is simple, but not a factor of
the dividend.
Rule. The quotient b expressed by a fraction, of which
the numerator is the dividend, and the denominator the
divisor.
Thus the quotient of 2ab^, divided by 2mbc, is the frac-
,. 3a52
tion - — r-
2mhc
It will sometimes happen that the quotient found thus
may be reduced to a more simple fonn, as shall be ex-
plained when W8 come to treat of fractions.
Case 3. When the divisor is compound.
Jiule. The terms of the dividend are to be arranged
in the order of the powers of some one of its letters, and
those of the divisor accordmg to the powers of the same
letter. The operation is then carried on precisely as for
division of numbers.
To illustrate this rule, let it be required to divide &a' +
2ab - lilt- by 2u + lib, the operation wiil atunJ thus ;
fpUNDAMBNTAI.
2a +
3i)8a'
8a2
+ 2ab-
+ 12a6
-10a6-
-10a6-
- 15i-(4a
151'
15t»
-56
Here the terms of the divisor and dividend are arranged
according to tlie powers of the quantity a. We now
divide 8o-, the first terra of the dividend, by 2a, the first
term of the divisor; and thus get 4a for th« first term of
the quotient. We next multiply the divisor by 4a, ani
subtract the product 8a- + \2ab from the dividend ; we
get - 10a6 - 156- for a new dividend.
By proceeding in all respects as before, we find - 56 for
the second term of the quotient, and no remainder: theopera-
tion is therefore finished, and the whole quotient is 4o - 66.
The following examples will also sei-ve to illustrate the
manner of applving the rule.
3a-
Ex. 1.
6)3a'-12o2
-a% + \0ab-2bHa.'^-
■ia + 2b
3a»
-a'-b
-12a»
+ 10ab
-12a2
+ iab
+ Gab-2b^
+ 6a6-26»
Ex. 2
l-x)l
(1+X + X-+ Jtc
1
-X
fx
-t-x-x
+ x^
+ x5-x»
Sometimes, as in this last example, the quotient tPiU
never terminate ; in such a case it may either be considered
as an infinite series, the law according to which the tenni
are formed being in general sufficiently obvious; or tn;
quotient may be completed as in arithmetical division, by
annexing to it a fraction (with its proper sign), the numer
ator of which is the remainder, and denominator the divisor
Thus the completed quotient, in last example, i^ —
1 +x + x'^ + -
If X be small compared with unity, the remainders, is we
advance, continually become smaller and smaller. If, on
the other hand, x be large compared with unity, the re-
mainders continually become .larger and larger. In this
case the quotient is worthless. To obtain a quotient which
shall be of any practical value, we must reverse the order
of arrangement, putting - x + 1 in olace of 1 - x. The
division then becomes
■■'■')' (-x-i-'^'=-
i-i
X
1
+ --
1
+^
As it is generally the largest of the quantities that we
desire to divide out, we observe that, in order to effect
this, we have had to begin with that quantity. Hence thf
Rule—
The terms of the divisor and dividend are to be arranged
according to the powers of that letter which it in wisberi
(if possible) to divide out.
Kemittader
aftei
0PEEATIONb.j
Ex. 3. Divide a* + i* + h{a + h\^ by a^ + 5^ - ao, where a
is larga compared with h
We must arrange according to powers of a.
o2 - ai + t2)a-' + a^i + 3a262 + 3a6' + 2iVa2 + 2a5 + 462
o* - a?b + a-i-
+ 2a=6 + 2a252 + 3ai»
+ 1a?h - 2a^6^ + lah^
+ 4a26'-+ a6^ + 26«
+ 4a'fc^ - 4a6^ + 46<
+ 5ai' - 2i*
We have spoKen as if magnitude alone was the circum-
stance which should determine the precedence of the letters
in a division. In the more advanced processes of algebra
there are other circumstances which give precedence to
certain letters, such, for example, as the fact that x may and
often does stand for the phrase " quantity," whilst a stands
for some determinate numerical quantity. This leads us
to exhibit a proposition in division of the greatest value and
most extensive application. It is as follows : — •
20. Proposition.- — If any function of x, consisting of
powers of that letter with numerical multipliers, is divided
hy X -a, the remainder, when all the x's are divided out, ij
the same function of a that the dividend is of x; in
other words, the remainder is the dividend altered by writ-
ing a in place of x.
To prove this proposition we shall employ the following
Axiom : — If two expressions in x are identical in form
and value, but one multiplied out farther than the other,
we may write any numerical quantity we please in place
of z in both, and the results will be equaL
For example, {x-\Y + {x -\)-Z is identical with
a;'- 2{z ■)- 1) + x- 1 ; and it is evident that if we write
any number (say 1 ) for x, the results are the same in both.
We now proceed, to prove the proposition.
Let the dividend be s"-t-j5x"~' + yx*~°, kc, where n is
a whole number, and p, q, &c., positive or negative
numerical quantities.
Let the quotient, wnen this is divided byx-«, be.Q,
the remainder, which does not contain x, E ; then
ar+pxr-^ + qar-' + ,&c =Q(x-o) + R
by the definition of Division.
Now this equality is in reality an identity in terms of
the axiom. If then we write a in place of x, the results
will be equal ; this gives
ALGEBRA
525
a' +pa'^
-qa'
•+ itc. =Q.O + R
= R,
which is the proposition to be proved.
Examples.
Ex. 1. If » be any whole number, a^ - o" is divisible by
a— a without remainder.
For the remainder, by the proposition, is a" - a* = 0 .
Ex. 3. If » be an even "muber. a^ - a" is divisible by
X + a without remainder.
For the remainder is ( - Oy - a" = 0, since n is even.
Observe that the divisor here has to be changed to
* ~ ( - ")) so that - a stands in phice of the a of the pro-
position.
Ex. 3. If n be an odd number, a;* + a* is divisible by.
IT + a without remainder.
For the remainder is ( - a)" + a" = 0, oecause « is odd.
Ex. 4. To prove that 46V - (62 + c''- a^f is divisible by
-a + b + c; and hence to resolve it into simple factors.
Here the x-a ot the projtosition La replaced'by a - (6 + c)
(the negative sign of the whole divisor being of nb conse-
qtience).
To deteniiioo tba remainder, therefore, we write o + « in
place of o in the dividend, or thing to ba divided; the
result is,
462c2-(62-f-c2-6~)2 = 0,
hence ib'^c- - (b^ +-c- - a^Y is divisible by -a + b + c
Now, since the dividend contains only squares of a, and
6, and c, any change in the sign of a, or 6, or c, produces
no change in the dividend. What we have just proved
then becomes (putting — a for a) the following : —
462c2 - (62 + c^ — a2^2 ig divisible by a + b + c.
i'his last becomes (putting - 6 for 6, and then - c for c) : —
462^2 — (62 + c^ — a^) is dividble by o — 6 -^ c, and by a + 6 — c.
Hence finally, Wc- - {b"^ + c"^ - a^f = {a + b + c)
{-a + b + c){a-b + c)'{a + b- c).
The above example is a good exercise for the student.
The result may be more simply arrived at by employing a
proposition of very great value and frequent use — that tlte
diffei-ence of the squares of two quantities is the product of
the SU711 and difference of the quantities.
Ex. 5. To prove that (\ - a:-) {\ - b-) {\ - 1^) - {c + ab)
(6 -I- ac) (a -1- 6c) is divisible by 1 + abc.
It is simpler here to write a single letter x for ale,
whereby the given quantity becomes
{l-a^)(^-b^){\-c^)-\{x + a^){x + b^)(,x + i^),
which is obviously under the form p-p, when - 1 is
written for r, and . ■. is divisible by 1 -|- x.
Ex. 6. Prove that (x^ - x + l){x^ - x- + V/(x^ -x* + \)
(xi5-x8+l). . . (.i^-x'-|-l)is the quotient of x** + x^ -h 1
hy X- + X+1 ; n being any power of 2.
The divisor {x~ + x + l) being multiplied by x2 - n- I
gives x^-t-x2-|-l; which, being again multiplied by
x* - x2 + 1, gives x^ + x^ + 1 ; and so on to the end.
Additional Examples in Division.
Ex. 1. Divide 1 - 1 Ox^ + 1 5x* - 6x5 ^y {\ - xf.
We must first multiply out (1 -x)', and then divide the
given expression by the product, 1 - 3x -t- 3x2 _ ^_ "j^g
quotient is 1 -I- 3x -I- 6x2.
Ex. 2. Divide 65x2y2 -(3^ + Uy*) by x- - 7xy - 8y2.
We must arrange dividend and divisor in terms of power?
of one of the letters, say x ; the division will then assume
the form
a~-7xy- 8^2) _ ^ + 65x2y2 - 64/(
giving - x2 - 7xy + 8y2 .
Ex. 3. Divide x^ -)- y' -^ z' - Zxyz oy x + y + z.
We must give exclusive attention to some one letter, Bay
X, in dividing out ; thus
x + y + z\x -rf + ^-Zxyz{x'-x(y + 2) + (y^ + z'-yz)
a? + x2(y + 2)
-x\y + z\
- xHy + z)- x(y + zY
X(y2 _ yj + 22) .4. y3 ^. jS
the quotient being x' + y^ + z'-xy-xz-yz,
Ex. 4. Divi'de the product of
x'' + Zx + 2, x2-5x + 4, x' + 5x'- 14,
by the product of 3^-1, !if-2. Here we observe tba.
x2- 1 is the product of x+1, x- 1.
Now (Art. 20), x^ + ix + 2 is divisible by x +.!,■> and
x2 - 5x -t- 4 by X - 1. Hence, if the product is divisible by
x2 - 1, x2 - 2, without remainder, the third factor, x.' + 5x'
- 14 must bo divisible by x2 - 2, which is fo4nd.to be tha
"■ase. The quotient required is thercf5re the product ct
'(x + :! ; (X - 4) (x^ + 7) = x« - 2V - »« - 1 4j - 6 a
526
gomor's
syiithetio
liiviaioD.
Ex. 5. Divide 12j<- I0j;'y-3iV + 30xi/»
3x' - Kxy + 5y'.
^Vo will employ tliij example to inc'icato Ilomcr'fi
method of synthetic division.
Let the dividend bo represfcntea by
Ajt' + B.f' + Cx2 + D« + E,
the divisor by ax'- + ij; + c,
and the quotient by ajfi + /3x + y + (tc.
Then, multiplying the quotient by the divisor, we produce
the dividend, which, exhibited by the method of detached
Gooflicients, stands thus —
aa + a/3 + ay + iiC
+ ia + 6y3 + (fee
+ ca + (fee.
A+ B + C +ic
The list line being the sum column by column of the
three preceding lines. Kow, as the upper of these three
lines contains term by term the quantities required, we
convert this addition into subtraction ; thu.a,
A +B +C +D +E
-ha-hfi-by- &C
- ca - c/3 - ic
ALGEBRA
25/ by
-h
— c
a\aa + a/3 + ay + aS + A'C.
The first vertical column gives a ; the second /3, and bo
on.
In the eiample before us we write, —
12-10-3 +30-25
+ 4a + 4/3 + 4y + (fca
-5a-5;8-a:c
+ 4
-5
3 3a + 3/3 + 3y + A-c.,
whence 3a = 1 2 gives a = 4;3/3=-10 + 4a gives ^3 = 2 ;
3y = - 3 + 4/8 - 5a gives y — - 5.
Therefore the quotient required is ix^ + 2z- 5.
Sect. IL — Ixtolution and EvoLunoN.
21. In treating of multiplication, we have observed, that
when a quantity is multiplied by itself any number of
times, the product is called a power of that quantity, while
the quantity itself, from which the powers are formed, is
called the root. Thus, a, a', and a' are the first, second,
and third powers of the root o; and in like manner -, -;,
ttnd — denote the same powers of the root - .
But before considering more particularly what relates to
powers and roots, it wiU be proper to observe, that the
quantities -, -|, — , kc, admit of being expressed Tinder a
different form ; for, just as the quantities a, a", a', <tc.,
are expressed as positive powers of the root a, so the
quantities -, -5, -j, ic, may bo respectively expressed
thus a~', o~-, a"', <tc., and considered as negative Dowers
of the root a.
This method of expressing the fractions -, — , -^ as
powers of the root a, but with negative indices, is a conse-
quence of the rule which has been given for the division
of po.wers ; for we consider - as the quotient arising from
the division. of any power of a by the next higher power ;
(or example, from the di\-ision of the 2d by the 3d, and so
we have - = -; ; but since powers of the same quantity are.
[iNTOLUnON AJTO
divided by subtracting the exponent of the divisor from
that of tie dividend (Art. 19), it follows that —. - o'-'
- may also be cxpressc-d
-= a"' ; therefore the fraction
thus, arK By considering — as equal to — , it will appear
. , , 1 o«
in the same manner that -; — -r
this way, we get^-^-o
■a - ; and proceeding in
J _„:
a'*, (fee, and so on,
as far as we plexse. It also appears that unity or 1 may
be represented by o", wliere the exponent is a cj-pher, for
a*
l=^_a=-=-a».
The rules which have been given for the multiplication DeSnition
and division of powers with positive integral exponents 0' index.
will apply in every case, whether the exponents be positive
or negative, integral or fractional, provided wo assume as
the definition of the index in such cases, the law of com-
bination a'y.a' — a"+".
Involution.
22. Involution is the method of finding any power of
any assigned quai.tity, whether it bo simple or compound :
hence its rules are easily derived from the operation of
multiplication.
Case 1. When the quantity is simple.
Rule. Multiply the exponents of the letters by the index
of the power required, and raise the coefficient to the
same power.
Note. If the sign of the quantity be +, all its powers will
be positive ; but if it bo - , then all its powers whose
exponents are even numbers are positive, and all it»
powers whose exponents are odd numbers are nega-
tive.
Ex. 1. Required the cube, or third power, of ic^x,
{1a-xf=.2-n 2 X 2a-''V" = 8a''x', the answer.
Ex. 2. Required the fifth power of - Za-x'.
( - 3a V)' = - 243a"j;", the answer.
Ex. 3. Required the fourth power of - -r.— •
/-^ax\* 16aV ^,
Case 2. When the quantity is compound.
liule. The powers must be found by a continual multipli-
cation of the quantity by itself.
Ex. 4. Required the first four powere of tha biucmial
quantity o + x.
a + x the r(xit, or first power.
a + x
a- + ax
+ ax + x''
a^ + 2ax + x^ the square, or second power.
a +x
a' + 2a^x + ax^
+ a-x + 2ax' + x'
a' + 3a*x + 3<2.r- + x' the cube, or third power.
a< + 3a'* + 3aV + ax'
+ a'x + 3aV + Sax' + X*
a* + 4a'x + 6a-x^ + 4ajr''+ x* the fourth power.
It it be required to find the same powers of a ■
will be foand, -nilting - x for x. that
I, It
SVOLUTION.]
A I G E B R A
527
Involotion
by the
biDoraiR&l
tbeorem.
a- X being the root, or first power ; then
a^ — 2ax + x' is the square, or second power ;
a? — Za"x + Zax'^ - x', the cube, or third power ;
a* - ia?x + 6a-«' - iax' + a:*, the fourth power.
Hence it appears that the powers of a + x differ from the
powers of a - X only in this respect, that in the former
the signs of the terms are all positive, but in the latter
they are positive and negative alternately.
Besides the method of finding the powers of a compound
quantity by multiplication, which we have just now ex-
plained, there is another more general, as well as more
expeditious, by which a quantity may be raised to any
power whatever without the t'-ouble of finding any of the
inferior powers, namely, by means of what is commonly
called the binomial theorem, to be proved hereafter. This
theorem may be expressed as follows : — Let a + x be a
binomial quantity, which is to be raised to any power
denoted by the number n, then (a + x)* =-
n(n-lX>»-2)(»-3) ■ .
1.2.3.4
nrn-l)(n-2)(n-3)(n-4) ... ,
+ 1.2 . 3 . 4 ■ 5 ° '^ + ^-°- '
This series will always terminate when n is any whole
positive number, by reason of some one of the factors
n - 1, n - 2, (Sjc, becoming = 0 ; but if re be either a nega-
tive or fractional number, the series will consist of an
infinite number of terms. As, however, we mean to treat
in this section only of the powers of quantities when their
exponents are whole positive numbers, we shall make no
further remarks upon any other. The nth power of a - x
will not differ from the same power of a + x, except
in the signs of the terms which compose it, for it will
stand thus : (a - x)" =
x +
"(n-1) ^j
n{n-\){n-2)
-V
a"~'x*- (fee, where the signs are +
a--- ^
n(n-l)(rt-2Xn-3)
"''1.2.3.4
and - alternately.
Let it be required, for instance, to rais^ a -l- x to the fifth
power.
Here n, the exponent of the power, being 5, the first
term o" of the general theorem will be equal to o', the
, , _ . , , . , n{n — 1) „o 5x4--
BBCond no 'x = 5a*x, the third j-^ a.^^x-= arx^ =
' 1.2 1x2
lOaV, the fourth -^^ — — —- a"^ x^ ■= aV =
1 . 2
1x2x3
in 9 1 ii. i!fiv 'i("-l)(i-2)(n-3) , . 5x4x3x2 .
lOaV, the fifth , „ '^ '-^ 'a—^x* = , — ax*
' 1.2.3.4 1x2x3x4
=■ 5ax*, and the sixth and last
«(n-l)(n-2) (n-3)(n-4) ^. , 6x4x3x2x1 „,
1.2.3.4.5 1x2x3x4x5
the remaining terms of the general theorem all vanish, by
reason of the factor » — 5 = 0 by which each of them is
multiplied, bo that we get (a -)- x)' = a' -H Sa^x -I- 1 Oa V +
10aV + 5ax'-^x^.
If the quantity to be involved consists of more than
two terms, as, i! p + q ~r were to be raised to the second
power, put p = a and q-r = h, then {p + q — rY^(a + hY
''a'^ + 2ab + b-=p'^ + '2.p(q-r) + {q-rf, but 2p{q-r) =
ipq - Ipr, and by the general theorem {q - »•)- = ?' - Iqr
-fr', therefore we get {p-Vq-r^^^p^ + lpq-lpr + q--
2qr+ r^; and by a similar method of proceeding a quantity
consisting of four or more tenns may be raised to any
power.
Additional Examples.
Ex. 1. From the value of (a-rx)* found in example 4,
to find that of (a-)-6 + c)*. From example 4 we write at
once, by symmetry,
{a + b + cY = a* + 4a'6 + Oa-b- + R
+ b* + ia^c + 6a V
+ c* + Wa + et^c"
+ ibh
+ 4c'a
+ io'b
where R is the series of remaining terms denoting the thrco
following forms, a^c, b^ac, c^ab. Now when a, b, c are
each unity, there are 81 terms (viz. 3*). But the number
of terms already written down (4a'6 being considered as 4
terras, <fec.) is 45. The quantity R must consequently
make up the other 36 terms, .". it can be nothing else than
Ua'bc + \2l^ac+\2c'ab.
Ex. 2. {p-''q + r)-=p^ + q'' + r- + 2{pq + qr + rp).
Cor.lip + q + r = 0; thenp'-h q^ + r^ + 2(jiq + qr -^ rp) ■= 0.
Case 1. a-b + b-c + c-a = 0, gives
{a-by + (b-cy + {c-ay + 2{(a-b)(b-c) + {b-c)(c-a)
■^(c-a)(a-i)}=0.
Case 2. a{b -c) + b{c -a) + c{a - i) = 0, gives
a^{b - cf + P{c - ay + c^(a -by + 2 {ab{b - c){c -a) +
bc{c - a){a -b) + ca{a - b){b -c)} =0 .
Ex. 3. Prove that {x^ - yzf + {t/'' - x:)^ + (z- - x^Y ~
3(x- - yj)(y' - xj)(2^ - xy) is a complete square.
The expression will assume symmetry if (x^ — yz)(y'^ - x;)
(z^ — xy), instead of being multiplied by 3, be repeated
three times, each being connected with one of the cubes
in turn; this gives —
(x'^ - yi) {{x- - yzy - {y- - xzMz^ - ry)}
+ ly' - xz\ { iy'^ - xiV- - ix- - yz)lz' - xy) \
+ (z^ — xy) { (z^ — xyY — (x^ — yz)(y^ — xz) }
•= (x^ - yz)x[x^ + y^ + ^ - Zxyz]
+ lie, <tc.
= {x' + y^ + !r'- 3xyz){x^ + / + :^ - 3xyz) .
Ex. 4. Prove that (a^ + b- + <rf + 2{ab + bc + ca)''
- 3(a- + b- + c'^){ab + bc + cay = (a' + t' -K:^ - Zabcy .
Combine each of the cubes with each of the products in
succession, and reduce, as in the last example.
Ex. 5. To find the condition that px' + 2qxy + ry^ may
be incapable of changing its sign through any change of
sign or value of x and y. It is evident that p and r must
have the same sign. Suppose it positive. By multiply-
ing by p, the quantity may be thrown into the form
(j)x + qyY + (pr — q-)y'^, which is the sum of two positive
quantities provided j/r'xf. The condition required is,
therefore, pr><f-; or as a particular case ^r = 2'.
Ex. 6. To find the condition that ax'- -*- 6y- + «' -F
21!yz -f- 2Qrx -I- 2Vay may be incapable of changing its sign
through any change of sign or value of x, y, z.
We will suppose a, b, c to be all positive, in which case
the whole result is also positive.
If wo multiply the whole by a, .ve may write it under
the form of a square and a supplement,
viz., (ax + Q,z + Ry)' + {ac - Q=)j- +
{ab-ll-)y'^ + 2{aV-q'R)yz.
Now as the first term of this expression is a square, it
is essentially positive. Hence the required condition can
bo satisfied only by rendering the rem.ainder positive.
It follows that aoQ', ai>R-, and
(Example 5) (ac - Q,-)(ab - R=) >(aP - QR)J,
i.e., a6c-(-2PQR>aP=H-tQ= + cR».
628
ALGEBRA
[urVOLUTION AKD
S<}uare
root.
If W6 had beRiin by throwing tho expression into the
form of (4^ + P^ + Ilf)' +• &c., a resulting condition
would have been hc>P\ The four conditions arc con-
sequently
ah>n\ac>q-, hoV^,
aAc + 2PQR>«F + '<Q' + <rR'.
Tlesiilts of this kind are of tho utmost valne in the
higher analysis.
Evolution.
23. F.viiUition is the reverse of involution, or it is the
method of finding tho root of any quantity, whether simple
or compound, which is considered as a power of that root:
hence it follows that its operations, generally speaking,
must be tho reverse of those of involution.
To denote that the root of any quantity is to be taken,
the sign J (called the radical «i5"i) is placed before it,
ahd a small number placed over the sign to express the
denomination of the root. Thus ^a denotes the square
root of a, ^'o its cube root, i/a its fourth root, and in
general, ^/« its «th root. The number placed over the
radical sign is called tho indcji or exponent of the root, and
is usually omitted in expressing the square root: thus,
either ija or Ja denotes the square root of a.
Case 1. When roots of simple quantities are to be found.
Rule. Divide the exponents of -the letters by the index
of tlie root required, and prefix the root of the numeral
coefficient; the result will be tho root required.
!fote 1. The loot of any positive quantity may be either
positive or negative, if the index of the root be an even
nnmbor; but if it be an odd number, the root can be
positive only.
2. The root of a negative quantity la also negative when
the index of the root is an odd number.
3. But if the quantity be negative, and the iodex of the
root even, then no root can be assigned.
Ex. Required the cube root of 125aV.
Here the index of the root is 3, and the root of the co-
efficient 5, therefore ;^125a^a;° = 5aV, the root required;
and in like manner the cube root of- 125a'x' is found to
be - 5a-j;'.
The root of a fraction is found by extracting the root
of both numerator and denominator. Thus the square
^ , ia'x^ . 2(u:3
root of -— -, IS — r— ; •
Case 2. WTien the quantity of which the root 13 to be
extracted is compound.
I. To extract the square root.
Range the terms of the quantity according to the powers
of one of the letters, as in division.
Find the square root of the first term for the first part
of the root sought, subtract its square from the given
quantity, and divide the remainder by double the part
already found, and the quotient is the second term of the
root
Add the second part to double the first, and multiply
their sum by the second part ; subtract tho product from
the remainder, and if nothing remain, the square root is
obtained But if there is a remainder, it must be divided
by the double of the parts already found, and the quotient
will give the third term of the root, and so on.
Ej^. Required the square root of x* - 2a^ + x?
3*-
X*
lf'\^-\*
U.'-
1
x-x)
.2^ + -x«
-2x>+ jf«
^ X 1
'i 2 ~2"'"To
I
4^ 2 2 '^ To
1
To understand the reason of the rule for finding the
nquare root of a compound quantity, it is only necessary
to involve any quantify, as a + 4 + c, to the second power,
and observe the composition of its square; for we have
(a + b + cf=-a'^ + Viab + b'' + 2ac + 2bc + c'; but Ub + b''~
(2a + b)b and 2ac + 26c + c» = (2a + 26 + c)c, therefore,
(a + 6 + c)' = a" + (2a + b)b + (2a + 26 + c)c;
and from this expression the manner of deriving the rule
is obvious.
As an illustration of the common rule for extracting the
square root of any proposed number, we shall suppose that
the root of 59049 is required.
Accordingly we have (a + 6 + <■)- = 59049, and from
hence we are to find the values of a, 6, and e.
a« = 200x200.
2a = 400
6= 4.0
2a + 6 = 440
59049(200
=40000 40
, 3
19049
H}
Hence 243 is the foot
required.
176O0 = (2a + 6)i
2ffl + 26 = 4801449
e= 3
2o + 26 + f=483
1449 = (2a + 26 + <;)<!
II. To extract the cube root.
Range tho terms of the quantity according to the powers
ijf some one of the letters.
Find the root of the first term, for the first part of the
root sought ; subtract its cube from the whole quantity,
and divide the remainder by three times tho square of tho
part already found, and the quotient is the second part of
the root.
Add together three times the square of the part of the
root already found, three times the product of that part
and the second part of the root, and the square of the
second part; multiply the sum by the second part, and sub-
tract the product from the first remainder, and if nothing
remain, the root is obtained ; but if there is a remainder,
it must be divided by three times the square of the sum
of the parts already found, and the quotient is a third term
of the root, and so on, till the whole root b obtained.
Ex. Required the cube root of a' + 3a'j; + 3ajr' + ** .
a' + 3a'a; + 3ar^ + x'(a + x, the root required.
Cub* tool.
3a2 + Soar + x^)'ia-x + Sax' + j^
3a'x + Sax' + x'
The reason of the preceding rule is evident from the
composition of a cube ; for if any quantity, as a + 6 + c, be
raised to the third power, we have (a + i + f)' = a' + (,'5a'
+ 3a4 + 6^)6 + {3(a + 6)» + 3(a + b)t + c'}e, and by consider-
(EVOLUTION.]
ALGEBRA
525)
in^ ia wKat manner the tenns a, i,-and c are deduced
from this expression for the cube of their sum, we also see
the reason for the common rule for extracting the cube
root in numbers. Let it be required to find the cube root
of 13312U5J, where ths root v^ evidently consist Of three
figures ; let us suppose it to be represented by a + b + c,
and the operation for finding the numerica.1 values of these
quantities may stand as follows : —
13312053(200 = n
2'= 8000000 30 = 4
7 = c
3a2 = 120000
3ab= 18000
6= = 900
5312053
a-« + 3aJ + l= = 138900
3(a + 6)2 = 158700
4167000 = f3a2 + 3a5 + 62)5
3(a + 6)'
3(a + 6>
4830
49
237 is the root required.
1145053
3(a + h)' + 3(a + b)c + c- = 163579 1145053 = [^[a + 6)' + 3(a + b)c + c"-]c
iCny root m. To extract any other root
Range the quantity of which the root ia to be found,
, according to the powers of one of its letters, and extract
the root of the first term : that will be the first member
of the root required.
' Involve the first member of the root to a pyver less by
•mity than the number that denominates the root re-
■ quired, and multiply the power that arises by the num-
ber itself ; divide the second term of the given quantity
by the product, and the quotient shall give the second
member of the root required.
Find the remaining members of the root in tne same
manner by considering those already found as making
one term.
24. In the preceding examples, the quantities whose
roots were to be found have been all such as could have
their roots expressed by a finite number of terms ; but it
will frequently happen that the root cannot be otherwise
assigned than by a series consisting of an infinite number
of terms. The preceding rules, however, will serve to de-
termine any number of terms of the series. Thus,- the
square root of a- + x- wUl be found to bea + ;7--;r^ +
1G««
2o Ba^
-— ;- + &c., and the cube root of a^ + x? will stand
128a'
thus, a +
!» 5l9 10x13 ,
■^, + 57^-;n^ + >tc. But as the
3a« 3a^ 8Ia» 243a"
traction of roots in the form of series can be more easily
performed by the aid of the binomial theorem, we shall
r&fer the reader to the section where this subject is resumed.
Additional Examples.
3
Ex. 1. Write down the square root oi i£*~^jifi + -x- -
- X + — , which ia given as a perfect- square.
Sinee the square contains 5 terms, the root must con-
tain 3. Of these the first is x'^ on account of ar*, the second
- x on account of 2x^, and the third =t - on account of — .
' 4 16
nut as the last term but one of the square is - , and the
iast term but Qne of the root also - , the last term of the
root must be + .
.•. x- -x+ -ia the root required.
£x. 2. Extract the sqi^are root of 25jr* + 16y* - Gxi/ (5x''
+ 4y') + 49x2y2. We must first arrange the sauare in terms
of some one quahtity (say x).
T)ie firs*, term of the square is 25^*, which gives 5x5 as
the tirst term of the root. The secJnd term of the square,
- 30x^^ gives - 3x1/ as the second term of the root. The
last term 1 By* gives ± 4y° ; which, since the last term but
one is - , leads to the root 5x- - 3xi/ + 4^^ .
£x. 3. Extract the cube root of
8x« - 3Gx^ + G6x* - 63x3 + 33,^2 _ 9^+ 1 .
Since there are seven terms in the cube, there must be
three terms in the root. The first is 2x^, the second - 3x,
the third 1, as wUl be seen at once by examining the
cube oi p-q+1, viz., p^ - 3p-q + . . . - 3j + 1 .
These examples have been solved by the assumption
that the root is capable of extraction '^vithout leaving a
remainder. When this is not the case, or when there is no
certainty that it js so, the only resource is to work the
example through, abbreviatius the process by the aid of
detached coefiicieuts.
£x. 4. Extract th e square root of 4x' + 1 2x^2/ + 5x*y- -
2x^3/3 + 7x^y* -T 2xj'* + y''. The work is written thus :
4 + 12 + 5 - 2 + 7 - 2 + 1(2x3 + Sx-" -xy- + 2/3
4
4 + 3)
12 + 5
12 + 9
4 + 6-
-1) -4-2 + 7
-4-6+1
4 + 6-
-2 + 1 ) 4 + 6-2+1
Hx. 5.
Extract the cube root of
27x5 -
We have
27x=y - 45x*/ + 35xy +
30x-V -
ISxy-''
27
27
-27-45 + 35 + 30-12
-8(3x2-
-xy-i
27 )
-27-45 + 35
-27+ 9- 1
27-18
+ 3) -54 + 36 + 30 -12
r-54 + 36- 6
+ 36-12
-8
-8-_
Sect. III. — FaAcrioifs.
• 8/
if
25. In the operation of division,.the divisor may be soms,
tinios greater than the dividend, or ma^ not be containtal
in It an exact number of times : in either case the quotient
is expressed by means of a fraction. There can be no
difficulty,' however, in estimating the magnitude of such a
quotient ; if, for example, it were the fraction f , wo may
consider it as denoting either that: sotfie Unit is divided
into 7 equal paKs, And that 6 of these are taken, or that
I. - 61
530
ALGEBRA
[fbactions;.
5 times the same nnit is dividet into 7 equal parts, and
one of them taken.
In any fraction the upper number, or the dividend, is
called the numerator, and the lower number or divisor .is
called the denominator. Thus, in the fraction -, o is the
6
numerator, and b the denominator.
If the numerator be less than the denominator, such a
fraction is called a proper fraction ; but if the numerator
be either equal to or greater than the denominator, it, is
called an improper fraction ; and if a quantity bo made up
of an integer and a fraction, it is called a mixed quantity.
Thus, — — is a proper fraction ; - and are both im-
proper fractions ; and i + - is a mixed quantity.
The reciprocal of a fraction is another fraction, having
its numerator and denominator respectively equal to the
denominator and numerator of the former.
Thus, —is the reciprocal of the fraction r •
a 0
26. The following proposition is the foundation of the
operations relating to fractions.
If the numerator and denominator of a frac ion be
either both multiplied or both divided by the same quan-
tity, the value of the resulting fraction is the same as before.
To demonstrate this proiK)sition we shall throw the
definition of a fraction into a categorical form. We shall
accordingly define the fpffction - as such a magnitude, that
when it is mul'-plied by b, the product is a.
Then since
X 6 = a.
n X - X t = na
0
i.e. (Art. 9, Law 3), rx-nb-na
Eut
-7 X Mi = na (Def.)
a no
From this proposition, it is obvious that a fraction may
be very differently expressed without changing its value,
and that any integer may be reduced to tlie form of a
fraction, by placing the product arising from its multipli-
cation by any assumed quantity as the numerator, and the
assuihed quantity as the denominator of the fraction. It
also appears that a fraction very complex in its form may
often be reduced to another of the same value, but more
ehnple, by finding a quantity which will divide both the
numerator and denominator, without leaving a remainder.
Such a common divisor, or common measure, may be
either simple or compound ; if it be simple, it is readily
found by inspection, but if it be compound, it may be
found as in the following problem.
27. Prob. I. — To find the greatest common Measure of two
Quantities.
Rule 1. Range the quantities according to the power of
some one oi the letters, as in division, leaving out the
simple divisors of each quantity.
2. Divide that quantity which is of most dimensions by
the other one, and if there be a .remainder, divide it by
its greatest simple divisor ; and then divide the last
compound divisor by the resulting .quantity, and if any-
thing yet remain, divide it' also by its greatest simple
divisor, and the last compeund divisor by the resulting
quantity. Proceed in this way till nothing remain,-
and the lost divisor shall be the comnon measure re-
quired.
Note. — It will sometimes be necessary to multiply the
dividends by simple quantities in order to make the
di\'isions succeed.
The demonstration of this proposition depends on the
Axiom, that whatever divides a number divides any mul-
tiple of the number ; and whatever divides two numbers
divides their sura or difference. It was given by -Euclid
in Prop. 2, Book vii., very much as follows : —
Let a, b be the quantities, the binaller of which is 6.
Let a be divided by l, with a remainder c,
b by c, with a remainder </,
c by d, with no remainder,
d is the greatest common measure of a and b.
We have a-pb = c, b-qc — d, c-rd.
Now, (1.) d is a common measure of a and /; ; for <7
divides c .• qc .: qc + d .: b .: pb .: pb + c .". a; i.e., J
divides a and b.
(2.) It is the greatest common divisor. For if not, let r
be tiro greatest; then, since e divides a ajid h, it divides a
and jjb, .: a—pb .". c .'. qc .: b — qc .'. d; i.e., e is less
than d, and not greater.
Cor. Every other divisor of a and b divides their greatest
common measure.
Obserce that no fraction is in a form to be interpreted,
until it is reduced to its lowest terms.
££. 1. Required the greatest common measure of the
quantities a-x — x' and a' — 2a-x + ax'. The simple di-
visor X being taken out of tlie former of these quantities,
and a out of the latter, they are reduced to a- - x' and
u^.— 2ax + z-; and as the quantity a rises to the same
dimensions in both, we may take either of them as the
first divisor : let us take that which consists of fewest
terms, and the operation will stand thus :
a'-x^)a--2ax + x-<l
a- — x'
- 2ax + 2x- remainder,
which, divided by - 2x, is a - x)a- - x-(a -I- *
a'' -ax
4-ax-x'
+ ax — x'
Hence it ajipcars that a- x is the greatest common
measure required.
Ex. 2. Required the greatest common measure of
^a-b"- - lOaZ.' + 2b\ and Ua*6 - Sa'b- + Sa-b' - 3ah\
It is evident, from inspection, that A is a simple divisar
of both quantities ; it will therefore be a factor of the
common measure required. Let the simple divisors be now
left out of both quantities, and they are reduced to ia' —
5ab + b-, and 3a^ - 3a-b + air - b^ ; but as the second of
these is to be divided by the first, it must be multiplied
by 4 to make tlie division succeed, and the operation will
stand thus :
4a= - 5ab + V-)l2a' - 1 2a"-b + i(,b'-- iJ^3a
I2a^-\5a^b + 3ab'^
+ 3a'b + ab--W
This remainder is to be divided by b, and the new divi-
dend multiplied by 3, to make the division again Buceep.d,
and the work will stand thus :
3a' + ab-ib-)l2a'-l5ab+ Sl=(4
Ua'+ 4ab-16b'
-■lO<A + lSb>
Fr.AOTIONS.]
ALGEBRA
531
This remainder is~to "^e divided by -19J, which being
done, and the last divisor taken as a dividend as before,
the rest uf the oiieratiuu will be as follows : —
■t)3(i2+ ah-
3«- — 3«i
^^={30 + 46
+ iab - W
from which it appears that the common divisor sought is
a- b, and remarking that the quantities proposed have
rIso a simple divisor /;, the greatest common measure
which is required will be b{a - i).
It will be seen that the ex.amples we have given are not
on numbers, but on algebraic, quantities. In fact, the '
axiom and the demonstration founded on it apply, with
some restrictions and modifications, to such quantities.
The most important of the modifications is this : that the
divisor, instead of being a whole number, is an expression
of the form x + m, where m is of the nature of a numerical
quantity, and does not depend on x.
The application of this modified form of the axiom has
a wide range in the higher analysis. We offer two addi-
tional examples for advanced students.
Ex. 1. If ax- + hx + c, a'x'^ + b'x + c have a ^mnion
divisor of the form x + m, prove that
[a'b — aV) [h'c — be) = [a'c — acf- .
Multiply the first expression by a, and the second by a,
and subtract the products, the difference (u'6 - a6')^ -)- a'c
-ac', is by the axiom divisible by x + m,
x+.
a'h — ab'
IS x + m .
Again, multiply the first expression by c, and the
second by c, and subtract them; the difference (a'c- ac')x^
■f (b'c - hc')x is divisible by a; + m, .•. x -i- -; , ux + vi.
Consequently,
b'c — he
a'c — ac a'b — ab
the condition required.
Ex. 2. If ax^ + 'ibx'^ + d. bx'-^Sdx + e, have a common
divisor; then
(ihd - aey + 27{ad- + b'^ef = 0.
Treating this question exactly as the last, viz., multiplying
first by b and a, and then by e and rf, .and subtracting,
it appears (if u be written instead of bd-aetor brevity)
that t^jg two following expressions have a .common
divisor,
3i-j;^ - 3adx + u and ux'^ — Zbex -t- Z<P ,
whence, by the last example, the conditiofi fs
(Sfteu - ^ad?) {Zadu - <H?e) = {v?- - WSf ,
from which -u divides out as a common factor, anu the
reFult reduces to that enunfiated.
28. Phob. II. — To Rediice a Fraction to its Lowest Terms.
Rule. Divide both numerator and denominator by their
greatest common measure, which may be found by
Prob. I.
Ex. 1. Reduce -; — r-; ; to its lowest terms.
(}3 _ 2a'x + ax'
We have already found in the first exiimple of Prob. I.
that the greatest common measure of the numerator-and
Jtuoniinator ia a-x; and dividing both by this quantity,
n^T — s^ ni + z*
we have s ., j , .^-"1
a' -Hj.^t+ttx' of — at
In like manner we fitid
9a'6 - ^a^}r + Sa'M -t Sal' ' 9a' + 3<iJ>
the common measure being i(a -
ample 2, Problem I.
a'-V-c' + ihc
%ah-W
b), &s was shown in Ex-.
Ex. 2. Redjice
;2_i,2_c2-(-26(; (
-t-62_cS+2o6
a'-(6-cy _ {a + b
{a+by-
to its lowest terms.
c){a-b-c) a-b + &
d- + b--c- + 2ab
Ex. 3. To find the value of
(a+b+c){a + b
(x-fl)^
■c) a+b + c
3-1: - 3 ,
x'-2x~ '''''" ' = 2.
Here the substitution of ? in place of x .renders the
numerator and denominator separately equal to 0. This
shows (Art.*, 20) that x-2 is a divisor of each of them.
We get, therefore,
{x+lf-3x--J x+l
X- -2x- ~
wliich when x = 2 becomes '
Ex. 4. Fi
Dividing
result IS
J .1, 1 f 3r'-4x= + 2x-l-l ,
id the value of -. — . .. .. ., — ^ wlienx= 1..
x3
of X, becomes
4x^+0x^-4x4-)
numerator and denominator by
x'-Zx-l , • , ,
, which, when 1 is written in place
1, the
1'
3x2 -fSx-
- > or infinity.
0 •'
29. Peob. III. — To Reduce a Mixed Quantity to an
Improper Erection.
Rule. Multiply the integer by the denominator of the
fraction, and to the psoduct add the ui.unerator; and
the denominator being placed under this sum, the result,
will be the improper fraction required.
Ex. 1. Reduce a ■
z-i to an improper fraction.
a + x ' '
(a-l-x) (a-x) + x^
a + x
Ans.
30.
Pbob. IV. — To Reduce an Improper Fraction to a Wkolt
or Mixed Number.
Ride. Divide the numerator by the denominator for the-
integral part, and place the remainder, if any, over
the denominator ; it will be the mixed quantity re-
quired.
Ex. 1. Reduce
a + x
quantities.
ax-(-2x'
First =
a + x
x-Tj
-y
x — y
anrd to whole or mixed
x+ ■
And
a + x
X + y a whole
the answer.
quantity, which is the
31. Peob. V. — To Reduce Fractions liaving different De-
nomhiators to others of the sarne value xekich shall have a
common Denominator.
Rule. Multiply each nuraeratoi" separately into all the
denominators except its own for the new numerators,
and all the denominators- together for the common de-
nominator.
Ex. 1. Reduce - — and to fractionsof equal value,
a-x a+x
having a common denominator.
ax(a -f x) = d-x + ax"^
(a^ - X-) (a - x) = a' - a'x -
ox'-t-x'
• the new numerators.
(a - x)(a -f x) = a- - x', the compon dcnomiimti)r.
,, ax o'-'i + ix* .nVx* a' - a''x - ai? + ■i'
ilcnce = —i — -r^ and ; = 5 — :; •
532
ALGEBRA
[fractions,
32. Peob. VI.— To Add or Subtract FraclioM.
Rule, lieduce the fractions to a common denominator, and
add or subtract tlieir numerators ; and the sura or
difterence placed over the common denominator is the
sum or remainder required.
In practice, however, it is generally better to separate
the process into two or more parts analogous to the addi-
tion or subtraction of sums of money, where the pounds
are added to the pounds, the shillings to the shillings, ic,
and the result afler\vards combined.
Ex. 1. Add together — ; and
a
The latter fraction is -
.'. the sum required is -
^. ., , 1 1
Similarly,
Esc.
a-b
"1
-l"-—,.
a' - 1 0-" - 1
J. Collect into a single fraction
1 1 2g
a-b a + b a'-b'
_1 1 24
0-6 a + b a^-V
1 1 2o _ 2(6 + 0)
'^'a + b'^ a^-b^' li'-h' ''
1 I 7
■= - 1 ,
Since
Ex. 3. Collect -+- -+;rr- ,„
4x-8 3i-G 24-121
Wo observe that a; - 2 is common to all the denominators,
he question may therefore be written,
1 1 2
4 3 12
Ex. 4. Collect
= 0.
1
25j!+4y
z'-16y2'
3x + 2!/ X-4JJ 3x-2y
Here we commence by adding the 1st and 3d together,
and the 2d and 4th together ; which results in
6i
9j2
= «<5?
- 4y= x'
210x3
- 4i/^ X
24x
i-lCi/'
-35i«
{S.v^-4y"-){x'-lGy^
(9x2-4/) (x=-16r)
Ex. 5. Find the sum of
l+i + x^ + x' l-x + i'-r"
1-X + X2_i3 1+x + X^ + l'
The numerator will consist of the sum of two products,
tlie one coutaiuing + x, exactly in the same way that the
other contains - x. If, then, wo write down one of these
]iroducts, and double the even powers of x in it, omitting
the odd powers, we shall obtain the rcqiiired result. The
jiroduct of the deiioniiiiators again may be readily obtained
by regarding it as that of the dilTerence and sum of 1 + jr^
aiid x + x^. As such processes are of constant occurrence,
wc will indicate the work in full.
Numerator.
1+1+1+1
1+1+1+1
1+1+1+1
+1+1+1+1
+1+1+1+1
+1+1+1+1
Doviblo of
1
+ 2x- +3x* +1
Denominatoi, 1 1 + r- - {.e + x'')}
( 1 4 x"-)"- -(x-i x')- = 1 + ■:x- + x*-
{1 +x-+ix + x')] =
x--2x*-x^ = l +x-
And the result is
2 + 6i» + 6i< + 2x«
lJ-i=-i--i«
Ex. 6. Collect into one fraction
1 1
1
l + x»— +x— '
l + i— " + i— r l + xr-^+x^'
Multiply numerator and denominator of the first fmo
tion by x"", <kc., and the given quantity becomes
a;-" x" x-r
i-" + ar* + ar'
Ex. 7.
1
I— + r-» + x-'
+
1 + i+ln l + m + ml
— + at-* + i-'
nm
■ \
I
ml
l+n + Hl;l
1
1 + l + ln l + m + ml l + n + nm
= 1, and
= 1,
_ -^ a?-a^
.: 2x = A{x-a) + 'B{x + a).
To obtain A and B from this equality, we remark that the
equality is an identity, as in Art. 20. Wo may, therefore,
[deal with it in either of two ways : 1. Make the x's on the
left hand side to coincide with the x's on the right, and
the a's in like manner. 2. As in Art. 20, write any-
thing we please in place of x on both sides. We will in
this example take the first method, ar<d illustrate the
second method by the subsequent examples. We get
2 = A + B, 0 = A - B ; .-. A = B = 1, and the result is
2x 1_ 1
none of the denominators being zero, then l = m^n.
Multiply the first quantity by /, and subtract, thcro
results I = ; n, which, when substituted in the first
1 + n
quantity, gives m = n, wnence the proposition.
33. The converse problem to collecting many fractions PariisI
into one is frequently as important as the direct — the pro- fractiou*
blem, namely, of resolving a compound fraction into its
components ot partial fractions. For a first example, if it
be required to find what simple fractions make up the
2x
compound fraction -^ — ^, we commence by observing that
the denominator x- - a^ is the product of x + a and x - o.
2x
Hence, ~ — ; is the sum of the fractions whose denomina-
x'-a-
tors are x + a and x - a.
2x A B
Let -:; — , = 1 , where A and B are quantities
x'-a'x + oi-o
which involve a only, not x, since x^ does not appear in the
numerator of the sum.
By addition.
2x A(x-a)+B(x+o)
Ex. 2.
B
(i - o) (x - 6) X - o 1-6
.-. l=A(x-l) + B(x
Write a for x, then 1 = A(a - h)
-a)
A =
1
0-6
hence
Write I for x,then 1 = B(t - a; = - (a
1 1_
b
■I).-. C =
f— -— V
\i — o x — bj
■ b'
(x-a)(x-6)
The reader will observe that we liave treated
1
as if
it were not itself a fraction. In fact, in the application of
the subject befote us, the letters a and 6 stand for arith-
metical quantities, and the fraction -— r is simply an arith-
metical fraction, as contradistinguished from nn algebraical
fraction like ■
x-o
VBACTIONg.]
Ex. 3.
gives
fx-f^q
A B
- — + -
A L G E
c
and
(i — o) (i - 6) (x - c) x-a x — b x-c
px + q = A{x -l)(x-c) + B(x -a){x- c)
+ C{x-a)(x-b),
A pa + q = A(a - b) (a- c), ii^.,
px + q pa + q 1
{x - a) (i - b) {x -c) (a - 6) (o - c) x-a
jpb + q
pc + q
{b-a)(b-c) x-b
Ex. 4. Find the sum of
c + a
(c — o) (c — 6) X-
0 + 6
b + c
(b — c){c — o) (c — o) (a — 6)
{a-l){b-c)
Let o + 6 + c = s ; and write in alphabetical order j it
gives
a—s b- s c—s
(a-bjl^^) "*" (6-a)(6T^ "*" (<;-o)(o-6) '
i.f. (Es. 3), the A, B, C of the resolved fraction,
A B
+
b x — c
{x-a)[x-b){x-c)
and since x ^ s — A{x - h) {x - c) + B(x - a) (x - c) +
C{x- cj (:r-h), the sum required, being the coefficient
of x^, is equal to 0.
The reader will easily extend this process to other
cases, as, for instance, to prove
bed cda
(a-i))(a-c) (a-cO "*" (6 - c) (6 - rf) (6 - a) "*■
dab abc
(o-d){c-a)(^) "^ (d-a)(d-b)(d--c) " "
34. PiiOB. Til.— To Multiply Fractions.
Hule. Multiply the numerators of the fractions for the
numera,tor of the product, and the denominators for the
denominator of the product.
The demonstration follows at once from the definition
of a fraction given in Art. 26 ; thus since Txi = a, -;x<i = c,
fit c
we have j y.b ><. -,y.d = ac, t.«., by the commutative law
b a
- X- y od = ac .
0 a
Cut
r-^xbd = ae
bd
b^d bd'
35. Pfioa Vlll. — To Divide Fractions.
Rule. Multiply the dividend by the reciprocal of the
divi.sor, the product will be the quotient required.
This rule requires no demonstration.
Examples in Multiplication and Division of Fractions.
■ a'-b^
Ex. 1. Multiply T -- by
. the product is
Since
■b^
ab a'-b' ab b
Ex. 2. Multiply ^,^^_^3_^^^^ oy ^^-^^^.
Because the numerator of the first fraction, and the
denominator of the second both become 0, when 1 is
■written fur x, each is divisibfe by j;- 1 (Art. ^O). In the
«aiue way the denominator of the first fraction, and the
BRA 533
numerator of the second are both divisible by * + l«
Hence,
x'-3x + 2 x' + 2x + l 3?-2x + 2 I' + Zx+l
X -:: — z — —. = -i — ; — — : X
i^ + 2x' + 2x+l x>-bx+A
x' + x-2 x + 1
-5x + 4 3? + 23f + 2x + l
!i? + 2x'-x-2
x-4 2= + i + l 3^-2x--3x-4
a b . a' b^
Ex. 3. Divide ^ — by — — r •
b a •' b' o"
_ . . a' — !/^ a-b- aS
rhe quoUent 13 -^ x ^j-^, = ^^ •
Ex. 4. Reduce 1 - I — rr j to factorials.
/62 + c»-a2\2 _ / b' + c'-a^ f b- + c'-a'\
^~\ 2bc j "V 26,: A 26c >i
{b + cf^a- a--(&-c)'
26c ^ 2bc
Ex. 5. Eeduce 1
(6 + c + g) (6 + c - g) (g + 6 - c) (g - 6 + c)
4bV
a' + b'
l_(/2\2
, , -;; — I to factorials.
2(a6 + cd) /
_ /a' + 6'-c''-(y\3 f a' + 6--c'-(P 1
\ 2{ab + cd) / °" 1 2(a6 + c£0 J ."*
■c
(a + by-{c-dy (c + cQ'-(g-t)'
( g' + 6'-c'-rf' ) (g + 6)'-(
I 2{a6 + c<i) j 2(a6 + c3) 2(g6 + cd)
{a + b + c-ir){a + b-e + d){c + d + a-b){c + d-a+b)
4{ab + cd/
Miscellaneous Examples in Fractums.
11 X
Ex. 1. Find the value of
, 2a6c
when X = -; p •
ao + gc + 6c
first, there results —
g6 - gi bx — ab (x — a^ (6c - ex) '
Writing down every term with x
1
1
XXX-
-+T+--2
abc
a(x — 6) b(x-a) c(x — g)(x — 6)
Ex.
= 0.
Find the vaJue of — - -i , , —
x-Sa x-'3b x + 3c
(x-g)(x-6)
+ ■ , „ , when
- + ;
and x = 2{a + b - c).
Restore symmetry by writing -c for c ; the numerator
of the sum is (x - 36) (x - 3c) + (x- 3a) (x - 3c) + (x-3u)
(x- 36) = 3{x-- 2(a + 6 + c)x + 3(a6 + ac + 6c)}. But
X = 2(a + 6 + c), whence the first and second terms make-
up 0 : and - + t + - =0, is the third term divided by abc,
"^ a b c ■' '
.: the sum required is 0.
Ex. 3. Given that {a" + 6c) (6^ + ac) (c? + ab) + {a- - tc)
(6- - ac) (c- - ab) = 0, when multiplied out and reduced,
may be written a' + 6' + c^ + a6c = 0, prove that (a' + 6c)
(6= + ac) {c- + ab) - (a- - be) (b- - ac) (c^ - ab) = 0, may be
reduced '" ^ + p + "l + rr = 0. The latter given equality,
by dividing it by a-Ac x b-ac x c-a6, becomes
\bi ~^)w~V')\^~^)^^
V ~ k j (;6J ~ ^ j V " ^J " ° •
which is identical with the first given equality, tit with
a'b'c' ^*""''° "■ P^* °^ "' *■ <^- The result therefore of
534
ALGEBRA
[svaos.
reducing the second equality will be identical with that of
reducing the first, when "i 7, -, are written in place of a,
b, e. Now the former result is a' -»• i' + e* + ale = 0, .*. tlic
.111 1 .
Iiittcr i3-7 + 7T + 3+-r = 0.
Rx. 4. I^ove that
(a,-aj)(o,-aj) . . . (a, -a.)
; -r. '-T -. r+ (fee, is equal to 0 if m>n,
(oj-OiXaj-Oj).. .(Oj-a.)
and equal to 1 if ni — n. This is easily proved by resolv-
j— 1
inff , r-, ; : V into partial fractions (Art. 33V
VVn have
(i-o,) ... (x-o.) i-a, x-Oj
.-. j:— ' - A,(x - a,) ..(x-a.)+ ic. . . (1),
whence, writing a„ a^ kc, successively for x. wo get A„
A,, Ac.
The given quantity is A, + A,+ ... + A„ and the
equation marked (1), gives, by equating coefficients of like
powers of x, the result required.
Ex. o. U '-'
4 s p-q
For - + 1--+1 gives' — - = , and ^ - 1 = - - 1
q s ° q t 'IS
gives ~ — - = ■ Divide the fcrmer by the latter.
then ' — ■ =
Sx. 6. If - + 1 + -
a 0 c
„ a+b 1 1
For — j- = - + - =
1
a + b + c
, then a- -6- = c^-
1
i + b + c
1
,•. either a + 6 = 0, or — =
ab
a + b
' c[a + b + c)'
L 1 1.
ac be <?
In the latter case.
1 1 1
ab ac be
which is not changed by interchanging c and 6 or c and a,
1. 1 L
BO that oa either alternative the proposition is true.
ad — be ac — bd
Ex. 7. Given that
and a not
a — b — c + d o — 6+c — d'
equal to 4, nor c equal to <i : to prove that a + b = c + d ;
and that either of the fractions equals •
Write the equality thus, —
ac — hd a — b + {c-d)
ad — be o-i — (c — (J)
Apply Example 5, and there results,
ae — bd+ad — bc a — b
ac — bd — ad+be c — d
{a-b)ic + <T) a-b ,
«•*• , J,. , l.^ = — J . whence a + b = c + d
{c-d}(a+b) c-d
If now a- c or d-b be written by a single symbol x,
the first fraction becomes
(c+x)(b+x)-cb b + e+z a + b a+b+e+d
~ 2 ~~2~^ 4
1
2x
Jix. 8. If x =
'Jb + ^e-'Ja'
y=
1
1
2 = U ^
'Ja+'Jb-'Jc' -/a+^b-t-i/e'
prove th;»*
(y-ri--> + u)(» + x-y + u)(z+y-«+ti)
(i + y+2-ti)' "
(t+c-g)(c + a-ii)(o + ii-ej
8a6«
Deal with the reciprocals of x, y, ?, u ; thus,
y + s-x + ti = y-^;-(x-ti)
= 4 Jay:ru(c + b-a).
Hence, by symmetry, the umiierator of the left hand li'uo-
tioii bccumcs
C4 ^'abe y'z'jr'u'{b + c - n) {i- + a -b)\:i +0-e).
Also,x + y + j-u-xy^+-j +'«(„-;)
= 2 Jc(xt/ + sii)-2 Jcxy:u(- +
= 8 -Jabc XI/2U,
Hence the result
"•J,
Sect. IW. — Surds.
30. It has been already observed (Art. 23), that the root
of any proposed quantity is found by dividing the exponent
of the quantity by the index of the root; and the rule has
been illustrated by examples, in all of which, however, the
quotient expressing the exponent of the result is a whole
number; but there may be cases in which the quotient is a
fraction. Thus, if the cube root of a- were required, it
might be expressed, agreeably to the method of notation
— »
already exploined, either thus, ijd-, or thus, a'.
Quantities which have fractional exponents 'are called
surds, or imperfect powers, and are said to be irrational,
in opposition to others with integral exponents which are
called rational.
Surds may be denoted by means of the radical sign, but
it will be often more convenient to use the notation of
fractional exponents. The following examples will show
how they may be expressed either way.
^a=a^, Jialj-^-lha^,
i/a'O^-^Jb',
i/[a-b)- = [a-Lj\
Jo" + 6- = (a" + b-)^,
Ja + b , , .,i -h.-i
The operations concerning surds depend on the following
principles : —
1. If the numerator and denominator of a fractional
exponent be either both multiplied or both di\-ided by the
same quantity, the value of the power is the same. Thus,
2. The product of like powers (integral or fractional) is
the same power of the product Thus, o- 6- = (a6)^
37. L — Reduction of a Rational Quantity to the form of a
Surd of any given, denomination.
Rule. Reduce the exponent of the quantity to the form of
a fraction of the same denomination as the given surd.
Ex. Reduce a- to the form of the cube root.
Here the exDoneut 2 must be reduced to the form of a
SCRDS.]
fraction having 3 for a denominator, which will be the
fraction } ; therefore a' = a* = ija^ .
38. n. — Reduction of Surds of different denominations to
others of the same value and of the same denomination.
Eule. Reduce the fractional exponents to others of the
same value, and having the same common denominator.
s 1 -
Ex. Reduce ^a and Jh-, or a' and l^ to other equi-
valent surds of the same denomination.
The e.xponents -J, §, when reduced to a common deno-
minator, are f and ^ ; therefore the surds required are
S 4 * — * —
a^ and h^, or Ja^ and ^^4' .
.''O . III. — Reduction of Surds to their most simple terms.
Mule. Reduce the surd into two factors, so that one of
them may be a complete power, having its exponent divi-
sible by the index of the surd. Extract the root of that
power, and place it before the remaining quantities, with
the proper radical sign between them.
Ex. 1. Reduce ^48 to its most simple terms.
The number 48 may be resolved into the two factors 16
and 3, of which the first is a complete square ; therefore
Vis = (4= X 3)^ = 4x3^ = 4^37
Ex. 2. Reduce J^Sa^x, and J2ia^xTiOa^, each to
its most simple terms.
rirst, ^98^ = ("-"* X 2x)*^' = la' x (2x)' = 7a'- jYx .
ALGEBRA
SS/J
Also J1ia''x + 40u V = (23a'(3jr + 5j2))» = -2.1 JZx + Sj;^ .
40. rV. — Addition and Subtraction of Surds.
IttUe. If the surds are of different denominations, reduce
them to others of the same denomination, by prob. 2,
and then reduce them to their cimplest terms by last pro-
blem. Then, if the surd part be the same in them all,
annex it to the sum or difference of the rational parts,
vith the sign of multiplication, and it will give the sum
or difference required. But if the surd part be not the
Bame in aU the quantities, they can only be added or
subtracted by placing the signs -|- or — between them.
Ex. 1. Required the sum of J^ll and JiS .
By prob. 3 we find J21 = 3 ^3 and ^48 = 4 ^3, there-
tme,j21+ ^48 = 3^3 + 4^3 = 7^3^
a - ' --
Ex. 2. Required the sum of 3 J\ and 5 ViV •
3Vi = 3VI = f^2and5^77 = 5V,^ = }V2;
therefore 3 Vi + 5 Vjj = f V2 + f V2 = V V2 ■
Ex. 3. Required the difference between J?iQa*x and
V20aV .
V80a<7= (4'a* x 5x)^ = 40= ^57, and JWcfl^ =
(22oV X 5«)^ = 2ax J5x; therefore 'jW^x -
V20aV = (4a2 - 2ax) J5x .
41. V. — Multiplication and Division of ^'urds.
Ride. If they are surds of the same rational quantity, add
"J subtract their exponents.
But if *i''.y are sards of different rational quantities, let
them be brought to others of the same denomination, by
prob. 2. Then, by multiplying or dividing these rational
quantities, their product or quotient may be set under
the common radical sign.
Jfote. If the surds have any rational coefficientfl, their pro-
duct or quotient must bo profiitd.
Ex. 1. Required the product of Ja' and ija^ .
3 _ £ 3 n 7
Ja- X Ja^ = a' x. a^ = a^
1 3 I 6
a^^= Ja^', Ans.
Ex. 2. Divide Ja- - b- by ^a + b .
These surds, when reduced to the same denomination,
are (a^ - 6=)' and (a + 6)». Hence -"^E? = /(a'-mj
i/a + b \{a + b)'J
42. VI. — Involution and Evolution of Surds.
The powers and roots of surds are found in the same
manner as any other quantities, namely, by multiplying or
dividing their exponents by the index of the power or root
3 - . =
required. Thus, the square of 3 ^3 is 3 x 3 x (3r =
3 _ I ^
9 J^. The nth power of i" is x". The cube root of
1 _ 1 ) 1 J _L
- ./2 is - (2)' = s %/i, and the nth root of ar" is x".
43. The reduction of quadratic surds is facilitated by
the fulluwing considerations, which appear hardly to require
demonstration :
1. V« cannot = i + Jc, when Jc is a surd.
2. a+ Jb cannot = c-H Jd when ^6, Jd are unequal
surds.
3. a cannot =■ Jb Jc when Jb, Jc are surds not involv-
ing the same irrational jiart, ^2 and ^/3for example.
4. Ja cannot equal Jb + Jc when all are surds not in-
volving the same irrational part.
Note. The irrational part of ^8, for instance, is ^2, for JS
" 2 J2.
44. For example, we extract the square root of a binomial
surd such as 28 -t- 10 ^3 in the following way :
Let ^28 +10 JS^x + y, where one or both of x and jt
must be a surd.
Then 2S + 10 JZ = x- + 1/ + 2xj/ ,
28»a^-l-r,
lOJ3 = 2xy,
or No. 2 above vrorld be violated.
Hence
And
or
and 5 +
J2i
V3is
-10^3= Jx^ + y'-
V7S4- 300 = ^2
x^ + y' = 2S
r-y' = 22
x = 5,y^ Jo
the root required.
2xy
-f.
Additional Examples in Surds.
Ex. 1. Add together ^ , ^^ , -^ , and -J- ,
1 1 2
1 + V2 1-V2 1-2
i ^ I 3./3
~2-t-l v3-l~3-l~
^3 - 2 is the sum required.
Ex. 2. Find the difference between
-2
J3,
a + x + 'Jlfl + x) / (o-Hx)-V(a-H;)\
{a + x) + -J{fl + xf ^° '■^\{a + xY--J{a + x)')
1
V(o-H)-H 1
The former is ■ „ , . —
V(a-J-x) l-^V(a^-a() V(a+i)
The latter is the square root of
1 V(a-H)-1 . _1_
a + x- V(a-(-i)-l' '•''■' a+x'
.'. ihti diffdience reouired is 0.
(536
ALGEBRA
[PBOPOKTION AKD
ftoporCon
and Pro-
gression.
Ex. 3. Find the raluo o(^^fr^^ ,
irnen
At the first reduction
reduced to
av^i/c
a divides out, and the fraction is
^r+ Abe )^2^U
4
1 +
(i>-cy
4bc
f\_tll
X + V(2a - x)
Ex. 4. Find the value of ,,„ , ,
X - v(2o - 1)
when X = J(V + ial) - b
By the process explained in this article
.40 + 5 A
V 2 ~ -Jz'
J2a-x= J(2a + b
nhence the fraction reduces to
Jlr' + iab)'
V26+1
45. In arithmetic the square root of a number is another
number, which, when multiplied by itself, shall produce
the first number. In algebra, where quantity takes the
place of number, the definition leads to a less limited
result than in arithmetic. In the latter science there can-
not be two square roots of the same thing ; in the former,
there will necessarily be two. For both + 2x + 2 gives
4, and - 2 x - 2 gives 4 ; hence the square root of 4 is - 2
Rs well 03-4-2.
And, further, as in algebra, - 2 is a quantity subject to
all the operations and definitions of the science, it is elearly
competent to express, in some form or other, the result of
extracting its square root. That form must of necessity
be something very different in character from J2, whether
^2 be -f or - . For the definition requires that the square
root of - 2 shall be such a quantity as when multiplied by
itself shall produce - 2. It is then clearly no arith-
metical quantity either -f or - , but some quantity con-
nected with numerical quantities by its propertie."?, but not
by its nature. It is termed an impossible or imaginary
quantity, and may be written ^ - 2 or J2 J -\, and the
same notation applies to the square roots of all negative
quantities.
The properties of imaginary quantities are almost iden-
tical with those of surds, and we need not stop to consider
them. One example of their application will suffice. It
afl^ords strong confirmation of the safety of assuming the
commutative law to exist in every branch of pure algebra.
Ex. The product of the sum of two squares by the sum
of two squares can always be represented under the form
of the sum of two squares.
For (a- + 1") (c= -(- (f2) = (a -i- 6 ^^) (a-b J~l)
^{a + bj-l){c + dj-l)x{a-b.j-l){c-dj-l)
= (< — ~
= (ac
■ bd + ad + hc J -
■ bd)- -^ {ad + bcf-
1) {ac-bd-ad + bc J - I)
Cor. (a- + b-) (c- + d-) = {ac + bd)" + [ad - Icf, or the pro-
duct may be represented in two different ways, under the
form of the sum of two squares.
Sect. V. — Pkopoktion and Peogkession.
46. In comparing together any two quantities of the
eame kind in respect of magnitude, we may consider how
much the one is greater than the other, or else how many
times the one contains either the whole or some part of the
Other; or, which u the same thing, we may consider either
what is the difference between the quantitieb, or what is
the quotient arising from the division of the one quantity
by the other : the former of these is called their arithmetical
ratio, and the latter their geometrical ratio. These deno-
minations, however, have been assumed arbitrarily, and
have little or no connection with the relations they aro
intended to express.
I. Arithmaical ProjioHton and Progression.
47. When of four quantities the difference between the
first and second is equal to the difference between the third
and fourth, the quantities ale called arithmetical projior-
tionals. Such, for example, are the numbers 2, 5, 9, 12;
and, in general, the quantities a, a + d, b, b + d.
48. The principal property of four arithmetical propor-
tionals is this : — If four quantities be aritlunetically pro-
portional, the sum of the extreme tenns is equal to the
sum of the means. Let the quantities he a, a + d, b, b + d;
where d is the difference between the first and second, and
also between the third and fourth, the sum of the extremes
is a + b + d, and that of the means a + d + b;BO that tho
truth of the proposition is evident.
49. If a scries of quantities be such, that the difference
between any two adjacent terras is always the same, these
terms form an arithmetical progression. Thus, tho num-
bers 2, 4, C, 8, 10, (tc, form a series in arithmetical pro-
gression, and, in general, such a series may bo represented
thus:
a, a + d, a + 2a, a + 3d, a + id, a + 5d, a + Crf, Ac, where
a denotes the first term, and d the common difference.
By a little attention to this series, we readily discover
that it has the following properties :
1. Tho last term of the series is equal ^o the first term,
together with tho common difference taken as often as
there are terms after the first. Thus, when the number
of terms is 7, the last term is a -^ 6d; and so on. Hence
if z denote the last term, n the number of terms, and a and
d express the first term and common difference, we havo
2 = a + {n — l)d.
2. The sum of the first and last term is equal to tho
sum of any two terms at the same distance from them.
Thus, suppose the number of terms to be 7, theu the last
term is a + 5J, and the sum of the first and last 2a + Gd;
but the same is also the sum of tho second and last but
one, of the third and last but two, and so on till we come
to the middle term, which, because it is equally distant
from the extremes, must be added to itself.
3. To find the sum of the series, it is only necessary to
observe that, if the progression is wiitten down twice, 1°
from the beginning, 2° from the end, the terms of the former
increase by the same amount as that by which the terms of
the latter diminish ; so that the sum of any two terms which
stand under each other is always the same, viz., the same
as the sum of the first and last terms; hence the double
series converts addition into multiplication; so that if s
denote the sum of the series, we have 2s = n(a + j), and
s = ^(a + !).
Ex. The sum of the odd numbers 1,3, 5, 7, 9, ifec, con-
tinued to n terms, is equal to the square of the number of
terms. For in this case a = l, d = 2, z=l + {n-l) d=2n
-1, therefore s=-y.2n = n-.
IL Geometrical Proportion and Progression,
50. 'When, of four quantities, the quotient arising from
the division of the first by the second is equal to that
arising from the division of the third by the fourth, these
quantities are said to be m geometrical propcrrtion, ex w_
PROOEEaSION.!
ALGEBRA
637
called simply proportionals. Thus, 12, 4, 15, 5, are four
numbed in geometrical proportion; and, in general, na, a,
nb, h, may eioress anv four tjroportionals, for — = n, and'
, rib
also -r = n.
0
To denote that any fonr quantities a, b, c, d, are pro-
portionals, it is common to place them thus, a -.b -.-.c -.d;
or thus, a : b = c : d; which notation, when expressed in
words, is read thus, a is to 6 as c to d, or the ratio of a to
b is equal to the ratio of c to d.
The first and third terms of a proportion are caued tne
antecedents, and the second and fourth the consequents.
When the two middle terms of a proportion are the
same, the remaining terms, and that quantity, constitute
three geometrical proportionals; such as 4, 6, 9, and in
general na, a, - . In this case the "liddle quantity is called
a mean proportional between the other two.
51. The princioal properties of four proportionals are
the following :
1. If four quantities be proportionals, the product of
the extremes is equal to the product of the means. Let
a, b, c, d, be four quantities, such that a -.b :: c : d; then,
from the nature of proportionals, t = j : let th»se equal
quotients be multiplied by b d, and we have ad = be. It
foUowB, that if any three of four proportionals be given,
the remaining one may be found. Thus, let a, b, c, the
pT8t three, be given, and let it be required to find x, the
fonrth term ; because a : b : : c : x, ax = bc, and dividing
, 6c
by o, x = — .
' a
The converse is obviously true, viz., if four quantities be
such that the product of two of them is equal to the pro-
duct of the other two, these quantities are proportionals.
2. If four quantities are proportional, that is, if a : 6 : :
c : d, then will each of the following combinations or arrange-
ments of the quantities be also four proportionals.
\st. By inversion, b la-.-.d -.c.
2d, By alternation, a -.c ::b -.d .
Note. — The quantities in the second case must be all of
the same kind.
Zd, By comnosition, a + b -.a -.-.c + d :c ,
or, a + b : b : : c + d : d .
ith. Bv division, a-b -.a ::c-d -.c,
or, a-b :b •.•.c- d -.d .
5th, By mixing, a + b la-b i-.c + d :c-d.
6th, By taking any equimultiples of the antecedents, and
also any equimultiples of the consequents
na : pb : : nc : pd .
7th, Or, by taking any parts of the antecedents and con-
a b c d
sequents, -:-::-:-•
^ « p n J)
That the preceding combinations of tue quantities a, b,
e, d, are proportionals, may be readily proved, by taking
the products of the extremes and means ; for from each of
them we derive this conclusion, that ad=bc, which is
known to bo true from the original assumotion of the
quantities.
8lh, If four quaniities oe propomonai, ana aiso oiner four,
the nroduct of the corresponding terms will be Tjroportional.
Let a lb : : c -.d,
And e :f -.-.g :h;
Then ae : b/ : : eg : dh .
For ad-bc, and eh=/ij, as before, therefore, multiplyins;
together these equal quantities, adeh = bcfg, or aex dh= bj
X <yg\ therefore, by the converse of the first property, ae :
bf::cg:dli.
Hence it follows, that^if there be any number of pro-
portions whatever, the products of the corresnondin" terms
will still be proportional.
52. If a series of quantities be so related to each otn*,
that the quotient arising from the division of any term by
that which precedes it is always the same quantity, these
are said to be in geometrical progression; such are the
numbers' 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, <fec., also \, J, \, ^, <tc., and in
general, a series of such quantities may be represented
thus, a, ar, ar", ai^, or*, ar', &,c. Here a is the first term-,
and r the quotient of any two adjoining terms, which ia
also callod the common ratio.
By inspecting this series, we find thai it nas the follow-
ing properties :
1. The last term is equal to the first, multiplied oy the
common ratio raised to a power, the index of which is one
less than the number of terms. Therefore, if z denote the
last term, and n the number of terms, z = ar^\
2. The product of the first and last term is equai to the
product of any two terms equally distant from them :
thus, supposing ar^ the last term, it is evident that
axai'^ = ar x a;-* = ar' x ar^, &c.
The sum of n terms of a geometrical series may be
found thus :
Let s = a + a.r + ar- + ar^... +ar'~^ .
Then rs = ar + ar'^ + ar^...+ar'~' + ar'.
Subtract, rs-s = ar' -a.
That is, (r-l)s = a(r"-l).
„ r- - 1 1 - r"
Hence s = 7<', or ■; a.
T -I 1 -r
. ^
Cor. The sum to mfinity = — - .
Additional Examples in Proportion and Progreesifm,.
Ex. 1. How many strokes does a clock strike in twelve
hours?
If < denote the number
«= \+ 2-t-...12
»=12-Hll-f... 1
.-. 2s = 13-1- 13 -f... 13 =13x12; s = 78.
Ex. 2. Find the number of shot lying close together in
the shape of an equilateral triangle.
Let u be the number of shot in a side of tne triangle.
Counting from one angle, and taking in successive rows
parallel to the opposite side, we get as the number re-
quired
, „ n(n-l-l)
Ex. 3. To find the number of shot in a pile of the form
of a triangular pyramid.
As each shot lies in the hollow fqrmed by those below
it, tlie number of shot in the successive sides from the base
upwards will evidently be
- 71-1, TC-2,...l .
Hence the number of shot in the pUs will be -
n(n-H) (n-l>i (n-2)(»-l) 1^
___+ ^ + - +■■■ ^■
To sum this series induction may be employoa. The
result b
.«(ii-H)(n-t-2)
6
Ex. 4. A ratio of greater inequality is diminished, and
'^ less inequality increased, by adding the same quantity
to each of its terms.
Let a>b; then ■; — < r .
b+x 0
By multiplying out, thi/i is ovidenL
68
538
K.r. 5. Find "the vulgar fraction wlikh h equivalent to
tlie recurring decimal
•3142
Let x=-3i42,
then 10x = 3143
10,000x = 3142-i42
.'. subtracting 9990a: = 31 39
■ ol39
9900
Ex. 6. A sum of money doubles itself in fifteen years
at a rate a little below 5 per cent. A noble Scotch family
have retained in their possession gold coins of the value of
£500 since the days of Mary Stuart (300 years) ; what
have tjiey lost by not allowing the money to accumulate at
the above rate %
Every pound would have amounted to £2-"; .•.
£S00 (2-"-]) is the loss. It amounts to upwards of
£524,000,000.
Ex. 7. The sum of the mixed series
a + (a + l)r + (a + 2-'')r'+ . ". . . .
• _fL Ml-''^') (rt + Ji-lb)r"
'""l-r"^ (l-rf TTT
Sect. VI. — Resolution of Equations iNVOLnNG one
Unknown Quantity.
Simple 53. The primarj- object of algebraic investigation is to
Equations, discover certain unknown quantities, by comparing them
with other quantities which are given, or supposed to be
known. The relation between the known and unknown
quantities is either that of equality, or else such as may
be reduced to equality; and a proposition which affirms
that certain combinations of quantities are equal to one
another is called an equation. Such are the following : —
1 I 24
2 + 3 =^'
2x + 3i/ = xy .
The first of these equations expresses the relation between
an unknown quantity x and certain known numbers ; and
the second expresses the relation which the two indefinite
quantities x and ji have to each other.
The conditions of a problem may be such as to require
gaveral equations and symbols of unknown quantities for
I their complete expression. These, however, by rules here-
after to be explained, may be reduced to one equation,
iavolving only one unknown quantity and its powers, be-
sides the kno\vn quantities; and the method of expressing
that quantity by means of the known quantities consti-
tutes the theory of equations, one of the most important
as well as most intricate branches of algebraiC' analysis.
An equation is said to be resolved when the unknown
quantity is made to stand alone on one side, and only
known quantities on the other side ; and the value of the un-
knovm quantity is called a root of the equation. The general
definition of a root of an equation is, that it is a numerical
quantity (i.e., some combination of numbers) which, when
written in place of the unknown quantity, renders the
equation a numerical ideality; thus. 1 is the root of the
equation a; = 1, 1 and -1 are both roots of the equation
.t'' = 1; 1, J -I,- J-1 and -1 are all roots of the
equation x*=l.
54. Equations containing only one unKnown quantity
and its powers, are divided into different orders, according
to the highest power of that quantity contained in any one
of its terms! The equation, however, is supposed to be
reduced to such a form that the unknown quantity is found
only in the numerators of the terms, and that the exponents
of its power.'! aro expressed by positive integers.
ALGEBRA
[bIUFLE EQUATIONg
If an equation contains only the tirst power of the
• unknown quantity, it is called a timple equation, or an
equation of the first order. Such is ajr-h6 = c,'where z
denotes an unknown, and a, h, c, known quantities.
If the equation contains the second power of the un-
known quantity, it is said to be of the second degree,
or is called a quadratic equation; such is 4i^-l-3x = 12,
and in general ax- + bx^c. If it contains tbe third power
of the unknown quantity, it is of the third degree, or
is a cvbic equation ; such are x^ + 2x' -I- 4x = 1 0, and
ax^ + bx- + cx<=d ; and so on with respect to equations of
the higher orders. A simple equation is sometimes said to
be linear, or of one dimension. In like manner, quadratic
equations are said to bo of two dimensions, and cubic
equations of three dimensions.
When in the course of an algebraic investigation we
arrive at an equation involving only one unknown quantity,
that quantity will often be so entangled in the different
terms as to render several previous reductions necessary
before the equation can be expressed under its character-
istic form, so as to be resolved by the rules which belong
to that form.
These reductions depend U])on the operations which
have been explained in the former part of this treatise,
and the application of a few self-evident principles, namely,
that if equal quantities be added to or subtracted from
equal quantities, the sums or remainders will be equal ; if
equal quantities be multiplied or divided by the same
quantity, the products or quotients will be equal , and,
lastly, if equal quantities be raised to the same power, of
have the same root extracted out of each, the results will
stili be equal.
From these considerations are derived the following
rules, which ap])ly alike to equations of all orders, and are
alone sufficient for the resolution of simple equations.
55. Rule 1. Any quantity may be transposed from one
side of an equation to the other, by changing its sign.
Thus, if 3x-10 = 2x-l-5,
Then 3x- 2z= 5-i- 10 ,
Or x=l5.
Again, if ax + b = cx-dx + e,
Then ax — cx + dx — e — b.
Or {a-c + d)x = e-h.
The reason of this rule is evident, for the transposing of
a quantity from one side of an equation to the other is
nothing more than adding tie same quantity to each side
of the equation, if the sign of the quantity transposed was
- ; or subtracting it, if the sign was + .
From this rule we may infer, that if any quantity be
found on each side of the equation with the same sign, it
may be left out of both. Also, that the signs of all the
terms of an equation may be changed into the contrary^
^vithout affecting the truth of the equation.
Thus, if a + x = b + a + c ,
Then x = b + c;
And if a- x = b-d ,
Then x -a = d-b .
56. Rule 2. If the unknown quantity in an equation be
multiplied by any quantity, that quantity may be taken
away, by dividing all the other terms of the equation,
by it.
n 3x=24,
94.
Then z = ?2 = 6.
If
Then
3
ax = h-c,
b-c b
a, .. = -
a a
■SIMPLE EQUATIONS.]
ALGEBRA
5^9
Here'eqjial -quantities are divided by the same quantity,
and tKerefofe the'.quotients are- equal.
57. RuleZ. If any term of an "equation be a fraction, its
denominator mUy be taken away, by multiplying all the
other terms of the equation by that denominator.
5 ''
a; = 35 .
- = b- c + d ,
a
x = ab — ac-rad.
b
If
Then
U
Then
n
a--
We have
■b = cx and x = •
In these examples, equal quantities are multiplied by
the same quantity, and therefore the products are equal.
58. HuU i. If the unknown quantity is found in any term
which is a surd, let that surd be made to stand alone
on one side of the equation, and the remaining terms
on the opposite side; then involve each aide to a power
denoted by the index of the surd, and thus the unknown
quantity shall be freed from the siird expression.
If yi + 6 = 10, _
Then, by transposition, Jx= 10-6 = 4;
And, squaring both sides, Jx x Jx = ixi ,
Or
Also, if
By trans.
And, squaring.
Hence
;=16
Ja^ + 3ir -b = x ,
J a- + x'^ = b + x ,
a^ + x"- = (b + xf = b'^ + 2bx + x^ ,
- b' + 2bx, X = -
26
60. Huh 5. If the side of the equation which contains the
unknown quantity be a perfect power, the equation may
be reduced to another of a lower order, by extracting
the root of that power out of each side of the equation.
Thus, if x' = 64a%
Then, by extracting the cube root, x = ia ;
And if (a + z)' = 6- - a- ,
Then a-f-x= Jb- - a- .
60. In these examples we have been able to determine
the value of the unknown quantity by the rules already
delivered, because in every case the first, or at most the
second power of that quantity, has been made to stand
alone on one side of the equation, while the other con-
sisted only of known quantities; but the same methods of
reduction serve to bring equations of all degrees to a pro-
1 -f+q+T
x+1
= 1
■ p - X -
per form for solution. Thus, if
-; by proper reduction, we have x'^ + px- + qx = r, a cubic
equation which may be resolved by rules to be afterwards
explained.
Sect. VII. — Reduction- of Equations involvinq more
THAN ONE Unknown Quantity.
61. Having shown in the last section in what manner
an equation involving one unknown quantity may be
resolved, or at least fitted for a final solution, we are next
to explain the methods by which two or more equations,
involving as many unknown quantities, may at last be
reduced to one equation and one unknown quantity.
As the unknown quantities may be combined together
in very different ways, so as to conistitute an equation, the
methods most proper for their elimination must therefore
bo various. The three follywin;;, however, are of general
application, and the kst of them may bo used with
airlvantagp, .not oply when the unknown quantity to- ba
eliminated, rises to th'o. 'same. 'power in allnthe 'equations,
but also when, the equations»contain different po^vers of
that, quantity.
62. Method I. Observe which of the unknown quantities
is the least involved, and let its value be found from each
equation, by the rules of la.it section.
Let the values thus found be put equal to each other
and hence new equations will ari.»o. from which that quan
tity is whoUy excluded. Let tl'i operation be now re
peated with these equations, thus eliminating the unknown
quantities one by one, till at last an equation bo found
which contains only one unknown quantity.
JEx. Let it be required to determine x and y from these
two equations.
2a; + 3y = 23 ,
5x-2y=10.
From the first equation, x = " •
From the second equation.
10 + 2y
Let
these values of x bo now put
equal to each other.
And
we have
10 + 2i/
5
23-
2
3'J
— 1
Or
20 + 4y =
lay-
115
-15y;
And
y =
5:
And
23
smca x = —
-31/
„ 1 or x =
10 +
— , from
either of
these values we find x = i,
63. Method 2. Let the value of the unknown quantity
which is to be eliminated be found from that equation
wherein it is least involved. Let this value and its
powers be substituted for that quantity, and its respec-
tive powers in the other equations ; and with the new
equations thus arising, let the operation be repeated till
there remain only one equation and one unknown quantity.
£x. Let the given equations, as in last method, b"
2:!;-f3y = 23,
5j;-2y=10.
From the first equation, x = — - — - ;
And this value
equation, we have 5 x
Or 115
And
And hence
of X being substitutea in the second
23-31/
2
•15y-
-2y=10,
4y = 20;
95 = 10y,
y = 5
23 -3y
= 4, as before.
64. Mdlu>d 3. Let the given equations bo multiplied
or divided by such numbers or quantities, whether known
or unknown, that the term which involves the highest
power of the unknown quantity may be the same in each
equation.
Then, by adding or subtracting the equations, as occa-
sion may require, that term will vanish, and a new equa-
tion emerge, wherein the number of dimensions of the
unknown quantity in some cases, and in others the number
of unknown quantities will be diminished ; and by a repeti-
tion of the same or similar operations, a final equation
may bo at last obtained, involving only one unknot u
quantity.
Ex. Let the same example be taken, as in the illustr^
tioii of the former methods, namely,
2x + Zy='li ,
IB«=22/ = 10.
540
ALGEBRA
[simple equations.
1o eliminata x, lot the (irst equation be multiplied by 5,
and the second by 2 ; tbu3 wo bave
10i+15y=115,
lOx- 4y= 20.
Hero the term invoicing a is tbo snmo in both equations ;
and it is obvious, tbat by subtracting the one from the
other, the resulting equation will contain only y, and known
numbers; for by buch subtraction we find 19y =" 05, and
therefore i/ = 5.
Having got the value of y, it is easy to 8oe how x may
bo found from cither of tho given equations ; but it may
also bo found in tho same manner as wo found y. For let
the first of the given equations be maUipliod by 2, and the
second by 3, we have
4x + Gy = 4G,
15x- 0^^ = 30.
By adding these equations, we find
19x = 76, and x= 4 .
05. The following examples will serve further to illus-
trate these difforont methods of eliminating the unknown
quantities from equations.
{. y > to determine x and y.
dx+/i/=ffj
Ex. 1. Given
To eliminate ?/, let the first equation be multiplied by
/, and the second by b, and wo have
afx + hfy^cf,
bdx + b/ii = bg .
Taking now the difference between these equations,
afx - hdx = c/- bg ,
Or (af - bd)x = cf - by ,
cfj-bg
af-bd'
In the same manner may y he determiuod, by multiplying
tho first of the given equations by d, and the second by a ,
for wu find
adx + bdij = cd ,
adx + a/ 1) - ag .
Ajid taking the ditference as before, we get
bdij - afy = cd - ag ,
cd — Off
And therefore
And therefore
y=i
Id - a/
66. This example may be considered as a general solu-
tion of the following problem. Two equations expressing
the relation between the first powers of two unknown
quantities being given, to determine those quantities ; for
whatever bo the number of terms in each equation, it will
readily appear, as in Art. 55, that by proper reduction
they may be brought to the same form as those given in
the above example.
G7, "Let us nest consider such equations aa involve
three unknown quantities.
Ex. 2. Given
X y 5
2 + 1%'
62
to find X, y, and i:
Here the given equations, when cleared from fractions,
become
12x-f 8i/+ 6;= 1488,
20x-f-15y-Fl2.' = 2820,
30x-t-24y-f2(fe = 4560._
To eliminate 2 by the third method, let the first equa
tion bo multiplied by 10, the Bocond bv 5, and the third
by 3, tho results will be these :
120x■^ 80// -1-00:= 14880,
100x-f75-/-fOO:=14100,
90x -I- 72y -1-007 = 13680.
Let tho second equation bo now subtracted from tho first,
and the third from tho second, and we have
20x ■^ 5j/ = 780 ,
10x4-3y = 420.
Next, to eliminata y, let the first of these equationn be
multiplied by 3, and the second by 5 ; hence,
60x-(-15y = 2340,
50x-(-15y = 2100.
Subtracting now the latter equation from the formt/^
10x = 240 and x = 24,
420- lOx .-
V 5 60,
And
144d-12j-8y _ ,
20.
c». to
Ex. 3. Given z* - yj = a', y^ - xz = b^, ^ - ry--
find X, y, and 7.
By subtraction, we have
-y)(x + ,j + :) = a^-bUl).
[y-i){x + y + z) = b''-c'.
Squaring, adding, and dividing by 2, we get
(x' -I- y- -F z* - xy - X2 - y?) (x + y + :)- ==
a* + b* + c*- a-b^ - aV - b'c- .
But x' + t^ + i^-xy-n-yz ia the sum of the three given
expressions, and .". equal to a^ + b- + c-.
Hence {a'' + b' + 0^) {x + y + 2f = a* + b* + (*
- a'b^ - a'l^ - bV, which gives x + y + z .
Equations (1) and (2) are now two simple equatiuiia,
which, combined with the value of x + y -h z aa detcrmiuud,
give X, y, and z.
Ex. 4. .Given Jx = .Jyz I -- + - + -j
^z^j7y(^ i + ^-r)
Multiply the first by ^x, the second by Jy, and the
third by J:, and add two and twD. There results
. x-i-y
Jxyz -
/— 2*
x + z = Jxyz —
y
y + z = Jxyz —
X
i.e. xz + yz= J7yt 2c
xy + yz= Jxyz 26
xy + X7 = Jxyz 2a
yz= Jxyz (b + c-l)
xz = Jxyz (a + c-b)
xy = Jxyz {a + b-c)
Multiplying any two of these we get one of the unknown
quantities :
x = (a + c-b){a + b-c), iic.
Sect Vili. — Qdestions peoducujo Szupts EQUAnoNa.
68. When thn cjuditious of a problem have been ex-
•IMPLt: I-QLATIOS. )
ALGEBRA
541
pressed by cquaiions, or translatca from tbc common
language into that . of algebra, we must consider whether
the problem be properly limited; for in some cases the
conditions may be such as to admit of innumerable solu-
tions, ijiid in others they may involve an absurditv and
thus render the problem altogether impossible.
, Now, by considering the examples of laat section, it
will appear, that to determine any number of unknown
quantities, there must be given as many equations as there
are unknown quantities. These, however, must bo such
as cannot bo derived from each ether, and they must not
involve any contradiction; for in the one case the problem
would admit of an unlimited number of answers, and in
the other case it would bo impossible. For example, if it
were required to determine x and y from these two equa-
tions, 2j; - 3y = 13, 4j; - G^ = 2G; as the latter equation
ia a consequence of the former (for each term of the one
is the half of the corresponding term of the other), it is
evident that innumerable values of x and y might be found
to satisfy both equations. Again, if x and y were to be
determined from these equations, a -f 2y = 8, 3a; -^ 6y = 2G,
it is easy to see that it is impossible to find such values of
X and y as will satisfy both; for, from the first, we find
3j: = 24 -'6y ; and from the second, 3x = 26 - 6y; and
therefore 24 - Gy = 20 - Cy, or 24 = 2G, which L3 absurd;
and 80 also must have been the conditions from which this
conclusion is drawn. '
G9. But there is yet another case in which a problem
may be impo-isible ; and that is, when there are more
equations than unknown quantities ; for it appears, that
in this case, by the rules of last section, we should at last
find two equations, each involving the same unknown
quantity. Kow, unless these happened to agree, the pro-
blem would admit of no solution. On the whole, therefore,
it appears that a problem is limit»d when the conditions
furnish just as many indcpcudent equations as there are
unknown quantities to be determined : if there be fewer,
Ihe problen i: iudetcrmiuate ; but if there bp more, the
problem in fjcueral admits of no solution whatever.
70. We shall now apply the preceding observations to
some examples, which are so chosen as to admit of beiu"
rcsulved by simple equations.
Ex. 1. What is that number, to which if there be
added its ha" its third, and its fomth parts, the sum will
be 50!
Ix't X denote the number sought ; then its half will be
, its third - , and itd fourth -;
Hcuco
Ot
. + - + - + -=50.
24x+12x + 8x + Gj;=1200,
50x"1200;
1-24.
Tliua it apjxxirs that the number sought is 21, which
upon trial will be found to answer the conditions of the
question.
Ex.1. A post IS i of its length in the mud, \ in the
water, and 10 feet above the water; what is its whole
length I
Let its length be x feet, then the part in the mud is
-, and tuat in the water ;;; therefore, from the nature of
4
the question
X X
- + 3 + 10 = ..
From this equation we find 7x + 120=*12j;, and x= 24.
Ex. 3. A market-woman bought a certain number of
eggs at 2 a penny, and as many at 3 a penny, and sold them
ail out again at 5 for 2d. ; but. instead of cettiue her own
money for them, as sne expected, she lost Id. : what num-
ber of eggs did she buy \
Let X be the number o' ecira o' each sort •
Then will - be the price of the first sort:
And - = the price of the second sort.
Now, the whole number being 2x. we havn
5 : 2i : : 2 : — = price of both sorts at 0 for 2d. •
5
- H — = 4, by the question.
2 3 5 ' •' ^
Hence 15. + lOx - 24x = 120,
And .= 120, the number of each sort.
Ex. 4. A person .at play lost \ of his money, and then
won 3s. ; after which he lost J of what he then had, and
then won 2s.; lastly he lost }f of what he then had, and,
this done, found he bad onlv 123. left: what had he at first'
Suppose he began to plav with . shillings.
Ho lost 1 of his money, or - , and had left z --- = -- .
4 4 4
IT o , , , 1 3. . 3u:+12
Ue won 03. and bad then — + o = — : — .
4 - 4
Fo lost i of — : — , or , and had left
a 4 ' 4
3j:+12 z+,4 2j- + 8
z+,4
~\ 4~~ 4
2j + 8
He won 23. and had then — : 1- '>■
lc + 16
12j: + 9G
4
2r+lG
■2S, '
2i+l
4
and had left
He lost ^ of
2j:+16 2i+1C
~4 ~~2i 23
And because he had now 1 2s. left, we have this equation^
L^ + °i = 12.
Hence \1x - 240, and j- = 20 .
Ex. 5. To divide the number 90 into 4 such parts, that
if the first be increased by 2, the second diminished by 2,
the third multiplied by 2, and the fourth divided by 2, the
sum, difference, product and nuotiont shall be all equal to
each other.
In this question tcere are four quantities to be deter-
mined; but instead of introducing several letters, having
put . to denote the firbt of them, wo may find an expres-
sion for each of the remaining ones, as follows
Because x + 2 = second quantity - 2,
x + 4 = the second quaatity;
And because x + 2 = third x 2 ;
-J. I 2
-— = the third quantity.
And in like manner 2(x + 2) = the fourtn quantity.
Now by the question, the sum of all the four = 90;
i + x+4 + ^ + 2rx-)-2) = 90.
Hence 9x = 162, and x = 18;
Therefore the numbers required are 18, 22, 10. and 40.
Ex. 6. A and E! together can perfonn a piece of work
in 12 hours, A and C in 20, and B and C in 15 hours; iu
what time wiU each bo able to perform it when working
separately?
That wo may have a general solution, let us suppose A
and B can perform the work in a hours, A and C in 6
hours, and B and C in c hours. Let x, y, and j, denote
the tim^S in Vhich A, B, and C, could perform it respec-
tively, if ei.:V worked alone; and let the whole work be
re'ireaented iTv 1. The Question cdves at once—
542
ALGEBRA
[quadeatio equatioss
1,1 I 1,1 1 11 1
X y ax z by z e
If these bo added, and {heir sum divided by 2, we Cud
1
1 1 l_Jl^ J_ J_
x'^'v'^'z Za'^'ib'*' 2c'
From thia equation let each of the three preceding be
subtracted in its turn : thus we get
L L L
1_
2a'
26 "*■ 2c °°
20°
Hence
y =
2a''' 26"
2abc
+ ab + ac — bo
2abe
+ ab — ac + hc
2abc
— ab + ac + bc
+ ab + ac — bc
' 2a6c '
-ab — ac + bc
2abc '
—ab + iic + bc
' 2^6c •
7200
120 '
7200
" 3G0
72110
' 210
= 60,
= 20.
-30.
.'ulo the remaining terms contain only known
xr = 6i, and ax- + b = c, are examples of
Sect. IX. — Solution of Quadratic ji.quation3.
■Quadratic 71. We are next to esplain the resolution of equations
Equations, of the second degreo, or quadratic equations. These in-
volve the second power of the unknown quantity, and may
be divided into two kinds, pure and adjected.
I. Fure quadratic equations are such as after proper
reduction have the square of the unknown quantity in
one renn, ■;»•}
quantities.. Thus,
pure quadratics.
II. Adj'echd quadratic equations contain the square of
the unknown quantity in one term, and its first or simple
power in another; the remaining terms consisting entirely
of known qua.-itities. Such are the following, a;- + 3x
«= 28, 2x- = 33 - hx, ax" + bx -c^d.
The manner of resol\ing a pure quadratic equation is
EufHciently evident. If the unknown quantity be made to
stand alone on one side, with unity as a coellicient, while
the other side consists entirely of kngwn quantities, and
the square root of each side be taken, we immediately ob-
tain the value of the simple power of the unknown quan-
tity as directed by rule 0th of Sect. VL
In extracting the squaro root qf any quantity, it is
necessary to observe, that the sign of the root may be
either + or - , and that cons.equently a quadratic must
always have two solutions.
72. When an adfected quadratic equation is to be re-
solved, it may always, by proper reduction, be brought to
the following form :
x-+px = q;
wlioro p and q are numerical quantities, -h or — .
Let us compare the side of it which involves tno un-
known quantity x with the square of a binomial x + a; that
is, let us compare x"+]>.v with x- + 2ax + a- = (x + a)-, and
it will presently appear, that if we suppose p ~ 2a, or - = n,
the quantities x^-'rpx and .t--l-2a.T; will be equal; and as
a;- -t- 2ax is rendered a complete square, by adding to it a-,
s» also may x" +px be completed into a squaro by adding
to it — , which is equal to a-
therefore, let — be added to
4
both sides of the equation x- +j>x = q, and we have
x-+px + ^='^+q,OT
ht)'-'
•+?;
and, extracting the square root of each side
73. From these observations wo derive the following
general rules for resolving adfected quadratic equations.
1. Bring all the terms involving the unknbwn quantitj
to one side, and the known quantities to the other side,
and BO that the term involving the square of the unknown
quantity may bo positive.
2. If the squaro of the unknown quantity be multiplied
by a coefficient, let the other terms be divided by it, so
that the coefficient of the square of the unknown quantity
may be 1.
3. Add to both sides the square of half the coefficient
of the unknown quantity itself, and the side of the equa-
tion involving the unknown quantity will now be a com-
plete square.
4. Extract the square root of both sides of the equation,
by which it becomes simple with respect to the unknown
quantity; and, by transposition, that quantity may be made
to stand alone on one side of the equation, while the other
side consists of known quantities; and therefore the equa-
tion ia resolved.
£x. 1. Given r- + 2x = 35, to determine x .
Here the coefficient of the second term is 2 ; therefore,
adding the square of its half to each side, we have
x=-t-2j;-(-l = 35-*-l=36,
And, extracting the square root, x H- 1 = «/36 = * 6 .
Hence x = ± G - 1 , that is, x = -f 5, or x = - 7, and either
of these numbers will be found to satisfy the equation, for
5x5-f2x5 = 35, also -7x -7-h2x -7 = 35.
Ex. 2. Given ^ - 12 = x, to find x .
D
This equation, when reduced, becomes x' - Cx = 72 ,
And, by completing the square, x--Gx -1-9 = 72 •4-9 = 81.
Hence, by extracting the square root, x - 3 = ±9. and
j= ±9-1-3;
Therefore x= -I-12, orx= -6; and upon trial we find that
each of these values satisfies the original equation, for
12x12 -6x-6 ,„ .
— 12 = 12. also ; — -12= -6.
o 0
£x. 3. Given :r- -f 28 = 1 Ix, to find x.
Then x2-llx=-28.
And, by completing the square,
121 121 9
11
■ nx+'
Therefore, by ext'^acting the root, x - -^ =
Hence x
11 3
— ± g ; that is, x= +7, OT x= +i.
In the first two examples, we found one positive value
for X in each, and also one negative value; but in this
example both the values of x are positive, and, upon
trial, each of them is found to satisfy the eauation; for
7x7-1-28 = 11x7, also 4-x4-f28 = llx4-.
74. As at first sight it appears remarkable, that' in
every quadratic equation the unknown quantity admits
always of two distinct values or roots, it will be proper to
consider a little further the circumstances UDon which this
peculiarity depends.
To do this, let us re-examine the equation x'-l- 2x = 35.
By bringing all the terms to one side, the equation njay
be expressed thus, x^ -F 2x - 35 = 0 ; so that we shall have
determined x, when we have found such a number as, when
substituted for it in the quantity x- + 2x- 35, will render
the result eqUttl to 0. But x- + 2x-35 is the product of
these two factors x - 5 and x -t- 7, as may be proved by
actual multiplication ; therefore, to find x, we have (x - 5)
(x-f 7) = 0; and as a product can only become =0 when
one of its factors is reduced to 0, it follows that either of
the two factors x - 5 and a + 7 may be assumed =0. If
QUAJEATio EQUATIONS.]
ALGEBRA
543^
x-5 = 0, tlicn 1 = 5 ; tut if x + 7 = 0, tbcn x~ - 7 ; so
that the two values of x, or two roots of the equation
jr'' + 2T=35, are +5 and -7, as T;e have already found
in a different manner.
75. What has been shown in a particular case is true of
any quadratic equation whatever; that is, if x- +px = g, or,
by bringing all the terms to one side, x- +px - g==0, it
is always possible to find two factors x - a. and x + b,
such, that
X- +px - g = (x - a) (x + 1),
where a and 6 are known quantities, which depend only
upon p and g, the given numbers in the equation ; and
since that to have {x - a) (x + b) = 0, we may either assume
x-a = Ooix + b = 0, it evidently follows that the condi-
tions of the equation x^ +px - j = 0, or x- +px = g, are alike
satisfied by taking x= +a or x— —b.
From these considerations it follows, that x can have
only two values in a quadratic equation ; for if it could be
supposed to have three or more values, then it would
be possible to resolve x-+px-g into as many factors,
X — c, X - d, &c. ; but the product of more than two factors
must necessarily contain the third or higher powers of r,
and as x- +px - g contains no higher power than the second,
therefore no such resolution can tiike place.
70. Solution of Questions which produce Quadratic
Eguations. ^
Ex. 1. It is required to divide the number 10 into two
6uch parts that the sum of their squares may be 58.
Let X be the one part ;
Then, since their sum is 10, the other is 10 - x;
,•. by the question, ar- + (10 - x)^ = 58 ;
Thatis, . x=+100-20x + x2 = 58,
Or 2x=-2Pj: = 58-100= -42;
Hencfc x^-lOj^ -21 .
Ajid completing the square, x- - lOx-l- 25 = 25 - 21 = 4 ;
Hence, by extracting the root, x-5= ± Ji= ='=2>
And a: = 5 ± 2 ,
That 13, X = 7, or a = 3 .
If we take the greater value of x, viz. 7, the othei
niimber 10 - x will be 3 ; and if we take the less value of
X, viz. 3, then the other number is 7. Thus it appears,
that the greater value of the one number corresponds to
the less value of the other ; and indeed this must neces-
sarily be the case, seeing that both are alike concerned in
the question. Hence, the only numbers that will answer
the conditions of the qnestion are 7 and 3.
Ex. 2 A grazier bought as many sheep as cost him
£C0, out of which he reserved 15, and sold the remainder
for X54, gaining 2s. each upon them. How many sheep
did he buy, and what did each cost him !
Suppose that he bought x sheep.
Then each would cost him — — shillings.
X
Therefore, since after reserving 15, he sold each of the
1200
remaining x - 15 for -l- 2 shillings, he would receive
lor them (x - 1 5) ( + 21 shillings. And, because £54
= 1080 shillings, we have by the question,
(x-15)(lf2+2) = 1080;
which, by proper reduction, becomes x- + 45 x ^ 9000;
195 45
whence x= ± ~5~~"5'' And, taking the positive root,
x=v5, the number of sheep; and consequently -;r~ = 16
shillings, the price of each.
7&
Ex. 3. It is required to find two numbers, of which the
]iroduct shall be 6, and the sum of their cubes 35.
Let X be the one number; then - vidll be the other.
Therefore, by the question, x^ -I- -5- = 35 ;
Hence x«-|- 216 = 35x3 ,
Or x«-35x3= -21G.
This equation, by putting x^ = y, becomes
y2-3.V= -216;
Hence we find y= 27, or 5/ = 8.
And since x^ = y, .•. x=3, orx = 2.
If X = 3, then the other number is 2, and if x = 2, the
othtr number is 3: so that 2 and 3 are the numbers re-
quired.
In general, if it be required to find two numbers which
are exactly alike concerned in a question that produces a
quadratic equation, they will be the roots of that equation,
A similar observation applies to any number of quantities
which require for their dctennination the resolution of an
equation of any degree whatever.
77. On some Anomalies in the Solution of a Problem which
results in an Eguation.
From what has preceded, it wiU be e'sideut that a root of
an equation may be a veiy different thing from the solution
of the problem on which tlie equation is based. It will be
proper to give a few illustrations of this difference before
passing on to consider cquation.i in general.
(1.) A solution may be inapplicable to the problem as a
])roblem of arithmetic, applying only to the algebraic pro-
blem.
Ex. Find a number such thfvt if it be first increased hv
10, and then diminished by 10, the difference of the squarl
roots of the results shall be equal to 10.
Let X be the number; then the problem requires that
■Jx+TO- Vx- 10 = 10.
Transposing and squaring, we get
x-hl0 = 100-|-20 Vx-lO-f-x-10.
Tra:.sposing and squaring again, there results x- 10 =
16, x = 26.
Now, it is ob\-ious that 26 does not satisfy the condi-
tions of the problem, bat that it is the solution of another
problem, viz., that which substitutes " sum " for " differ-
ence" in the enunciation. Generally we may remark that
an algebraic statement is not definite liife an arithmetical
one. The algebraic square root cf a quantity being -|- or
- , algebra cannot, as arithiuetic does, distinguish between
the two. The ec^uation s/x-t-lO- v'x - 1U = 10 is alge-
braically the same as \/x -I- 10 H- Vx - 10 = 10, &^.
(2.) A Solution may be inverted, or rather may invert
the statement.
Ex. Divide 15 into two such parts^that the greater shall
exceed three times the less by as much as half the less
exceeds 3.
Let X be the greater, and .•. 15 -x the less. The state-
ment produces the equation,
x-3(15-x) = ^^15-x)-3,
which gives at once x= 1 1, so that 11 is the greater, 4 the
less part. But, on trying the solution, wo find it is not
that of the problem given, but of another problem, in which
" exceeds" is replaced l]y " falls short of." Algebra cannot,
in every c^se, as arithmetic does, distinguish the order of
subtraction in stating a difference.
Ex. 2. Find a number such that the square root of tho
difference between its fourth powor and its squa'"" boin ■
544
ALGEBRA
[r.'JUATIO.NS IN GtXEIlAn
lound and increased by 1, the Bquarc root of the sum shall
J)o c<jual to the given number ilinuuishcd by 1.
Let X be the number, then.
Jx*-
■ 2x, whence *
= 0,x = 5,
neither of whicli solves the problem as stated.
(3.) A solution may bo illusory — that is, it may assume
the form -.
£x. 1. There are two pieces of cloth of a and a' yards
respectively. The owner sells the same number of yar<ls
'of each at 6 and 6' shillings per yard respectively, be then
sells the, remainder at c and c shillings a yard, and finds that
the prices received for both ]jieccs are the same. Required
the number of yards first sold.
The number is
b'-b + c-e''
As a particular case, if a and a are GO and 80; b and b'
10 shillings and 9 shiUings; and c and c i shillings and 3
shillings, the answer assumes the form - .
The answer is in this case indeterminate ; in other words,
the conditions of the problem are satisfied indoi>endently
of the number of yards first sold ; any number will do.
It is not, however, a necessary interpretation of the form
-, that it may be replaced by any number whatever. Most
frequently this form results from the fact that some frao
tion is not in its lowest terms. Solutions of this kind fre-
quently occur — in ordinarj' equations they may be avoid'-d ;
and we offer an example simply to show the method apjjli-
cablo to cases in wliicli they cannot bo avoided.
.ffx. 2. Find two uwnboi-s such that tlie sum of their
products by a and 6 respectively ia c, and the differeuco of
their sq\iares J.
Wo have ax + ly — c
X- - y" — d
i.e. ^-{^--l^i^-d
(a" - 6=) x^ - 2nrx - -{c^' + b^tT)
To find the solution when a = b, we observe that (taking
thi! negative sign of the square root) a: = -
This arises from the fact that some power or root of a -I
is Ciimmou to the numerator and denominator of the frac-
tion.
To divide this out, we may put a- —i- =p(i?, and we
jsiiall get
..Vi-
p
c- + l,-d
ac
pa-
, 1 c'+b-d ,
pa-
2 ac
nc
wlien a is written for b, and 0 for p.
(4.) A solution may bo inlroducal by the operation.
In the example last given, the positive sign . presents us
with a solution introduced by the operation, !\'b'eh. when
a = J, is not a soliftion of the problem at all
For in that case the two equations become i:_+y = ~i
r^ - y' e= d; jh¥ latter id. ^which . is .at ^ once reduced io the
simple equation i - 3/ = — by means 01 tuc former. Accord
mgly, both equations are in this case simple equations, and
can admit of only one solution.
(5.) As a solution may be introduced by the operation,
so may it be dropped out, even when the operation is a
perfectly legitimate one.
£x. J{2x + 1 ) - ^(^ + 4) = V( 1j -f 4) - V(3j: + 7) .
Taking reciprocals, we have
1 1
'J(-lj:+\)-\--J{i + i) V(4I-^4)-^^^(3/-^-7)
s-3 ° x-Z
or V(2a;-H)+ ;^(x + 4)- V(4x + 4)+ ,y(3j;+7},
which mthcr added to the original equation, or subtracted
from it, produces x "^ - -.
But x~Z is a solution of the equation which has been
dro]>pcd out by the omission of the common deuominator
x-Z.
It is not necessary to jwint out that a solution may-
appear under the fonn ij - a or 00 .
In neither case can the problem be solved arithmetically.
Sect. X. — Ecjuations in oknekal.
78. rieforo we proceed to the resolution of cubic and the
higher orders of ccpiatiiui.s, it will be proper to explain coiuii
general properties whicli belong to equations of every iV-jjicy,
and also curtain traifc*form;ilioii3 which must freqiicMtly 1)J
performed upon equations in order to prepare them for
solution.
In treating of equations in general, wft shall suppose all
the tcnns brought to one side, and put ctjual to 0; so that
an equation of the fi^urth degree will stind thus:
X* +px^ -h yjT -Hx -f 4 - 0 ,
where x denotes an unknown quantity, and ;;, 7, r, «, num
bers or fractions, either positive or ncg:itive. Here the
C(~Eciont of the highest power of x is unity, but had it
been any other quantity, that quantity might have been
t.iken away, and the equation reduced to the above form by
rules alre.Txly explained (Sect. VI).
The terms being thus arranged, if such a quantity be xy-finitiet
found as, when substituted for x, will render both sides = 0, 0' foot-
and therefore satisfy the equation, that quantity, whether
it be positive or negative, or even unaginary, is defined to
be a root of the ecjuation. But we have seen that every
quadratic equation h.as always two roots, real or imaginary;
we may therefore as.sume that a similar diversity will t-ike
place in all equations of a higher degree; and this assump-
tion appears to be wcU foui/led, by tlie following proposi-
tion, which is of great importance in the theory of equa-
tions.
If a root of any e<\a:\i\on, asi>^ +p3? + qx^ + rx + s = 0,
be represented by a, tke first side of tliat equation is divi-
sible hy X - a;
For siuce X* -f /J.r' + qx' + rx + s = 0.
And also a' -h^w' -f qa- + ra-^s=();
Therefore, by subtraction,
£j - a« -H p (x3 - flS) -)- 5 (x= - a=).-f r (x - a) = 0 .
But* any quantity of this form I* - a", where n denoics a
whole positive number, is divisible by x - a (Art. 20,
Ex. V).
Hence, since every term contains a factor of this form,-
the equation may be written under the form
(x-a) {i^-i-p'x^ + q'x + r') = 0 .
*.e.,^c_qx^j;essioD x* ■*- t>x' -t- jj." + rx -Wi is divisible by
EQDATIO.SS IN GENERAL,]
ALGEBRA
545
x-a; and since the same mode of reasoning will apply to
any equation whatever, the truth of the proposition is
evident.
We have found that (x-a) (3? +p'x- + qx + r') = 0; and
as a product becomes = 0 when any one of its factors = 0,
therefore the equation will have its conditions fulfilled, not
only when x - a = Q, but also when x' +p'x'^ + q'x + r' — 0.
Let us now suppose that i is a root of this equation ;
then, by reasoning exactly as before,
a? + jo'x- + qx + r' = {x-h) (x- +p"x + q") .
By proceeding in the same manner with the quadratic
equation 3r +2fx + q' = 0, we shall find that if c denote one
of its roots, then
X- +p" x + q" = (x - c) {x + c +p") .
So that if we put cZ = - (c +p"), we at last find X^+p3^ +
qx'^ + rx + s = {x-a) {x-b) (x - c) (x-d); a,b,c, d, being
the roots of the equation, x* +px^ + qx'^ + rx-^s=.Q .
The mode of reasoning which has been just now employed
in a particula^ case, may be applied to an equation of any
order whatever; wo may therefore conclude, that every
equation mayj be considered as the product of as many
simple factors as the number denoting its order contains
unity, and therefore, that the number of roots in any equa-
tion is precisely equal to the exponent of the highest power
of the unknown quantity contained in that equation.
79. By considering equations of all degrees a/ formed
from the products of factors x~a,x -b, x-c, ic, we dis-
cover certain relations subsisting between the roots of any
equation and its coefficients. Thus, if we limit the num-
ber of factors to four, and suppose that a, b, c, d, are the
roots of this equation of the fourth degree,
x^ +p3? + qx^ + rx + s = 0 ,
we shall also have {x -a) {x -b) [x - c) {x - d) = 0 ; and
therefore, by actual multiplication,
+ ah
- abc "I
X + abed = 0 .
If we compare together the coefficients of the same
powers of x, we find the following series of equations :
a + b + c + d= -p ,
ah + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd= + q ,
abc + abd + acd + bed = -r ,
abcd= +s;
and as similar resiJts will be obtained for equations of all
degrees, we hence derive the following propositions, which
are of great importance in the theory of equations.
1. The coefficient of the second term of any equation,
taken with a contrary sign, is equal to the sum of all the
roots.
2. The coefficient of the third term is equai to the sura
of the products of the roots multiplied together two and
two.
3. The coefficient of the fourtn term, taken with a con-
trary sign, is equal to tlie sum of the roots multiplied toge-
ther three and three; and so on for the remaining ceeffi-
cients, till we come to tlie last term of the equation, which
is equal to the product of all the roots having their signs
changed.
Instead of supposing an equation to be produced by mul-
tijjlying together simple equ.ations, we may consider it as
furmed by the product of equations of any degree, provided
tliat the sum of tlieir dimensions be equal to that of the
proposed equation. Thus, an equation of the fourth degree
may be formed either from a simple and cubic equation, or
from two ouadratic equations.
1— ly
80. 'When the roots of an equation are all positive, its
simple factors will have this form, x-a, x-b, x-c, tc,
and if, for the sake of brevity, we take only these three,
the cubic equation which results from their product will
h.ave this fonn,
3? -p3? -t- jx - r = 0 ,
where p = a-^b-tc, q = ah-Yac-'rbc. r = abc ;
and here it appears that the signs of the terms are + and
- alternately.
• Hence we infer, that when the roots of an equation are
all positive, the signs of its terms are positive and negative
alternately.
If again the roots of the equation be all negative, and
therefore its factors x + a, x + b, x + c, then p, q, and r
being as before, the resulting equation wiD stand thus:
x^ +px- + qx + r = 0 .
And hence we conclude, that when the roots are aU nega-
tive, there is no change whatever in the signs.
In general, if the roots of an equation be all real, that
equation will have as many positive roots as there are
changes of the signs from -t- to - , or from - to + ; and
the remaining roots are negative. This rule, however, does
not apply when the equation has impossible roots, unless
such roots be considered as either positive or negative.
The connection between the signs of the roots and the
signs of the terms of an equation can be deduced from the
proposition, that the introduction of a new positive root
introduces a new change of signs amongst the terms of the
equation.
The demonstration of this proposition depends on the Kale of
fact already established, that an equation may be resolved «gM.
into the product of simple factors, so that, for example,
every equation of the fifth degree may be derived from
some equation of the fourth, by multiplying the latter by
x-a where a is the additional root. We shall show that
the introduction of a new positive root produces an equa-
tion with at least one more change of signs than the origi-
nal, and the introduction of a new negative root produces
an equation with at least one more continuation of the
same sign. To save space, it wiU suffice if we write the
signs without the letters ; thus, x- +px - q may be written
4- H — . Let, then, any equation be written down (of the
sixth degree, for instance), + -i + — h ; multiply by
x-a, and write the multiplication in the usual form,
-f- -I- - - + - +
+ + - + -
+ 1 - 1 + - + -
The signs of the product are all determinate except two,
which we have marked with a (!). Now the changes of
sign in the original equation are three — one between the
1st and 3d terms, one between the 3d and 5th, and one
between the 5th and 6th; and it is evident that whatever
be the signs marked (?), the produced equation h,as as
many changes of sign as the original between the same
limits, and one change beyond those limits, viz., between
the 7th and 8th terms. This proposition is perfectly
general, that the introduction of a positive root causes the
introduction of at least all the original changes of sign
within their limits, and one more change beyond those
limits. In the same manner vfe may prove that the intro-
duction of a negative root introduces at least one more
continuation of the same sign. Hence the conclusion,
that an equation cannot have more positive roots than it ha»
changes of sign, nor more negative roots than it has con^
iimiations of the same sign. This proposition is known 33
Descartes' Rule of Signs.
81. Surd and impossible roots enter equations oy paini.
Let a+ Jbhe a. root, where bii a positive or ncjatiTe
number or fraction ; then a — 76 ia also a 'not
54G
A r. G E B R A
IkQUATIO.NH in OENtllAL,
if a+ ^L be written for x'-Oi the quautity j;*+/<j*"' 4
ic, tho result is composed of .1 series of powers of a an J
^b. Of these all but tho odd powers of ^4 are numerical,
whilst odd powers of ^4 may be written as numerical
products of ^4 itself. Tho result of tho substitution is
therefore of the form A + H ^/4. But since a^- Jh \s,
» root of the equation x" + /«""' + ic. = 0, we must have
A + D 74 = 0, and .-. A = 0, B = 0.
Now if (I - ^4 bo substituted fur x, the result will be
A - B ^h, because even powers of - ^4 are tho same as
those of + ^4. Dut A = 0, B = 0.-. A-B ^4 = 0; cou-
sequcntly a- Jb is a root of the equation.
From this proposition it r.ppears that every equation
whose degree is denoted by an odd number, must have at
least one real root.
Tr.insfor- 82. Wo shall now explain some transformations which
nation of are frequently necessary to prcuaro tb" hicher orders of
wuatious, oauatious for solution.
Any equation may have its positive roois changed into
negative roots of the same value, and its negative roots into
such as are positive, by changioij the signs of the terms
alternately, beginning with the second. Tho truth of thi-.
rom.-\ik will be evident if we take the equation
(x -a){x- b)(x + c)^x'+px' + qx + r = 0,
and write -x in place of r, producing
-{x + a). -{x + b).(-x + c) = -i'+px''-qx + r = 0 .
t.t'. (4; + (i) ( c + 4) (x - c) = x'' -px- + qx - r = 0 ,
where it appears that the signs of the first and third terms
are the same as in the original equation, but the signs of
tho second and fourth are the opposite. And this will be
found to hold true of all equations, to whatever order they
belong.
83. It will sometimes oe u»eiuj to [ransiorm an equa-
tion into another that sh.all have each of its roots greater
or less than the corresponding.' roots of the other eauation
bv some given quantity.
Let {x -a){.: -b){x + c) = 0 be any proposed equation
which is to be transformed into another, having its roots
greater or less than those of tho proposed equation by the
^iven quantity n ; then, because the roots of the trans-
formed equation are <o be + a ± n, +4±n. and -c±n,
the equation itself will be
(y T K - n) (y T K - 4) (^ T )i + c) = 0 .
Hence the reason of the following rule is evident.
If the new equ.ation is to have its roelo greater than
those of the proposed equation, for x and its powers substi-
tute, y - II and its powei-s; but if the roots are to be less,,
then, for x substitute 1/ + 11; and, in cither case, a new equa-
tion will be produced, the roots of which shall have the
property required.
84. By the preceding rule, an equation may oe changed
into another, which has its roots either all positive or all
negative; but it is chiefly used in preparing cubic and bi-
quadratic equations for solution, by transforming them
into others- of the same degree, but which want their
Becond term. '
Let x^+px- + <jxT r = 0 be any cuDic equation; if we
substitute i/ + n for x, the equation is changed into the
following :
-t- pj^' + -2j>n\' y -f;>«M ^^
+ ?l +'/« (
-*-»• ;
Now, that this equation may want its second term, it is
evident that we have only to suppose 3»-t-/i = 0, or7i =
-;*; for tnis assumption being made, and the value of n
iubefcituted in the remaining terms the equation becomes -
^-(v-?)^-f-^-° =
and-H ^ - — -Lr=«-'. the tame
or, putting - ■;r + 7 = 9
conation may stand thus,
y''-^J'y-^r' = 0.
85. In general, any equation whatever may bo trans-
formed into another, which shall want its second tcnn, by
the following rule.
Divide the coefficient of the second term ot tho pro
posed equation by the exponent of the first term, ond add
tho quotient, with its sign changed, to a now unknown
quantity; the sum being substituted for the unknown
quantity in the profxiscd equation, a new equation will bf
produced, which will want the second term, as required.
By this rule any adfeeted quadratic equation may be
readily resolved; for by transforming it into another equa-
tion which wants the second term, we thus reduce its solu-
tion to that of a pure quadratic. Thus, if the quadratic
equation x2-5x-f6 = 0 be pionosed; by substituting y-f*
for r, we f:nd
-5y
r, and since x
■■ 0, or j('
'0.
= y -(- J, therefore x -
Hence y = * 1
-(- 3, or +2.
86, Insteail of taking away the second term from an
equation, any other term may be made to vanish, by an
assumption similar to that which has been employed to
take away the second term. Thus, if in Art. 84 we a.s.siimo
iri^ + 2pn -^ J = 0, by resolving this quadratic equation, a
value of n will be foimd which, when substituted in tlio
equation, wiU cause the third term to vanish; and, by the
resolution of a cubic equation, the fourth term may be
taken away; and so on.
87. Another species of transformation, of use in the
resolution of equations, is that by which an equation, hav-
ing the coefficients of some of its terms expressed by frac-
tional quantities, is changed into anotller, the coefficients
of which are all integers.
= 0 denote an equation to be so
transformed, and let us assume y = a4cx, and therefore
X = -^ ; then, by substitution, our equation becomes
Let r^-f-jt'-t- \x + '
a . b I
= 0;
and multiplying the whole equation by o'4V, we have
y^ -t- bcpy- + a'bc-qy + a?b^c-r = 0 .
Thus we have an equation free from fractions, while nt
the same time the coefficient of the highest power of the
unknown quantity is unity, as before.
Examples of the Transformation and Solution of Equationi
when ce\-tain relations amoTigst the roots are knovm.
Ex. 1. If a, 6, c arc the roots of the equation x' - a:- -K
2j; - 3 = 0, to form tho equation of which the roots are
(1.) a + b,b + c,c + a.
Let y be any one root , of the required equation ; put
y = a + b + c-x=\-x (Art 79), and the values of y will
be the roots of the equation required, which is therefore
(l_y)3_(i_j,)2 + 2(l-y)-3 = 0,
or y» - 2y2 -1- 3y + 1 = 0
4 c
(2.)
h+c-a' a+c-h' a+b-c
eUBlO EQUATIONS.]
ALGEBRA
547
Let
a;
X
a+b+c-
2x 'l
16
-2x'
0
is the eauation required.
(3.; a\ b\ (?.
li y = x-, the values of y are a^, b'^, <?. Accordingly we
require to throw the given equation into a form which
involves no odd powers of x. This is done as follows;
a:^ - 0:2 + 2x - 3 = a;(a.-2 + 2 ) - (a~2 + 3 ) = 0 i
a-(x2 + 2) = x2 + 3.
squaring, x\x^ + 2)2 = {x^ + 3)^,
or y(y+2)' = (y + 3)-,
or y3 + 3j,2_23,_& = o.
a h c
be ' ac' ab'
{i-)
^"^ 2' = aTr¥'''"'^2^"^^'
.y
r«
ia the equation required.
£x. 2. Two roots of the equation
x* - 16x3 + 86^2 - 176x + 105 = 0-
are 1 and 5. Find the other roots.
The quantity on the left hand side of the equation is
(Art. 78) divisible by (x - l)(x - 5), or by x- - 6x + 5.
The quotient is ic2_io.r + 21, which, bein" put = 0,
gives 3 and 7, the roots required.
£x. 3. The equation ifi - ix- + x + r = 0 has one root.
3; find r and the other roots.
Write 3 for x, then r = 6. and the equation may be
written
(x-3)(x2-x-2) = 0,
which gives ' x = 2 , x = - 1 .
Ex. 4. The equation «' + x^ - 16x - 16 ■= 0 has two roots
of the form + a , -a; find them.
If we write - x for x, we get the equation
x3-x2-16x+16 = 0,
which has also two roots, -a, + a, .: x^ - a^ is a. common
measure of the two quantities. But x^ - 16 is easily found
to be a common- measure of the two quantities, .*. a = 4 .
£x. 5. The roots of the equation
x3-6x2+llx-6-0
are in arithmetical progression; find them.
If a, a + b, a + 2b be the roots, their sum is 3(a + b),
i.e., three times the middle root. But (Art. 79) their sum
is 6, . •. ({ + 6 = 2,
also a{a + b){a + 26) = 6 ,
i.e., a(4-a) = 3, a2-4a + 3 = 0,
a = 1 , o= 3.
Ux. 6. The three roots of the* equation x' - 7x2 + 1 6x
-8 = 0 are in geometrical progression ; find them.
Let a, ar, ar' be the roots; then their product is {ary,
.: (ar)' = 8, and ar = 2 .: their sum a + ar + ar' = 7,
which gives a = 1 , r = 2,
oud 1 2, 4 are the roots.
Sect. XI. — Solution op Cubic Equations.
88. Cubic equations, like aU equations above the first
degree, are divided into two classes: they are said to bo
pure when they contain only one power of the unknown
quantity; and ad/ected when they contain two or more
powers of that quantity.
Pure cubic equations arc therefore of this form, x' = 125,
OT x?= - 27, or, in general, x^ = r; and hence it appears
that a value of the simple power of tho unknown quantity
may always be found without difficulty, by extracting tho
cube root of each side of the equation; thus, from the first
of the three preceding examples wo Cud x- +5, from the
second « = - X and from the 'hiid, x - 'Jr.
It would seem at* first sight that the only value which
X can have in the cubic equation a^ =r, or putting r = c^,
a^ - c^ = 0, is this one, x = c; but since t? -(? may be re-
solved into these two factors, x-c and x2 + cic + c^, it fol-
lows, that besides the value of x already found, which
results from making the factor x-c'=0, it has yet other
two values, which may be found by making the other fac-
tor x2.).ca;+c2=0; and accordingly, by resolving the qua-
dratic equation u? + '^= -<?, we find these values to be
and
-,or-
caud
-l-V-3
2 2
Thus it appears, that any cubic equation of this form,
x? = 1?, OT x^ -(? = 0, has these three roots.
x = c, x =
■l+V-3
■l-V-3
■c;
the first of which is real, but the two last are imaginary.
If, however, each of the imaginary values of x be raised
to the third power, the same results will be obtained aa
from the real value of x ; the original equation x^ -<? = Q
may also be reproduced, by multiplying together the three
factors x-c, x c, and x - c .
89. Let ua now consider such cubic equations as have
all their terms, and which are therefore of this form
x3 + Ax2 + B.i-+C = 0,
where A, B, and C denote known quantities," either posi-
tive or negative.
It has been shown (Ait. 84) how an equation having
all its terms may be transformed into another which wants
the second term ; therefore, assume x = y - — , as directed
in that article ; then, by proper substitution, the above
equation will be chnnged into another of this form,
y' + qy-¥r = 0 .
where q and r denote known quantities, whether positive
or negative ; now the roots of this equation being found,
it is evident that those of the former may be readily
A
obtained by means of the assumed equation x = j/ - — .
o
Besuming, therefore, the equation y'^ + qy + r = 0, let us
suppose y = v + 2, and it becomes
l^-f 31-22 +3l>22 + s3 \
+ qv + qz > = 0 .
+ r )
Thus we have ^ new equation, which, as it involves
two unknown quantities, v and 2, may be resolved into any
two others, which will simnlifv the determination of those
quantities.
Now, it appears, that the only way iu which we can
divide that equation into two othere. so as to simplify the
question, is the following :
Zv-z + Zvz- + qv + qz = Q.
jp -I- 2^ + r = 0 .
Tho first of these may also be expressed thus
{Zvz + q){v + z) = 0.
Hence, we must either suppose that ti + 2 = 0, or that
Zvz + q = (i; but the former supposition cannot be admitted
without supposing also that 5- = 0 ; therefore we must
adopt the latter. So that to determine v and z w6 have
these two equations,
Zvz + q = 0, tfi -f'.3 + r = 0 .
From the first, we find i>2 = - | , and . ■. 1^2^ = - ^ ■ This
reduces the second equation to a quadratic iu v', viz.
j/O + ,.(/! _ ^ = 0, tho solution of which equation is
548
A L G E 13
11
and y = v + z
■ -^' + 'Jh'f +y- + 'J -\r- ViVy' + f'-" •
Tlius we have obtained a value of the unknown quantity
y, in terms of the known quantities i/ and r : therefore the
equation ia resolved.
90. But this i.s only one of three values — '-•ch y may
have. Let us, for the sake of brevity, put
B=-jr- Vi',V + lr2,
A=-ir+ VjVi' + i
iind put
^ =
-l-\/-3
Then, from what has been shown (Art. 88), it is evident
that o and z have each these three values,
2= ^B, 2 = oyB, j = /3 4/B.
To determine the corresponding values of v and 2. wo
must consider that i)z= -\= l]kS> .
Now if we observe
hence
thus it appears tl'at the three values
that a/J= 1, it will immediately aopear that v + z has these
three values,
v + j= ^+ i/B,"
which are therefore the three values of y.
The first of these formula is commonly known by the
name of Cardan's rule; but it is well known that Cardan
was not the inventor, and that it ought to bo attributed to
Nicholas Tartalea and Scipio Ferreus, who discovered it
much about the same time, and independently of each
other. (See the Historical Introduction.)
The formula given above for the roots of a cubic equa-
tion may be put under a different form, better adapted to
the purposes of arithmetical calculation, as foUows : —
Because 112= - ^, therefore 2=-?x-= — j}= ;
VA
of y may also be expressed thus :
91. To show the manner of applying these formulae, let
it be required to determine x from the cubic equation
2^+3x2 -l-9:c-13 = 0.
As this equation has all its terms, the first step towards
its resolution is to transform it into another which shall
want the second term, by substituting y - 1 for z as
directed (Art. 84). The operation will stand thus :
a;3 = 3^-3y2 + 3y- 1
+ 3a--= +3/-C.V+ 3
+ 9x = + 9y - 9
-13 = -13
.". adding these, the transformed equation is
y3 + 6y-20 = 0,
which being compared with the general equation,
gives 2 = 6, r = - 20 ; hence
A=V-ir+ vS?+P=v'io+ jioal
I CUBIC EQUATIONS.
therefore the second formula of last article gives y =
8 # ===» 2
V10+ ,/108- 2/jQ , ^f7;u> liut as this expression in-
volves a radical quantity, let the square root of 108 be
taken and added to 10, and the cube root of the sum
found; thus we have ^^lO-H ^108 = 2-732 nearly, and
2 2
therefore ,. -_^= = -.„„ = '732: hence we at last find
V10 + V108 2-732
one of the values of y to be 2732 - -732 = 2 .
In finding the cube root of the radical quantity
V 10+ J 108, we have taken only its approximate value,
so as to have the expression for the root under a rational
form, and in this way we can always find, as near as we
please, the cube root of any surd of the form a+ Jl>,
where J is a positive number. But it will sometimes
happen that the cube root of such a surd can be expressed
exactly by another surd of the same form; and accord-
ingly, in the present case, it appears that the cube root
of 10+ ,yi08 is 1 + ^3, as may be proved by actually
raising 1+^3 to the third power. Hence we find
2 2_ ^ 2(1 - v'3) „ _ /I _ /g- .
\/lO + Vr03~l_+V3~(l-V3)(l + V3)'" ~ ^ ^ ^' *^
that y = 1 + V3 + 1 - ^3 = 2 , as before.
The other two values of y will be had by substituting
1 + V3 and 1
_ 1(7
JZ for ^A and -,'4 in the second and
VA
third formulae of last article, and restoring the values of a
and /3. We thus have
y- :il+v£3 ^ ^j ^ ^3) ^^1^3 ^ ^j _ ^3^ ^-_ J
2 ^ ^ '
+ V-9.
■\ + -J-3
X (1 - V3) =
2 V ■ V / ■ 2
- V-9.
So that the three values of y are
+ 2, -i+J—Q, _l-^T9;
and since a; = y - 1, the corresponding values of x are
+ 1. -2+V~9, -2- J^g.
Thus it appears that one of the roots of the proposed
equation is real^ and the other two imaginaiy.
The two imaginary roots might have been founa other-
wise, by considering that since one root of the equation is
1, the equation must be divisible by x-l (Art. 78).
Accordingly, the division being actually performed, and
the quotient put = 0. we have the quadratic equation.
i= + 4x+13 = 0;
which gives x= -2± J-^, the 'same imaginarv values
as before.
92. In the appucation of the preceding formulae to the
resolution of the equation y' + }y + r = 0, it is necessary to
find the square root of -^q^ + \r- ; now, when that quantity
is positive, as in the equation y' + Cy- 20 = 0, which was
resolved in last article, no difficulty occurs, for its root may
be found either exactly or to as great a degree of accuracy
as we please.
As, however, the coefficients q ana r are independent of
each other, it is evident that q may be negative, and such
that -—q^ is greater than \r^. In this case, the expression
Y=(f + fr- will be negative, and therefore its square root an
imaginary quantity ; so that all the roots appear under an
imaginary form. But we are certain (Art. 81) that every
cubic equation must have at least one real root. The truth
is that roots are fregueutly real, though they appear under.
3.]
33iaUADflATIC EQUATIO.NS,
an imaginary forru. Take, tor" instance, the equation
:j/^ - 6y + 4 = 0, ot which the roots are found to be
y= 4/2 + 2 ■y£I+ ^2 - 2 V^
y=aU2 + 2 J^J. +/3 V2 - 2 V-^
y = j3 4/2 + 2 7-1 + 0-^2-2 7-1
It will bo found by actual involution that the imaginary
«xpression8 2 + 27-1 ^^^ 2-27-1 ate the cubes of
- 1 + 7 "" 1 ^i<l - 1 - J~-^ respectively, whence by
substitution we find
y = 2, 2/=l+ 73, andy=l- 73".
93. We shall now prove, that aS often as the roots of
the equation a:^ + jx + r = 0 are real, q is negative, and
jf5^ greater than \r'^ ; and, conversely, that if ^' be
greater than \r-, the roots 'are all real.
Let us suppose a to be a real root of the proposed
JDquatiou "
Then x' + qx + r = 0,
ALGEBRA
549
And
' + 2a + r = 0 .
And therefore, by subtraction, ar' - a' + g(x - a) = 0 ;
lence. dividing by a; - a, we have
x^ + ax + a." + q = 0.
This quadratic equation is formed from the two remain-
ing roots of the proposed equation, and by resolving it we
find
And as, by hypothesis, aU the roots are real, it is
■evident that j must necessarily be negative, and greater
than \a- ; for otherwise the expression 7 " l"" - 1 would
he imaginary. Let us change the sign of q, and put
q = \a" + d; thus the roots of the eauation x' - ja; + r = 0
-will be
a, .-5<^+ s^<^i",-i<J- 7'^)
and here (iis a positive quantity.
To find an expression for r in terms of a and d, let
\a'^ + dhe substituted for q in the equation a^ — qa + r = 0;
"We thence find r = - \a? + ad; so that to compare together
the quantities q and r, we have thgse equations.
q = \a? + d, r= T^^-^ad-
In order to make this comparison, let the cu«e of \q be
taken, also the square of \t, the results are
■ ' = f.a« + Ti«y + -Ua-'OP- + i.d-' ,
and tBcrefqre, by subtraction,
• =3d(J,a*--^y-d + ^-)
.= 3rf(ia2-i<if.
iTow the square 'of any real quantity being always positive,
it foUowa that 3d{\a'^ - \d)- will be positive when d is posi-
tive; hence it is evident that in this case ~q^ must be
greater than i?^, and that -—g^ cannot be less than ^r-, un-
less d be negative, that is, unless - \a + Jd, -\a - Jd,
the two other roots of the equation are imaginary. If we
suppose </ = v). then —gf = i?^ ; and the roots of the equa-
tions, which in this case are also real, two of them being
equal '^
Upon the whole, therefore, wo infer, that Since a cubic
equation has always one real root, its roots will be all real
as often aa 2 is negative, and -^r^ greater than ;?-; and
consequently, that in this casfe the formula for the roots
must erjiress real quantities, notwithstanding their imagin-
ary form.
94. Let J/' - yy + r = 0 denote any equation ' of ' the
form which has been cfinsidered in laiet article, namely^
that which has its roots all real; then, if we put 0= - jr,
ST?"
b-=,~J—^ - 1»-2, one of the roots, as expressed by the first
formula (Art. 90) will be
y= 4/o + i7~l+ i/'a.^b J'^.
This expression, although under an imaginary' form, mu^t
(as we have shown in last article) represent a real quantity,
although wo cannot obtain it by the ordinary process of
arithmetic.
The case of cubic equations, in which the roots are all
real, is now called the irreducible case.
It is remarkable that the expression
^a + b 7^ + s/a-b J^ ,
and in general,
v'a + b 7^ + V" - i V - 1 »
where n is a^iy power of 2, admits of being reduced to
another form, in which no impossible quantity is found.
Thus, ^/iTW^ + x/a - f> J^ = 'V^2a + 2 ^a"- + 6^,
and i/a + b J^\ + ,^0-6 7-1 =
7( J 2a + 2 7^^2 + 2 7;?+6"-) ,
as is easily proved by first squaring and then takiivg the
square root of the imaginary formiiliE. But when h is 3,
it does not seem that such reduction can possibly takephce.
If each of the surds be expanded into an infinite series,
aud their sum be taken, the imaginary quantity 7" 1
will Vanish, and thus the root may bo found by a direct
process.
Sect. XII, — Solution of Biquadeatic Equatio.^s.
95. 'When a biquadratic equation contains all its terms,
it has this form,
x' + iV^ + V,x- + Cx + D = 0
where A, B, C, D denote any known quantities whatever.
■VVe shall first consider pure biquadratics, or such as con-
tain only the first and last terms, and therefore are of this
ferm, »* = i'. In this case it is evident that x may be
readily had by two extractions of the square root ; by the
first we find x' = b-, and by the second x = b. This, how-
ever, is only one of the values which x may have; for since
x^ = b*, therefore a;'-6' = 0; but a-*-J* may be resolved
into two factors afi -b- and x- + b", each of which admits of
a similar resolution ; for xr^ -b- = {x - b){x + i) and -x^ + b'
= {:x-b j^){x + b J^^l). Henco it appears that the
equation a:' - 6' = 0 may also be expressed thus
{x-b){x + b)(x-b J^l){x + b ^~1) = 0;
so that X may have these four values
+ b, -b, +bj~l, -67~1
two of which are real, and the others imaginary.
9G. Next to pure biquadratic equations, in respect of
easiness of resolution, are such as want the second aud.
fourth terms, and therefore have this form,
x' + qx- + s = 0
These may be resolved in the mannet of quadratic oqua
tions; for if we put y = x-, we have
' y= + jy + s = 0 ,
from -wbicEjeOjI find ja = — - — ^ , and therefore
»■=
— q.^Vii'-ii
07 Wheu a biquadratic equation has aH its terms, the
mannM of resolving it is not so obvious as in the t'«'o for-
mer cases, but its. resolution may be always reduced to that
of a cubic ^auation. There are various methods bv which
550
ALGEBRA
[biquadratic EQUATIOXa.
sucL a reduction may bo effectci Tlio foUuwing, which ' their product must be a positive qua>,iity ao that in tlii,
Euler 1^ ZT. ."'' T' '"«'"°"'' ^-^ ^''' ^iven by | case they mast either be lil positivor^r 4o^f ^em mt^
phiineJ more fully in his Flfmmts of Algelra.
\Vo have already explained, Art. 92, how an equation
I . J --V «» ■*'J^' *'-, uuw uu equation i *'***o lu »uii;u y la j
viiicn IS complete in its terms may bo transformed into i which it is negative.
that four of the eight expressions for the root belong to the
case in which q is positive, and the other four to that in
Q =
R =
04"
2' ^ 16
Hence it follows that the roots of the proposed equation
are generally expressed by the formula
where a, b, c denote the roots of this cubic equation,
-4r }'
.3 + ?.= + ^
: = 0.
16 ■ 64
Eut to find each particular root, we must consider, that as
the square root of a number may be either positive or ne"a-
tive, so each of the quantities ^a,, Jl, Jc may have
either the sign + or - prefixed to it; and hence our
formula will give eight different expressions for the root.'
It is, however, to be observed, that as the product of the
three quantities Ja, ^b, ^c must be equal to ,yu or to
- g ; when j is positive, their product must be a negative
quantity, and this can only bo effected by making either
one or threp. of them Uesative; again, when 2 ia negative,
Di..)ther of the same degree, but whicli -ants the second j
Urin; therefore any biquadratic equation may be reduced
to this form,
y* +;'/ + yy + r = 0 ,
where the second term is wanting, and where n, q, r, do-
niite any known quantities whatever.
That wo may form an_ equation similar to the above, let
ns assume y= V«+ V*+ V'^, and abio suppose that the
letters a, i, c denote the roots of the cubic equation
r' + Pi' + Qj-B-O;
th^n, L-uni the theory of efjuations we have
a + 6 + <:--P, a4 + at 4- ic = Q, aic = U.
Wo square the assumed fonnula
and obttin y'^ = a-\-h-\-c + 1{\]ab\- J^c^ Jh),
or, substituting - P for a 4- 6 + c, and transj)osing;
r4-P = 2(Va44- Jac-i- Jb7).
Ltt this equation bo also squared, and we have
'/ 4- 2 Pv» 4- P- = 4(n6 4- oc 4- 61;) 4- 8(VaiR: 4- V^c 4- \'557^) ;
and sinro_ q6 4- (K 4- 6c = Q,
and Vx^ic 4- ^/(il-c + Vabc> = •Jahci'Ja + V6 + v/c) = v'S . y,
ti.e same equation may be expressed thus:
y^4-2Pi,2 4-F = 4Q4-8v'R.y.
Ilius we have the biquadratic equation
y'+.2Py2-8 7R.j-4-P=-4Q = 0,
one of the roots of. which is y = Ja + Jb+ Ji, while a, 5, c
\ie the roots of the cubic equation i^ 4- Pc^ + Q; _ R = 0.
98. In order to apply this resolution to the proposed
ajuatioii y* +]>y- + cjy + T = Q, we must express the assumed
coefficients P, Q, R by means of ;i, q, r, the coefficients of
that equation. For this purpose, let- uj compare the cqua-
tiuus
5^4-;5y=4-ji/ + r = 0,
y<4-2Pi,2-8VHy4-P2-4Q = 0,
iiKi it inimedLately appears that
2P=;,, -8VH = ?,
and from these equations we find
99. Wo shall now give the result of the preceding in-
vestigation in the form of a practical rule; and as tho
coefficiento of tho cubic equation which has been found
involvo fractious, we shall tnuisform it into another, in
which the cjoflicients are integers, by supposing »--.
Tliua the equation
becomes, after reduction,
t/>4-2y.i^ + (;,!-4;)t;-^2=.0,
it also follow,, that if tho roots of the latter equation
arc a, b, c, the roots of the former arc -,*,', so that
our rule may now be expressed thus:
Let y^+pf + qy + r-O bo any biquadratic equation
wanting its second term. Form this cubic equation
t^ 4- 2pir 4- O^! - 4r)!/ - 2= = 0 ,
:md find its roots, which, let us denote by a, b, c
Then the roots of tho i>roi)osed biquadratic equation art).
when q is negative,
y = i(Vi-V5-Vc),
» = i(-'/a4-v'6-Vr),
y = i (-^0-^64-^0.
when q is positive,
!/-i(v'i-V64-Vc),
V -^(•Ju + -Jb-'Jc).
100. As an example of tho method of resolving a bi-
iiuadratic equation, let it be required to determine the
roots of tho following,
r<-25.^= + C0.c-3C = 0.
By comparing this equati>.u with the general formuh, we
have ;> = - 25, J = 4- CO, r = - 3G ; hence
2/) = - 50, ;.2 _ 4r ^ ygg^ j2 ^ 35QQ ^
and the cubic equation to be resolved is
1/5 -DOr 4- 7G9«- 3000 = 0;
the roots of which are found, by the rules for cubios, to
be 9, 10, and 25, so that ^a = 3, Jb = i, c = 5. Now
in this case q is positive, therefore
a:-J(-3-4-5)=-C,
a:=if-34- -14-0)- 4-3,
a: = J(4-3-44-0) = 4-2,
s = ?(-f34-4-5) = 4-l.
101. M'e have now explained the particular rules by
which tho roots of equations belonging to each of the firet
four orders may be determined; iind this is the greatest
length mathematicians have been able to go in the direct
resolution of equations ; for as to those of the fifth, and all
higher degrees, no general method has hitherto been found,
either for resolving them directly, or reducing them to
others of an inferior degree.
It even appears that the formulse which express the roota
of cubic equations are not of universal application; for in
one ease, that is, when the roots are aU real, they become
illusory, so that no conclusion can be drawn from thera.
The same observation will also apply to the formuhe for
the roots of biquadratic equations, beaiuse, before they can
bo applied, it is always necessary to find the roots of a
cubic equation. But both in cubics and in biquadratic
equations, even when the furmulte involve no imaginary
quantities, and therefore can be always applied, it is more
convenient in practice to employ other methods, which we
are hereafter to exphiin.
RECIPROCAL EQUATIOXS.]
ALGEBRA
551
Shot. \IjII. — Solutjon ok Eqiatio.ns in uuicii ckkt.un
RELATIONS AKE KNOWN TO EXIST AMONGST THE KOOTS.
102. When the coefScients of the terms of an equation
form the same numerical series, whether taken in a direct
or an inverted order, as in this example,
X* +px^ + qx- +px + \ = 0 ,
it may always be transformed into another of a degree de-
nntcd by half the exponent of the highest power of the
nnkno\ni quantity, if that exponent be an even number:
or half the exponent diminished by unity, if it bo an odd
number
The same observation will also apply to any equation of
this form
X* +pai^ + qa-.c- +pa''j: + a^ = 0 .
103. That we may effect the proposed transiormation
upon the equation
x^+px^ + qx-+px + \ =0,
let every two terms which are equally distant from tno
extremes bo collected into one. and the whulf bo divided
by X-, then
Let us assume 1
then x- + 2 + — = z', and x- + „ = j" - 2
X- x'
Thus the equation x- + — +;'(a; + - ) + y = (i ,
becomes
and since
t=+;)3 + 7-2 = 0
X + =z, therefore x" - s.r + 1 - 0
X
Hence to determine the roots of the biquadratic equation
x^ +px' + qx'^ +px+\=() ,
we form me quadratic
z'^+pzjrq -2 = 0,
and find its roots, which, let us suppose denoted by z and
*" ; then the four roots of the proposed equation will be
found by resolving two quadratic equations, viz.
a;^ - s'x + 1 = 0, x" - z"x +1=0.
104. It may be observed, respecting Ihcse two quadratic
equations, that since the last term of each is unity, if wo
put o, a to denote the roots of the one, and b, b' those of
the other, wc have from the theory of equations, aa' = 1 ,
and therefore o' = - ; also bb' = 1, and V
1
' b'
b' are also the roots of the equation
X* +p3^ + qx" -^-px + 1=0.
Hence it appears that the proposed equation has this
property, that one-half of its roots are the reciprocals of
the other half ; and to that circumstance we are indebted
for the simplicity of its resolution.
105. If the greatest exponent of tue unknown quantity
in a reciprocal equation is an odd number, as in this
example,
x' +;;.«■' + j.r' + jx^ +;)2: + 1 = 0
tne equation wiU always be satisfied by substituting - 1
for x; hence, - 1 must be a root of the equation, and
therefore the equation must be divisible bya;+l. Ac-
cordingly, if the division be actually performed, we shall
have in the present case
xi^-^(ji-\)i?-{p-q-\)x" + {p-\)x+'\='i.
another reciprocal equation, in which th^ greatest exponent
of a; is an even number, and therefore resolvable in the
mailncr we have already explained.
106. Aa an application of the theory of reaprocal equa-
lions, let it be proposed to find x from this conation,
wflere a denotes a given number.
Every expression of the form x' -h 1 is divisible by x -I- 1
when n is an odd number. In the present case, the
numerator and denominator being divided by x-\\, tho
equation becomes
and this again, by proper reduction, becomes
(a - 1 ).r< 4- (4(1 -f 1 )i? + (Ga - 1 ).<■= -i- (4a -F 1 ).r -Ki - 1 = 0 ;
and, puttin" p = , , q = • ,
"^ = '^ a-1 ' ^ a- 1 '
xfi +px? + qx'' +px+l=0;
a reciprocal equation, resolvable into two quadratics.
Equatio.vs wuicu HAVE Equal Roots.
107. When au equation has tsvo or more equal roots
these may alw.ays be discovered, and the cijuation rcdured
to another of an inferior degree, by a method of resolution
which is peculiar to this class of equ.ations.
Although the method of resolution we are to employ
win apply alike to equations of every degree, ha\-ing equal
roots, yet, for the sake nf brevity, wc shall t.akc a biqua-
dratic equation,
x-'+px' + qx- + i-x-t-s = 0 ,
the roots of which may bo gcjicrally denoted by a, I; <•,
and d. Thus wo have, from the theory of equatii.n.s,
{x - a)(x - b){x - e){x - d) = x^+px' + qx- + rx + s.
Let us put
A = (x - a){x - b){x - r), A" = (x - a\{x - cnx - d) ,
A' = (x - a.){x - b){x - d), A'" = (x - 6)(x - c)(x J.) :
then, by actual multiplication, we have
A -x'-al +ah^
:- + ac yx- a1>c ,
+ hc )
+ ah )
-h) x'+n'lSx-nlii,
\-ttc\
•^ +ail\ x-acd,
-d) i-cd )
A'"^z5-6^ ^ l-ic-j
X- + hd } X- led :
hcd )
and taking the sum of these four equations;
A' =x^-
A- ^7^-
+ A' + A"-^A"
= 4x3 - 3(1 )
h2<il -]
-35 1
„ + 2ac
'^+Zad
-abc
-3c 1
1 ^-aU
-3(i)
+ 2hc
■ ^ -ocd
+ 2bd
-hcd.
+ 2cd
But since a, b, c, d are the roots of the equation
x^ + px^ + qx'' + rx + s = 0,
we have -3[a + b + c + d) = 3p,
2{ab + ac + ad + lc + bd + cd) = 2q,
- (abc + abd + acd + bed) = r ;
A + A' + A" + A"' = 4x'+3p3^ + 2qx + r.
This result expressed in its most general form is aa
follows : — Let A represent the product of all the differeni:.e9
x-a, itc, except one, 2A, the sum of ^ such products;
then 2A = nx'-' + {n-\ )px'-' + {n- 2)2x"-' -l &c.
108. Let us now suppose that the proposed biquadratic
equation ha? two equal roots, oT a=i; then x-a = x,- A,'
and sincfc one or other of these equal factors enters each
of the four products A, A', A", A'", it is erident that
A -^ A' -f A" + A'", or 4x^ -l- Spx' + 2qx + r must be divisibla
by x-a, or a; -6. Thus it appears^^that if Jh_e proposed
equation "
552
ALGEBRA
(equations with
have two eqtial roots, each of thorn must also be a root of
this equation.
for Trhen the first of these equations is divisible by (x - of,
the latter is necessarily diWsible by x - a.
Let us next suppose that the proposed equation has
throe equal roots, or a = b = c; then, two at least of the
three equal factors x-a, x- b, x- c, must enter each of
the four products A, A', A", A'", it is evident that
A + A' + A" + A'", or 4** + Spjp + 2qx + r must bo twaco
divisible by a; - a. Hence it follows' that as often as the
proposed equation has three equal roots, two of them must
also be equal roots of the equation
ix^ + 3px- ■\;2qx + r = 0.
109. Proceeding in the same mShncr, it may bo shown,
that whatever number of equal roots are in the proposed
equation
X* +px^ + qiP + rx + 8 = 0 ,
they will remain, except one, in this equation,
4x' + 3px''_+ 2qx + r = 0,
which may be derived from the former, by multiplying
each of its terms by the exponent of x in that term, and
then diminishing the exponent by unity.
110. If we suppose that the proposed equation has two
equal roots, or a = 6, and also two other equal roots, ox c = d,
then, by reasoning as before, it will appear that the equa-
tion derived from it must have one root equal to a or t,
and another equal to c or rf ; so that when the former is
divi.sible both by (x-af and {x-cf, the latter wUl be
divisible by (x-a) (x-c).
111. As a particular example, let us take this equation,
jP - 13x« + 67i» - 1 71x2 + 216x - 108 = 0 ,
md apply to it the method wc have explained, in order to
<iiscover whether it has equal roots, and if so, what they
lire. We must seek the greatest common measure of the
proposed equation and this other equation, which is formed
agreeably to what has been shown (Art. 109^,
5x* - 52x3 + 2q_lx2 - 342x + 216 = 0;
and the operation being performed, we find that they have
a common divisor, x^- 8x2 + 21x- 18, ■^\^\f.\^ jg of ^jj^
third degree, and consequently may have several factors.
Let US therefore try whether the last equation, and the
fuUowing,
SOx" - 156x= + 402x - 342 = 0 ,
which is derived frdra it by the same process, have any
common divisor ; and, by proceeding as before, we find
that they admit of this djivisor, x - 3, which is also a
factor of the last divisor, x' - Sx^ + 21x - 18 ; and therefore
the product of the remaining factors is immediately found
by division to be x^ - 5x + 6. which is evidently resolvable
into X - 2 and .x - 3 .
Thus it appears that the common divisor of the original
equation, and that which is immediately derived from it,
is (x-2) {x-Zf; and that the common divisor of the
second and third equations is x - 3. Hence it follows
that the proposed equation has (x-2)- for one factor, and
(x - 3)3 for another factor, and may therefore be expressed
thus, (x-2f (x-3)' = 0. The truth of this conclusion
may be easJy verified by multiplication. The five roots
are 2, 2, 3, 3, and 3.
112. The property proved in Art. 107 enables us to
estabUsh numerous relations between the coefficients and
roots of an equation, in addition to the fundamental one
established in Art. 79, such as the following: —
Since sf + y?."-' + ja— ' + &c. = (x - a) (x - b) {x - c) &c
and 7!J*-' + (n - 1 )/)x^» + (n - 2)7X"-^ + &C. ^
(x - l)lx -c). . . + (x - a)(x - c) ... + .. .
by division
nx*-' + (j - l)px'-' + (n - 2)i;x— ^ + &c
ip'+px"-' + jx"-'+ &c.
x-a x-b x-c
1 S, S, S, ,
X x' X^ X*
where S„
S2, S„ &c., are the sums
of the first, second,
third, ice
powers of the roots of the
equation.
Multiplying out and equating coefficients, we get—*
n-l)p = S, + »!n
n-2)j = S2+pS, + no
.7.-3r = S,+;;Sj + gS,-
t-
&c.=&c.
Or
S,+p = 0
Sj+;jS, + 27 = 0
S3+i'Sj + 3Si+3r =
= 0
&c. &c.
Sx. 1.
As a particular case, take
the cubio equation
x' + qx + r
= 0.
Here
s.=o
S, + 2g = 0
S3 + 3r = 0
S, + }Sj = 0
Sj+jS3+rSs = 0
2S< = §,',S, = 6jr.
The last may be written —
5^32'
•
i.e., if a +
6 + c = 0, then will
ai + lfi + (fi a' + fr'+c' C
+ &' + <!>
5 3 2
From S; + 2S5 + rSj = 0, we get
s, = s,.|+s,.|.
Or
7 5 2 '
^x. 2. Take the biquadratic equation
Here
S,=0
Sj + 2g = 0
S3 + 3r = 0
s.=s,.|+s..|
5 3*2
i.e., ii a + b + c + d = 0,
. a^ + i^ + c^ + d' a' + i' + c' + iP a» + y + c'+(P
then = •
Equations whose Roots are Rational
113. It has been shown in Art. 79, that the last term
of any equation is always the product of its roots takeu
with contrary signs. Hence, when the roots are rational,
they may be discovered by the f oDowing rule :
Bring aU the terms of the equation to one side; find
aU the divisors of the last term, and substitute them suc-
cessively for the unknown quahtity. Then each divisor,
which produces a result equal to 0, is a root of the
equation.
£x. Let x»-4r'-7x + 10 = 0,
EQUAL ROOTS.]
A L G E B K A
fiS;^
The divisors of 10, the last term, are 1, 2, 5, 10, each
of which may be taken either positively or negatively; and
these being substituted successively for x we obtain the
following results:
By putting H-lfori, 1- 4- 7 + 10= 0.
-1, -1 - 4+ 7 + 10= 12,
+ •-', 8- 16-14+10--12,
-2, -8- 10+14 + 10= 0,
+ 5, 125-100-a5 + lU-^ 0.
Hero the divisors which produce results equal to 0 are
+ 1, -2, and +5; therefore these are the three roots of
the proposed equation
Sect. XIV. Solution of Equations by Appkoxi-
KAIION
114. When the roots of an equation cannot be accu-
rately expressed by rational numbers, it is necessary to have
recourse to methods of approximation ; and by these we
can always determine tiie numerical values ef the roots to
as great a degree of accuracy as we please.
The application of methods of approximation is rendered
easy by means of the following proposition :
If two numbers, either whole or fractional, be found,
which, when substituted for the unknown quantity in any
equation, produce results with contrary signs, we may
conclude that at least one root of the proposed ejjuatiou
is between those numbers, and is consequently real
Let the proposed equation be
?-5j2 + 10x-15 = 0,
which, by collecting the positive terms into one sum, and
the negative into another, may also be expressed thus,
afl + lOx- (5x^ + 15)^0;
then, to determine a root of the equation, we must Cud
6uch a number as, when substituted for x, will render
a:3+10j; = 5.c= + 15.
Let U3 suppose x to increase and to have every degree
of n.aijnitude from O, upwards in the scale of number ;
then ^ + 10x and 5j;^ + 15 will both continually increase,
but with different degrees of quickness, as appears from
the following table : —
Successive values of ic ; O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, C, <fcc.
of sS + IOj;; 0, 11, 28, 57, 104, 175, 276, ic.
of .5x2 + 15; 15, 20, 35, 60, 95, 140, 195, &c.
By inspecting this table, it appears that while x increases
from 0 to a certain numerical value, which exceeds 3, the
Dositive part of the equation, or x^ + 10.r, is always less than
the negative part, or 5x- + 15 ; so that the expression
x3 + IOj; - (5x= + 15) OT x'- 5.- + IOj; - 15
must necessarily be negative.
It also appear3,,that when x has increased beyond that
numerical value, and which is evidently less than 4, the
positive part of the equation, instead of being less than the
negative jjart, is now greater, and therefore the expression
ar'-5.!;2 + 10j;-15
is changed from a negative to a positive quantity.
Hence we may conclude that there is some real and
determinate value of x, which is greater than 3, but less
than 4, and which wiU render the positive and negative
parts of the equation equal to one another ; therefore that
value of X must be a root of the proposed equation ; and
as what has been just now shown in a particular case will
readily apply to any equation whatever, the truth of the
proposition is obvious.
115. From the proceding proposition it wilt not bo
ilifflcult to discover, by means of a few trials, the nearest
ixiMaeTB to the rnnts of any proposed nmucrical equation ;
1—19*
and those being found, we may approximate to the roats
continually, as in the foUo^ving example :
x«-4.t3_3^ + 27 = 0.
To determine the limits of the roots, let 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
be substituted successively for x; thus we obtain the fol-
lowing corresponding results :
Substitutions for x, 0, 1, 2, 3 4,
Results, +27, + 21, + 5, -9, + 15.
Hence it appears that the equation has two real roots,
one between 2 and 3, and another between 3 and 4.
That we may approximate to the first root, let us sup-
pose x~= 2 + y, where y is a fraction less than unity, and
therefore its second and higher powers small in com-
imrison to its first power : hence, in finding an approxi-
mate value of y, they may be rejected. Thus we have
x*=+l6 + 32y, &c.
-4x3=-32-48y, &c.
-3x = - 6-3y
+ 27 =+27
Hence 0 ' = 5-19;/ nearly.
and y = — = '26; therefore, for a first approximation we
have X- 2-26.
Let us next suppose x = 2'2G + j/'; then, rejecting aa
before the second and higher powers of y' on account of
their smaUness, and retaining three decimal jjlaccs, we have
y' = -~^ = -0075, and x = 2-26 + / = 2-2G75 This value
of X is true to the last figure, but a more accurate value
may be obtained by supposing « = 2'2675 + y". and pro-
ceeding as before.
116. The method we have hitherto employed for approxi-
mating to the roots of equations is known by the name
of the jnclhod of successive substitutions, and was first
proposed by Newton. It has been since improved by
Lagrange, who has given it a fonn which has the advan-
tage of showing the progress made in the approximation
by each operation. This improved form we now proceed
to explain.
Let a denote the whole number next less to the root
sought, and - the fraction, which, when added to a, com-
" y
pletes the root j then x = a + -. li this value of x be sub-
stituted in the proposed equation, a new equation involving
y wiU be had, which, when cleared of fractions, will neces-
sarily have a root greater than unity.
Let b be the whole number which is next less than that
root ; then, for the first approximation, we have x = a + -.
But b being only an approximate value of y, in the same
maimer as a is an approximate value of x, we may suppose
y = i + -, ; then, by substituting b + -, for y, we shall have
a new equation, involving only ~/, which must be greater
than unity. Putting therefore b' to denote the next whole
number less than the root of the equation involving y', wo
have 2/ = b + r,; and substituting this value in that of x,
the result is
» = a + -
for a second approximate value of x.
To find a third value, wo may take l/ = l>' + -7,, and so
on, to obtain more accurate approximations.
554
ALGEBRA
[cn>ETERUI!<ATE PBOBLZHS.
Sect. XV. — Indetebminate Pboblems.
117. When the conditions of a question are such that
the number of unknown quantities exceeds the number of
equations, that question will admit of innumerable solu-
tions, and is therefore said to bo indeterminate. Thus, if
it bo required to find two numbers subject to no other limi-
tation than that their sum be 10, wo have two unkno^vn
quantities x and y, and only one equation, viz. i-t-y = 10,
which may evidently bo satisfied by innumerable different
values of x and y, if fractional solutions bo admitted. It
is, however, usual, in such questions as this, 'to restrict
values of the numbers sought to positive integers, and
therefore, in this case, we can have only these nine solu-
tions,
x = l, 2,3, 4,5, C, 7, 8, 9;
y = 9, 8, 7, 0,5,4, 3, 2,1;
which indeed may be reduced to five; for the first four be-
come {he same as the last four by simply changing x into
y, and the contrary.
118. Indeterminate problems are of different orders,
according to the dimensions of the equation which is
obtained after all the unknown quantities but two have
been eliminated by means of the given equations. Those
of t)>e first order lead always to equations of this form
ax + hy c,
where a, b, c, denote given whoio numoers, and x, y, two
numbers to bo found, so that both may bo integers. That
this condition may be fulfilled, it is necessary that the
coefficients a, b, have no common divisor which is not also
a divisor of c; for if a = md and b = me, then ax + by = mdx
+ mey=-c, and dx + ey=—; but d, e, x, y, are supposed to
be whole numbers thereiore — is a whole number hence
m
M must bo a ^divisor of c.
We proceed to illustrate the manner of resolving inde-
terminate eauations of the first order, by some 'lumcrical
examples.
Ex. 1. Given 2x + Zy — 2.5, to determine x and y in whole
positive niimbers.
25 — 3v
From tne given equation we have x = — — = = 12 ■
y-
Now, since x must be a whole number, it follows
that
y-1
must be a whole number. Let us assume
!/-!
2 2
= z, then y = 1 -H 2z; and x ^ 11 - 3z, where z might be
any whole number whatever, if there were no limitation as
to the signs of x and y. But since these quantities are
required to be positive, it is e\-idcnt, from the value of y,
that 2 must bo cither 0 or positive, and from the value of
X, that it must be less than 4; hence z- may have these
three values, 0, 1, 2, 3.
If .'= 0, z=\, 2 = 2, 3 = 3;
Thcn|-^=1|' ^ = t, x = 5 x~2
I y= 1, J' = 3, y = 5, y = 7.
£x. 2. It is required to find all the possible ways in
which £C0 can be paid in guineas and moidores only.
Let X be the number of guineas, and y the number of
moidores. Then the value of the guineas, expressed in
shillings, is 21x, and that of the moidores 27y; therefore,
fK)m the nature of the question, 21j5 -|- 27y = 1200, or,
dividing the equation by 3, 7x-l- 9y = 400; hence, proceed-
ing as before, we obtain
y=7v-b,
x=Gl -Oi)
From the value of x, it appears that » cannot exceed 6,
and from the value of y, that it cannot be less than 1.
Hence if v= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
we have x = 52, 43, 34, 25, 16, 7.
y- 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39.
119. In the foregoing examples the unknown quantities
X and y have each a determinate number of positive values ;
and this will evidently be the case as often as the proposed
equation is of this form, ax + by = c. If, however, b be
negative, that is, if the equation be of this form, ax - bii
= c, 01 ax = bi/ + c, we shall have questions of a different
kind, admitting each of an infinite number of solutions;
these, however, may be resolved in the same manner as the
preceding.
120. If an equation were proposed involving three
unknown quantities, aa ax + by + cz = d, hy transposition we
have ax + by =■ d - cz, and, putting d - cz^ c, ax + by c.
From this last equation wo may find values of x and y of
this form
X = mr + nc, y = mr'+ n'c,
or z = mr + n(d - cz), y = m'r + n'{d — cz) ;
where z and r may be taken at pleasure, except in so far
as the values of x, y, z, may be required to be all positive;
for from such restriction the values of z and r may be con-
fined within certain limits to be determined from the giveu
equation.
121. We proceed to indeterminate problems of the second
degree : limiting ourselves to the consideration of the for-
mula y^ = a + bx + CX-, where x is to be found, so that y
may be a rational quantity. The possibility of rendering
the proposed formula a square depends altogether upon the
coefficients a,b,c; and there ore four cases of the problem,
the solution of each of which is connected mth some pecu-
liarity in its nature.
Case 1. Let a be a square number; then, putting j* for
a, we have y-=g'^ + bx + cx^. Suppose Jg- + bx + cx-'=} +
nix ; then g- + bx + cx^ ■= g^ + 2gmx + m"^, or bx + cjr' =
2'jmx -t- m-x-, that is, i -I- ex = 2gm -h m-x; hence
x=^ r,y.= Jf+bI+^==^ =i— ■
Case 2. Let o bo a square number = 17'; then, putting
•Ju + bx + g'-x- = m + gx, we find a + bx + g-j? = w? + 2i>igx
-fyV, or a + bx = m^ + 2mgx; hence we find
m' — a / ; s— :, bm — am* — aq
x= — - — ,y- ■Ja + bx + g-x-= ' ^.
0 - 2»i<7 ' 0 - 2mj
Cass 3. \^Tien neither a nor c is a square number, yet if
the expression a-l-ix-^cxvcan be resolved into two simp':-;
factors, as f+gx and h + he, the irrationality may be taker,
away as follows :
Assume \fa + bx + cx^ = ■J(/+ gx)(h +kx) = m{/+gx;,
then {f+gx){h + kx) = m^{J+gx)-, ov h + kx = m-{/ + gx) ;
hence we find
frrfi — h n—. r-71 ; — r (Jk~gb)m
att'd in all these formula m may be taken at pleasure.
Case 4. The expression a + bx + ex- may be transformed
into a square as often as it can be resolved into two parts,
one of which is a complete square, and the other a product
of two simple factors ; for .hen it has this form, p- -I- <?r,
where p, q, and r are quantities which contain no powi-r
of X higlfer than the first. Let us assume 'Jp'^ + qr=p-¥
mq; thus we have p--+ qr = p^ + 2mpq + m-</^ a.nA r = '2mp
+ m^q, and as this equation involves only the first power
of X, we may by proper reduction obtain from it rational
values of x and y, as in the three foregoing cases.
The application of the preceding general methods of rc.v>
lution to any particular case is very easy; we shall there
fore conclude with a single example.
BINOMIAL THEOREM.
ALGEBRA
555
Ex. It is required to find two square numbers wnose
6U!n is a given square number.
Let a- be the given square number, and x', y', the num-
bers required ; then, by the question, x^ + y^ = a^, and y =
^^
- X'. This equation is evidently of such a form as to
be resolvable by the method employed in case 1. Accord-
ingly, by comparing sla^ - x^ with the general expression
\fg^ + bx + cx'^, we have g = a, b = Q, c=.- 1, and substi-
tuting these values in the formulae, and also - » for + m,
we find
■Zan a(n' — 1)
~n'' + l'^'' n' + \
If a = »^*+-l; there results x = 2n, y = n'— 1, a = n^+ 1.
Hence if /• be on even number, the three sides of a rational
ngnt -angled triangle are r,(-j -l,(-j -Hi. If r be an
■ r«-l r'-H
2 ' 2
For example, if r = t; 4, 4 - 1, 4 -I- 1, or 4, 3, 5 are the
sides of a right-angled triangle; if r=7, 7, 24, 25 are the
sides of a right-angled triangle.
odd number, they become (dividing by 2) r,
Sect. XVI — Theorems of Expansion.
1. Binomial Them-em.
122. To demonstrate this theorem, which has for its
object the expansion of (a -I- x)* in the form P + Qx -t- Ajt
+ Bx' -1- &C. , we shall first find P and Q ; and then de-
termine the other coefficients A. B, &c. in terms of P
and Q.
{l.)(a + x)-={a(l-f?j}" = a-(l+?)', ^
it being assumed that the power of a product is the pro-
duct of the powers of the factors, whatever be the
index.
(2.) Let n be a wnolg number. , Since
(l-Hx)i=^-t-x
(H-x)2 = l-t-2x-)-x2
{\+xf=l + Zx+ &c. ;
if we assume (1-4- x)"~' = 1 + {n — \) x + &c., and multiply
both sides by 1 -1- x, we shall obtain {\ + x)'=\ +Ttx + &c. ;
whence our induction is complete to prove that the
numerical of coefficient x is the same as the index
(3.) Let 71 be a positive traction - •
We may take
(1-t- x)^= 1-l-Qx -H&c.
(\+ xY = (\ + q,x -f&c.)',
r, l-H;)x-f&c.= \+i^x + &c. (Case 2.)
(4.) If IV be negative - - m
'l-fx;''=(l-l-x)— ^
1
(1-i-ir
(Case 3.)
1 + mx -f &c.
— 1 - True + &c. by division.
Hence, generally the numerical coefficient of x is the same
;is the index.
To obtain A, B, &c., uj terms of the first and second
t«nn8, we break up x into two parts, y, t, which enables
us to write the expression 1 -(- x in two different ways :
1»(, retaining the parts of x in copnection ; 2dy dissevering
them. In the first form we simply' multiply out, and
thus exhibit a result not dependent on the properties of
^D index, except in so far as relates to the first and second
terms, Tn the second form wo apply the properties of an
index to every term. The consequence is, that the latter
form, bearing a more intimate connection with the pro-
perty of an index than the former; is more determinate
than the other. The comoarison of the two restilts com-
nletes the demonstration.
I. {l+xy = (l+y + z)'
= l + n{y + z) +A(y + zy + 'B{y + zy + &i:
= l + ny + Ay^ -t-B-/ -f&c
+ nz + 2Ayz.+ SBy^j + &,c
+ &c. +&C.
II. (,\+xY = {l + y + z)- = (r+'z + y)-
=(i-(-«^
1-1-2
(ifi)'^^ !
= (l + i)'+n(l + z)—hi + A{l+z)-^h^ + &e.
= 1 + ny -|-A!^-l-&c.
•f 7K -I- n{n — 1)2T/ -t- A(n — 2)3y2 + &o.
■f&c.-H&c. +&c~
Now, as these two expansions are the expansions of the
same thing in the same form, the coefficients of z, jy, jy*,
&c., must be the same in both. Comparing them, we get
n = re, 2A = »(»-1), 3B = A(n-2) &c
n(n-l) _ A(n - 2) _ n(n-l)(n-2)
•"• 1.2 ' 3 ~ 1.2.3"
i^-c. = &C. ; and finally, whatever n be,
(l+x)- =
Cor. 1. If n is a positive whole number, the series ia
finite, since every term after the (a -i- 1 )th will involve » - »
as a factor.
Cor. 2. Since the coefficients, when the index is a whole
number, are the results of simple multiplication, they are
necessarily whole numbers, i.e., any such expression aa
— -^ is a whole number when n is such
1.2.3
Cor. 3. The sum of the numerical coefficients is 2", for
it is equal to (1 4- 1)", as will appear if we write 1 for x.
Cor. 4. The s'om of the coefficients in the even places
is equal to the sum of the coefficients in the odd. This
will appear if we write — 1 in place of x.
Cor. 5. 'If the index is a whole number, the coefficients
from the end are the same as those from the beginning ; for
they occur at the beginning of (x + 1)" in the same positions
as at the end of (1 -)-x)«.
Cor. 6. The product 1 . 2. 3 .... r is sometimes expressed
by the abbreviated form \t. With this notation the coeffi-
\n
cient of i' in (1 +x)' may be written^ — == •
Ij" . |7i — r
Cor. 7. The sum of the squares of the coefficients of
(1 -t-x)* is the coefficient of x* in the expansion of (1 +xi'^.
\2n
and is equal to . — :^ ■
Examples,
-2.-3 , -2.-3 - «
-(-&C
■ \-1x + Zji~-ix^ + kc
generally ,1-hx) — = l-nx-H — — ^ x^ - i'c.
and (\-x)-'=\+t,x + '^^^3? + kt.
Ex. 2. Find the coefficient of x' in 'x ■;- ^ ■(- jr" t c*
-i-x»-l-x«)».
The expression may be written
556
ALGEBRA
[iTIEonEMS OF EXPAKBION.
- i'(l - 2x» + z")(l + 2x + 3x2 + 4^ + i-c. )
The coefficient required is therefore that of x° in the
liiBt factor, viz. 6.
£x. 3. Findthesnmof 1 + 2/1 + 3 \ „ +4 V „ ,
+ &c.
•2)
By writing 1 + 1 for 2, 1+2 for 3, &c., this series may
be broken up into the sum of 1 + n +
n(n-l)
1.2
+ &c.
n+2
ti(n-l)
1.2
+ &C
and
»n , ,, • ( ■, n-l (n-l)(n-2) , '
The latter \an< 1 + -— + ^ — p^ — -' + &c. V
,'. the sum required is 2* + n2*~'.
^ M ■^. ■, ^ , , 1 1 n(n—l) -
Ex. 4. Find the sum otl+-n + - -y-g- + &=•
Multiply by n + 1 ; the product is
n+l
,•. the sum required ia
Ex. 5. If X, denote the product x{x - l)(x - 2) . . .
( e - r + 1 ) whatever be r, and a sirailar notation bo applied
to y, and (r + y), then
'x + y), = X, + rx^,y, + -J-^^r-iyj + <i-'c-
We have (1 + a)' = 1 + x,a + -j^ a- + pv~"3 "' + ''^=-
(l+a)' = l+y,a + ^a= + &c.
(1 + a)'+' =_their product.
But (1 + a)'+» = 1 + (x + y).a + '^j^' c
2 + &C
Equating coefficients of a" in the two expressions for
(1 + a)"^, and multiplying by 1 . 2 . . . n, the required
result is obtained.
Ex. 6. If X and n be less than 1, then (1 + x)"< (1 + nx).
For (l+x)" = l+nx +
?i(ii - 1)
1.2
■■l+nx- -J— ^ -^
X- +
(■-■'-?•)-
&C.
Ex. 7. On the same hypothesis (1 +x)"< - —
Prove that (1 + x)~" > 1 - nx exactly as in the last
example.
Ex. 8. If x<l; n>r<r+l; then (l+x)'>the sum
i~f the first r + 1 terms of the expansion ; and < the sum
of the first r+ 2 terms.
Ex. 9. The difference between the sums of the squares
of the even coefficients of the expansion of (1 +x)", when
jj is an even whole number, and the sum of the squares
of the odd coefficients is f - 1)'
(■If)'-
2. Logarithmic Theorem.
123. The definition of a logarithm is precisely the same
as that of an index or exponent (Art. 21) viz. — the logarithm
of a product is equal to tlie sum of t/ie logarithms of the
factors. Such being the case, we are at liberty to employ
the definition, either in the form- first given, or in the
algebraic form a' = y. In this last form x is called the
logarithm of y to the inrl^x or base a. The base of the
ojuiiuon or tabular logarithms is 10.
12+. Before proceeding to the demonstration of tho
theorem by which a logarithm is expressed in the form of
a series, it may be as well to illustrate the definition as
applied to common logarithms.
1st, SiiJce 1 is the logarithm of 10, we may inquinj of
what is ^ the logarithm; if we resume the form lO'-'y,
and write J for x, we have to inquire what is y.
Since
But
10* = y, 10*xl0*=y2.
105 X 10^^=10
^=10^"*"^
(def.) = 10,
y' = 10and y= ^10 = 3.1022777,
so that the number of which ^ is the logarithm is net it
whole number, but a fraction Ipng between 3 and 3J.
In the same way, we may, but with great labour, ascer-
tain the numbers of which any given fraction is the
logarithm.
2d, The definition will evidently enable us to obtain &
large number of logarithms, when a few have becoui?
known. For example: Given log 2 = .30 103 to find
log 4 and log 5.
Log 4 = log (2 X 2) = log 2 + log 2 (def.)
= 2 log 2 = .00206;
Log 5 = log — = log 10 - log 2
= l-lJg2 = .69897.
If in addition to log 2, log 3 be known, we can fiul P
vast number of others. For example : Given—
Log 3 = . 47712 to find log 6 and log 72.
Log G = log 2x3 = Iog 2 + log 3 = . 77815,
Log 72 = log 8 X 9 = 3 log 2 + 2 Igg 3 = 1 . 85733 .
125. To expand log ( 1 + x) in terms of x.
Since log 1=0; the expansion must commence with th»
first po^wr of X, the coefficient of which will depend ou
the radix or base. This coefficient we shall determine
afterwards for the common logarithms. In the meantime
we shall denote it by A.
Let then log (1 + x) = Ax + Bx^ + Cx^ + &c
Put y + : for X ; then
L Log (l+y+s) = A(j/+s) +B(i/ + s)=+4!C.
-Ay +B!/' +Cy'+&c.
+ Az +2Bi/3 + 3Cy=s+&c.
+ &C. +&C.
IL
Log (l + t/+5) = l0g (1 + J/) ^] +^J
= log(i + y)+log^i+j^)
= A!; + Ei/' + &c.
A.3
+ ,
1+y
+ &C.
= Ai/ + By= + &c
+ Aj:(l-y + yi-&c)
+ &C
Equating coefficients of s, yz, y-z, ic, in the two e~.
pausions, there results
A = A, 2B= -A. 3C= -A
log(l+x) = A(x-f + |_<fec.)
126. Cor. If X = a - 1, where a is the base of the system,
we have l=A|a-l-|,(a l)2 + &c. [
This expansion of log (1 + x) is not convergent, i.e.,
the terms do not diminish as we advance, but the contrary,
•when X is Sny whole number greater than 1. We can,»how-
cver, readily obtain from it a converging series for the d''f-
ference betweeu the logarithms of the coiisecutive numben^
■THEOREMS OF EXPANSION.]
ALGEBRA
557
For
log (l+x) = Afx- v+'^'=-)
lug(l+x)-log(l-x) = 2Arx
1? I* t
0
l+i
Now log (1 + x) - log (1 - ar) = log — - .
1+x
aud X has to bo found, so tint , shall be the quotient of
1 + x ^
consecutive numbers = •
This gives
1 + ji
and log
x =
1
1
2u+l ■
1
&c. I
127. To apply this formula to the calculation of com-
mon logarithms, we wiU commence by finding from it
a few logarithms of the system for which A= 1. In this
.system
1. n« = i,iog2 = 2{i + 1.3i +
= .603, 147, 2.
2. If «=4. log5 = log4 + 2{i + ^.^+&c.^}
= 1.609, 437, 9.
Ilence log 10 = log 2 + log 5
= 2. 302, 585, 1.
This system, for which A = 1 is the so-called Napierian
system, which assumes no base, but defines a logarithm to
be such that the increment of the number shall be the
product of the number by the increment of the logarithm.
In this system the nimiber of which the logarithm is 1 is
2.718.... and is generally designated by the letter «.
To pass from Napierian logarithms to common, we
observe that if e' = 10' = «; xistho logarithm of ra to the
base e, and y to the base 10. Now, taking the Napierian
logarithm of each side of this equation, we obtain x =
y Nap. log 10.
^ ^ X
^ "Nap. log 10 ■" 2 . 302, oSJ, 1 '
= xx .4342944819
= X X . 4343 very nearly.
This multiplier^ which was previously denoted by A, is
called the modulus of the common system of logarithms.
A celebrated calculator of the last century Mr A. Sharp,
found it to be
•43429448190325182765II2891891660508229439700
58036065G6114454.
For further details on the construction and use of loga-
rithmic tables, the reader is referred to the Article on
LOOAWTHMS.
3. Exponential Theorem.
128. It is now required to expand a' in terms of x.
1. Write I -f a - 1 for a, and apply the binomial theorem :
-the result is
{1 -f (a - !)}• = 1 + x(a - n -I- ^ip^^a - 1)2 + &c
Here the only term which does not contain x is 1 ; and
the coefficient of x being traced through the different terms,
is ea.sily seen to be
Thus will seem ^Art. 126) to be the reciprocal of the
modulus ot the system of logarithms whose base is a "^
call it r. We have now to determine B, C, &c., in termB
of r, from the form of expansion
a' = I -1- rx + Bx- + Cx^ + &c
Write y + J is place of x ; then
1. a'i-' = l + r(jj + z) +'S{y + 2f--\-&a.
= l + ry +Jii/ +&C.
+ rz +2,Byz + &c.
+ &C
IL o»+' = a»xo' ={\+ry + 'By- + Sic)
x(l +T2 +E:^ -f&c.)
= 1 +ry -hB/ +&C.
+ n +r'yi + r'By-z +&c
+ >S;e.
Equating coefficients of 2. i/z, y-z. &c., in L and IL
we get
r = '-, 2B = r8. 3C = rB, &.;.
r3
B =
1.2'
and
= I -I- )-x -1- -
1.2.3
, &C
-f-.tc.
1.2 1.2.3
129. Now, since e is such (Art 127) that e- 1 -
5 (e- l)--(-ic. = 1, and r = a-I-:(a- l)2-l-&c., what-
ever a be, it follows that when e takes the place oi a,T
becomes 1.
e' = I -1-x-l-
aud putting
Again
but since,
we have
1.2
1, e-l-H-t-
:-f &0.
1.2.3
1
1.2
= 2.718281828*59045.
: + &c.
'=1-1-)
1.
--I-&C.
\ + rx + -— -f &C.
a = \+i
+ — + &c.
From this equation we have r = Nap. jog a, a rcsull
obtained before.
130. We may approximate directly to the vajue <rf
when o = 1 0, thus
= a"* = \ -rx + - — - - (Vc.
1.2
so that the coefficient ofxinf-) is-r.
\a'
Now (A = n -I- - - 1 j , whence (Art. 128) the cwiR,
cient of X in ( - 1 is
9 1/9V l/SN^ o
= I0+.2W +Hl0J ■^*''
= 2 . 302 . . .
Additional I'xamples.
Ex. 1. To find the value to which (l -i — ] approiuihc*
as m becomes larger and larger.
'?y the binomial theorem
55P.
ALGEBRA
(•^m)/"'^""^ 1/2- t)+^-'^
_l+x + _^x2 + ^ WV *\- ^ + ^e.
1.2
1.2.3
1.2 1.2.3
P . Q
m m'
+ &C.
+ — +^ + &c.
no that ( 1 H — j approaches the value 1 + z + -j — - + &c.
w f*, as w becomes larger and larger.
^x. 2. ( 1 H — J approaches to «* ( 1 - 5— ) asmincreasee.
Br. 3. n'-^(n-l)- + ^^my(n-2)--&c.
= 1.2...n
when n is a whole number.
e" = 1 + nx + -— 4c
f'-"- = l + (n-l)z + ^"7'f^ + &&
Ntw L (e*-!)
= e" -««'-'>' + "-^'-^ «<«-"•- &c
_2 _2
Pnt ff'-l = l+x + T—g + &c. - 1 = j; + y-^ + &C.
.-. n («'-l)" = a;"+;)x"+' + &c.
EqcLiting coefficients of x" in L and 11., we get
"■ . "("-!)• "(t-1) ("-Z)- _^ J
1.2...» 1.2...n 1.2 1.2...n
which is the required result.
Cor. lATien r is less than 77,
n' - „(n - 1)' + '^^,-V - 2)' - ic. = 0 .
^x. 4. The logarithm of a number to the ba.'se a" i.s
& mean proportional between its logarithms to the bases
a and a*-.
If «. y, 3, are the logarithms to the three bases in order.
we have
(o")' = a» = (a"-)'
nx = y
nx = n-3
consequently z^ = t/i.
Ex. 5. e* > 1 + r, whatever be x.
If X be positive, or if it be negative and less than unity.
the expansion may be thrown into the form
^ = l+x+^(l+5) + &c
every term of which after 1 +x is positive.
Ex. G. e">-
71
For
e'> 1 +x .-. £" >
Hence
e«">(l+»)"
e.li>2i
e.2=>32
e/i">(\.+»)'
[CONTIXUED FRACTIONS.
For n is evidently > 1. If then we suppoee b > 1 < 3,
-'*'-^A^0*^.)*
&c.
= 2 + a series of positive terms by the hypo;
thesis n < 2, which is absurd, . ■. n > 2.
Taking the Napierian logarithms of each side of the
equation » = fl + - J , we get
'°6"-^-2V^'-*"=-
n \2 3n/
<1 •
>i<e.
Ex. 9. Nap. logx>l--"<x-l.
Because log x = - log -=1 '"o(^~") + '^"•
log X > 1
And because when x>l,x< 1 +(x - 1)+ — - (r - I}' +
&c
log x<x - \ •
when s-«i 1, log x — log (1 - 1 - x)
" - |l-« + ^(l-x)^ + <kc. I
1
= x-l
<x-l
;(l-x)=-&C.
Ex. 10. Nap. log X approaches to 2" (j^- 1) a« n
increases.
Sect. X\^I. — Continued Feactiom
131. Every quantity which admits of being expressed
by a common fraction may also be expressed in the form o<
what is called a; continued frndion. The nature of such
frictions will be easily understood by the following example:
Let the fraction be rr^rr-z, or, which is the same, 3 +
Since 100000 = 7 x 14159 + 887, therefor*
14159 1
14159
100000'
14159 _
100000 '
1
8S7
7x14159 + 887
7 +
8S-
14159
314159
ana — — = 3 +
looouo
7 +
14159
By treating the fraction
887
14159
tinning the process, we readily obtain
314159 „ . 1
100000
in the same way, and cuu
= 3 + = + l 1
and, by multiplication, E"ln >(1 +n)*.
Ex. 7. If n be a whole number > e, n'*' > (n + 1 )'.
I^y the demonstration of Ex. 6,
«i*>(l + n)*
But n>e .-. !i"+'>(l+n)*.
Ex. a Ti «•+' = („ + 1 )-, then n > 1 < e.
Ry an operation in all respects the Kime as has beeu
just now performed, may any proper fraction whatever be
reduced to the form
7, + i+i
+ ic
and it is then called a continued fraction.
132. When the root of any equation is found Jiyjtlie
CONTINtTiD FRACTIONS,]
ALGEBRA
'.59
method explained in Art. 116, the value of the unknown
quantity is evidently expressed by a continued fraction.
For if » be the root sought, we have x = a + -, y = t> + --p
y' = b'+ -~„ y" = b" + -;;-„ &c where a, b, b', b", &0. denote
the whole numbers, which are next less 'than the true
values of x, y, y', y", &c If, therefore, in the value of z
Sn substitute 6 + -7 for y, it becomes
V
1
if = « +
Again, if in this second value of x we substitute J' + — ,
for y, it become
1 ,
J'+-T/-
■/
And so on continually,
133. It is easy to see in what manner the inverse of the
preceding operation is to be performed, or a continued frac-
tion reduced to a common fraction.
The fractions which result from omitting portions of a
oontinucd fraction are termed the cmiveryents to that frac-
— 1 1
tion. Thus, if the fraction be a, + — , 1 ; — is the firet
"2 + 7 "1
convergent,
o,+ l
the second, (tc.
134. The principal practical application of the propertio^
of continued fractions is to approximate to the value of a
given fraction. The proposition on wliich this application
depends is the following : —
No fraction in terms equally low can give so good an ap-
proximation, to tlie value of a fraction, as a convergent to the
coitinn^d fraction, which expresses it does.
.To demonstrate this proposition, it is requisite to estab-
Lsh three preliminary propositions, which we shall do very
briefly.
135. (1.) If — denote the nth convergent, or the re-
duced fraction which results from stopping at a„ and reduc-
ing, then p,+, = a,^.,p. +p^, , ?„+, - a.+,7. + q^, .
Since no denominator can be multiplied by itself, the ro-
dnced fraction must give p„ = a„A + B.
Now p,^i is obtained by writing a, -i for a,, and
reducing,
P.+i = a.+:(a.A. -f- B) -H A = a.+,;>. -f A ;
ift, the multiplier of any a is the previous p, and the othci
term is thff multiplier of a in the previous convergent,
hence the proposition.
136. (2.)7).+,7.-?.+,p. = (-l)V
This is at once obtained by eliminating a,^., from the two
equations of last article.
1 37. (3.) The successive convergents are alternately greater
and less than the complete fraction, and each convergent
api)roaches nearer in value to it than the preceding.
If A denote the complete denominator a.^., -f &.C. ; u the'
Ap.+2!ti and by subtract-
from u in this form, it will bo
complete fraction; then u •
ing successively ~ and -^
Been at once that the results have different signs; and that
the latter difference is the larger.
1 38. We are now able to^prove the proposition enun-
ciated.
Let - bea fraction nearer to u than -~ : then since
the convergents are alternately too great and too small;
"'^ , - , — , must be in order of matmituda
.". If the first be the greatest,
P.4-1 _ ^; >i? _ & ,
Reducing and applying Prpp. 2, there results 1 ><},+,.
Similarly by inverting the fractions, it may be proved
that p >p.+i .
Ex. 1. To determine when a transit of Venus may be
e:;pected.
The relative sidereal periods of Venus and the earth are
;i2-l,700 days and 365,256 days. The continued fraction
which expresses the quotient of these numbers is
1 -+i
The fifth convergent is — ; the sixth "
13'
38^
1
On accotmt of the smallness of — , the former is a •very
close approximation, i.e., 8 years and 13 sidereal periods
of Venus are very nearly equal
In consequence of this, a transit occurs after one period
of 8 years, and then again not till after 235 years have
been completed.
The last pair of transits at the descending node occurred
in 1769, 1777 ; and at the ascending nodein 1639, 1647.
The next pair wiU accordingly occur at the latter nods
Lq 1874 and 1882. The days of transit will be December
8 and December 6, respectively.
Ex. 2. To find the periods of probable recurrence of
eclipses of the sun.
An eclipse of the sun will occur whenever the plaee of
the new moon is within about 13° of the line of nodes.
Now, the interval between two new moons is 29-5306
days ; and the mean synodic period of the earth and the
Une of nodes is 346-6196 days. The proportion of the
latter of these numbers to the former, reduced to a con-
, c^ ■ ■ . 47 223 .
turned fraction, gives as convergents -— , — , &,c.
Hence, after 47 lunar months, things have come nearly
to their original position, and after 223 lunar months, vay
nearly. This latter period, termed the saros, has been
known from the remotest antiquity. It enabled the Chal-
dean shepherds to predict the return of eclipses. It amounts*
to 18 years and 10 or 11 days. Thus, there was a total
eclipse on the 18th July 1860 ; adding 18 years 11 days,
we get for an eclipse 29th July 1878. If we add 47
lunations or 1388 days, we get 6th March 1864, on which
day there was an eclipse.
This period of 1 388 days, multiplied by 5, makes exactly
19 years — a period which is designated as the cycle of
Meton, giving eclipses which occur on the same day of the
month. Thus, eclipses happened 18th July 1841 .-snil
18th July 1860, and another will happen ISth July 1879.
Ex. 3. The fraction given (Art. 131) represents the
ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. By
taking the first two terms we have tt = 3 -f f = V nearly ;
and this is the proportion which waa found by Archimodes.
Again, by taking the fii-st three ttrms, wo havo
„=.3 + l ,1 =3-f;^^
7-f
15
106
333 .
'loe'
which is nearer the truth than the former,
And,'by taking the first four terms, wo baro
560
ALGEBRA
fpERMUTATIOVB, ETC
355
"113
which is tlie proportion assigned by Melius.
Ex. 4. The mean tropical year consists of 365*2422642
days.
The fraction •2422642, reduced to a continued fraction,
^vea as successive convergents
1 T_ £ 39 . 47^ 2^
4' 2'J' 33' lUl ' lUi' 1320
&c.
To make the civil year approximate to the tropical, 1
leap year in 4 (the Julian Calendar) serves but imperfectly.
7 leap years iu 29 would be inconvenient. The Gregorian
Calendar, now in use, is based on combining the fractions
— and - , by doubling the numerator and denominator
194 4 ' ^ °
of the former, and trebling those of the latter, and adding
97
them, respectively. The resulting fraction is —, giving
97 leap years in 400 years, instead of 100 as the Julian
does. This diminution of 3 leap years in 400 years is
produced periodically, by causing years which indicate the
completion of centuries not to be leap years unle.s3 the
number of centuries is divisible by 4. Thus, 1900 will
not bo a leap year.
REcrr. XVIII. — Permutations, Combinations, anp
Peobabilities.
139. Ilithcrto wehave supposed the letters of the alphabet,
a, b, c, lie, to stand for aritlim_etical quantities of some kind
or other. Now we have to employ them, as in geometry,
to rejjresent magnitudes or objects, such as pens, pencils,
&c., and to investigate the numbers of dilTcrent ways in
which a given set of them can be groujwd according to a
certain law.
Permutations are their arrangements in a line, reference
being had to the order of sequence ; thus ab and ba are
the two permutations of a and b ; combinations are
their arrangements in groups, without reference to the
ordor of sequence ; thus ale is a combination involving
a, 6, and c ; and iac is the same combination, both con-
sisting simply of a, b, and c grouped together.
Prop. 1. To find the number of permutations of n things
(1), two and two (2), three and three, ic, together.
Set aside a, and lay down the other things in a line ;
place a before each of them in succession, and you obtain
(lb, ac, ad, itc, i.e., n - 1 arrangements, each containing
two things, with a first.
In the same way you can form » - 1 arrangements,
each contaiTiing two things, \vith 6 first The same is fue
of each of the other letters, and as there are n of them, the
total number of arrangements of the n things, two together,
is n{n - 1).
Again, lay aside a, ana group the other n — 1 things,
two together; as wehave just sho^vn, there are(r — 1) (ji — 2)
such groups. Place a before each of them, and there will
be formed («— l)(7i — 2) arrangements, each containing
three things, with o first ; and there can be no more
arrangements with a first.
Treat b, c, ifec, in the same manner, and it will appear
that there are (re -1) (re -2) groups of things, three to-
gether, in which every separate thing in succession stands
first Hence, the total number of arrangements, three and
three, is n{n — 1) (n - 2).
By proceeding in the same manner we shall find the
total number of permutations of » things, r together, to be
n(n-\) {i, -r+l).
Cor. The nvimber of permutations of n things, all to-
gether, is ji{n -1)....3.2.1.
Prop. 2. To find the number of combinations of n things,
r together.
Let z be the number required.
Take any one of the x groups of r things. ' The number
of permutations which can bo formed with it will ba
(Prop. 1. Cor.) r(r - 1) 1, or 1 . 2 ... r.
Now, since each of the x groups is different from all
the others, if we treat each of the x groups separately in
this way, we shall form 1.2 r x x permutations, all
diiTerent. Also, since the x groups contain every possible
combination of the » things, r togetbch, we shall thus have
formed all the permutations which can be formed; and cons&
quently (Prdp. 1) the number b n(» -1) . . .(n-r+l).
n(n-l) (w-r + 1)
*° 1.2....r
Prop. 3. To find the number of combinations which can
be formed of n sets of things, containing respectively r, t, t^
&c. things, by taking one from each set to form a com-
bination.
1. Let there be two sets, one containing r and the other
s things.
Any one (say a) of the r things may be placed succes-
sively with each of the s things, and thus form s groups,
in each of which a appears. The same is true of b, c, ic. ;
i.e., each of the r things gives rise to > groups, .•. the
number required is rs.
2. Any one of the t things may be placed in succession
with each of the groups of two things referred to in Case 1,
so that every one of the t things will give rise to rs com-
binations of three things; .■. the number required is rst.
The same may be indefinitely extended.
140. The first and most obvious application of the
theory of combinations is to the doctrine of chances. As,
however, this application will form the subject of a separate
article, all that is requisite for us now to do is to indicate
the connecting link between the two subjects.
If we agree to designate certainty by unity, then the
chance of an event happening, when it is -less than cer-
tainty, ■will be designated by a proper fraction. Thus, if
the average number of wet days and of dry is the same,
the chance of any day named at random turning out wet
will be represented by the fraction - ; that is, if the num-
ber of days under consideration be 100, the chance is
5(L number of wet days ~, . ,. , ,
—^ , or ; ; , . • Chance is accordingly do-
100 ' total number of days ° '
„ , , , , . number of favourable event.')
fined by the fraction ; ; ; •
■' total number of events.
The only proposition by which chances are combined thill
we shall offer is this.
If there are two events, and the probability of one of
•them happening to be r , and of the ether - ; then the pro-
bability that both will happen is -r\ •
For a and c may be taken to represent the favourable
events respectively, and be combined (Art. 139. Prop. 3)
so as to give ac ways in which they may happen togethei;.
.■Vnd in the same way b and d may be combined to give
the total number of events.
Ex. A bag contains 3 white and 4 black balls. * Find
the chance of drawing (1) two white balls; (2) a white and
a black; (3) one white at least, when two balls afe drawn.
The chance of drawing two white balls is the fractioc
Number of combinations of 3 "thinps, 2 together
Number of combinations of 7 things, 2 together.
ALGEBRA
561
3.2
1.2
7.6
1
7
1.2
The chance of drawing a white and a black ia (Art. 139
Prop 3),
3.4 4
7.8 '7 •
1.2
To find the chance of drawing at least a white ball, we
may remark that it is the same as the chance of not draw-
ing two black balls, i.e., certainty — the chance of drawing
two black balls.
Now the chance of drawing two black balls is
£._3
1.2 2
7.6 ° 7
1.2
:; the chance of drawing at least one white ball ia
7 7*
Sect. XIX. — On Series in Qenebai,; theie S^JMMA'^o^f
AND CONVEEOENOK
141. Certain series, from their very appearance, indicate
that they are really the sums or differences of two other
scries. From this circumstance their sum may frequently
be detennincd, as in the following examples : —
Ex. 1.
1 1
1.2^2.3
Lot
1 1
^ = i + 2
3 '
• • «^
1 1 1
*-! + ,— i = i + 5-^ • " •
n(n + l)
1
n
1
?»+l
.*. by subtraction,
, ^ /i_iv A i\ n j_\
B+l'Vi 2/ \i~V ' ' ■ \n~n + lj
1 1 1
1.2 ■*"2.3 + • • • n(n+l)
1 n
and the sum is 1 , tliat is, — - .
n+1 ' ' n+1
142. The sum df a series may often be easily found by
the method of increments or differences, and this method is
especially adapted to the summation of integral series,
such as the squares of the natural numbers. We sIirH
exhibit one or two illustrations only.
If we write 8, ■= n{n +1), we have
S.+. = (« + l)(» + 2), .-. S.+,-S.-2(n + l).
Hence conversely, and dividing by 2; if
S.+i - 8. = n + 1 ,
then will S..^i^.
Similarly, if
S.+,-S. = (»+l)(» + 2) . . . (n + r-1),
thonwm g^."(^+l)--^-(« + r-l)
This last conclusion, of course, assumes .nat S, is 0 when
n is 0. If it be otherwise, some numerical constant, easy
of determination, will have to be added.
Ex. 2. 1J + 22 + 32+ . . .if.
He^o S^, - S. - (n + I )2 - (n + 1 ) (n + 2) - (n + 1 ) ;
,. n(n + l)(n + 2) n(n + l) n(n + l)(2n + l)
•• ^-= ^ a i 6
Ex. 3. l'f2* + 3<+ ...!?♦
S.„-S. = (n+1)*
Let
(n+l)«-(n-f-l)(n-|-2)(n+3)(n + 4) + A(n+l)(n + 2)(n + 3)
-l-B(n-|-l)(™ + 2)-|-C(ji+l). ^ '^ "• I
Dividing by n + 1, and proceeding as in Art. 33, we get
A= -6, B = 7, C= -1.
S. = ^»(n + l)(» + 2)(B + 3)(» + 4)-
3 ** 1
Tii(n+l)(7j+2)(n+3) + ^n+l)(n + 2)-2m(/« + l)
«(7»+l)(2n + l) I
" 30
*|3«(n + l)-l|
On the Converyeray and Divergency of Infinite Seriet,
143. Def. If the limit to which the sum of a series
approaches, as the number of terms increases, is finite, tha
series is a converging series; if otherwise, diverging. For
example, the sum of the series l+r + r^+ . . . to n
1 -r*
terms ia r (Art. 62), which, when r ia less than 1,
approaches to - — , in which case the series is a con-
verging series.
Prop. 1. It is necessary a§d siifficient for convergency
that the remaining terms after the nth have zero for their
limit, both individually and collectively, as » increases.
It is obviously necessary and sufficient for convergency
that the sum of the series after the ith term shall have 0
as its limit; and consequently, when all the terms of the
series are positive, the same must be true of each indi-
vidual term. But when the terms are alteinately positive
and negative, though it is necessary for convergency that
the sum of the consecutive terms with their nroner signs
should have 0 as its limit, this ia not sufficient ; for, were
it so, the sum to n terms would depend on whether n ia
even or odd.
is not a converging series ; for
although each term after the nth tends to 0 as its limit —
the sum of n terms after the nth, via., ^— r H + . . .
n+1 n + 2
— , which is greater than — + —+...— to n terms,
ie., greater than ^ , does not tend to 0 as its limit.
^.Ll+l+^+ .
2
Ex.i. i + l + ^ + j-I_^
+ . . . the expression for
e (Art. 129), ia convergent
The sum of the terms after the nth is
P\ n+1 /
1 /, 1 1
■■)
-I 1 -
1
^t2."l_l ^(»-
-l)|n-
1
the limit of which as n increases is 0.
Prc^. 2. If the limit of the nth term is 0, and the
terms continually diminish; then when the signs of the
terms are alternately + and - , the series is convergent
Let it, - u, + ti, - (tc, be the series; the terms after the
nth ( + or - ) make up the series of positive groups
(««.! - ^.^,) + («.+» - «.+i) + "tc-
But these terms may also be written u^, - (u.+i - «.+«)-■
tiC, which, since the whole group is positive, must
I. — 71
562
A L G — A L G
[series
bo loss than «.+„ tho only positive term in it But u^i
has 0 for its limit, tlioreforo the series is convergent.
Ex. 3. 1 - - + - - . . . is convergent, for tho sum of
the series after tho nth term is lesa than — - , which has
0 as its limit.
Prop. 3. If the terms of tho series are all positive, and
the limit of the nth term is 0 ; then if tho limit of the
quotient of tho (»+ l)th term by tho nth be less than 1,
the series ia convergent; but if the limit bo greater than 1,
the sum is divtrgent.
1. Let k be tho greatest value of -^' , after a certain
value of n, and i < 1 ; then,
«.+. + «.+!+.• . <".+,(! +^- + i-+. . .),
which has 0 for its limit. Hence the series is convergent
(Prop. 1).
2. Let I; the least value of — ^ after a certain finite
«.
value of n, be greater than 1 ; then
«,+, ■= or >iK.
«.+« = or >kH.
<fec. &c.
.*. »'.+, + K.+, + &C. = fc >ku,{\ +k + P + &.C.),
' which is infinite. Hence the series is divergent.
^rop. 4. If -^ be less th-in 1 : then the two series
"i+ "i+ ■W3+ K4+ . . . . (1
Mi + 2m,+ 4«, + 8!(j+ .... (2
are both convergent, or both divergent together.
Scries (2) + «, = 2(M, + M, + 2M, + 4?jg+ . . .), which is
equal to or less than the following, terra by term, viz. : —
2{M, + «, + {», + aJ + («^ + «, + ^,+ „J+ . . .},
i.e., twice series (1).
Hence if the one series be convergent, the other will be
also convergent; and if series (2) be divergent, series (1)
is also divergent.
Again, series (2) ia eqt»l to or greater than the follow-
ing, term by term,
«. +(«, + «5) + (u. + «5 + i(, + u,)+ . . .
which is series (1).
Hence if series (1) bo divergent, series (2) is alio
divergent.
£x. 1. The series — + — + — + ... is convergent if
r>l, but divergent if r— or <L
The two series (1) and (2) now become
i- — -J.
1 2 4
r+2-+4-+---
the latter of which is the pcpmetric Eeries
1 1
which is convergen- or divergent according as r > 1 or the
contrary. Hence the same is true of the given series.
Ex. 2. The V-nomial eeries \+nx+ ic, is convergent
when x< 1, divergent wben a;>l .
£x. 3. To find when the binomial series 1 - n + ~ —
&c., is convergent.
Let n< 1 ; the (r+ 1) term may be written
n r— n-1 7— u— 2
r r- 1 r- 2
1 \—
:0-,-^.)('%-^.)
(Art. 122,Ex.7>
whence (Prop. 4, Ex. 1) the aeries is convergent Similarly
in other cases. (p. k.)
ALGECIRAS, or Algezieas, a seaport of Gpain, in the
province of Cadiz, 6 miles W. of Gibraltar, on the opposite
side of the bay. The town is picturesquely situated, and
its name, which signifies in Arabic the island, is derived
from a email islet which forms one side of the harbour. It
is supplied with water by means of a beautiful aqueduct
It has a dilapidated fortress, and also a military hospital
Though the harbo»r is bad, and the commerce of the town
has considerably declined, there is still a good coasting
tra'le; the exports and imports averaging about X60,000
annually. Charcoal and tanned leather are the chief articles
of export. Algcciras was the Porius Albus of the Romans,
and the first place in Spain taken by the Moors. It
remained in their possession from 713 till 1344, when it
was taken by Alphonso XI. of Castile after a celebrated
siege of twenty months, which attracted crusaders from all
parts of Europe, among whom was the English earl of
Derby, grandson of Edward III. It is said that during
this siege gimpowder was first used by the Moors in
the wars of Europe. The Moorish city was destroyed by
Alphonso, and the modern town was not erected till 1760.
During the siege of Gibraltar in 1780-82, Algeciras was
the station of the Spanish fleet and floating batteries.
Near Algeciras, on Cth July 1801, the English admiral
Saumarez attacked a Franco-Spanish fleet, and sustained a
reverse; but on the* 12th he again attacked the enemy,
whose fleet was double his own strength, and inflicted on
them a complete defeat Population, 14,000.
ALGER OF LiicE, known also as Axoer of Clugny
and Algekcs Magistek, a learned French priest who
lived in the first half of the 12th century. He was first
a deacon of the church of St Bartholomew at Uiige, his
native town, was afterwards translated to tho cathedral
church of St Lambeit, and finally retired to the monastery
of Clugny, where he died not Later than 1145, though the
precise date is uncertain. His Uistory of Ihe Church of
Liige, and many of his other works are lost. The most im-
portant of his still extant works are: — 1. De ilisericordia
et Justitia, .a collection of extracts from Fathers, with
reflections, which is to be found in the Anecdota of
Martenj, vol. v. 2. De Sacramento Corporis et Sanguinis
Domini; a treatise, in three books, against the Berengarian
heresy, highly commended by Peter of Clugny and Erasmus.
3. De Libera Arbiirio; given in Fez's Anecdota, voL jv.
4. De Sacrificio Missce; given in the Collectio Scriptor.'
Vet. of Angelo Mai, vol ix
ALGERIA, or Algiees (French, L'Algerie), the largest
and most important of the French colonial possessions, is
a country of Northern Africa, bounded on the N. by the
Mediterranean, W. by the state of Marocco, S. by the
ALGERIA
.5G3
desert of the Sahara, and E. by Tunis. The boundaries,
however, are in many parts not accurately determined. It
extends for about 550 miles along the coast, and stretches
inland from 320 to 3S0 miles; lying between 2° 10' \V.
and 8° 50' E. long., and 32° and 37° N. lat. The area is
estimated at about 150,500 English square miles.
Airface. The country is generally mountainous, being traversed
by lofty ranges of the Atlas system, which run nearly
parallel to the coast, and rise in some places to the height
of upwards of 7000 feet. These are commonly divided
into two leading chains, which are distinguished as the
Great and Little Atlas. The former, which is the more
southern, and bordering on the Sahara, contains some of
the highest points in the country. The Little Atlas or
Maritime Atlas, as it is sometimes called, lies between the
sea and the Great Atlas, and is composed of numerous
diversified ranges generally of no great elevation. A
number of smaller chains lie between these principal ones,
and also between the latter and the sea, forming so many
ascending steps or degrees. These principal ranges are
connected by numerous transverse ones, thus forming
extensive table-lands and elevated valleys, with no connec-
tion bet^ en them but the intervening heights. Occasion-
ally the principal ranges are broken by deep defiles and
narrow valleys. The maritime region presents numerous
narrow valleys, each carr3-ing down to the sea its mountain
stream. In some parts the mountains rise abrtfptly from
the sea, in others a tract of fat land intervenes between
the mountains and the coast, and this is usually marshy,
but sometimes fertile and well cultivated. There are a
number of extensive plains near the coast, one of the most
importalit of which is that of Metidja, commencing on the
eastern side of the bay of Algiers, and stretching thence
inland to the south and west. It is aljout CO niUes in
length by 10 or 12 in breadth. Another great alluvial
plain extends south and west for many miles from the
vicinity of Bonx A third similar plain lic-s to the south-
past and south-west of Oran, and south of Mostaganem is
the plain of SheUif. The coast is generally steep and
rocky, abounding in capes and gulfs, but very deficient
in good harbours, and even in secure roadsteads, in conse-
quence of its exposure to the north wiuds.
JUvars. The rivers are numerous, but the majority of them have
short courses. They mostly rise in the moim tains near the
caast, and rush down wiih great impetuosity through deep
and rocky channels, presenting the character of mountain
torrents. During the rainy season they are much swollen,
so as to render communication with different parts of the
country extremely difficult. The most important river,
both from the length of its course and the volume of its
waters, is the SheUif, which, rising in the northern slopes
of the Djebel Amur, flows first north and then west till it
empties itself into the Mediterranean near ilostaganem after
a course of 370 miles, during which it receives numerous
tributary streams. The Seybouse is formed by the union
of several small streams in the interior of the province of
Constantine, south-east of the town of that name, and after
a course of about 1 20 miles falls into the Mediterranean
near Bona. The Suminam, which contains the greatest
body of water after the SheUif, rises in the interior of the
province of Algiera near Aumalo, and pursues a generally
north-east direction to its mouth near Bougie. The Rum-
mel, formed of several si.iaU streams south of the town
of Constantine, passes that town and pursues a north-west
direction to the sea. Amon;,' the less important rivers whicn
empty themselves into the Mediterranean are the Harrach,
Isser, Mazefran, Tafna, and Macta. Besides those, there
are a number of streams in the interior, tbut they aie less
known and are generally dry except in the rainy season.
Algeria abounds in eztenaive lake* and marshes. Of
the lakes in the northern part of the country, near the Lakes,
coast, the principal are, — the Fezara 1 4 miles south-west of
Bona; the two lakes Sebkha and El Molah south of Oran;
the three small lakes in the immediate vicinity of CaUe, and
several others. In the southern parts of the country ara
the extensive lakes of Chott-el-Harbi or Western Chott ;
the Chott-el-Chergm or Eastern Chott; the Zarhez-Gherbi
and the Zarhez-Chergui; the Grand Sebkha-el-Chott, and a
number of others. These are mostly dried up in summer,
leaving a thick stratum of salt. Many of the marohes,
especially in the neighbourhood of the larger towns, have
been drained by the French, and the climate has thus been
rendered more salubrious. There are also a number of
warm mineral springs, contairung principaUy salts of Ume,
which are used with success by the Arabs in several kinds
of disease. Some of these are in the vicinity of CaUe
Bougie, JlUianah, <fcc.
Algeria is divided by a line running nearly east and Natural
west into two distinct zones, caUed by the natives the Tell Division
and Sahara. The TeU constitutes the zone bordering upon
the Mediterranean, and is the cultivated laud — the land
of com. It consists of a series of fertile basins, yielcUng
almost exclusively corn of different kinds, especiaUy wheat
and barley. Some parts of it are extremely fertUe, but at
the same time' flat and uniform. The chains separating
the basins are clothed Vt-ith timber, and peopled by the
Kabyles. The Sahara lies to the south of the TeU, and
is the region of pastures and of fruits. Hence, while the
inhabitants of the TeU are agriculturists, those of the
Sahara are shepherds and gardeners. The Sahara is some-
times spoken of as a desert, at other times as the country
of dates. It may properly be divided into two regions;
the northern is mountainous, but at the same time more
fcrtUe, better watered, and more populous than the other,
which, bordering on the Great Desert, consists chiefly of
oases of greater or less exteut. The viUages of the Sahara
are surrounded by belts of fruit trees, of which the palm is
the chief, though there arc also pomegranate, fig, apricot,
peach, and other trees, and vines. On the mountain ranges
near the coast are extensive forests of various species of
oak, pine, cedar, elm, ash, maple, oUve, &c. The cork tree
is also very common. The tree's, especiaUy the cedars and
oaks, are frequently of gigantic size. Great injury is often
done' to the forests by the people annually burning up the
grass of their fields. In this way extensive forests are
sometimes consumed. The want of roads and navigable
rivers has prevented the French from deriving much benefit
as yet from the forests. Besides wheat and barley, the cotton
plant, sugar-cane, and tobacco are extensively cultivated.
The animal kingdom presents little calling for notice. AnimoUi
Lions, formerly very plentiful, are now extremely rare ;
leopards, panthers, jackals, and hyaenas are stiU common ;
and monkeys and apes are numerous. The wild boar ia
found in the oak forests, and the brown bear in the higher
parts of the country. There are also various species of
antelope. Of the feathered tribes, eagles, vultures, hawks,
.and owls are common ; snijjes, curlews, plovers, storks, and
herons frequent the marshy parts; and the ostrich has ite
habitat in the desert. Among the rei)tilcs are various
species of serpents, tortoises, turtles, lizards, A-c. Locusts are
common, and sometimes do great damage to the crops. One
of the severest invasions of these pests ever known occurred
in 18C6, when the crops were nearly aU destroyed, and the
loss sustained by the colonists was estimated at i;800,000.
The coast is rich in coral and sponges, and the obtaining
of these forms a considerable branch of industry. Tho
chief wealth of most of the Arab tribes consists in their
sheep, of which they frequently possess immense flocks;
camels are also commoji, but the horsc3 and mules are
more esteemed, and are noted for their excellence.
564
ALGERIA
Caimate. From its position, Algeria might te supposed to enjoy a
•frariQ climate; but the temperature variea considerably in
difTereiit parts, according to the elevation and configuration
of the country. In the northern districts the climate very
much resembles that of the south of Spain, while in the
Sahara the heat is often excessive. In the more elevated
regions the winter is frequently very severe ; but along
the coast the temperature is mild, very rarely sinking to
the freezing-point even in winter, when heavy rains are
of frequent occurrence. Dr Shaw knew the thermometer
reach the freezing-point only twice during twelve years'
residence at Algiers. The coldest month is January, the
hottest August The rains prevail from December to
February; the temperate season continues from March to
Juno, and the hot season lasts from July to November.
The mean annual tcniperaturo of the town of Algiers is
about GG'5'' Fahr.; being for the coldest month 48°, and for
the hottest 83°. During summer there is a great difference
between the day and night temperature, especially in the
inland districtr. The simoom or hot wind of the desert
sweeps at intervals over the country, between May and
September, impregnating the air with fine sand from the
desert. In g' iieral, with the exception of places in the
vicinity of the marshes, Algeria possesses a healthy climate.
Ophthalmia, however, is \ierj common, and elephantiasis
is by no means an unusual disease, owing to the want of
cleanliness among the country people.^
liiLabit- Besides the Europeans there are eight distinct races of
ant«. • inhal)itants in Algeri.a — (1.) The Kabyles or Berbers, the
descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants of the countij,
constitute a large 'portion of the entire population. They
occupy chiefly the more elevated and mountainous parts,
but numbers of them also inhabit the plains and valleys.
They are described as an active, industrious race, living in
villages, and principally engaged in agriculture and the
cultivation of fruit trees. They also make their own
agricultural implements, guns, gunpowder, leather, carpets,
Ac. (2.) The Arabs are a very numerous class, and inhabit
principally the southern parts of the country. Some of them
are cultivators of the soil, and live in villages in the neigh-
bourhood of the towns; but the majority of them have no
fixed habitation, dwelling in tents and moving about from
place to place. These are the Bedouins or nomadic Arabs,
and are the most unsettled and turbulent of the Algerine
population. (3.) The Moors, a mixed race, inhabit the
towns and villages chiefly on or near the sea-coast. (4.)
The Jews are also to be found in the towns, and are
engaged in mercantile pursuits. (5.) The Turks, though
long the dominant race, were never very numerous, and
since the French conquest they have nearly disappeared.
(G. ) The Kolougis are the descendants of Turks by native
Women, and constitute a considerable proportion of the
inhabitants of Algiers and other towns. (7.) The Negroes
were originally brought from the interior and sold as slaves,
but slavery now no longer exists. (8.) The Mozabites are
an African race, to be found inhabiting the coast towns, and
chiefly engaged in manual labour. They are described as
an honest, industrious, and peaceable people.
* A Parliamentary Report on the climate of Algeria published in
1SG7 is of great interest, particularly as investigating the causes of the
preat reduction in the mortality of the French troops serving there.
The death-rate in Algerian hospitals for the finit five years succeeding
the conquest amounted to nearly 79 per'lOOO; and for the period from
1831 to 18-10 it is given aa high as 80 per 1000. In 1S60 the death-
rate per 1000 was only IT'S; in 18<51, 11'3; in 1862, 12-21 ; in
1863, 12-29; and in 1864, 14-48. The causes of this remarkable
difference are stated to be — the former existence of certain unhealthy
conditions in the country itself, and in the motle of life of both troops
and eolonist-i, which were accompanied by a high death-rate ; and the
subse-inent removal to a certain extent of these conditions, together with
the introduction of improved habits and modes of life, accompanied
by ian<Toved health and lower death-rates.
Tho Enropean civil porolation of Algeria amotmted to only 46,000 Topala.'
persons in 1840, and in 1845 it had increaaod to 75,867. In Dec tion.
18<9 it had riiien to 112,607, of whom 68,005 wcr« French, 6943
Maltese, 33,659 Spaniarda, 6986 Italians, 2515 Germans, 1253
Swiss, and 3240 of other nations. According to tho census of 1861
the entire population of Algeria was 2,986,836, of whom 2,374,091
were nomadic native races, 112,229 French, and 80,517 other
Europeans. In 18C6 the entire population -was 2,921,246, of whom
2,434,974 were of indigenous wandering tribes, 217,990 Europeans,
and 251,050 natives settled in towns. Of tlie Europeans, 122.119
were French, 68,610 Spaniards, 16,655 Italians, 10,627 Maltese,
and 5636 Germans. In the civil territory th£ entire population in
1870 is given as 478,342, of which 121,629 were French, 97,918
other Europeans, 33,117 Jews, and 225,693 Mahometans.
When under tho dominion of the Turks, this country Govern,
was governed by a dey, and divided into four provinces — nicot '
Algiers and Titterie in the centre, Tlemcen in the west,
and Constantine in the east, ' The last three were governed
by beys under the dey. At present it is divided into three
provinces — Algiers in the centre, Oran in the west, and
Constantine in the east. Till 1871 the country was
entirely under military rule, but in that year various
important reforms were introduced; and in place of the
former military governor a civil governor-general was
appointed to administer the affairs of the colony, and to
direct the action of both civil and military authoritieSL
He is invested with legislative powers in civil matters; but
in all important cases he has to take the advice of a
colonial council, tho members of which are appointed by
the French government. The power of the governor-
general, however, extends only over the settled districts.
In the thinly-populated parts, and the districts where the
nomadic tribes are chiefly found, military rule stfll prevails.
The three provinces are subdivided into twelve departments,
at the head of each of which is a prefect, and under him
are sub-prefects who rule over smaller divisions. By an
Act of 14th July 1865, the natives, both Mahometan and
Jewn'sh, were declared entitled to the rank and prerogatives
of French citizens, on placing themselves completely and
absolutely under the civil and political kws of France,
and thus were made admissible to all the grades in tho
army and navy, and to many posts in the civil service of
the state.
In 1840 the revenne amounted to 5,610,706 frs. and the expend!- Reveaae;
ture to 7,206,372 frs.; in 1850 these were respectively 19,632,271
frs. and 27,959,358 frs.; in 1660, 36,908,900 frs. and -39,471,372
frs.; and in 1870, 45,360,859 frs. and 51,762,316 frs. or £1,814,434
and £2,070,492. This expenditure does not include the cost of the
maintenan'ce of the army, the expenditure for public works, and
other large sums disbursed by the home government. In tho
French financial estimates for 1873 the home expenditure for
Algeria was set do^vn at 24,496,109 frs. or £979,844, and the
revenue derived from the colony at 19,008,584 fis, or £760,343.
According to a statement made in the French legislative assembly
in 1864, Algeria had cost the mother country three milliards of
francs, or £120,000,000 in money and 150,000 lives. The French
army in Algeria numbers about 60,000 men, and consists of tw-o
classes, namely, French troops, who remain there for a certain
number of years, and then return to France; and native troops, who
never quit the country except for fighting purposes.
Algeria in the time of the Romans was noted for its fertility, and "grictu*
this 13 still the character of the cultivated parts of the country. *'\K.
Many parts only want w-aterto render them fertile, and the govern-
ment has lately sunk a number of Artesian wells with the most
beneficial results. The principal grain crops are wheat and barley.
In 1866 there were in the three pro\inces 4,163,367 acres of land
under different kinds of grain, and the produce amounted to
2,802,208 quarters; 28,132 acres of vineyai-ds, 14,266 acres under
cotton, 5957 under flax, an'l 9793 under tobacco. In the province
of Algiers the totd area of land under cultivation with cereals in
186S was, in the civil jwrtion, 178,042 seres, of which 120,286 were
cultivated by Europeans; and in the military portion, 808,890
acres. The total yield in the former case was 266,578, and in the
latter 668,666 quarters. These figures do not include other agri-
cultural produce, such as beans, maize, &o, of which about 277,062
qu.irters were produced by 99,503 acres. The produce of tobacco
throughout the country was estimated at 6,845,000 lb. Olives nn
grown largely and almost exclusively in the mountains of KalyliaC
ALGERIA
ryiy5
In that portion of the district inclnded in the province of Algiers
the quantity of fruit gathered is estimated at over 100,000,000 lb.
At presenl not much attention ia given to this article of produc-
tion ; but there can be no doubt that with more care and attention
Algeria might become one of the best olive-producing countries in
the world. Oranges are grown to a considerable extent, and the
trade in this article is increasing. The vine ia cultivated ; btit the
produce is chiefly for home consumption, and it has scarcely yet
become an article of export- In the province of Algiers in 1863
about 1,350,000 gallons of wine were produced During the same
year the exportation of cork from the colony amounted to £63,932.
The most important fibre 13 the crin vegetal, or vegetable horse hair,
produced from the dwarf palm [Ckamcerops humilis), with which a
vast proportion of the uncultivated parts of the country is covered.
Throughout the entire colony, fibre to the value of £89,332 was
exported in 1863. The alpha fibre or esparto grass of Oran ranks
next in importance, and is largely ised in the manufactiire of paper.
During the American war the cultivation of cotton was extensively
Miried on, but since the close of the war it has very much fallen off.
Flax is cultivated to a conpiderable extent in Eome parts. The rear-
ing of the silk-worm is also prosecuted.
Minerale. Although the mineral wealth of Algeria is enormous, mining
operations have not hitherto been carriea on very extensively. The
most important mineral products are iron, copper, lead, mercury,
and antimony. During 1868 the iron mines m the province of
Constantine turned out about 240.000 tons of ore, valued at
£486,072, being an increase of £185,532 as compared with the pre-
ceding year. Nearly the whole of 'diis was from the mine of Ain
Mokra or Mokhta-el-Hadid, which yields on an average 200,000
tons of ore per annum. The ore contains 65 per cent, of the metaL
Lead ore to the value of £125,745 was exported during that year.
Trade. The trade of Algeria has very much Increased since it became a
French colony. The imports, which in 1831 amoun^d to only
£280,000, rose to £1,600,000 in 1844, to £3,249,377 in 1854, and
to nearly £4,500.000 in 1863. The exports, however, have not
grown in proportion; and during the ten years preceding 1863
they never exceeded from 14 to 2 millions sterling. In 1865 an
Act declared the navigation not only between France and Algeria but
also between Algeria and foreign countries open to all nations, and
abolished various oppressive taxes affecting foreign shipping. The
following year these privileges were extended ; the coasting trade
was thrown open and free navigation permitted, tonnage duties on
foreign shipping were abolished, and raw manufactured goods enter-
ing France free of duty had the same advantage conceded to them
in Algeria. Algerian products might enter Fraoce free of duty, and
the same privilege was accorded to French products in Algeria,
sugar excepted. In 1868 the imports amounted to £7,706,574,
which was an increase of £199,464 over the previous year. The
proportions received fiom the different countries were — France, 75
per cent ; Turkey, 8-44 ; Russia, 4'29 ; Spain, 3*99 ; Great Britain,
3'54 ; Italy, 2-56 ; Barbary States, 1 -40. The imports from Turkey
and Russia are exceptionally high, owin^ to the necessity of obtain-
ing grain supplies from these countries m consequence of a failure
in the firops. The principal ports of import were — Algiers, 40 43
per cent; Oran, 33-33; Philippeville, 15-04; Bona, 701; Mosta-
ganem, 2'33. In 1869 the imports amounted to £7,332,192, and
m 1870 to £6,907,628. The principal imports are cotton goods,
wines, spirits, sugar, glass, crystal, cheese, salt-fish, soap, &c The
tbtal value of the exports during 1868 amounted to £4,122,772,
bolng an increase of £236,293 as compared with 1867. The propor-
tions sent to the different countries were — France, 79 20 per cent;
Spain, 11-63; Great BriUin, 5 84; Italy, I'SO. The principal
exports are aheep, oxen, skins, wool, tobacco, flour, fresh and dried
vegetables, olive-oil, flax, cotton, ores, crin vegetal. In 1869 the
total exports amounted to £4,438,045, and in 1870 to £4,978,250.
The overland trade between Algeria and its neighboure, Marocco
and Tunis, now begins to assume some importance. The number of
vessels that entered and left the various ports in 1868 was 8740, of
an aggregate burden of 1,684,513 tons, and manned by 16,173 men.
This is an increase over the previous year of 18 "40 per cent as
regards the number of ships, and of 12 '63 per cent as regards the
tonnage. As enj^aged in the direct trade with Britain, there entered
99 British vessels with an aggregate of 17,940 tons, and cleared 109
British vessels with an aggregate of 12,623 tons. Besides these
there were British vessels engaged in the direct or carrying trade
with other countries, of which entered 126 with an aggregate bujden
of 14,972 tons, and cleared 106 with an a^re^te of 19,960 tons.
The number of British vessels trading at the four principal ports,
namely, Algiers, Oran, Bona, and Philippeville in 1872 was aa
follows: — direct entered, 171 — tonnage, 60,285 ; left 251 — tonnage,
76,973 ; indirect, entered, 170— tonnage, 79,454 ; left 125 —
tonnage, 63,645. Daring that year 1595 vessels of 3,746,130 tons
entered, and 1587 vesseU of 3/6,402 tons cleared, at the port of
Algiers. The moat important articles of export as far as British
trade ia concerned, are crin vegetal and alpna fibre. Dxiring the
first nine months of 1872 about 6000 tons of the former were
•sported from the port of Algiers alone; and about 60,000 tons of
the latter from the whole colony, chiefly from Oran. Some idea of the
rapidly advancing commercial prosperity of Algeria may be gathered
from the fact that the amount of sums discounted at the Bank of
Algeria (which was established in 1851) had risen from £3,900,130
in 1866-7 to £3,131,635 in 1871-2. Much has been done, partjcn^
larly of late years, in the way of opening up the country and de-
veloping its resources. Roada have been formed and bridges built
in various parts, harbours have been improved, and lighthouses
erected. There are now 374 miles of railway open for traflic,
forming a line from Algiers to Oran and one from rhilippevUle tc
Constantine,
In early times this country was inhabited by two nations. History
the Massyli and the Mass£esylL During the struggle be-
tween Hannibal and the Romans, Syphax, the prince of
the Masseesyli, espoused the cause of the former, and
Massinissa, the prince of the Massyli, that of the latter.
On the defeat of the Carthaginians the territories of Syphax
were annexed to those of Masinissa, who received the title
of King of Numidia. During the Roman civil war, Juba,
king of Numidia, sided with Pompey, and being defeated
by Cfiesar, his kingdom became a Roman province. Under
the Romans the country enjoyed a great degree of pros-
perity. Agriculture was encouraged, commerce extended,
roads were formed, and towns sprang up. Christianity, toe-,
was early introduced and flourished. This state of things,
however, received a severe check when the Romans were
driven out of Africa by the Vandals about the middle of the
5th century. These in turn were expelled by Belisanus.
Justinian's general, in 533. About the middle of the 7tb
century the Saracens made themselves masters of the
country, which came afterwards to be divid^ji into a num-
ber of petty states under independent chiefs, and the people
sank into a state of barbarism. About the middle of the
11th century Abdallah-ben-Yazim, a learned Arab, formed
a numerous sect of _ religionists, known as Morabites, who
overran the country, subdued many of the petty chiefs,
and laid the foundation of the dynasty of the Almoravides.
That dynasty reigned for nearly a hundred years, and at
one time nearly the whole of Barbary and a great part of
Spain were under their government. They were succeeded
by the dynasty of the Almohades, who reigned over the
region till 1273," when it was again split up into a number
of small states. In 1505, Ferdinand, king of Spain, sent a
powerful fleet and army against the country, under the
Count of Navarre, who soon made himself master of Oran,
Bugia, and other towns, and finally, in 1509, took the town
of Algiers. The Spanish rule, however, was very distasteful
to the Algerines; and on hearing of the death of Ferdinand,
in 1516, one of the native princes sent an embassy to
Aruch Barbarossa, the famous Turkish pirate, requesting
his aid against the invaders. This was readily granted ;
and no sooner had he established himself in the country
than he murdered the prince and caused himself to be
proclaimed king in his room. He introduced that system
of piracy for which Algeria was afterwards noted down to
1830. By force and treachery he extended his dominion
over other parts of the country, till at length the Spaniards
marched a large army against bim from Oran, and being
joined by many of the natives, defeated him in various
engagements, took him prisoner, and beheaded him. His
brother Hayradin was then chosen sultan; and he feeling
himself \inable to cope with the Spaniards, sought the
assistance of Turkey, and put himself under the protection
of the Grand Seignior. Aid was readily granted, and he
himself was appointed pasha or viceroy of Algiers. Having
thus got rid of his enemies the Spaniards, he turned hie
attention to the extension of hia piratical enterprises; and
in order to do this with the greater security, he fortified
tho port of Algiers and built a strong mole for the protec-
tion of his ships. He is said to have employed 30,000
Christian slaves for three years in the construction of the
mole. The Algerino pirates Boon became dreaded. Dot
56G
ALGERIA
only by tho Arabs and Moors, but alao by the maritimo
Christian powers, particularly tho Spaniards. At length
Pope Paul nX induced Charles V. to undertake an expedi-
tion to suppress these depredations, and issued a bull offer-
ing remission of sins and the crown of martyrdom to all
who either fell in battle or were made slaves. The emperor
Bet sail with 120 ships and 20 galleys, ha\-ing on board
30,000 chosen men. They landed in safety, and were
proceeding to attack tho town of Algiers when a fearful
etorm arose, and in one night (28th Oct. 1541) destroyed
86 ships and 15 galleys with all their crews and military
stores, so that the army on shore was deprived of tho
means of subsistence. This was then fallen upon by tho
Algerines, when many were killed and a great number
taken prisoners, Charles himself and the remains of his
army escaping with difficulty.
Algiers continued to bo governed by viceroys or pashas
appointed by tho Porte tUl the beginning of tho 17th
century, when tlio janissaries solicited and obtained tho
right to choose thuir o^¥n dey or governor from among them-
selves. This subsequently led to frequent altercations
between tho pashas and the deys, the former seeking to
recover their lost power, tho latter to reduce it. In 1609,
the Moors being expelled from Spain, flocked in great num-
bers to Algiers, and, as many of them were very able sailors,
they contributed to raise the power of the Algerine fleet.
In 161G it consisted of forty sail of ships, of between 200
and 4Q0 tons, their flagship having 500 tons. The AJgerino
pirates now became so formidable to the European powers,
that in 1017 tne French sent against them a fleet of fifty
sail, under Beaulieu, who defeated their fleet and took two
of their ves.<iels. In 1620 the English sent out a squadron
■under the command of Sir Robert Mansel on the same
errand, but it returned without effecting anything. Their
depredations becoming still more frequent and trouble-
some, tho Venetians equipped a fleet of twenty-eight sail,
under the command of Admiral CapeUo, with orders to
bum, sink, or take all the Barbary corsairs he should meet.
In an engagement which speedily took . place he signally
defeated them, and took and xlestroyed sixteen of their
gaUeys. They soon, however, regained their former
strength; and at length Louis XIV., provoked by the
outrages committed by them on the coasts of Provence and
Languedoc, ordered, in 1681, a considerable fleet to be
fitted out against them, under the command of Vice-admiral
Duquesne. He attacked them near the island of Scios,
and destroyed fourteen of their ships. This, however, had
little effect upon them, and the following year he bom-
barded the town of Algiers and nearly reduced it to ashes.
The Algerines, by way of reprisal, sort a number of gaUeys
to the coast of Provence, where they committed great
ravages. In Muy 1683, Duquesne with his fleet again
cast anchor before Algiers, and proceeded to bombard the
town. The dey and the people sued for peace ; but Mezo-
morto, the Algerine admiral, who was to have been delivered
up as one of the hostages, violently opposed coming to
tTa", stirred up the soldieiy against the dey, and caused
him to be murdered, and was himself chosen as his suc-
cessor. The bombardment was renewed, and Mezomorto,
reduced to extremities, caused aU the French in the city to
be cruelly murdered, and the French consul to be tied
to the mouth of a mortar and shot off in the direction of
the bombarding fleet Duquesne was so exasperated by
this piece of cruelty that he did not leave Algiers till he
had utterly destroyed the fortifications, shipping, almost all
the lower, and about two-thirds of the upper part of the
tov/n. The Algerines, now thoroughly humbled, sent an
embassy to France to sue for peace, which was readily
granted them. In 1686 the English concluded aiireaty
Tr.ik the Algerines on favourable terms, and this was
several times subsequently renewed; but it was not till
the taking of Gibraltar and Port Mahon that England had
sufficient check upon them to enforce the observance of
treaties. From that time England was treated with greater
deference than any other European power. In 1710 the
Turkish pasha was expelled and his office united to that
of dey. The doy thus became the supreme ruler in the
country. Ho had the charge of the Turkish militia,
recruited from Constantinople and SmjTna, because their
children by native mothers could not bo allowed to enjoy
tho same privileges as themselves in consequence of former
rebellions ngaiimt the government. Under the dey there
was a divan or council of state, chosen from the principal
civic functionaries.
Ifatters continued very mncn in the same state, and the
history of Algiers presents little calling for special notice
down to tho expedition of Lord ExmoutL The principal
States of Europe had had their attention taken up with
weightier matters; but on the establishment of the peace
of 1815 the English sent a, squadron of ships, under
Lord Exmouth, to Algiers, to demand tho liberation of all
slaves then in bondage there, and the entire discontinuance
of piratical deprivations. Afraid to refase, the Algerines
returned a conciliatory ansv^er, and released a number of
their slaves; but no sooner had tho ships left than they
redoubled their activity and perpeti-ated every sort of
cruelty against the Christians. Among other acta of
cruelty, they attacked and massacred a number of Neapo-
Utan fishermen who were engaged in the pearl-fishery at
Bona. The news of this excited great indignation in
England, and Lord Exmouth was again despatched with
five ships of the line and eight smaller vessels, and at
Gibraltar he was joined by a Dutch fleet of six frigates,
under Admiral Capellen. They anchored in front of Algiers
on the 26th August 1816. Certain terms, which were
extremely moderate, were proposed to the dey; but these
not meeting with acceptance, a fierce bombardment was at
once commenced. At first the assailants were subjected to
a heavy fire from the enemy's batteries; but after a time
these were one by one silenced, and ship after ship caught
fire, till the destruction of the Algerine naval force was
complete. Next day the terms proposed to the dey were
accepted; Christian slaves to tho number of 1211 were
set at liberty, and a promise was given that piracy and
Christian slavery should cease for ever. The Algerines,
however, did not long adhere to the terms of the treaty.
They lost no time in putting their city in a more formid-
able state of defence than before, and this done, they
considered themselves in a condition to set the great powers
of Europe at defiance.
Various injuries had irom time to time been inflicted on
the French shipping, but that which more directly led to
a declaration of war was an iasult offered to .the French
consul by the dey. A debt had been contracted by the
French government to two Jewish merchants of Algiers at
the time of the expedition to Egypt, and the dey having a
direct interest in the matter, had made repeated applications
for payment, but without success. Annoyed at this and
at what he considered insulting language on the part of
the consul, he struck the latter on the face in public. In
consequence of this, a French squadron was sent to Algiers
which took the consul on board, and for three years main-
tained an ineffective blockade. At length war on a great
scale was resolved on, and a fleet was equipped at Toulon
in May 1830 imder the command of Admiral Duperrt
It had also on board a land force, under the command
of General Bourmont, consisting of 37,000 infantry, 4000
cavalry, and a proportionate number of artOlery. The
troops began to land on the 14th June upon the western
side of the peninsula of Sidi Ferruch, in the bay cf Tone
ALGERIA
567
Chioa. They did not meet with mucli opposition till the
19th, when a general attack was made upon them by
a force of from 40,000 to 50,000 men. These, after a
fijrce conflict, were completely routed. They renewed their
attack on the 24th and 25th, but were on both occasions
repulsed. The French then advanced upon Algiers, and
on th&^29th the trenches were opened. On the morning
of the 4th of July the bombardment commenced, and before
night a treaty was concluded for the entire surrender of
Algiers. The next day the French took possession of the
town; and 12 ships of war, 1500 brass cannon, and over
X2,000,000 sterling came into their hands as conquerors.
The Turkish troops were permitted to go wherever they
pleased, provided they left Algiers, and most of them were
conveyed to Asia Slinor. The dey himself, with his private
property and a large body of attendants, retired to Naples.
When the French undertook the expedition against
Algiers a pledge was given to the English government
that they did not aim at the permanent possession of the
country, but only at obtaining satisfaction for the injuries
and insults that they had received, and putting down that
system of piracy which had so long outraged Europe. The
French government engaged that these objects being accom-
plished, the final settlement and government of the country
should be arranged in concert with the other European
powers for the general advantage. Notwithstanding this,
the French ministry in 1833 publicly declared that it was
the intention of their government to retain possession of
Algiers and to colonise it. Subsequently, the EngUsh
government acquiesced in this, on receiving an engagement
that the French would not extend their conquests beyond
Algeria either on the side of Tunis or of Marocco.
The capture of Algiers was celebrated in France with
great demonstrations of joy. General Bourmont was raised
to the rank of marshal, and Admiral DuperrtS was promoted
to the peerage. The revolution of 1830 followed, when
Bourmont was deposed, and General Clause! appointed to
succeed him. The conquerors, instead of attempting to
gain the good-will of the natives, destroyed a number of
their mosques, seized upon lands set apart for religious pur-
poses, and attempted to introduce their own laws and usages
in place of those of the country, the consequence of which
was that the natives entertained the greatest abhorrence
for their oppressors, whom they regarded as the enemies of
God and their prophet. General Clausel incensed them
still more by seizing upon the possessions of the dey,
(he beys, and the expelled Turks in direct opposition to
the conditions on which the capital had been surrendered.
Bona was taken possession of, and an incursion was made
into the southern province of Titterie, when tlie troops of
the bey were defeated and Mediah taken. The beys of
Titterie and Oran were deposed, and tributary rulers set
up in their room. Still the war continued. The French
were incessantly harassed by irruptions of hordes of the
Arabs, so that no Frenchman was safe, even in the vicinity
of the town ; and little reliance could be placed on the
fidelity of the beys who governed the provinces. Mediah
was e'vacuated, and Oran abandoned. In Februaiy 1831
General Berthezene was appointed commander-in-chief, and
undertook several expeditions into the interior to chastise
the hostile tribes, but met with little success. In October
Bona was surrounded and taken by the Kabyles. There was
now no safety but in the town of Algiers; agiiculture was
consequently neglected, and it was necessary to send to
France for supplies of provisions end for fresh troops. In
November 1831 General Savary, Due de Rovigo, was sent
out with an additional force of 16,000 men, The new
governor sought to accomplish his ends by the grossest
acts of cnielty and treachery. One of his exploits was the
massacre of a whole Arab tribe, including old men, women.
and children, during night, on account of a robbery com-
mitted by some of them. He also treacherously murdered
two Arab chiefs whom he had enticed into his power by a
written assurance of safety. These proceedings exasperated
the natives stiU further against the French, and those
tribes that had hitherto remained qiiiet took up arms
against them.
About this time Abd-el-Kader first appears upon the field
His father, a Marabout, had collected a few followers, and
attacked and taken possession of the town of Oran. On
this they wished to elect him as their chief, but he declined
the honour on account of his great age; and recommended
his son who, he said, was endowed with all the quaUties
necessary to success. Abd-el-Kader was born about the
beginning of 1807, and had early acquired a great reputa-
tion among his countrymen for learning and piety, as
he was also distinguished among them for .skill in horses
manship and other manly exercises. He had made two
pilgrimages to Mecca in company with his father, once
when a child and again in 1828,-by which he obtained the
title of Hadji. At this time he ^^as living in obscurity,
distinguished by tho austerity of his manners, his pvty,
and his zeal in observing the precepts of the Koran. He
collected an army of 10,000 horsemen, and, accompanied
by his father, marched to attack Oran, which had been
taken possession of by the French. They arrived before
the town about the middle of May 1832, but after con-
tinuing their attack for three days with great bravery they
were repulsed with considerable loss. This was followed
by a series of conflicts, more or less severe, between the
parties, but without any permanent or decided advantage
to either side. In March 1833 the Duo de Rovigo was
obliged, on account of his health, to return to France, and
General Avizard was appointed interim governor; but the
latter dying soon after. General Voirol was nominated his
successor. Abd-el-Kader was still extending his influence
more and more widely among the Arab tribes; and the
French at last considered it to be their interest to offer
him terms of peace. A treaty was accordingly concluded
^•ith him by General Desmichels, governor of Oran, in
February 1834, in which he acknowledged the supremacy
of France, and was recognised by them as emir of the
province of Mascara. One of the conditions of the treaty
was that the emir was to have a monopoly of the trade
with the French in corn. This part of the treaty was
regarded with great dissatisfaction at home, and the general
was removed from his post. In July General Drouet
d'Erlon was sent out as governor-general of the colony.
An intendant or head of the civil department was also
appointed^ as well as a commissary of justice at the head
of the judicature. Tribunals of justice were also estab-
hshed, by which both French and natives were allowed to
enjoy their respective laws. From the tranquil state of
the country at this time the new governor was enabled to
devote his attention to its improvement. The French,
however, soon became jealous of the power of the emir,
and on the pretence that he had been encroaching on their
territory. General Trezel, who had succeeded Desmichels
in the governorship of Oran, was sent against him witli a
considerable force. The armies met at the river Makta,
and the French were routed with great slaughter on the
28th of June 1835. On the news of this defeat Marshal
Clausel was sent to Algiers to succeed Count d'Erlon. In
order effectually to humble tho emir, he set out for his
capital. Mascara, accompanied by the Duke of Orleans,
at tho head ,of 11,000 men. On reaching tho town the
French found it deserted, and, having set it on fire, they
returned without having effected anything of consequence
In January 1836 Mai-shal Clausel undertook an expedition
against Tlemccn, which ho took ' and garrisoned. Soon
568
ALGERIA
after thii the emir attacked and" put to Higlit u V<.dy of
30uO men under Count d'Arlangos on the Tafna. ' General
Bugeaud, who had succeeded ilarshal Clausel, 'attacked
the. Arabs under Abdel-Kader on the Sikak river, Gth
July 1836, and gained a compjete victory over them. An
expedition against the bey of Constantino was next resolved
on, and Marshal Claasel, at the head of 8000 men, set out
from Bona for tliis purpose in November 1830. They
encountered on their march a severe storm of hail and
snow, followed by S sharj) frost, so that many of them
died; and when they arrived before the walls of the town
they were unable to undertake the siege, and effected their
retreat with difficulty.'' The French wcr« now anxious to
conclude a peace with Abd-el-Kader, and with this view
General Bugeaud arranged a meeting with him on the
banks of the Tafna, and a treaty was signed, 30th May
1837. They were then free to turn their strength against
the bey of Constantiiie, and an army of 20,000 men set
out from Bona with this object under the command of
General Damr^mont early in October. The town was,
after a very gallant defence, taken by stcrm on the 12th
of that month by General Val(5e, General Damr^mont
liaving been killed by a cannon-ball the previous day.
On the capture of the city the neighbouring tribes hastened
to make their submission to the conquerors, and a strong
garrison being left to defend the town, the army returned
to l>ona. As a reward for his services, General Valte was
made a marshal and appointed governor-general of the
colony. ■ Disputes with the emir as to the boundaries of
liis territory were frequent, and at length war was again
declared between the parties. "■ The immediate cause of
war on this occasion was tlie marcliing of an anmed force
nf French troops through the emir's territory. This the
latter looked upon as an infringement of the treaty, and
consequently decljired war. In October 1839, he suddenly
fell upon the French troops in the plain of Metidja, and
routed them with great slaughter, destroying and laying
waste the European settlements. He surprised and cut to
pieces bodies of troops on their march ; outposts and encamp-
ments were taken by sudden assault; and at length the
possessions of the French were reduced to the fortified places
which they occupied. On the news of these events reach-
ing France, reinforcements to the amount of 20,000 men
were sent out. The spring campaign was vigorously opened
on both sides, and numerous skirmishes took place, but
without decisive results to either party. The French were,
indeed, everywhere successful in the field, but the scattered
troops of the enemy would speedily reassemble and sweep
the plains, so that there was no safety beyond the camp
and the walls of the towns. " The fort of Masagran, near
Mostaganeni, with a garrison of only 123 men, gallantly
withstood a fierce attack by 12,0,00 to 15,000 Arabs, which
lasted for three daj's. Marshal Val^e was now recalled,
and General Bugeaud appointed to succeed him. The
latter arrived at Algiers on the 22d of FebruaryJ841, and
adopted a new system, which was completely successful
lie made use of movable columns radiating from Algiers,
Orah, and Constantino, and having from 80,000 to 100,000
troops at-his disposal, the result soon told against the emir.
Many of the Arab- tribes were thus intimidated Or brought
under subjection, hard pressed garrisons were relieved and
'victualled, and town after town taken."' Tekedemt, the
principal stronghold of A^d-el-Kader, was destroyed, and
the citadel blown up ; Mascara was taken ; and Saida,
the only remaining fortress in the possession of the emir,
was entirely demolished. In January 1842 the town of
Tlemcen was taken, and ten days afterwards the fort of
Tafna, which was demolished. , The terrified Arabs sub-
mitted on all sides, and now almost the entire country was
subdued. The Ainir himself, driven to extremities, was
compelled to take refuge mlfarocco. Ilcre he snccedded
in raising a considerable force, and returned to Algeria.
He made up for the want of troops by the rapidity of hia
movements, and would suddenly iiiako an attack on one
place when he was supposed to bo in quite an opix)site
quartef. In November 1842 the Duke of Aiunale arrived
in Algiers to take part in the oixjrationa against the emir;
and in the spring of the following year ho suddenly fell
ujjon the camp of Abd-cl-Ka<Ier while the great body of
his troops were absent, and took several thousand prisoners
and a largo booty, the emir himself making hia escape
with difficulty. Not long afterwards the latter again took
refuge in Marocco, and so excited the fanatical passions of
the people of that country that their ruler wasforccd into
a war with France. The army which was sent into Algeria
was attacked and defeated by Bugeaud at the river IslyJ
14 th August 1844. The emperor of Jfarocco soon after-
wards sued for peace, which was granted him on condition
that ho should no longer succour or shelter the emir, but
aid in pursuing him> Abd-el-Kader was now reduced to
great extremities, and obliged to take refuge in the monn-
tain fastnes.ses, whence ho would from time to time come
down to annoy thB_ French. In Xune 1845 a tribe of
Arabi,, who were being pursued by a body of French troops
under General Pelissier, took refuge in a cava'' As they
refu.-jed to surrender, the general ordered a fire to be kindled
at the mouth of the cave, and the whole of those within,
men, women, and children, to the number of 500, were
sufTocated. The emir at length was brought to such straits
that he agreed to deliver himself up to the French on being
allowed to retire to Alexandria or St Jean d'Acre. Not-
withstanding this promise, which was given by General
Lamoriciere, and ratified by the governor-general, he was
taken to France, where he arrived on the 2yth of January
1848; and was imprisoi^d first in the castle of Pan, and
afterwards in that of Amboise, near Blois. " In October
1852 Louis Napoleon, then president of the French Re-
public, gave him his liberty on condition that he should
not return to Algeria, but reside at Brousso in Asia Minor.'
Here he remained till 1855 when,, in consequence of the
destruction of that town by an earthquake, he obtained
permission to reniove to Constantinople, and afterwards to,
Damascus. At the latter place ho rendered valuable aid
to the ChrLstiana by protecting them during theniassiicr^
by the Turks in Syria in 18G0.
On the revolution in France of 1848,'^Gefie^a^C8.vaignao
was appointed governor-general, of the colony ;''^ and the
National Assembly, wishing to, establish a closer connection
between the country and France, off'ered to incorporate it
with the republic. This proposal, however, met with con-
siderable opposition, and Algeria was simply dcckred a
permanent possession, with the right to send four deputies
to the National Assembly, to Be heard on all matters
aflecting the interests of the colony. -_ Colonists were also
sent out to settle there, and other means taken to further-
its prosperity. StQl the republic did not' seem -to be more
sTiccessful In the administration of affairs than the monarchy
had been. The colonists died joff or left in disgust, the
natives were not more reconciled to the French yoke, and
many of them rose in open ^ebe^ion.7^ The Kabyles, in
particular, the most intelligent and industrious of the native
population, manifested the greatest repugnance to the im-
position of taxes and- of the-usages of civilisation. .In 1849
General Pelissier marched against several of the rebellious
tribes, and reduced them to subjection. ^^Qenefals Canrobert
and HerBUlon were sent into the district of Zaab to quell an
insurrection excited by the M'arabout Bfm-Zian.~The latter
was driven to take refuge in Zaatch/T ,which resisted the
utmost efforts of the French to take'Wi. for fifty-one •da'ys,
but at last it was carried hy-Btomi.' In '1850 \here-
A L G— A L G
569
■were eeveral expeditions sent out against the natives, and
in 1851 General St Jlrnaud succeeded in reducing to sub-
jection Little KabyUa. In 1852 General M'Mahon set
out against Eastern Kabylia, and Pelissier, in the south,
took Laghouat by storm. The next few years present
us with several expeditions against the Kabyles, but these
were not productive of very marked results. In- 1854
there was an expedition against certain Arab tribes in the
south, who were reduced to subjection. In 1856 a great
expedition, under the command of General Randon, was
organised against the tribes of Great KabyLia that had not
yet submitted to the French ; and after many months'
fighting they were brought under subjection. The autho-
rity of France was now undisputed .over the country, and
peac6 for a time was established.
In 1858 the administration of the colony was confided
to a special minister, the first nominated being Prince
Napoleon ; but he only held office i<fr a short time ; and
soon after, the special ministry was abolished. In October
1859 certain Arab tribes rose in rebellion, but were speedUy
subdued. In 1860 Marshal Pelissier was made governor-
general, with a vice-governor, a director-general of civil
affairs, and a council of thirty members. In the beginning
of 1863 the emperor promised to Algeria a constitution,
with a representative assembly for provincial matters ; and
^d that it was not a colony properly so called, but an
Arab kingdom, and that the natives had an equal right to
his protection with the colonists. In AprU 1864 a for-
midable insurrection of the Arabs broke out in the south,
in consequence of an insult offered to one of their chiefs in
a court of justice, and they suddenly fell upon and cut to
pieces a detachment of French troops. A large force was
speedOy assembled and sent against them, and after they
had been beaten in several encounters the insurrection was
at length put down. Marshal Pelissier died in ilay, and
Marshal M'Mahon was appointed to succeed him. A fresh
insurrection of the Arabs broke out in October, but after
several defeats they were brought to subjection. In May
1865 the Emperor Napoleon visited Algeria, and was
everywhere received with the greatest demonstrations of
joy. After his return to France he wrote a letter to
Marshal M'Mahon respecting the future government of
the colony. He particularly pointed out the necessity of
seeking to gain the good-will of the natives by permitting
fliggi JlESHjoy their territories unmolested, and to maintain
their own. customs, and that they should be held as equal
withe the colonists before the law. He further directed
him'to seek to stimulate the industry of the colonists, and
to strive to develop the resources of the country. In
October a fresh insurrection broke out in the province of
Oran.' It commenced with an attack upon a friendly tribe,
but was at length put down by a body of troops under the
command of Colonel de Colomb. It again broke out in
March 1866, and Colonel de Colomb was a second time
sent out against the insurgents. He encountered them on
the 16th, and, after a fierce engagement, put them to flight
with great loss. In the beginning of 1867 a new expedi-
tion was organised against the refractory Arabs in the
south, and these being effectually put down, a period of
comparative peace followed. The crops in 1866 were
almost entirely destroyed by an invasion of locusts, and
in January 1867 a violent earthquake destroyed several
villages in the vicinity of Blidah. A prolonged drought
followed, which dried up the sources of the springs and
produced a famine, from which the natives suffered much.
A visitation of cholera succeeded, which is estimated to
have carried off not less than 50,000 person.s. ■ In January
1868.a fresh revolt broke out among the Arabs, instigated
by Si-Hamed, who had led on more than one of the pre-
rioua revoUa. They adsailed and plundered some of the
friendly tribes, and being pursued and attacked by a
body of French troops, a fierce engagement took place,
in which Si-Hamed was killed and his followers put to
flight. Peace was enjoyed for the rest of that year; but
towards the end of January 1869 several large bands of
insurgent Arabs in the extreme south marched northward,
took by surprise Tagguin, and being joined by others, in a
short time they numbered 3000 horse. A body of French
troops was sent out against them from Laghouat, under
the command of Colonel Sonis, and after two and a half
hours' hard fighting the insurgents were put to flight with
great slaughter. In 1871 a widespread insurrection of
Arab and Kabyle tribes broke out, stimulated no doubt
by a knowledge of the weakened condition of France at
home. It commenced with El-Mokrani, the hereditary
bach-agha of the Jledjana, attacking and burning the
village of Brody-Bon-Arreredy, destroying isolated houses
and posts throughout the district subject to his influence,
the colonists who did not succeed in reaching a place of
safety being massacred. AH his attacks against the forti-
fied places, however, failed ; and as soon as the French
were able to assume the offensive he was beaten in every
engagement, and subsequently killed in action. When
this rebellion appeared almost overcome, the whole of
Kabylia rose in arms at the command of the sheikh El-
Haddad, one of the most powerful chiefs in Kabylia, and
head bi an influential religious confraternity. The Kabyles,
for the first time in history, descended from their mountain
fastnesses, and attempted to invade the plains of the
Metidja. The most horrible massacres were perpetrated,
and all the principal ports on the coast were strictly
blockaded on the landward side. It was not till after the
fall of the commune in Paris that troops could be spared
in sufficient numbers to suppress the insurrection. But
this was at length effected, and a war contribution of
£1,200,000 imposed upon the rebels, whose lands were also
sequestrated, but the owners were permitted to resume
possession on comparatively ea.sy terms. The greater part
of the sum recovered was distributed among the colonist<>
who had suffered during the insurrection, and a consider-
able portion of it has been allotted for public works. The
sequestration has also opened up much valuable territory
for European colonisation. Since the insurrection many
new colonists have arrived here, and among them many
from Alsace and Lorraine. A law passed by the French
Chamber, 15th September 1871, authorises, on certain
conditions, the gratuitous concession of 247,000 acres of
land to such natives of Alsace end Lorraine as might
desire to preserve their French nationality. A moro
favourable era, it is believed, has now dawned for the
colony. Down to 1871 it had continued under military
rule, and this, it was thought, had had not a little to do
with the frequent insurrections that had broken out in
the country. Accordingly, in October of that year, a civil
government was established, as has been already noticed,
and since that time the colony has continued in a more
.peaceable and flourishing condition. (d. k.)
ALGHERO, a seaport of Italy, in the province of
Sassari, Sardinia, situated on the west coast of the island,
14 miles S.W. of Sassari. It was founded by the Genoese,
and was afterwards taken by the Catalonians, whose
language is still spoken. Though strongly fortified towards
the sea, the landward side of the town is commanded by
the overhanging hills. Alghero is an episcopal see, and
has a cathedral, erected in 1517, several monasteries,
convents, and public schools. ^lany of the houses arc of
antique architecture. Near the town are some fine
stalactite grottoes. ' The neighbourhood produces oil and
fruit, and the best wine of the island ; and the corals ol
Alghero arc the most beautiful found in the Mediterranean.
L — 72
570
A L G — A L H
The other erports mcliido grain, wool, tobacco, bones,
skins, and anchovies. Porte Conte, 9 miles to the N.W.,
is the roadstead frequented by the largest vessels, and is a
secure and fortified anchorage, capable of accommodating
a largo fleet. Population of commune (18C5), 8419.
ALGIERS (Fr. Alyrr, Arab. Al-Jezair, i.e., The Islands},
a city and seaport of Northern Africa, and capital of
Algeria, is situated on the west side of a bay of the same
name in the Mediterranean. Lat (of lighthouse), 3G° 47'
20' N., long. 3° 4' 32' E. It is built, in the form of an
amphitheatre, on the northern slope of a steep hill rising
abruptly from the coast. It ascends the side of the kill in the
form of an irregular triangle, the apex of which is occupied
by the Casbah, or ancient fortress of the deys, which is
about 500 feet above the level of the sea. As seen from a
distance, th« city presents a very imposing and picturesque
appearance ; and the houses rising one above the other, and
being all built of white stone, it has been compared to a
ship under sail It consists of two towns — the new, which
is entirely European in its character, and is built on the
lower part of the slope and along the shore ; and the old
town, which occupies the higher region, and is entirely
Oriental in its character. The new town consists of hand-
some streets and squares, and contains the government
houses, hotels, warehouses, barracks, iSic. In the centre of
the new town is the Place du Gouvemement, a largo and
handsome square in the European style, with a fountain,
and planted with orange and lime trees. The streets are
regular, spacious, and handsome, and adorned with arcades.
In the Arab or old town the streets are narrow, winding,
and dirty. The houses are square substantial-looking
buildings, presenting to the street bare walls, with only a
few slits protected by iron gratings in place of windows.
Each house has a quadrangle in the centre, into which it
looks, and which b entered by a low narrow doorway.
Algiers is surrounded by walls and otherwise fortified, but
its landward defen(fe3 are weak and exposed, while the
batteries which defend it towards the sea are very strong.
It has two handsome suburbs, 'and numerous elegant vUlas
are scattered over the vicinity. The town is the residence
of the governor-general of Algeria, of the prefect of the
department of Algiers, and of the chiefs of the different
administrative servidfcs. It is also the seat of a bishop
and of the supreme courts of justice, and has a chamber
and tribunal of commerce, a royal college, various schools,
a bank, public library, and museum. Among the principal
buildings are a cathedral and several Roman Catholic
churches, a Protestant church, several synagogues, and a
number of mosques. The town is well supplied with
vater, and there are numerous pubUc and private foun-
tains and baths. Various markets are held here, and
horse-racing is a favourite amusement; Algiers has of
late come to be noted as a winter residence for invalids.
The French have spent large sums of money in the improve-
ment of the port of Algiers. It has an area of 220 acres,
and it is calculated that when a rock near the centre",
called Roche Sans Nom, is removed, it will be capable of
accommodating 40 vessels of war and 300 trading vessels.
It has two docks, capable of containing theylargest vessels.
The lighthouse has a revolving light visible at the distance
of 15 miles. Population (186C), 52,614. (For the trade
and climate of Algiers, see Algeria.)
ALGOA BAY, an inlet in Cape Colony, on the S.E.
coast of Africa, 425 miles east from the Cape of Good
Hope. Lat. of Croix Island, in the bay, 30° 47' N , and
long. 25° 46'. Algoa Bay lies between capes Recife and
Padrone, on the former of which there is a lighthouse. It
receives the rivers Sunday and Baasher. Tlie best
anchorage is on the west side of the inlet, near Port
BLlizabfcth, which Is the most important seaport on the
south coast of Africa. Here the holding ground is good,
and the anchorage is sheltered, except from the south-east
winds. Fort Frederick stands on a hill overlooking Port
ElizabetL Algoa Bay was the first landing-place of the
British emigrants to the ca.stem province of the Cape
Colony, and as the harbour of that province it enjoys a
rapidly increasing trade.
ALHAMA, a city of Spain, in the province of Granada,
24 miles S.W. of Granada. It is very picturesquely situated
on the edge of a gorge in the lulls of the Sierra de
Alhama, the streets rising in terraces one above another.
The river Marchan flows through the chasm, and the
mountains behind the town reach a height of 8000 feet.
The name Alhama signifies in Arabic " thd bath," and is
derived from the hot mineral springs in the neighbour-
hood. These springs, which have a temperature of 118°
Fahr., are considered beneficial in cases of dyspepsia and
rheumatism, and in former times had as many as 14,000
visitors annually. Alhama was a most important fortress
while the Moors ruled in Granada, and its capture by the
Marquis of Cadiz in 1482 was the most decisive step in
the reduction of their power. Remains of the Moorish
castle and walls are stLU to be seen, as well as an aqueduct
of Roman or Moorish origin. Many of the houses are of
Moorish architecture, and the antiquities of the town, the
mineral springs, and the wild scenery of the environs
attract numerous visitors. Population, about 7000.
ALHAMA, a town in Spain, in the province of Murcia,
13 miles S.W. of the town of that name. It is celebrated
for its sulphur springs, which have a temperature ranging
from 91° to 113° Fahr., and attract numerous visitors.
The town has a hospital and the ruins of an ancient castle.
Population, about 6500.
ALHAMBRA, the ancient fortress and residence of the
Moorish monarchs of Granada,^lies on a hill overlooking
the city of Granada, on the north. The name, signifying
in Arabic " the red," is derived from the colour of the sun-
dried iapia, or bricks made of fine gravel and clay, of
which the outer walls are built. This famous Mooris-
palace was erected at various dates, chiefly between 1248
and 1354, under the reigns of Ibn-1-Ahmar and his sua-
cessors. The splendid decorations, and in particular the
exquisite painting of the interior, are ascribed to Yusuf I.,
who died in 1354. Immediately after the expulsion of
the Moors in 1492, their conquerors began, by innumer-
able acts of vandalism, to spoil the marvellous beauty of
the Albambra. The open work was filled up with white-
wash, the painting and gilding effaced, the furniture soiled,
torn, or removed. Charles V. rebuilt portions in the
modem style of the period, and destroyed the greater part
of the Winter Palace to make room for a modern structure
which has never been completed. Philip V. Italianised
the rooms, and completed the degradation by running up
partitions which blocked up whole apartments, gems of
taste and patient ingenuity. In subsequent centuries the
carelessness of the Spanish authorities permitted this pearl
of Moorish art to be still further defaced; and in 1812
some of the towers were blown up by the French under
Sebastiani, while the whole buildicgs narrowly escaped the
same fate. In 1821 the ancient pile was shattered by
an earthquake. Directions were give'n in 1862, by Isabella,
then queen of Spain, for the restoration of the Alhambra
to its original condition. The work has been carried on
with considerable skill, but the sums devoted to it have
been too small for its satisfactory accomplishmoit.
The hilly terrace on which the Alhambra stands is about
2430 feet in length by 674 in breadth at the widest part.
A. strongly-fortified wall, flanked by thirteen squiire towers,
encloses an area of 35 acres, within which the palace is
built. Approaching from the city, the visitor passes
ALHAMBRA
571
'througl the Gate of Pomegranates and entera the grounds
of the Alhambra, which are well wooded, and in spring
are covered by sweet-scented wild flowers. The gardens,
though weedy and ravined, are a charming resort, adorned
by beautiful waterfalls and sparkling fountains, and en-
livened by the song of the nightingale. Passing the pdlars
of Charles V., a steep ascent leads to the chief entrance
to the Alhambra, the Gate of Judgment — a massive arch-
way, surmounted by a square tower 62 feet high, which,
while serving as an outwork of the fortress and as an
entrance-hall to the palace, was principally used as an
open-air court of justice, acco-ding to the patriarchal
custom of the east The pillars of the gate are of sculp-
tured marble, and the horse-shoe arch is 28 feet high. A
narrow passage leads to the Pla:a de los Algibes, the Place
of the Cisterns, so called from the tanks underneath filled
with water from the Darro, which foams through the
ravine to the north of the hilL The Plaza is about 225
feet long by 187 wide. To the left rises Alcazaba, the
ruined fortress of the Alhambra, with the Torre de la Vela
or Watch Tower, where the Christian, flag was first hoisted
on the expulsion of the Moors in 1492. It commands a
noble prospect. Below lies the city of Granada, with its
hundrpd churches ; ar.-d above rise overhanging heights,
with \\hite houses glancing out from the green foliage,
reminding one of the saying of the Arabic poet, that
Granada is like a pearl set round with emerald. Tn the
Place of the Cisterns stands an isolated Moorish tower,
the Torre del Vino, erected in 1345 ; and to the right lies
the palace of Charles V., displacing so much that was
curious in Moorish art. It is a majestic but cold-looking
structure in the Renaissance style, unfinished and roofless,
and presenting a desolate and ruinous aspect. Behind
this edifice lies the Moorish palace, the exterior being
severe, plain, and almostJorbidding in appearance, accord-
ing to the peculiarity ol Moorish architecture, by which
they contrived to heighten the splendour of the ii.^erior
by contrast with the bare and unadorned structure of the
outer walls. But within, the palace stands unrivalled iii
the gorgeous splendour of its halls and the exquisite
beauty of its decorations. Everywhere are seen evidences
of the delicate taste and the attiitic luxury of the iloors.
Spacious courts, with marble pillars and fretted ceilings,
partitions coloured and gUt like the sides of a Stamboul
casket, and filagree stuccos of veil-like transpaiency, all
distinguished by airy lightness and grace, are among the
main features of this palace of the voluptuous caliphs of
Granada, who held dominion over that sunny land which
their poets described as a terrestrial paradise. The colours
chiefly employed are blue, red, and a golden yellow. In
the hey-day of Moorish prosperity the palace must have
been the most dcUcious of royal residences. Odoriferous
gardens, in which the orange and the myrtle bloomed,
alternated with sparkling fountains and soft couches,
inviting to a luxurious repose. Everything contributed
to render the whole the most splendid abode of Oriental
magnificence, to which only the fantastic creations of the
Arabian Nighta can be fitly compared.
The present entrance is by a small insign '^cant door,
from which a corridor conducts to the Patio de la Berkak,
the Court of the Blessing. This court is 140 feet long by
74 broad ; and in the centre there is a large pond set in
the marble pavement, full of gold-fish, from which some
have called this the Court of the Pond. It is also known
as the Court of the Myrtles, from the mj-rtles which grow
along its sides. There are galleries on the north and
south sides; that on the south 27 feet high, and supported
by a marble colonnade. Underneath it, to the right, was
the principal entrance, and over it are three elegant
vindows with arciies and miniature pillars. The columns
supporting the galleries are light in structure, and arches,
slender and bending gracefully like palms, spring from
the capitals and meet overhead. From this court the
walls of the Torre de Comares are seen rising over the
roof to the north, and its tower and colonnades are reflected
in the crj-stal mirror of the pond.
The Hall of Ambassadors {Sala de Ambajadores) is the
largest in the Alhambra, and occupies all the Tower of
Comares. It is a square room, the sides being 37 feet in
length, while the centre of the dome is 75 feet high.
This was the grand reception-room, and the throne of tha
sultan was placed opposite the entrance. The azulejos are
nearly 4 feet high all round, and the colours vary at inter-
vals. Over them is a series of oval medallions with in-
scriptions, interwoven with flowers and leaves. There are
nine windows, three on each fa9ade, and the ceding ia
admirably diversified with iidaid work of white, blue, and
gold, in the shape of circles, crowns, and stars — a kind of
imitation of the vault of heaven. The walls are covered
with varied stucco-work of most delicate pattern, surround-
ing many ancient escutcheons.
Another of the more celebrated court* of the palace ia
the Patia de los Leones, the Court of the Lions. This ia
an oblong court, 116 feet in length by 66 in breadth, sur-
rounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white marble
columns. A pavilion projects into the court at each
extremity, with filigree walls and Light-domed roof, elabor-
ately ornamented. The square is paved with coloured
tiles, and the colonnade with white marble ; while the
walls are covered 5 feet up from the ground with blue
and yellow tiles, with a border above and below enamelled
blue and gold. The columns supporting the roof and
gallery are irregularly placed, with a view to artistic effect;
and the general form of the piers, arches, and pillars is
most graceful. They are adorned by varieties of foliage,
itc. ; about each arch there is a large square of arabesques;
and over the pUlars is another square of exquisite filigree
work. In the centre of the court is the celebrated Fountain
of Lions, a magnificent alabaster basin supported by the
figures of twelve Hons in white marble, not designed -n-ith
sculptural accuracy, but as emblems of strength and
courage. When the fountain was in good order a great
volume of water was thrown up, which fell into the basin,
passed through the lions, and issued from their mouths.
The Hall of the Abencerragcs derives its name from a
legend according to which BoabdU, the last king of
Granada, having invited the chiefs of that illustrious line
to a banquet, massacred them here. This room is a perfect
square, with a lofty .dome, and trellised windows at its
Kise. The roof is exquisitely decorated in blue, brown,
red, and gold, and the columns supporting it spring oat
into the arch form in a remarkably beautiful manner.
Opposite to this hall is the HaU of the Two Sisters, so
called from two very beautiful white marble slabs laid aa
part of the pavement. These slabs measure 15 feet by 7 A,
and are without flaw or stain. There is a fountain in the
middle of this hall, and the roof is composed of stalactites,
nearly 5000 pieces entering into its construction. The
whole decorations here are of the most exquisite description.
Among the other wonders of the Alhambra are the Hall
of Justice ; the mosque ; tb Mirador de Lindaraja, or
boudoir of the sultana ; the Patia de'la Eeja ; ih&kTocador
de la Reina, or queen's boudoir; and the Sala de los Banot',
in all which are to be seen the same delicate and beautiful
architecture, the same costly and elegant decorationa.'
There must ako be noticed the celebrated vaso of the
A hambra, a splendid specimen of Moorish ceramic art,
dating from 1320, and belonging to the first period of
Moorish porcelain. It is 4 feet 3 inches high; the ground
is white and the enamelling is ia bli>e white, and goldj
572
A L H — A L 1
A new hall, called the Hall of the Shields or Escutcheons,
has recently been diseovered ; and the palace contains,
besides the more important halla already mentioned, ranges
of bed-rooms and summer-rooms, a whispering gallery and
labyrinth, and vaulted sepulchres.
The towers of the fortress have also much of the orna-
mented character of the palace. Separated from the
Alhainbra by a raWne lies Generali/e, the Garden of the
Architect, probably in the first instance an outworlc of the
fortress, oftemards the summer villa of the sultans of
Granada. It is impossible to conclude the description of
the Alhambra without remarking how admirably every
thing was planned to render thia palace the most voluptu-
ous of all retreats — the numerous fountains which cooled
the air, the judicious disposition, of doors and windows
securing a free ventilation, the shady gardens, and the
noble views of the hills and plains around. Some idea of
the beauty of the original is afforded by the Alhambra
Court in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, imitating the
Moorish palace in gorgeousness of colouring, elaborateness
of ornamentation, and quaint grace of architectural style.
One of the most striking features of the Alhambra is
the appliance of poetical conceits and passages from the
Koran to enhance and form part of the ornamentation.
" There is no God but Allah," " There is no conqueror
but God," " Glory be given to our Lord," and other similar
inscriptions are everywhere to be observed.
(See Mr Owen Jones's Flans, £levatians, and Sections of
the Alliamhra, 2 vols. foL, 1848.)
ALHAZEN (full name, Abu Ali al-Hasan Idn Al-
ii asan), a mathematician of the 11th century, was born
at Bassora, and died at Cairo in 1038. He is to be dis-
tinguished from another Alhazen who translated Ptolemy's
Almagest in the 10th century. Alhazen having boasted that
he could construct a machine for regulating tlie inundations
of the Nile, was summoned to Egypt by the caliph Hakem;
but, aware of the impracticability of his scheme, nd fearing
the caliph's anger, he feigned madness until Hakejn's death
in 1021. Alhazen was, nevertheless, a diligent and success-
ful student, being the first great discoverer in optics after
the time of Ptolemy. His researches were prosecuted under
the greatest disadvantages, as he was compelled to eke out
n livelihood by copying his own works and selling them.
To him, and np^ to Ptolemy, is due the explanation of the
apparent increase of heavenly bodies near the horizon. He
correctly attributed the phenomenon to the fact that the eye
compares these bodies with intervening terrestrial objects.
He taught, previous to ViteUo, that vision does not result
from the emission of rays from the eye, and wrote also on
the refraction of Hgnt, especiaUy on atmospheric refraction,
showing, e.g., the cause of morning and evening twilight.
He solved the problem of finding the point in a convex
mirror at which a ray coming from one given point shall be
reflected to another given point. As a writer, Alhazen is
remarkable for prolixity and scholastic subtOty. Only two
of his works have been printed — his Treatise on Twilight,
and his Thesaurus Opticce. (Sea Casiri, BibL Irak, llisp.
£scur.)
_ AJjI, the fourth in order of the caliphs or successors of
Mahomet, was born at Mecca, about the year 600 A.D.
His father, Abu Taleb, was an uncle of the prophet, and
Ali himself was adopted by Mahomet and educated
under his care. While he was still a mere boy he dis-
tinguished himself by being the first to declare his adhesion
to the cause of Mahomet, who in return made him his
vicegerent, and some years after gave him his daughter
Fatima in marriage. Ali proved himself to be a bravs and
faithful soldier ; and when Mahomet died without male
issue, he seemed to have the best claims to become the
recognised head of Tslamism. Three other coaicanions cf.
Mahomet, however, Abubekr, Omar, and Oihnian, occupied
this position before him, and it was not until G5G, after
the murder of Otbman, that be assumed the title of
caliph. Almost the first act of his reign was the suppres-
sion of a rebellion under Telha and Zobeir, who wero
instigated by Ayesha, the widow of Mahomet, a bitter
enemy of Ali, and lutherto one of the chief hindrances to
his advancement to the caliphate. The rebel anjiy was
defeated at ICharibah, near bassorah, the two generaU
being killed, and Ayesha taken prisoner. All's next care
was to get rid of the opposition of Moawyah, who h-wi
established himself in Syria at the head of a numerous
army. A bloody battle took place in the plain of Suffein,
near the Euphrates, which seemed at first to be going in
favour of Ali ; when suddenly a number of the enendy,
fixing copies of the Koran to the points of their spears,
exclaimed that " the matter ought to be settled by refer-
ence to this book, which forbids Mussulmans to shed each
other's blood." On hearing this the superstitious' soldiers
of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the
matter should be referred to arbitration. Abu Musa waa
appointed umpire on the part of Ali, and Amru, one of
the shrewdest men in the kingdom, on the part of Moawyah.
Amru pgrsuaded Abu Musa that it would be for the
advantage of Moslemism that neither candidate should
reign ; and also, with a pretence of deference, asked him
to give his decision first Abu Musa, falling into the
snare, proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and iloawyah;
thereup9n Amru declared that he also deposed Ali, but
that he invested Moawyah with the caliphate. This
treacherous decision greatly injured the cause of Ali,
which was stOl further weakened by the loss of Egypt,
Syria, and Persia, including the sacred cities of Mecca and
Medina. Ali, however, resolved to make a final effort,
and collected a large army for that purpose. He was not
destined to see the result of his plans. Three of the
fanatic sect of the Karigites made an agreement to assas-
sinate Ali, Moawyah, and Amru as the authors of dis-
astrous feuds among the faithfuL The only victim of this
plot was Ali, who died at Kufa in 661, of the wound in-
flicted by a poisoned weapon. He had eight wives besides
Fatima, and in all, it is said, thirty-three children, one of
whom, Hassan, a son of Fatima, succeeded him in the
caliphate. Ali is described as a bold, noble, and generoua
man, " the last and worthiest of the primitive Moslems,
who imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companionship
with the prophet hiroself, and who followed to the last the
simplicity of his example." He was also remarkable for
learning and wisdom, and there are still extant collections
of proverbs, verses, <fec., which bear his name, especially
the Sentences of Ali, an English translation of which, by
William Yule, was published at Edinburgh in 1832. The
question of All's right to succeed to the caliphate is an
article of faith which divided the Mahometan world into
two great sects, the Sunnis and the Shiahs, the former
denying and the latter affirming his right. The Turks,
consequently, who are usually Sunnis, hold his memory
in abhorrence ; whereas the Persians, who are generally
ShiaLs, venerate him as second only to the prophet, and
celebrate the anniversary of his martyrdom.
ALI BEY (1728-73), a adventurer, said to have been a
native of the Caucasus, and to have been sold about the
age of twelve or fjitirteen for a slave in Cairo. The two
Jews who became his masters presented him to Ibrahim,
then one of the most influential men in the kingdom. In
the family of Ibrahim he received the rudiments of a
literary education, and waa also instructed in the military
art He gradually gained- the affection of his patron to
such a degree that he gave him his freedom, psnnitted him
to marry, and promoted him to the rank of governor of a
A L I — A L I
673
district. " Afterwards te was elected to tlie elevated station
of one of the governors of provinces. Deprived of his
protector by death, and engaging in the dangerous intrigues
that pave the way to power in an unstable government, he
procured his own banishment t8 Upper Egypt. Here ho
spent two years in inaturing his schemes for future great-
jae3B; and in 1766, returning to Cairo, he either slew or
expelled the beys, and seized the reigns of government.
Emboldened by success, he rescued himself from the power
of the Porte, coined money in his own name, and assumed
tha rank of sultan of Egypt. Occupied in more important
concerns, the Porte made no vigorous opposition to his
measures, and Ali seized the opportunity to recover a part
of the Said, or UpiMr Egypt, which had been taken pos-
session of by an Arab sheik. He next sent out a fleet
from Suez, which, seizing upon Djedda, entered the port of
Mecca; ■while a body of cavahy, commanded by Mahomet
Boy, has favourite, took and plundered Mecca itself. Hav-
ing formed an allianco in 1770 with the Sheik Daher, a
rebel against the Porte in Syria, he aimed at the conquest
of all Syria and Palestine. He first endeavoured to secui-e
Gaza ; then his army, forming a junction with that of
Daher at Acre, advanced to Damascus. There, on the 6th
of June 1771, a battle was fought with the Turkish
pashas, and Mahomet and Daher, AJi's generals, routed
them with great slaughter. The latter instantly took pos-
session of Damascus, and the castle itself had also 'capitu-
lated, when Mahomet unexpectedly hastened back to
Egyi>t with all his Mamelukes. Some ascribe this strange
conduct to an impression made upon Mahomet by the
Turkish agents and others to a reoort of the death of
AU Bey.
Although unsuccessful, Ali never lost sight of his
favourite object; and Alahomot, losing his confidence,
was forced to save his life by exile. JIahoraet, however,
ijuickly returned with an army, and drove Ali Bey from
Cairo. In this unfoitunate state of affairs Ali iied to
Dalicr, and, combining their forces, they attacked the
Tiukish commander at Sidon, and came pff victorious,
although the Turkish army was three times their number.
After a siege of eight mouths, they next took the town of
Jaffa. Deceived by letters from Cairo, which were only
intended to ensnare him, and stimulated by his recent
victories, Ali returned to Cairo. Entering the deserts
which divide Gaza from Egypt, he was furiously attacked
by a thousand chosen Mamelukes led on by Murad Bey,
who was enamoured of All's wife, and had obtained the
[iromise of her, provided that he could take Ali captive.
AU was wounded, made prisoner, and carried to Mahomet.
He died three days after, from the effects either of poison
or of his wounds.
ALI PASHA, surnamed Arslan or " The Lion," was born
at Tc])clini, a vUlago of Albania, on the Voyutza, at the
foot of the Klissoura Mountains, in 17'11. He belonged
to the Tosko tribe, and his ancestors had for some years
hold the title of Bey of Tcpeliui, this dignity having
become hereditary in his family. His grandfather fcU in
171 C at the sioge of Corfu, which was th^n held by the
Venetians. His father, who died when Ali was in his
fourteenth year, is represented by most authoritie.'5 as a
man of amiable character and peaceful habits, who was
despoiled of his territories by the chiefs that Uved around
him ; but his mother was a woman of fierco and unyield-
ing disposition. Inciting her son to recover the posses-
sions of his father, she roused in him a spirit of cruelty and
aggression, tempered, however, by a considerable amount
of cunning and foresight, winch bore bitter fruit in his
riper years. Many romantic stories are told of All's
adventures at the outset of his career, but the only facts
that are known witli certainty are, that after living in the
mountains as a robber for some years, and enduring greaf
privations, he made himself master of his beyUk of 'Tepa-
lini by tho aid of his associates. He is said to have then
murdered his brother and imprisoned his mother, who
died shortly after, on a charge of attempting to poLsoa
1iiiii In order to increase and establish his power, ha'
then made overtures to tho Turkish government, by whose
orders he attacked and defeated the pasha of Scutari, then
in rebellion against tho sultan, and ptt to death Selim,
pasha of Delvino. for these acts he was rewarded by
being placed in possession of the whole of his father's
territories, and he was appointed lieutenant to the Derwend-
paeha of Rum-Ui, an officer who was charged with the
suppression of hrigandage and highway robbery in the
district. Ali, however, by permitting the robbers to go
unchecked in return for a share of the spoil, brought his
superior to disgrace and death, but escaped himself by
sending bribes to tho ministers of the sultan. For his
services in the field in the war between Prussia and Turkey
in 1787 ho was appointed pasha of Trikala in Thessaiy,
and Derwcnd-pasha of Rum-Ui. He soon cleared the
country of robbers, mainly by summoniug to his standard
all who were willing to serve under him, and by their aid
he took forcible possession of Joannina in 1788. By
means of the powerful body of troops at his command,
and the wise measures that he introduced, he wrought
considerable amelioration in the districts under his charge,
and the Porte seeing this, confirmed him in the pashaiik
of Joannina. His whole attention was now turned to the
aggrandisement of his territory and personal power. He
obtained possession of the western part of Northern Greece,
or Livadia as it was then called ; but was bafllcd for many
years in his attempts to occupy the country of the Suliotea
in the south-west of Epirus. These bravo and hardy
mountaineers at last, in 1803, agreed to evacuate their
country, and were treacherously massacred by. Ali while on
their way to the coast to embark for Corfu. ^Mien tho
French took Venice in 1797, Ali, by pretending admiration
for the principles of the revolution, induced Napoleon to
send him engineers, by whose aid he fortified Joannina ;
but failing to obtain from him, as he had hoped, the
Venetian ports on the seaboard of Epirus, he took occasion,
after the defeat of Napoleon in Egypt, to lay siege to
Prevesa, which was surrendered by the French troops.
Ali had now a dilficult part to play, but he succeeded so
well with his master the sultan, that ho was confirmed in
the possession of the whole of Albania northwards from
Epirus to Montenegro, over which ho had asserted his autho-
rity, partly by intrigue and partly by force of arms. He
also held the high position of governor of Rum-iU for a
brief period (1799), during which ho amassed a krgo
sum of money by his extortions. Tho cruel massacre of
the inhabitants of Oardiki, for an alleged insult to his
mother and sister about forty years previously, was perpe-
trated about this time. Ho contrived to make his peace
with tho French in spite of tho capture of Prevesa, Jnd
in 1807 once more entered into allianco with them, with
the view of obtaining Parga, which ho had attempted to
cajiture, but without success, in 1800. Napoleon, however,
neglected to secure Parga for him at tho peuce of Tilsit,
and tho fortress remained in tho hands of the" French
until it was taken in 1814 by the English, who gave it up
in 1817, ostensibly to the sultan, but in reality to AIL
Ali was now at tho height of his power : ho was almost
supremo over Albania, Epirus, part of Thessaiy, and tho
western part of Northern Greece; while one of his sous
held tho pashaUk of tho Moroa. So powerful was ho
that, though ho was nearly eighty years of age, tho Porte
feared and hated him, and desired his death, but coiild
find no good pretext for taking measures against him until
574
A L I — A L I
1820, when Ali procured the assassination of an ofBcer who
bad left him and taken service under the sultan at Con-
Blautinoplo. JiFor this daring act the sultan proscribed
Ali, and ordered all the European pashas to march against
him Ho resisted every effort to capture him, but was at
last induced by Kourschid Pasha to surrender in January
1822 on promiso of a pardon from tho sultan. On
5th February, on pretence of handing him the necessary
document, Kourschid Pasha procured an interview with
him, and then produced the firman authorising his execu-
tion. The brave old despot defended himself with his
usual resolution and courage, but was overpowered by
numbers, and his head was struck from his body and sent
to Constantinople.
ALIAS, signifying at another time, is tised m judicial
proceedings to connect tho several names of a person who
attempts to conceal his true name, or to pass under a
feigned one ; as Smith alias Jones, James aUaa John.
ALIBI, in Law, denotes tho absence of the accused from
the place where he is charged with having committed a
crime ; or his being elsewhere, as tho word imports, at tho
time specified.
ALICANTE, a province of Spain, bounded on the N.
by Valencia, on tho W. by Albaccte and ilurcia, on tho S.
by Murcia, and on the S.E. and E. by the Mediterranean
Sea. It was formed in 183-1 of districts taken from the
ancient provinces of Valencia and Murcia, the former con-
tributing by far tho larger portion. Its length is about 73
miles, its breadth 68 miles, and the area 2090 square miles.
The surface of the province is extremely diversified In
the north and west there are extensive mountain ranges
of calcareous formation, intersected by deep ravines ; while
farther south the land is more level, and there are many
fertile valleys. On the Mediterranean coast, salt marshes,
exhaling an insalubrious miasma, alternate with rich plains
and pleasant and productive huertas or gardens, such as
those of Alicante and Denia. There is no considerable
river in the province, but a few rivulets flow east through
the valleys into the Jlediterranean. The sky is clear, the
climate temperate, and the rainfall very slight. Notwith-
standing the want of rivers and of rain, agriculture is in a
very flourishing condition. The inhabitants possess a
spirit of steady industry uncommon in Spain, and by
means of wells and canals they have to a large extent suc-
ceeded in overcoming the disadvantages of nature. Many
tracts originally rocky and sterile have been levelled, and
now present terraces covered with the vine and with use-
ful trees. Cereals are groWn, but the inhabitants prefer
to raise such articles of produce as are in demand for
export, and consequently part of the grain supply of the
province has to be imported Esparto grass, rice, the
sugar-cane, and tropical fruits and vegetables are largely
produced Great attention is given to the rearing of bees
and silk-worms ; and tho wine of the province is held in
high repute throughout Spain, while some inferior kinds
arc* sent to France to be mixed with claret. Cattle are
not extensively reared. Tho most important minerals of
the province are lead, copper, iron, and coal There are
about twenty lead and copper mines ; and mineral springs
are found at various places. The manufactures consist of
fine cloths, silk, cotton, woollen and linen fabrics, girdles
and lace, paper, hats, leather, earthenware, and soap.
There are numerous oil -mills and brandy distilleries.
Many of the inhabitants are engaged in the carrying trade,
while the fisheries on the coast are also actively prosecuted,
tnnny and anchovies being caught in great numbers.
Barilla is obtained from the sea-weed on the shores, and
some of the B.^line marshes yield large supplies of salt
by spontaneous evaporation. The province is divided into
16 judicial divisions and 206 parishes. Alicante is the
cluet town, and the other places of importance are Denii
and VUlajoyosa on the coast; and Orihuela, Elche, Villena,
and Alcoy in the interior. Education is in a low state ;
of tho criminals arrested it is found that 14 in 15 can
neither road nor write. "The people are of a lively and
irascible temperament, and offences against tho person are
frequent. Population (1870), estimated at 440,000.
AiiCANTE, tho capital of the above province, and, after
Cadiz and Barcelona, tho most considerable seaport of
Spain. It is situated at the head of the bay of Alicante,
in tho Mediterranean Sea, in 38' 20' N. lat., and 0' 30'
W. long. The city is built on the bay in the form of
a half -moon, and is overlooked by a rock 400 feet high,
surmounted by a castle, which has been suffered to fall
into decay. There is good anchoring-ground in the bay,
but only the smaller vessels can come up to tho mole or
pier. The bay is protected by batteries, and there is a
fixed light on the mole, D5 feet high, and visible for a
distance of 15 miles. Alicante was tho Lucentum of the
Romans ; but notwithstanding its antiquity, the town pre-
sents a modern apnearance, and has few remains of Roman,
mediaeval, or MooKsh times. It is the seat of a bishop,
and has a cathedral and episcopal palace. It has also a
good town-house, an orphanage, a lyceum, a public library,
and a school of navigation. Cotton, linen, and woollen
goods, cigars, and confections are manufactured. There
is a considerable trado in the fruit and other produce of
the surrounding plain ; and the vino (into, or dark red
wine, produced in the vicinity, is sent to France for mixing
purposes. At the island of Plana, on the coast, very
beautiful marble is procured. The foreign trade of the
port, though still considerable, has greatly declined on
account of the imposition of an excessive import tariff.
In 1871, besides coasting traders, 372 Spanish and foreign
vessels, with a tonnage of 62,546, entered the port. Of
these vessels, 78 were British, measuring 29,021 tons.
The value of the imports under foreign and native flags
was £542,526, and the duties paid were £90,421, without
reckoning duties corresponding to material and fuel for
railways, which are admitted free. The chief imports are
coals, iron, machinery, and guano ; afid the chief exports
esparto — of which 11,000 tons were shipped in 1871 —
raisins, almonds, oranges, oUve oU, silk, saffron, wine, lead,
salt, and soda. There are hero English and other European
consuls. Alicante was besieged by the Moors in 1331,
and again by the French in 1709, when the English com-
mandant and his staff were killed by the explosion of a
mine. Population, 31,500.
ALICATA, or Licata, a seaport of Italy, in the pro-
vince of Girgenti, Sicily, situated on the south coast, at
the mouth of the Salso, the largest river in the island. It
is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient PhirUiat,
built by Phintiaa, tyrant of Agrigentum, in 280 B.C., after
the destruction of Gela. The neighbourhood was the scene
of many of the most memorable events of the Punic wars.
On the hiU overlooking the modern toira there are extensive
ancient remains. Alicata is now the most important com-
mercial town on the south coast of Sicily, though the port
is only an open shallow roadstead. The larger vessels lie
a mile off shore, and are laden and discharged by means of
barges. The chief trade is in sulphur, and "the other
exports include com, fruit, macaroni, soda, and Cicellenf
wine. Population, 16,000.
ALICUDI, one of the Lipari Islands. See IsakBl
Islands.
ALIEN, obviously derived from the Latin alienus, ia
the technical term appUed by British constitutional law to
any one who does not enjoy the privileges of a British
subject. The jealousy which has generally existed against
communicating the privileges of citizenship to foreigcars
ALIEN
675
fias its fouudation in mistaken views ot political economy.
It arose from the impression that the produce of the energy
and enterprise of any community is a limited quantity, ,
of which each man's share will be the less the more com-
petitors there are ; superseding the just view that the
wealth of a state depends on the number and energy of the
producers. Thus the skilled workmen who would increase
its riches have often been jealously kept out of a countrj-.
But, on the other hand, special temptations, including the
gift of citizenship, have often been offered to skilled
foreigners by states desiring to acquire them as citizens.
Britain has occasionally received industrious and valuable
citizens, driven forth by the foUy or tyranny of other
powers, as in the memorable instance of the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, which sent the Spitalfields colony and
many other Frenchmen to this country. Looking on the
full benefit of British citizenship as a transcendent boon,
the principle of our older legislation on the subject has
been to allow friendly aliens to possess at least a portion
of it. There never existed in Britain a law so harsh as
the Droit d'Aubaine of France, which confiscated to the
crown aU the property of a deceased alien. The courts of
justice have ever been opened to them, and they have thus
been entitled to protect themselves from any inequalities
whicb do not apply to them by special law. It seems to
be a rule of the general public law that an alien can be
sent out of the realm by exercise of the crowfi's prero-
gative ; but in modern practice, whenever it has seemed
necessary to extrude foreigners, a special Act of Parliament
has been obtained for the purpose. (See Phillimore's
Irder-aat. Law, vol i., p. 133; Forsyth's Cases and
Opinions on Const. Law, p. 181.)
Our law, save with the special exceptions mentioned
afterwards, aidmits to the privileges of subjects all who are
bom within the British dominions. In the celebrated
q'lestipn of the post-nati in the reign of James I. of
England, it was found, after solemn trial, that natives of
Scotland bom before the union of the crowns were aliens
in England, but that- those born subsequently enjoyed the
privileges ot English subjects. A child born abroad,
whose father or whose grandfather on the father's side
was a British subject, may claim the same privilege, unless
at the time of his birth his father was a traitor or felon, or
engaged in war against the British empire (4th Geo. II.
c. 22). Owing to this exceptional provi.sion, some sons of
Jacobite refugees, born abroad, who joined in the rebeUion
of 1745, were admitted to the privilege of prisoners of
war, because, as the conduct of their fathers deprived them
of the privileges of citizenship, they were held not to be
Uable to its burdens.
It has been enacted with regard to the national status
of women and children that a married woman is held to
be a citizen of the state of which her husband is for the
time being a subject ; that a natural-bom British woman,
having become an alien by marriage, and thereafter being
a widow, may be rehabihtated by certificate of the Secretary
of State ; that where a father or a widow becomes an alien,
the children in infancy becoming resident in the country
where the parent is naturalised, and being naturahsed by
the local law, are held to be subjects of that country ;
that those of a father or of a widow readmitted to
British nationaUty become British subjects also ; and that
the children of a father or of a widow who obtains a
certificate of naturalisation, becoming resident with such
parent in the United Kingdom, become naturalised (33 and
34 Vict. C. 14, s. 10). The same statute provides that a
declaration of aUenage before a justice of peace or other
competent judge, having the effect of divesting the declarant
of tha character of a British subject, may be made by a
naturalised British subject desirins to reswno the nationality
of the country to which he originally belonged, if there be
a convention to that efifect with that country ; by natural-
bom subjects who were also bom subjects of another state
according to its law ; or by persons bom abroad having
British fathers.
The main characteristic disabilities to which abens have
been subjected are incompetency to exercise political pri-
vileges, such as that of electing or being elected to sit
in Parhament, and incapacity to hold landed property.
The privilege of sitting on a jury was also counted among
the political rights from wliich they are excluded ; but
when a foreigner is on trial, he had in England the
privilege of the jury de medietate linguas, in which half
the panel consisted of foreigners, a privilege which was
taken away in 1870, and never existed in Scotland. An
aUen enemy can neither by himself nor assignee sue for
the recovery of a debt due to him in this country, unless
by the Queen's special licence. But his right to do so
revives when the war is terminated. (See Mr Justice Story's
judgment in Society for Propagation of the Gospel v.
Wheeler, 2 (Jallison's Reports, 127, and Phillimore's Inter-
national Laiv, iii. 121).
Many of the special disabilities to which aliens were
subject under the Navigation Act and other laws connected
■nith our old restrictive commercial policy, have been
removed or neutralised by the free trade measures of later
years; but it is still impossible, for an aUen to be the
owner of a British ship. In other respects the tendency
has been to communicate some of the rights of citizenship
to aliens, and to widen the definition of subjects.
Most of the acts of Parliament passed with regard to
abens during the last and the present centuries have been
repealed by 33 & 34 Vict. c. 14 — the Naturalisation Act,
1870. It enables aliens to take, acquire, hold, and dispose
of real and personal property of every description (except
British ships), and to transmit a title to land, in all respects
as natural-born British subjects. But the act expressly
declares that this relaxation. of the law does not qualify
aliens for any office or any municipal, parliamentary, or
other franchise, or confer any right of a British subject
other than those above expressed in regard to property,
nor does it affect interests vested in possession or expect-
ancy under dispositions made before the act, or by devolu-
tion of law on the death of any one dying before the act.
The Act 6 & 7 Wdl. IV. c. 11 has not been repealed by
the Act of 1870. It requires masters of vessels to intimate
the arrival of all aliens, who are thereby bound to have
their names registered and to obtain certificates of regis-
tration. It is believed that these conditions have seldom
been complied with or enforced.
It may be remarked that the repealed Act of 1864
(7 & 8 Vict. c. 66) was the first considerable relaxation of
the alien law. It communicated to the children bom
abroad of a British mother the prii-Uege of acquiring land
by purchase or succession. It gave friendly aliens the
privilege of holding leases for any time not exceeding
twenty-one years. Before this act the rights of citizenship
could only be conferred on aliens by statute ; and it was
enacted at the commencement of the Hanover succession,
that no private naturalisation bill should be brought in
unless it contained a clause disqualifying the person it
appUed to from being a privy councillor or a member of
Parliament, and from holding any office, ciiHl or military,
and from being a freeholder; but this restriction is repealed
by the act of 1844. Limited privileges could fomierly be
given by the sovereign's letters of denization ; but by the
act of 1844 an alien intending to reside and settle in
Britain was enabled, by application to the Home Secretary,
to obtain a certificate giWng him all the rights of a natural-
born subject, with certain exceptions. .^ Naturalisation-
576
A L 1
A L I
which ia accompanied by i)olit:cal and other righta,
privileges, and oVjligations, may now, under the act of
1870, bo obtained by applj-ing to the Homo Secretary and
producing evidence of having resided for not less than five
years in the United Kingdom, or of having been in (he
service of the crown for not less than five years, and of
intention to reside in the United Kingdom or serve under
the crown. Such a certificate may be granted by the
Secretary of State to one naturalised previously to the
passing of the act, or to a British subject as to whoso
nationality a doubt exists, or to a statutory aUen, i.e., one
who has become an alien by declaration in pursuance of
the aA 1870. The laws of a British colony with regard to
naturalisation have effect only -within the limits of that
colony. Naturalisation is also effected by the operation
of the law upon th'o acts of individuals, as a woman by
marriage acquires the nationality of her husband. The
naturalisation of a father carries with it that of his children
in minority ; and Fcclix holds that that of a wido.w. has the
same effect upon her minor children. (See Fcelii, Tr'aite
de Droit Jntemat. Priv., 1. L t. 2, b. 2; Savigny, Priv.
Internat. Law, translated by Guthrie, pp. 26, 31, 32;
Phlllimoro's Internat. Law, vol. i. ; Bar, Da^ Internat.
Privat und Strafrecht, § 30; Gand, Code des Etranyers ;
Uansard on Aliens; Heffter, Europ. Votkerrechl, § 59 sqq. ;
Sir A. E. Cockburn on XationcUity, Lond. 18G9; Cutler
on Naturalisation, Lond. 1871).
In the United States an alien aesiring to be naturalised
must declare on oath his intention to become a citizen of
tho United States ; two years afterwards must declare on
oath his intention to support the constitution of the United
States and renounce allegiance to every foreign power,
including that of which he was before a subject; must
prove residence in tho United States for five years, and in
the state where his application is made for one year, as a
good citizen ; and must renounce any title of nobility. In
France an alien desiring naturalisation must obtain per-
mission to establish his domicile in France ; three years
after (in special cases one year) he is entitled to apply for
naturalisation, which involves tho renunciation of any
existing allegiance. (See further, Allegiance and
International Law.)
ALIGAHH, a district of British India, in the Meeriit
division, and under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-
Governor of the North- West Provinces, lies between lat.
27° 29' and 2 8° 10' 30" N., and between long. 77°
32' 30" and 78° 42' 30" E It contains an area of 1954
square miles, of which upwards of two-thirds, or 884,060
acres, are under cultivation. Population in 18G5 returned
at 925,538 souls, and by the census of 1872 ascertained
to be 1,073,108. Allgarh is bounded on the N. by
the Bulandshahr district and a poation of Buddon ; on
the E. by Etah district; on the S. by Mathurd district;
and on the W. by GurgAon and Mathurd districts. The
district is nearly a level plain, but with a sUght elevation
in the centre, between the two great rivers, the Ganges and
Jamni. The only other important river is the KAU Nadf,
which traverses the entire length of thp district from
north-west to south-east.
The civil station and principal town is Koel, situated a short
distance to the south of Aligarh Fort. The chief products are
wheat, barley, jo4r, bajra, pulses, oil-seeds, gram, and indigo.
There are no manufactures. In 1870-71 the total net revenue of
the district was i^umed at £233,709, and the expenditure at
£45,483 ; the land revenue in the same year amounted to £19d,655,
or 84 per cent, of the total net revenue. Nine towns are returned
as containinf? a population of upwards of 6000 souls, aa follows : —
Koel, the civil station and principal city, population within mnni-
cipal limits, 65,228; Hdtras, population, 33,100; Atrauli, popula-
tion within municipal limits, 16,895 ; Sikandri Rio, population
within municipal limits, 11,988 ; Jaldli, population, 7516 ; Murain,
population, 6113; Topal, population, 6031; Bijaigarh,^ population.
6779 ; and Ilirdeoganj, population, B202. There arcfirr municipal
towna in the district, tho revenue raised being derived from octroi
duties. Tile following was tho municipal revenue and ita iccideiuu)
per head in 1871-72: — Koel (Aligarh), municipal revenue, £5467 ;•
mcidcncc. Is. ll]d. r>or head of the municipal population. U&triia,
municiiKii revenue, £5'.>21; 10b. ; incidence ^r head, 33. Ijd. Sik-
audra Kdo, municipal income, £505, 129, ; incidence, lOd. per head.
A^traulf, muoicipal income, £709 ; incidence, lOJd. per head.
Uardeoganj, municipal income, £462, 18a. ; incidence, la. BJd.
per bead. In 1871-72, tho district contained 370 schoola, attended
liy a total of 7939 pupils, of whom 6766 were Hindua and 1173
^iahomctans. For the protection of person and property, a regular
police force .is maintained, consisting of 1056 men of all grades,
equal to one man to every 1*85 square mile of area, or one to every
lyl6 of tho population. The Village Watch orrural police numbered
2000 in 1871, cjual to one man to every '67 square milee, or one to
every 536 iuhabitanta.
ALfOAEH Fort, in the district oi tho same name, is
situated on the Grand Trunk Road, in lat. 27° 50' N.,
and long. 78° 8' E. Tho fort consists of a regular poly-
gon, surrounded by a very broad and deep ditch. It was
captured from the Marhattis under the leadership of Perron,
a French officer, by Lord Lake's army, in September 1803,
since v.hich time it has been much strengthened and im-
proved. In the rebellion of 1857 the troops stationed at
Aligarh mutinied, but abstained from murdering their
officers, who, with the other residents and ladies and
children, succeeded in reaching Hitrds.
ALIMENT, in the Law of Scotland, is the sunxpaid or
allowance given in respect of tho reciprocal obligation of
parents and children, husband and wife, grandparents and
grandchildren, to contribute to each other's maintenance.
Tho term is also used in regard to a similar obligation of
other parties, as of creditdrs to imprisoned debtors, the
payments by parishes to paupers, itc. . Alimentary funds,
whether of the kind above mentioned, or set apart as such
by the deed of a testator, are intended for the mere support
of the recifiient, and arj not attachable by creditors.
ALIMONY is, in English Law, tho allowance for main-
tenance to which- a vnie is entitled out of her husband's
estate on a decree, obtained at tho wife's instance, for
judicial separation or for the dissolution of the marriage.^
It is settled by the judge of the Divorce Court on a con-
sideration of aU the circiimstances of the case.
ALISON, Rev. Archibald, *an author of great reputa-
tion in his own day, was born on the 13th November
1757 at Edinburgh, of which his father vTas for a time
lord provost After studj-ing at the univeEsity of Glasgow
and at BaUiol college, Oxford, he took orders in the Church
of England, and was appointed in 1778 to tho curacy of
Brancepeth, near Durham. In 1780 he married Dorotiea,
youngest daughter of Professor Gregory of Edinburgh.
The next twenty years of his life were spent in Shropshire,
where he held in succession the livings of High Ercall,
Roddington, and Kenley. » In 1800 he removed to Edin-
burgh, iarving been appointed senior incumbent of St
Paul's chapel in the Cowgate. For thirty-four years he
fiUed this position vrith great acceptance, his preaching
attracting so many hearers that a new and .larger church
was bmlt for him. His last years were spent at Colinton,
near Edinburgh, where he died on the 17th May 1839.
Mr Alison published, besides a Life of Lord Woodhouselee,
a volume of sermons, which passed through several editions,
and a work entitled Essays on the Nature and Principles
of Taste, which received a very laudatory criticism from
Lord Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review for May 1811. His
theory of the beautiful, which is based on the principle
of association, is incomplete and unsatisfactory, and his
work is now only of historical importance. Two sons
of Mr Alison attained distinction. The elder, Dr Wil-
liam Pulteney Alison, born in 17S0, was from 1820
until within a few years of his death, in 1859, a pro-
minent member of the medical faculty in the imivaraity
A L I - A L I
577
of Eilinburgli. The younger son is the subject of the
following notice.
ALISON, Sib Aechibald, Bart., the celebrated his-
torian, younger son of the preceding, was born at Kenley,
Shropshire, on the 29th December- 1792. He studied at
.the university of Edinburgh, distinguishing himself espe-
cially in the classes of Greek and mathematics. In 1814
he passed at the Scotch bar, but he did not at once enter
on the regular practice of his profession. The close of the
'war had opened up the Continent, and Alison, sharing with
many of his countrynen the desire to witness the scene of
the stirring events of the previous twenty years, set out in
the autumn of 1814 for a lengthened tour in France. It
was during this period, as he teUs us in a characteristic
passage of the work itself, that he "conceived the first
idea" of writing his History, and "inhaled that ardent
spirit, that deep enthusiasm," which enabled him to accom-
plish his self-imposed task. A more immediate result of the
tour was his first literary work of any importance. Travels
in France during the Years 1814-15, which appeared in
the latter year. On his return to Edinburgh, Mr Alison
practised at the bar for some years with but very moderate
success. In 1822, however, he became one of the four
advocates-depute for Scotland. The extensive and varied
experience gained in this office, which he held until 1830,
gave him the necessary quaUfications for writing his Prin-
ciples of the Criminal Law of Scotland (1832), aad Practice
cf the Criminal Laio of Scotland (1833), works that are
stiU of standard authority. It was the acknowledged merit
of these treatises that chiefly induced Sir Robert Peel,
during his brief administration of 1834, to confer on Mr
Alison the important judicial office of sheriff of Lanark-
shire, which ranks next in dignity and emolument to a
judgeship in the supreme court. The office, though by no
means a sinecure, afforded considerable leisure, which Mr
Alison employed in not only making frequent contribu-
tions to periodical literature, but also writing the long-
projected History of Europe, for which he had been collect-
ing materials for more than fifteen years. The history of
the period from the commencement of the French revolu-
tion till the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815 was
completed in ten volumes in 1842, and met with a success
almost unexampled in works of its class. Within a few
years it ran through ten editions, and was translated into
most of the languages of Europe, as well as into Arabic
and HindustanL At the time of the author's death it was
stated that 108,000 volumes of the library edition and
439,000 volumes of the popular edition had been sold. A
popularity so wide-spread must almost of necessity have
had some basis of real merit on which to rest, and the
good qualities of Mr AHson's work lay upon the surface.
It brought together, though not always in a well-arranged
form, an immense amount of information that had before
been practicaDy inaccessible to the general public. It
made an attempt at least to show the organic connection
in the policy and progress of the different nations of
Europe ; and its descriptions of what may be called ex-
ternal history — of battles, sieges, and state pageants — were
always spirited and interesting. On the other hand, the
faults of the work were so numerous and glaring as to
prevent it from ever taking rank as a classic. The general
style was prolix, involved, and vicious; inaccurate state-
ments and fallacious arguments were to be found in almost
every page; and the constant repetition of trite moral
reflections and egotistical references seriously detracted
from 'ts dignity. A more grave defect resulted from the
luthor's strong political jiartisanship, which entirely un-
fitted him f(5r dealing with the problems of history in a
poilosophical spirit. In the position of unbending Toryism
which ho occupied, it was imjossible for hiiii to give any
1—20
explanationi of so complex a fact as the French revolution
that wouid be satisfactory to reflective minds. Accordingly,
his treatment of what may be called the inner history of
those forces hidden in the French revolution which have
made modern Eurone what it is, was meagre and incompletn
in the last degree.
A continuation of the Histoiy, embracing the period from
1815 to 1852, which was completed in four volumes in
185G, did not meet with the same success as the earlier
work. The course of events did not afford the same
material for the exercise of the author's powers of descrip-
tion, and the period being so near as to be almost contem-
porary, there was a stronger temptation, which he seems
to have found it impossible to resist, to yield to political
prejudice. Three great measures of EngUsh legislation —
the Act restricting the paper currency, the Reform Act of
1832, and the Act abolishing the corn laws — were the
object of his special aversion ; and, with Little regard for
consistency, he was in the habit of tracing, now to one and
now to another of these measures, all the real and many
imaginary evils in the state of the nation. On the currency
question, in regard to which he stood from the first almost
alone in opinion, he has inserted several tedious disserta-
tions in the continuation of his History, besides publishing
a separate pamphlet in 1847. On the two other great
measures he clung tenaciously to his opinion long after the
more intelligent of his party had admitted the necessity, if
not the justice, of the concessions that had been made.
The use which Mr AUson made of statistics in the con-
tinuation of his History to support his peculiar political
and economic theories was little short of astounding. Ha
win be acquitted of intentional unfairness only by those
who are aware, not merely how easy it is to make figures
yield any result that may be wished, but also how dilSsult
it is to bring out the correct result, even with the most
honest purpose, unless there be special aptitude and special
training on the part of the investigator.
Mr Alison's successful Uterary career received from time
to time due recognition in the form of public honours.
In 1845 he was chosen rector of Marischal College, Aber-
deen, and in 1851 he was raised to the same honourable
position by the students of Glasgow University. In 1852
the dignity of baronet was conferred upon him by Lord
Derby, and in the following year he was made a D.C.L. of
Oxford. His literary activity continued tiU within a short
time of his death, the chief works he published in addition
to his History being the Principles of Population (1840),
in answer to Mai thus ; a Life of Marlborough (1847); .and
the Lives of Lord Castlereagh and Sir C. Stewart (1861).
Three volumes of his poUtical, historical, and miscellaneous
essays were reprinted in 1850. Sir Archibald died at
Fossil House, Glasgow, on the 23d May 1867.
ALIZARIN, the principal colouring matter of madder,
may be obtained by subliming on paper an alcoholic extraet
of madder, or by exhausting the root with water, precipi-
tating with sulphuric acid, dissolving the moist precipitate
in a solution of chloride of alumina, and separating the
impure aUzarin by the addition of hydrochloric acid. The
impure alizarin is dissolved in alcohol, and separated as a
lake on treating with hydrate of alumina, which is now
boiled with carbonate of soda to separate another colouring
matter called purpurin, and is finally treated with hydro-
chloric acid, which dissolves the alumina and leaves tha
pure substance.
Alizarin in the anliydrous state forms red prismS, and
in tho hydratcd condition crystals like mosaic gold. It
dissolves s])aringly in water even at the boiling point, but
is soluble in alcohol or ether. Mineral acids do not de-
compose the colouring matter at ordinary tomperatorea.
Caustic alk.alia or_alkaline carbonates dissolve aUzaria'
578
A L K — A L L
fomung def:p purple solutions, from which aciJti precipitate
In orange-coloured flckes. Alizarin has the atoiuio com-
position C„HjO„ and hoa recently been made synthetically
from the hydrocarbon C,,!!,,, called anthracene, which
occurs among the products of the deetructivo distiihition
of coaL This is the first example of the artificial forma-
tion of a natural colouring matter. For further details
Bee CnEMisTEY.
ALKALI, a term originally applied to the ashes of
plants, now employed in inorganic chemistry as a generic
name given to the group of compounds that have the pro-
perty of neutralising acids. The use of the ' term is,
however, generally confined to such members of the group
as are soluble in water. The most somble alkaline bodies
arc the oxides of potassium (potash), sodium (soda), lithium
(Uthia), and ammonium (aqueous ammonia); and next in
order the oxides of calcium (lime), barium (baryta), and
stirontium (strontia). The solutions of these bodies exert
a caustic or corrosive action on vegetable and 'animal sub-
stances, and precipitate the oxides of the heavy metals from
solutions of their salts. Many vegetable colouring matters
are changed in tint by alkaline solutions — for instance,
reddened litmus becomes blue, yellow turmeric brown, and
syrup of violets and infusions of red cabbage green.
ALKALOIIiS, the name of a group of organic bodies that
possess alkaline properties. ' They are characterised by the
property of combining with acids to form salts, and many
have the power of giving an alkaline reaction with vege-
table colours. All the natural alkaloids contain nitrogen
as an essential constituent, and they are especially marked
by possessing great medicinal power. Many artificial
alkaloids have been made of recent years in which phos-
phoniSj arsenic, and antimony occupy the place of nitrogen.
For the individual properties, tests, &c., of different alka-
loids, see Che.mistey.
ALKANET {Alkanna tinctoria, or Anchusa tinctoria),
a plant of the order Boraghiacece, indigenous to the south
of France and the shores of the Levant. It is extensively
cultivated on the Continent for the sake of the root, which
yields a fine colouring matter, imparting a beautiful car-
mine tint to oils, wines, wax, and all unctuous substances.
Being perfectly harmless, alkanet is much used for colour-
ing in pharmacy. Some of the mixtures styled port wine
owe their colour to this dye, and it is also employed in
staining furniture.
AL-KINDI, Abu Yusup, &c., styled by pre-eminence
" The Philosopher of the Arabs," flourished during the first
half of the 10th century, and dial at some unknown date
posterior to 961. His literary activ ity was encyclopaedic, and
spread itself over all the sciences. The titles of his works
number nearly 200 in the catalogue of Casiri, and amount to
265 in that of Fliigel; but the latter appears in some cases to
have enumerated the same works under two divisions, and it
is doubtful whether the philosopher has not been confounded
with another writer of the same name. His treatises are
arranged under the following heads, which throw some
light on his classification of the sciences : — Philosophy in
general, logic, poMtics, ethics, arithmetic (under which he
discusses the unity of God), spherology, theory of music
(which was closely connected with all primitive speculation
from its religious character), astronomy, meteorology, geo-
metry, cosmology (the form, <5ic., of the heavens), astrology,
medicine, and on various arts, besides his commentaries
and controversial writings. Of all these, none except some
treatises on medicine and astrology remain. Others of
them must have been known in the Middle Ages, for
Al-Kindi is placed by Roger Bacon, along with Alhaien,
in the first rank after Ptolemy as a writer on perspective
(optics). Some of them were certainly translated by
Gerard of Cremona. Whatever his influence may have been
on the Schoolmen, ho was tmdoubtedly a great initiator
as regards his countrymen. He was one of the earlieet
trauslatorB and commentators of Aristotle, but he appears
to have been, like Al-Farabi, superseded by Aviccnna.
He marks the first philosophic revolt against Islamism,
and his doctrine on the simplicity and nnity of the Deity
was apparently equally Aristotelian and un-Mahometan.
See Fliigel, Abhandlungen fiir die Kunde da Mcnrgen-
landa, erstcr Band, 1859.)
ALKMAAB, a town of the Netherlands, in the province
of North Holland, situated on the Helder canal and on
the railway between Haarlem and the Helder, about 20
miles N.N.W. of Amsterdam. The streets of Alkmaar
are extremely neat and regular, and are intersected by
canals lined with trees, while the ramparts of the town
have been converted into beautiful boulevards. Many of
the public buildings are elegant, especially the church of
St Lawrence, a Gothic edifice of the 15th century. Alk-
maar is the scat of a court of primal^ jurisdiction and of
a tribunal of commerce, and possesses good schools as well
as several literary and scientific societies. Its principal
article of commerce is cheese, for which it is said to be the
chief market in the kingdom, if not in the world. Besides
cheese, it has a good trade in butter, com, and cattle, and
manufactures of salt, sailcloth, soap, vinegar, and leather.
Alkmaar successfully sustained a siege by the Duke of
Alba in 1573, and in 1799 gave its name to a convention
signed by the Duke of York and the French general
Brune, in accordance with which the Russo-British army
evacuated Holland. Population, 12,000.
ALKMAAR, Heinrik von, the German translator of
the celebrated satirical poem Seineke de Vot, flourished in
the latter half of the 15th century. In the preface to his
work, which is the only source of information as to his life,
he states that ht was tutor to the Duke of Lorraine, and
that he translated the poem from the Walsch. In spite of
the latter statement, many have attributed the authorship
to him ; but it is now known that the story had a much
earb'er origin. Some have supposed the name Alkmaar to
be a pseudonym.
ALL-SAINTS DAY, Ali^Haixows, or Hailowmab, a
festival, first instituted about 610a.d., on the Istof May,
ia memory of the martyrs, and celebrated since 834 on the
1st of November, as a general commemoration of all the
saints. As the number of saints increased, it became im-
possible to dedicate a feast-day to each. Hence it waa
found expedient to have an annual aggregate commemora-
tion of such as had not special days for themselves. The
festival is common to the Roman Catholic, English, and
Lutheran churches. See Beltane.
ALLAH, the Arabic name for the one tme God which
is employed in the Koran, and has been adopted into the
language of all Mahometan nations. It is compounded of
al, the definite article, and ilah. meaning worthy to be
adored. See Mahometanism.
ALLAHAbAD, a division, district, and city of British
India, under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of
the North-Westem Provinces. The Attattatjati Division
c:/mprises the six districts of AllahdbAd, Cawnpur, Fathi-
pur, Hamirpur, Bindd, and Jaunpur. It is bounded on
the north and east by the Etiwah and FarrakMbid
districts and the province of Oudh; on the south by the
Benares division and the Rewah state; and on the west
by the states of Bandelkhand and the cThdnsl division.
Total population (1872), 5,466,116.
AllahIbAd District lies between 24° 49' and 25° 44'
N. lat., and between 81° 14' and 82° 26' E. long. In shape
the district is that of an irregular oblong; and it is diffi-
cult accurately to describe its boundaries, as at one extre-
mity it wanders into Oudh, while on the south the villages
A L L - A L L
579
of the stata of Eewah and those or this district are hope-
lessly intermingled. Roughly speaking, however, the boun-
daries may be described as follows : — On the north by the
district of Jaunpur and by the Ganges ; on the west by the
districts of Fatlupur and BindA; on the south by the inde-
pendent state of Rewah; and on the east by the districts
of Mirzapur and Jaunpur. The settlement of the district
is at present undergoing revision; and as the measurements
are still incomplete, it is impossible to state the exact area.
For practical purpo^os, it may be estimated at 2802 square
mUcs, or 1,793,906 acres, of which 1,065,990 acres are
cultivated, and 727,916 acres are uncultivated; of this
latter, however, there are about 250,000 acres capable of
being brought under tillage, although not actually culti-
vated. The census of 1872 returned the population of the
district at l,394,2i5 souls, of whom 1,211,778 are Hindus,
181,57-4 Mussulmans, and 893 Christians. There is, how-
ever, a manifest error in these figures, as the European and
Eurasian population of AUahdbid city alone cannot be set
at a lower figure than 3500. The census returns are in
consequence undergoing revision. Of the Hindu popula-
tion, 173,916 are returned as Brdhmans.
The Jamnd and the Ganges meet at Allahabad city, and enclose
T;ithin their angle a fertile tract, well ijTi^ated by means of tanks
and wells. The East Indian Eailway and the Grand Trunk road
afTord the principal means of land communication. * The former
<ntcrs the district from the east, crosses the Jamna at AUahabid
city, and travels westward, leaving the district near Khiga station-
The Gland Trunk road enters Allahabdd from the north-east, meets
the railway at Allahabad city, and thence runs almost parallel with
it till it l.-aves the district. Only three towns are returned as- con-
taining a population of over 5000 souls — viz., Allahdbad, population
144,464 ; ilanaimd, population 6146 ; and Chizwd, population 6791.
Rice is the principal crop, the area under it being returned at
139,000 acres, and the average produce at 6 J cwt. per acre. A
little more than half of the total rice crop is retained lor local con-
sumption, and the remainder exported. The average price of com-
mon rice in February 1873 was 6s. 9d. per cwt. Pulses are also
giuwn in largo quantities, the area under the various sorts being
about the same as rice, and the yield also about the same. Joar
aud bajra cover as largo an area as either rice or pulses, but the
yield is neither so largo nor of such value. About half the crop
is s lid to be annually exported. Wheat is cxiltivated to the extent
of about 150,000 c^vt. per annum, of which about one-half is
exported; the average yield is said to bo about 64 cwt. per acre,
aud tho average price from Cs. 2d. to 63. 9d. per cwt. Mustard,
tobacco, opium, linseed, and indigo are also cultivated largely, with
cotton and sugar-cane in small quantities. Indigo stands first among
tho manufactures of the district, and largo factories exist at Alam-
I'hdiid, Sarai Salem, Gadiipur, Kansaridh, Thardai, and Dum-duma.
Those are generally under the supervision of European managers,
aud the produce is forwarded direct to the Calcutta market Next
to iudigo, tho most important industry is stone-cutting. The stone
is cliiolly quarried from a low range of hills ncai Shiorajpur, whence
it is carried in country carts to the Jamnd river ; and after crossing
it in fiat-bottomed boats, it is finally landed at Balwd Ghat, Here
tiio stone-masons take it in hand. The gross income of tho Balwa
VJhdt stono traders is cstiniatod at £2000 per annum. A brisk
i: jdf is also carried on in hides, the principal mart being the villa'-o
o{ Karwa, in Ardil fiscal division, where it ia estimated that the
bvtio of skins amounts to upwards of £10,000 per annum for the
Mirzapur and Calcutta hide markets. Paper is manufactured in
tho fiscal division of Karrd, and a considerable quantity exported to
Oudh. Several villages in th» fiscal divisions of Karri and Chail
arc noted for tho manufacture of brass and copper vessels ; and iron
vessels are largely manufactured in Khairdgarh, Karrd, and Phulpur.
Tho E.ast ludia Railway Company havo a large castor-oil manufac-
tory at the village of Manauri. The total net revenue of tho district
in 1871 - 72 is returned at £244,637, and tho total net civil expenditure
at £51,770. The district passed into the hands of tho English in
1801, by a treaty between the Vazir of Oudh and the East India
Company.
ALLAn.lBAD City, the capital of the North-Western
Provii. -es, is also the administrative headquarters of
the AJlahAbdd division and of the district of the same
name. It ia situated at tho confluence of the Ganges and
Jamni rivers, in 25° 26' N. lat, and 81° 65' E. long.
Its moat conspicuous feature is the fort, which rises
directly from the banks of the confluent rivers, and com-
pletely commands the navigation of both streams. Within
the fort are the remains of a splendid palace, erected by
the Emperor Akbar, and once a favourite residence of his.
A great portion of it has been destroyed, and its hull ia
converted into an arsenaL Outside the fort, the places
most of importance are the Sarii and garden of Khasru,
the son of the Emperor Jahdngir, and the Jumi Masjid,
or great mosque. When the town first came into the
hands of the English this mosque was used as a residence
by the military officer commanding the station, and after-
wards as an assembly-room. Ultimately it was returned
to its former owners, but the Mahometans considered it
desecrated, and it has never since been tised as a place ol
worship. AllahdbAd is one of the most noted resorts of
Hindu pilgrimage. It owes its sanctity to its being the
reputed confluence of three sacred streams — the Ganges,
the Jamni, and the Saraswati. This last stream, however,
is not visible. It leaves the HimAlayas to the west of the
JamnA, passes close to Thineswar in the Panjdb, 'and
loses itself in the sands of Sirhind, 400 miles north-west
of Allahdbid. The Hindus, however, assert that the stream
joins the other two rivers under ground, and in a subter-
raneous temple below the fort a little moisture trickling
from the rocky walls is pointed out as the waters of the
Saraswatt An annual fair is held at AJlahdbid, at the
confluence of the streams, on the occasion of the great
bathing festival, at the fuU moon of the Hindu month of
MAgL AllahdbAd was taken by the British, in the year
1765, from the A'^azir of Oudh, and assigned as a residence
for ShAh Alam, tho titular Emperor of Dehli. Upon that
prince throwing himself into the hands of the JIarhattAs,
the place was resumed by us in 1771, and again trans-
ferred to the NawAb of Oudh, by whom it was finally
ceded, together with tho district, to the British in 1801,
in commutation of the subsidy which tho Vazir had agreed
to pay for British protection. The population and trade
of AllahAbAd city have rapidly increased of late years.
According to the census of 1853, the city and suburbs
contained 72,098 inhabitants. Before 1872 ths popula-
tion had exactly doubled, the census returns for that year
exhibiting a total population of 144,464. The municipal
income and expenditure of AllahAbAd city in 1871-72 were
as follows r^Income — Octroi duties. £13,676, 14s. ; tax on
professions, £220, lOs.; carriage tax, £1264, 4s.; proceeds
of the Hindu fair and ground rents, £5364 : total municipal
income, £20.525, 8s.; incidence of taxation, 23. lid. per
head of the population. Expenditure — Establishment, in-
cluding cost of collection, police, conservancy, and lighting,
£9906. 4s. ; streetwatering, £1002, 12s. ; new works, £7677,
16s.; repairs, £1088, 23.; vaccination, £20; dispensary,
£330; charities, £250; Alfred Park, £800; other items.
£223, 2s. : total, £21,297, I63. Allahabdd forms the junc
tion of the great railway system which unites Bengal with
Central India and Bombay, and it is rapidly developing
into a great centre of inland and export trade.
ALLiHIAND, Jean Nicolas Sebastian, natural philo-
sopher, born at Lausanne in 1713, was educated for tho
church, and held for a short time a" clerical appointment
at Leyden. Here he enjoyed the patronage and friendship
of the celebrated S'Gravesende, who made him his
literary executor. In 1747 he was appointed professor of
philosophy and natural history at Franeker, and two years
later ho was transferred to a similar chair at Tyeyden, which
ho occupied until his death in 1787. jUlamand's chief
service to science consisted in translating and editing the
scientific works of others, but he also made some original
discoveries of importance, especially in connection with
electricity. He was the first to explain fully the pheno-
mena of the Leyden jar, and he made a near approach to
the discovery of negative electricity. He greatly enriched
580
the botanical garden and natural history museum at
Leyden by specimens from all quarters of the globe. His
trauislation of Buifon's works was published at Amsterdam,
in. thirty-eight quarto volumes, between 1766 and 1779.
Allamand was a member of the Royal Society of London
and of the Academy of Sciences at Haarlem.
ALLAN, David, a Scottish historical painter of consider-
able celebrity, was bom at Alloa on the ISthFebruary 1744.
Mf a very early age he gave such proofs of natural artistic
talent as led to his being placed under the care of the .Messrs
Poulis, who some time before had instituted an academy
in Glasgow for painting and engraving. On leaving the
academy (1762), after seven years' successful study, ho
obtained the patronage of Lord Cathcart and of Erskine of
ttlai, on whose estate ho had been bom. The latter furnished
him with the means of proceeding to Rome (1764), where
he remained for a number of yes'.rs engaged pi-incipally in
copying the old masters. Among th? original works which he
than painted was the "Origin of Portraiture" — represent-
liig a Corinthian maid drawing her lover's shadow — well
known through Cunego'a excellent engraving. This gained
for him the gold medal given by the Academy of St Luke
is ihef year 1773 for the best specimen of historical com-
posidon. Returning from Rome in 1777, ho resided for a
time in London, and occupied himself in portrait-painting.
la 1780 he removed to.Edinburgh, where, on the death of
Alexander Runciman in 1786, he was appointed director
and master of the Academy of Arts. There he painted and
etched in aquatint a variety of works, those by which he is
best known — as the Scotch Wedding, the Highland Dance,
the Kepenlance Stool, and his Illustrations of the Gentle
Shepherd — being remarkable for their comic humour. He
has had frequently applied to him the name of the "Scottish
Hogarth ;" but his drolleries are not to be compared for a
moment with the productions of the great English satirist
Allan died at Edinburgh on the Cth August 1796.
ALLAN, Sis William, R.A, and president of the
Royal Scottish Academy, was born at Edinburgh in 1782.
At an early age he was entered as a pupil in the School
of Design established in Edinburgh by the Board of
Trustees for Arts and Manufactures, where he had as
companions, Wilkie, Bumet the engraver, and others
who aftarwards distinguished themselves as artists. Here
Allan and Wilkie were placed at the same table, studied
the same designs, and contracted a friendship which termi-
nated only with their lives. Leaving the Edinburgh
sAool, Allan prosecuted his studies for some time in'
I^CHidon ; but his attempt to establish himself there was
unsuccessful, and after exhibiting at the Royal Academy
(1-805) his first picture, A Gipsy Boy and Ass, an imitation
in style of Opie, he determined, in spite of his scajity
resources, to seek his fortune abroad. He accordingly set
oat the same year for Russia, but was carried by stress of
weather to Memel, where he remained for some time, sup-
porting himself by his pencil At last, however, he reached
St Petersburg, where the kindness of Sir Alexander Crichton,
the court physician, and other friends procured him abundant
employment. The emoluments of his profession enabled
him by and by to make excursions into southern Russia,
T«rkey, the Crimea, and Circassia, where he fiUed his
portfolio with vivid sketdies, of which he made admirable
use in his subsequent pictures. In 1814 he returned to
Edinburgh, and in the two following years exhibited at
the Royal Academy The Circassian Captives and Bashkirs
conducting ConvicU to Siberia. The former composition,
•which united graceful forms and powerful expression with
novel and picturesque costumes, established his reputation
a3 a master in the highest walk of art ; but the picture
remained so long unsold in the studio of the artist, that,
thoroughly disheartened, he threatened to retire to Circassia
A L L — A L L
when, through the kindness' of Sir Walter Scott, a sub-
scription of 1000 guineas was obtained for the picture,
which fell by lot into the possession of the Earl of Wemysa.
About the same time the Grand Duke Nichoks, after-
wards emperor of Russia, visited Edinburgh, and purchased
his Siberian Ezilet and Ilaslan Gheray crossing the Sivcr
Kuban, giving a very favourable turn to the fortunes of
the painter, whose pictures were now sought for by col-
lectors. From this time to 1834 we find him pursuing
his art in the sphere in which he achieved his greatest
success and firmly established his fame, the illustration of
Scottish history. His mosf important works of this class
were Archbishop Sharpe on Magtu Moor; John Knox
admonishing Mary Queen of Scots (1823), engraved by
Bumet; Mary Queen of Scots signing her Abdication
(1824); and Regent Murray shot by Hamilton of BothweU-
haugk. The last procured his election as an associate of
the Royal Academy (1825). Later Scottish subjects were
Lord Byron (1831), portraits of Scott, end Tlie Orphan
(1834), which represented Anne Scott seated near the chair
of her deceased father. In 1830 he was compelled, on
account of an attack of ophthalmia, to seek a milder cli-
mate, and visited Rome, Naples, and Constantinople. He
returned with a rich store of materials, of which he made
excellent use in his Constantinople Slave Market and other
productions. "In 1834 ho visited Spain and Morocco, and
in 1841 went again to St Petersburg, when he undertook,
at the request of the Czar, his Peter tlte Great teaching his
Subjects the Art of Shipbuilding, exhibited in London in
1845, and now in the Winter Palace of St Petersburg.
His Polish Exiles and Moorish Love-letter, Ac, had secured
his election as a Royal Academician in 1 835 ; he waa
appointed president of the Royal Scottish Academy (1838),
and limner to Her Majesty for Scotland, after Wilkie'g
death (1841); and in 1842 received the honour of knight-
hood. His later years were occupied with battle-pieces,
the last he finished being the second of his two companion
pictures of the Battle of Waterloo. He died on the 22d
February 1850, leaving a large picture unfinished — Bruce at
Bannockbum — which exhibits no traces of impaired power.
ALLEGHANY, A r.i.F.GHEjry, or 'Allegant Moun-
TALN3, is the name often given to the Appalachian Moun-
tains in the United States. A more exact use of the name
restricts it to the portion of the system that lies west of the
Hudson river, and forms the watershed of the Mississippi
basin on the south-east. See Appalachian Mountains.
ALLEGHANY, a river of the United States, which
rises in the north of Pennsylvania, and after flowing about
300 miles, first in a northerly, but for the greater part of
its course in a westerly direction, during which it passes
for a short distance into the state of New York, unite*
with the Monongahela at Pittsburg to form the Ohio.
The country through which it flows is mostly hilly, and
large numbers of pines, white oaks, and chestnuts grow
upon its banks. It is navigable for small steamers for
about 200 miles above Pittsburg.
ALLEGHENY, a large suburb of Pittsbueo {q.v.) In
1870 it contained 53,180 inhabitants.
ALLEGIANCE, either derived from the French alle-
geance or taken from the same Latin source, has been used
to express that duty which a person possessing the privi-
leges of a citizen owes to the state to which he belongs,
and is technically applied in law to the duty which a
British subject owes to the sovereign as representing the
state. It has been divided by th« English legal com-
mentators into natural and local ; the latter applying only
to the deference which a foreigner must pay to the ittstitu-
tions of the country in which he happens to live ; but it
is in its wider,sense that the word is important, as repre-
senting a condition attached to mankind of which it is
A L L — A L L
581
very difficult in theory, and still more in practice, to adjust
the true character and limits. For a state to decide what
persons are bound to it by allegiance may be easy, but for
a man to know where his allegiance lies when two or more
states claim him — and hence for jurists to decide what is
the- reasonable extent to which any state ought to make
such a claim— is often involved in difficulty. The English
doctrine, which was also adopted in the United States,
asserted that allegiance was indelible. Nemo potest exuere
pairiam (Forsyth's Cases and Opinions in Constitutional
Law, pp. 257, sqq., 333, sq.) Accordingly, as the law
stood before 1870, every person born within the Eritish
dominions, though he should be removed in infancy to
another country where his family resides, owes an allegiance
to the British crown which he could never resign or lose,
eicept by Act of Parliament or by the recognition of the
independence or the cession of the portion of British terri-
tory in which he resided. By the Naturalisation Act, 1870,
33 ii 34 Vict. c. 14 (see Alien), it was made possible for
British subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance,
and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined.
So British subjects voluntarily naturalised in a foreign state
are deemed aUens from the time of such naturalisation,
unless, in the case of persons naturalised before the passing
of the Act, they have declared their desire to remain British
subjects within two years from the passing of the Act.
Persons who, from having been born within British territory
are British subjects, but who at birth becaoae under the
law of any foreign state subjects of such state, and also
persons who, though born abroad are British subjects by
reason of parentage, may by declarations of alienage get rid
of British nationality.
AiLEOiANCE, Oath of, an oath of fidelity to the sove-
reign taken by all persons holding public office. By
ancient common law it might b'^ required of aU persons
abore the age of twelve, and i\ has repeatedly been used
as a test for the disaffected It was first imposed by
statute in the reign of Elizabeth (I. c. 1), and its form has
more than once been altered since. Up to the time of the
Revolution the promise was " to be true and faithful to
the king and his heirs, and truth and faitih'to bear of life
and limb and terrene honour, and not to know or hear of
any ill or damage intended him without defending him
therefrom." This was thought to favour the doctrine of
absolute non-resistance, and accordingly the Convention
Parliament enacted the form that has been in use since
that fime — " I do sincerely promise and swear that I will
be faithful and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen
Victoria." These words are included in the form pre-
scribed by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48, which substitutes one oath
for the oaths of allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration.
ALLEGORY (aAAo9, other, and dyopeuu), to speak), a
figurative representation conveying a meaning other than
and in addition to the literal. It is generally treated as a
figure of rhetoric, but the medium of representation is
not necessarily language. An allegory may be addressed
to the eye, and is often embodied in painting, sculpture,
or some form of mimetic art. The etymological meaning
of the word is wider than that which it bears in actual
use. An allegory is distinguished from a metai.hor by
being longer su.slained and more fully carried out in its
details, and from an analogy by the fact that the one
appeals to the imagination and the other to the reason.
The fable or parable is u .".hort allogoiy with one definite
moral. The allegory has been a favourite form m the
literature of nearly every nation The Hebrew scrip-
tu-'<s present frequent iustaiiccs of.it, one of the most
beautiful being the comparison of the history of Israel
to the growth of a vine, in the 80th psalm. In classical
literature one of the best known ollegorits is the
story of the stomach and its members in the speech oi
Menenius Agrippa (Livy, ii 32); and several occur in
Ovid's Metamorphoses. Perhaps the most elaborate and
the most successful specimens of allegory are to be found
in the works of English authors. Spencer's Faerie Quetne,
S^vift's Tale of a Tub, Addison's Vision of Mirza, Mid,
above all, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, are examples that
it would be impossible to match in claboratior., beauty, anii
fitness, from the literature of any other nation
ALLEGRI, Antonio. See Coeeeckjio.
ALLEGRI, Geeookio, musical composer, probably of
the Correggio family, was born at Rome about 1580. Ha
studied music under Nanini, the intimate friend of Pales-
trina. Being intended for the church, he obtained a
benefice in the cathedral of Fermo. ■ Here he composed a
large number of motetts and sacred pieces, which, being
brought under the notice of Pope Urban VIII., obtained
for him an appointment in the choir of the Sistine chapel
at Rome. He held this from Dec. 1629 till his death on
the 18th Feb. 1652. His character seems to have been
singularly pure and benevolent. Among the musical
compositions of Allegri were two volumes of • Concorti,
published in 1618 and 1619; two volumes of Motetta,
published in 1620 and 1621 ; besides a number of works
still in manuscript. He was one of the earliest composers
for stringed instruments, and Kircher has given one speci-
men of this class of his works in the Musnrgia. But the
most celebrated composition of Allegri is the Miserere,
still annually performed in the Sistine chapel at Rome.
It is written for two choirs, the one 6T five and the other
of four voices, and has obtained a celebrity which, if not
entirely factitious, is certainly not dae to its intrinsic
merits alone. The mystery in which the composition was
long enshrouded, no single copy being allowed to reach the
public, the place and circumstances of the performance,
and the added embeUlshments of the singers, account to a
great degree for much of the impressive effect of which ali
who have heard the music speak. This view is confirmed
by the fact, that when the musio was performed at Venice
by permission of the pope, it produced so little effect that
the Emperor Leopold L, at whose request the maiiuscript
bad been sent, thought that something else had been sub-
stituted. In spite of the precautions of the fopes, tUe
Miserere has long been public property. In 1769 Mozart
was able to write it down after hearing it twice ; and in
1771 a copy was procured and published in England by
Dr Burney. The entire music performed at Rome in Ho!/
^yeek, AUegri's Miserere included, has been issued at
Leipsic by Breitkopf and Hartel. Interesting accounts of
the impression produced by the performance at Rome p-:ty
be found in the first volume of Mendelssohn's letters, and
in Miss Taylor's Letters from Italy.
ALLEINE, Joseph, Nonconformist divine, the author
of An Alarm to the Unconverted — ai book which remains
as potential as when first modestly sent forth, scarcely
second to Richard Baxter's Call to the Uncwiverted — was
otherwise noticeable. Baxter himself wrote a characteristic
introduction to his Life fully two centuries ago (1672);
while recently (1861) the Rev. Charles Stanford has retold
his story and the story of his age with great fulness of
knowledge and historical fidelity. The AUeines came out
of Suffolk, and as early as 1430 some of them — sprung of
Alan, lord of Buckenhall — settled in the ieighbourhood of
Calno and Devizes, whe.'.ce descended the immediate ances-
tors of " worthy Jlr Tobie Alhnne of Devizes," father of our
worthy. Joseph Allcine, fourth of a large family, w is born
ut Devizes early in 1 634. 1 645 is marked in the ti: Ic-page
of a quaint old tractate, by an eye-witness, as his '■ setting
forth in ilie Christian race." His eldest brother Edward
bad been a clergyman, but in this year died, in his t jvcatj-
582
A L L - A L L
seventh year ; and Joseph entreated bia father that ho
might bo educated to eucceed his brother in the work
of the ministry. His father consented, and ho was
immediately sent to Poulshot, then under a fellow of
Exeter College, Oxford (William Spinago). In April
1649 ho set out for Lincoln College, Oxford, in tb.; pro-
aidency of Dr Paul Hood, with Dr John Owen as the
vice-chanceOor of the university. A Wiltshire place be-
coming vacant in Corpus Chrisli College, on the 3d Nov.
1651 ho was chosen scholar of that house. Of his student
life it was written contemporaneously, "lie could toil
terribly." On Gth July 1CD3 ho took the degree of B.D.,
jind thereupon became a tutgr of his college. Ho became
also chaplain of Corpus Christi, preferring this to a fellow-
ship. In IGO't ho had olTors of high preferment in the
state, which he declined. The succeeding year (1G50)
brought . him another offer, which he did not decline.
Oeorgo Newton, of the great church of St Mary JIagdalcne,
Taunton, sought him for assistant ; and putting from him
all other things, even forsaking further academical honours
within his immeJiato grasp, he accepted the invitation by
proceeding at onco to Taunton, undergoing the accustomed
probation, and at last being ordained as the associate
of one of the moat venerable of the later Puritan fathers.
The ministry that resulted stands out lustrous and noble
in the history of historical Taunton, and in the Life of the
junior pastor, as told by Baxter and Stanford. Almost
coincident with ordination came the marriage of the
associate - pastor with Theodosia AUeine, daughter of
Richard Alleine. Friendships among "gentle and simple"
— of the former, with Lady Farewell, grand-daughter of Pro-
tector Somerset — bear witness to the attraction of Alleine's
private life. His public life — in preaching after the in-
tense, awakening, wistful type; in catechising with all
diligence and fidelity; in vi.='Lation among the poor and
mean and sad ; in letter-\.riting, tender and sympa-
thetic; in devotional intercjsion through long consecrated
hours of day and night- was a model of pastoral devo-
tion. Tliis is all the more remarkable as the pastor
continued the student toil of Corpus Christi, one monu-
ment of which was his Thcologia rhilosophica, a lost
MS., establishing the harmony between revelation and
nature, and whose learning — classical, patristic, and
recondite- — drew forth the wonder of Baxter. Alleine
was no mere scholar or divine, but a man who asso-
ciated on etjual terms with the patriarchs of the Royal
Society, then laying those broad and deep foundations on
which rests England's present scientific renown. These
scientific studies and experiments, nevertheless, were ever
kept in subordination to his proper work. The extent of his
influence was, in so young a man, unique, resting fundament-
ally on the earnestness of his natiire and the manifest power
of his ministry. The year 1GG2 found senior and junior
pastors Uke-rninded, and both were of the Two Thousand.
Alleine, when the Ejection blow fell, with John Wesley
(grandfather of the celebrated John Wesley) for fellow-
labourer, also ejected, carried on a kind of itinerdcy where-
over opportunity was found for preaching the gospel For
this he was cast into prison, indicted at sessions, and
Buffered as hundreds of England's noblest men have suf-
fered. His Leltera from Prison were an earlier Cardi-
phonia. He was released on 26th May 1G64 ; and spite
of the Conventicle Act (Five Mile Act), he returned to
his beloved work as a preacher of the gospel. He found
liimself again in prison, and again and again a sufferer.
Tempestuous and troubled were his remaining years. Now
Jto hiding, now in great bodily weakness, now coming to
the front in some act of charity or patriotism, now at the
waters of Bath, slowly but serenely wearing out. He
died November 17, 1668; and the mourners, remember-
ing their beloved minister's words while yet with them
" If I should die fifty miles away, let me be buried at
Taunton," found a grave for him in St Mary's chauceL
Pilgrims from over the sea read with dim eyes the briet
Latin inscription on his stone. No Puritan-Nonconformisl.
name is so affectionately cherished as is that of Joseph
Alleine. " Being dead ho yet sixiaketh" through his im-
perishable practical books. (Life, edited by Baxter; Joarj/h
Alleine: hit Companions and Timet, by Charles Stanford,
18G1; Wood's Athenoe; Palmer's A'onc. ilcm., i.v. ; llar-
leian MSS., and Williams MSS.) (a. a o.)
ALLEINE, Richard, M.A., author of Vindicice Pietatie,
was educated at St Albans Hall, Oxford, where Anthony
i, Wood states he was entered commoner in 1C27, age4
sixteen ; and where, having taken the degree of B.A., ha
transferred himself to New Inn, and continued there until
ho proceeded M.A. He and the Lke-minded William
AUeine were sons of Richard Alleine, rector for upwards
of fifty years of Dichet, Somerset. The younger Richard
being ordained, became assistant to his venerable father,
and inunediately stirred the entire coauty by his burning
eloquence. In March 1641 ho succeeded to many sided
Richard Bernard as rector of Batcomb (Somerset). Ha
declared himself on the side of the Puritans by subscribing
" The testimony of the ministers in Somersetshire to the
truth of Jesus Christ " and " The Solemn League and
Covenant." He continued for twenty years rector of
Batcomb. On the Act of Uniformity being passed, he cast
in his lot with the Two Thousand of the ejected. Upon
the Five-Mile Act he removed to Frome Selwood, and
preached there and around until his death on December
22, 1681. His works are all of the richest spiritual cha-
racter, with a wistfulness of appeal that goes right to the
heart. His Vindiciw Pietatis (which appeared succes-
sively in 16G0, 1663, and 1665) was refused licence by
Sheldon, and was published, in common with other Non-
conformist books, without it. It was rapidly bought up,
and " did much to mend this bad world." Roger Norton,
the king's printer, caused a largo part of the first impres-
sion to be seized, on the ground of not being licensed, and-
to bo sent to the royal kitchen. Glancing over its pages,
he was struck with what he read, and on second thoughts
it seemed to him a sin that a book so holy — and so sale-
able— should be destroyed. Ho therefore boxight back the
sheets, says Calamy, for an old song, bound them, and
sold them in his OAvn shop. This in turn was complained
of against him, and the shrewd publisher had to beg pardon
on his knees before the council table ; and the remaining
copies were sentenced to be " bisk'd," or rubbed over wiih
an inky brush, and sent back to the kitchen for lighting
fires. Such " bisk'd " copies occasionally occur still. The
book was not killed. It was reissued, with additions,
and a contribution by Joseph Alleine, and went forth on
a mission which has endured to our day. (Calamy, e.v. ;
Palmer's Konconf. Mem. m. pp. 167-8; C. Stanford's
Joseph Alleine; Researches ai Batcomb and Frome iSetuooil;
Wood's Athene^, s.v.) (a. B. O.)
ALLEN, Boo or, the name given to a congeries of
morasses in Kildare and King's County, Ireland. Clane
Bog, the eastern extremity, is within 17 miles of Dublin,
and the morasses extend westward almost to the Shannon.
Their "total area is about 238,500 acres. They do not
form one continuous bog, the tract of the country to
which the name is given being intersected by strips of dry
cultivated land. The rivers Brosna, Barrow, and Boyne
take their nse in these morasses ; and the Grand Canal
crosses them. The Bog of Allen has a general elevation
of 250 feet above the level of the sea, and the average
thickness of the peat of which it consists is 25 feet _It
rests on a subsoil of clay and marl
A L L— A L L
583
ALLliN, John (1770-lK4:i;, waB born iitar EJinburi^li,
and educated at tlie tuiiversity of that city, where he took
the degree of M.D. m 1791. With youthful enthusiasm,
Allen joined the Scottish movement of that period for
parliamentary reform. He was an acute metaphysician,
and the prelections on physiology which he delivered in
Edifiburgh aro distinguished by clearness and precise
philosophical views. Leaving Edinburgh, he took up his
abode at Holland House as the friend and private secre-
tary of the late Lord Holland. In 1811 he was elected
warden of Dulwich College; and in 1820 obtained the
comfortable since ore of master of that institution, where
he died in 1843. AUen's detached publications, though
well written, are not very important, if we except his
valuable Inquiry into the Growth of the Royal Prerogative
(1830), "a learned and luminous work;" but he was an
able contributor to the Edinburgh Review, to which he is
said to have furnished no less than forty articles, chiefly
on physiological,' metaphysical, and political subjects; and
some of his contributions on French and Spanish history
are very interesting. For this last department he was
peculiarly fitted by his residence with Lord Holland in
France and Spain ; he had even collected materials for a
history of Spain, but was hindered from fulfilling his pur-
pose by his deep interest in politics. The latter portion
of his life was divided between politics and the study of
the history of the British constitution. Brougham, in his
eloge of Allen ( WorTcs, vol. iv., 1872), has highly commended
him for extensive learning and philosophical talent.
ALLEN, or Alleyn, Thomas (1542-1632), a famous
English mathematician, was born at Uttoxeter in Stafi'ord-
shire, 21st December 1542. He was admitted scholar
of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1561 ; and in 15G7 took
his degree of master of arts. In 1580 he quitted his
college and fellowship, and retired to Gloucester Hall,
where he studied very closely, and became famous for his
knowledge of antiquity, philosophy, and mathematics.
Having received an invitation from Henry, Earl of Nor-
thumberland, a great friend and patron of men of science,
lie spent some time at the earl'a house, where he became
acquainted with Thomas Harriot, John Dee, and other
famous mathematicians. He was also intimate with
Cotton, Camden, and their antiquarian associates. Robert,
Earl of Leicester, had a particular esteem for Allen, and
would have conferred a bishopric upon him, but his love
of solitude made him decline the offer. His g'cat skiU in
mathematics earned him, as was usual in those times, the
credit of being a magician ; and the author of Leicester's
Commonwealth accuses him of employing the art of
"figuring." to further the Eari. of Leicester's unla-^ul
designs, and of endeavouring by the black art to bring
akout a match between his patron and Queen Elizabeth.
Allen was indefatigable in collecting scattered manuscripts
relating to history, antiquity, astronomy, philosophy, and
mathematics. A considerable part of his collection was
presented to the Bodleian library by Sir Kenelm Digby.
He published in Latin the second and third books of
Claudius Ptolemy of Pclusium, Concerning the Judgment
of tlie Stars, or, as tt is commonly called, of tlie Quadri-
partite Construction, with an exposition. He wrote also
notes on some of Lilly's books, and on Bale's De Scriv-
toribus M. Britannioe.
ALLENTOWN, formerly called Nokthampton, a thriv-
ing town of the United States, capital of Lehigh county.
Pennsylvania, is pleasantly situated on a height on the
western bank of the Lehigh River, 85 miles E.N.E. of
Hai.isburg. It is a well-built place, and contains a good
court-house, a military institute, an academy, and a theo-
logical seminary. Most of the inhabitants are of German
'deacent ; the German language is commonly spoken, and
13 used along with English both in the newspapers and in
the courts of law. The valley of the Lehigh is very rich
in iron ore and anthracite, and in the town and neigh-
bourhood extensive iron-works and anthracite furnaces are
in operation. This trade is being rapidly developed, and
is favoured by good railway communication. New York
and Philadelphia being both within 100 mUes of AUentown
by rail. A tenth of the whole iron manufactured in the
United States is said to be produced here. Population
(1870), 13,884.
ALLESTRY, or Axlestree, Eichakd, D.D., was
born at Uppingtown in Shropshire in 1G19, and educated
in the grammar school of Coventrj', and afterwards at
Christ Church, Oxford. After passing as bachelor of
arts he was made successively moderator in philosophy,
canon of Christ Church, doctor of divinity, chaplain in
ordinary to the king, and regius professor of divinity.
His early studies, however, were interrupted by the hos-
tilities of the times. In the year 1641 he and many other
students of Oxford entered the royal service, and gave
signal proofs of their courage and loyalty. A short
interval of hostilities permitted Allestry to . return to his
literary pursuits ; but soon after, he again took up arms,
and was present at the battle of • Keintonfield. On his
way to Oxford to prepare for the reception of the king he
was taken prisoner, but was released by the king's forces.
A violent disease which then prevailed in the garrison of
Oxford brought AUestry to the brink of the grave ; but
recovering, he again joined a regiment of volunteers,
chiefly consisting of Oxford students. Here he served aa
a common soldier, and was often seen with the musket in
one hand and a book in the other. At the close of the
revolutionary struggle he returned to his favourite studies,
but still continued true to his party. This occasioned his
expulsion from the college ; but he was provided with a
comfortable retreat in the families of the Honourable
Francis Newport and Sir Anthony Cope. Such was the
confidence reposed in him that when the friends of Charles
II. were secretly preparing the way for his restoration,
they entrusted him with personal messages to the king.
In returning from one of these interviews he was seized at
Dover, and upon examination committed a prisoner to
Lambeth House. The Earl of Shaftesbury obtained his
release in a few weeks. His valuable library was be-
queathed to the university. He died in January 1681.1
He erected at his own private expense the west side of' the
outward court of Eton College, and the grammar school
in Christ Church College ; besides settling several liberal
pensions upon individual persons and families. His only
extant work is a volume of sermons, printed at Oxford
in 1684.
ALLEYN, Edward, eminent as a stage-player in the
reigns of Elizabeth and James I., but better remembered
in after-times as the founder of Dulwich college, was born
in London, in the parish of St Botolph, Bishopsgate, on
the 1st of September 1566. When he was only four years
old, his father, an innkeeper, died, and his mother soon
afterwards married an actor named Browne. This change
in his domestic surroundings brought young Alleyn mto
early and close association with the stage, for which he
possessed great natural aptitude. Thus it chanced that
"he was bred a stage-player," as stated by Fuller ( Worthies).
A tenacious memory, a polished elocution, a stateliness of
figure and countenance, and a genial temperament, were
among the natural and acquired accomplishments that he
brought to bear on his chosen pursuit. He gained distmc
tion in his calling while yet quite a young man, and by
common consent was eventually rated as the foremost
actor of his time. Several prominent dramatists and other
writers of tho period have left forcible testimony to liii
684
A L L E Y N
rare excellence in tlie bislrionic art. Bon Jonson, a critic
nowise prone to exalt the merits of men of mark among
bis contemporaries, but addicted rather to disparagement,
and even, as Druramond of Hawthornden tells, to bitterest
detraction, bestowed, nevertheless, unstinted praise on
Alleyn'a acting (see Jonson's Epigrams, No. 89). Nash,
in Pierce Pennyless, his Supplication to the Devil, expresses
in prose the same eulogy that Jonson renders in verse. Hey-
wood calls Alleyn "inimitable," "the best of actors," and
** Proteus for shapes and Roscius for a tongue."
— (Prologue to Warlowc's Jew of Malta.)
Peele's letter to Marlowe, quoted by several of AJleyu's
biographers, telling of a merry meeting at which Shake-
speare, Ben Jonson, and Alleyn figure in the front rank of
a group of choice spirits, has long been numbered among
literary forgeries. (See the Life i)rcfi.Tcd to Dyce^s Peele's
Works, 1829.)
But ample and clear evidence remains to show his great
celebrity as an actor. His profes.fioml earnings as a player
fonned, however, one only, and not the chief, among several
sources from which he drew the wealth that afterwards
sustained his great foundation ; and his fame as an actor
must long since have faded into a dim tradition, of little or
no concern to present times, but for the association of his
name with an institution around which cluster interesting
historic reminiscences, and whose future is fraught with
high promise. He inherited hou.se property in Bishops-
gate from his father. His marriage, in 1592, with Joan
Woodward, stepdaughter to Henslowe, a successful specu-
lator in theatrical and kindred enterprises, brought him
eventually much wealth. He became successively part
owner in Henslowe's ventures, and in the end sole pro-
prietor of sundry play-houses and other resorts for the
diversion of plea'-ure-scekors. Among these were the Rose
Theatre at Bankside, in close contiguity to Shakespeare's
Globe Theatre ; the Paris Garden, in the same vicinage,
where were enacted such pastimes as bear-baiting, bvili-
baiting, and other sports of the period ; and the Fortune
Theatre in St Luke's. He filled, too, in conjunction with
Her.slowc, the post of "marter of the king's games of bears,
bulls, and dogs." He continued to discharge the duties of
this ofEce long after he had relinquished his other profes-
sional work.
Alleyn's ownership in Dulwich lands began in 1606, and
further acquisitions, made in the course of the next five
}-ears, during which he was gradually breaking away from
the actual practice of the histrionic art, though not from
theatrical speculations or kindred enterprises, increased
his holding to more than 1300 acres. His residential con-
nection with Dulwich began in 1G07. He occupied the
manor-house, a mansion even then very ancient, but which
is still tenanted, after many additions and alterations.
The priors and abbots of Bennondsey owned and occupied
it through the four centuries preceding their expulsion
in 1537, when Henry VIII. assigned their house and
adjacent church lands to Thomas Gallon, grandfather to
llhe Calton who sold his heritage to Alleyn. Some details
respecting this and other purchases of neighbouring estates
?Te set forth in Allejm's own writing, in a small thick
memorandum-book which, with other Alleyn papers pre-
served at Dulwich, has been carefully scrutinised b^ the
writer of this notice.
The landed property stretches from the crest ot tnat
range of Surrey hills on whose summit rests the Crystal
Palace, to the crest of the parallel ridge, three mUes nearer
London, known in its several portions as Heruo Hill,
Denmark Hill, and Champion HiU. Alleyn acquired this
largo suburban property for little more than £10,000,
which may be estimated a-s equivalent to £50,000 in the
present day. But the presenf value of the lands which he
bought for such a price is hardly under a million and
a-haif sterling, so enormous has beeu the rise in the
value of land in and near London. Alleyn had barely got
full possession of this property before the question how
to dispose of it began to press upon him. He was still
childless, after twenty years of wedded life. Then it was
that the prosperous player — the man " so acting to th"?
life that he made any part to become him " (Fuller,
Worthies) — began "playing the last act of his life bo well'
(Bacon's Letter to the Marquis of Buckingham, dated 18th
August 1GI8), as to gain the general applause of his own
age, and a largo measure of admiration in after times. He
built and endowed in his own lifetime the College of God's
Gift at Dulwich. All was completed in 1617, except the
charter or deed of incorporation for setting his lands in
mortmain. Tedious delays occurred in the Star Chamber,
where Lord Chancellor Bacon was scheming to bring the
pressure of kingly authority to boar on AUej-n with the
aim of securing a large portion of the proposed endow-
ment for the maintenance of lectureships at Oxford and
Cambridge. Alleyn finally carried his point, and the
College of God's Gift at Dulwich was founded, and
endowed under letters patent of James I. dated 2l8t of
June 1619. The college, as thus incorporated, consisted
of twelve "poor scholars" and as many pensioners, the
latter comprising equal numbers of men and women —
" poor brethren " and " poor sisters," — together with a
teaching and governing staff of six higher officiab. These
latter included a master and a warden, who were always to
be of the founder's surname, and four fellows, all "graduates
and divines," among whom were apportioned the ministerial
work of the chapel, the instruction of the boys, and the
supervision of the almspeople or pensioners. The scholars
and pensioners were to be drawn in equal numbers from
the four London parishes out of which the founder drew
his wealth. A curious legend, dating from the time of the
founder, and always current afterwards among the pen-
sioners on his bounty, tells that he was scared into his
generous and charitable scheme by an apparition of the
devil, in propria persona, among some theatrical demons
in a drama in which he was acting. In the fright thus
occasioned he was said to have made a vow, which he
redeemed in the founding of Dulwich College
Alleyn was never a member of his own foundation, as
stated by Heywood, and copied by succeeding writers.
The college records clearly set this point at rest. But be
continued to the close of his life to guide and control the
affairs of his foundation, under powers reserved to himself
in the letters patent. His diary shows that he mixed
much and intimately in the daily life of the college. Many
of the jottings in that curious record of daily doings and
incidents favour the inference that he was gonial, kind,
amiable, and withal a religic'is man. His fondness for
his old professional work is indicated by the fact that he
engaged the boys in occasional theatrical performances.
At a festive gathering on the 6th of January 1622 "the
boyes play'd a playe."
Shakespeare's name is intenvovcn with local traditions
bearing on Alleyn's life at Dulwich, and the links of
association between these famous contemporaries afford
strong antecedent probability that the tradition sprang
from something more solid than " such stuff as dreams- are
made of." Each began and closed his professional career
as a stage-player in nearly the self-same period and in
neighbouring theatres. During several years they were
near neighbours in their homos at Bankside, then the
headquarters of players and play-houses. Leading actors
then, as afterwards, came much in contact with the living
authors whose creations they personated. Alleyn per-
formed in "Leir," the "Moore of Venis," "Romeo."
A L I. — A L L
5SS
"Pericles," and "Henry VIIL," as appears from liis
inventory of his own theatrical wardrobe. Among the
intimate friends of both were Ben Jonson, Michael Dray-
ton, and other members of the goodly company of poeta
and dramatists whose genius shed a lustre on their day.
Shakesjreare had not finally betaken himself to the retire-
ment of Stratford -on -Avon until seven years after
AUeyn took up his abode at Dulwich. In the face of all
these facts, it can hardly be said the local tradition is
groundless, though no direct croof has yet been brought
to bear on the point.
AUeyn's first wife died in the summer of 1623. In
December of the same year he married Constance Donne,
who survived him. This lady was a daughter of Dr
Donne, dean of St Paul's. Her maiden name was mis-
quoted by an early biographer. This mistake gave rise to
the further error which attributes to Alleyn a third wife.
He died in November 1626, in the sixty-first year of his
age. His gravestone at Dulwich fixes the date of his
death on 21st November, but there are grounds for the
belief that the true date is the 25th of the same month.
Besides dispensing bounties within the bounds of his
college, Alleyn provided, by an after-thought, some years
later than his deed of foundation, for certain extensions of
the benefits of his endowment. But successive actions at
law, carried on at various periods, resulted in the ruling
that it was not within the competence of the founder to
divert any portion of the revenues of his foundStion to
the use of others than the members thereof, as specified in
the letters patent. Chief among the good intents on the
part of the founder that were thus frustrated was his
scheme for embracing in the school work within the
college as many outsiders as would bring the total niunber
to eighty boys, inclusive of the twelve foundationers. But
E13 this was not within the bond, his successors in the
administration of the trust, for more than two centuries
after his death, declined the work. In the latter part of
that period, decay, and not development, ■ fixed on the
time-honoured memorial of AUeyn's high but thwarted
purposes the stigma of a public scandal Then came, in
1842, a grudging and partial, rather than a full and loyal,
concession towards the realisation of the founder's aims.
Finally, however, an Act of ParUamsnt, in 1857, ex-
tinguished the stagnant and unprogr^ssive corporation.
AUeyn's College of God's Gift at Dulwich entered thence-
forward on that prosperous career which already links its
name with the front rank of institutions doing good ser-
vice in the educational work of the day. (j. oo.)
AIjLIANCE, a league between independent states, for
the purpose of combined action, defensive or oifensive, or
both — a subject which falls to be treated under the heading
Law op Nations. The alliances of greatest historical
importance are the Triple- Alliance (1688) of Great Britain,
Sweden, and the Netherlands against France ; the Grand
Alliance (1689) of the Emperor Leopold I. and Holland,
subsequently joined by England, Spain, and Saxony, against
Louis XIV. ; the Quadruple Alliance (1718) of Great
Britain, France, Austria, and Holland, , jain.st Spain ; the
Holy Alliance (1815) of Russia, Austria, ajid Prussia, for
the maintenance of peace and the establishment of the
existing dynasties; and the alliance (1854) of Great
Britain, France, and Turkey, against Russia.
ALLIER, a department in the centre of France, so
called from the river of the same name ; bounded ou the
N. by the department of Cher and Nicvre, on the E by
those ..' SaOne-et-Loiro and Loire, on the S. by that of
Puys de Dome, and on the W. by those of Creuse and
Cher ; extending at the widest points 82 miles from E to
W., and 55 from N. to S. ; and containing an area of
3821 square miles. Its surface is in generEd undulating,
rising to considerable elevations among the mountains of
Forez on the south-east, and among those of. Auvergne
towards the west. The river AUier. flows northward
between these ranges, receiving the Andelot, the Sioule,
and the Bioudre, all from the left ; east of the Allier is
the Bibre, which joins the Loire within the limits of the
department ; and on the west the Cher, with its tributary
the Aumance. The soil is for the most part fertile, espe-
cially in the valleys of the AUier, the Sioule, and the Bfcbre,
yielding wheat, oats, barley, rye, fruits, and potatoes, in
quantities exceeding what is required for home consump-
tion, as well as some red and white wines. Good timber is
grown, and cattle, sheep, goats, and horses are reared in
large numbers; but agriculture is on the whole in a back-
ward condition, owing to the inhabitants' aversion to
change. The mineral wealth of the department is very
ccnsiderable, including iron, coal, antimony, marble, and
manganese — the coal mines of Commentry being among the
most important. The chief manufactures are of cutlery,
earthenwarp glass, cloth, leather, and paper. The clnnate
is healthy, but is liable to sudden variations of tempera-
ture. The mineral waters at Vichy, Nferis, and Bourbon
I'Archambault, in the department, are in much repute.
Allier comprehends the greater portion of the old province
of Bourbonnais, and is at present divided into four arroa-
dissements — MouUns, Gannat, La PaUsse, and Montluyon,
which are subdivided into 28 cantons and 317 communes.
MouUns is the capital, and the seat of a bishop whose
diocese is co-extensive with the department. The oUier
important towns are La PaUsse, Cusset, Vichy, Gannat,
Saint Pourjain, Montlugon, and Commentry. Population
in 1871, 390,812; of whom 196,831 were males, and
193,981 females. Of the total population, 223,374 could
neither read nor write, and 36,786 could read but could
not write.
Alliek, the ancient Slaver, a river of France, which
rises in the' department of Lozire, among the Margeride
mountains, a few miles east of the town of Mende, and,
after traversing Haute Loire, Puys de Dome, and AUier,
forms the boundary between Cher and Nifevre, until it
falls into the Loire four mUes west of Nevers. Its length is
200 mUes, for a considerable portion of which it is navi-
gable, and its chief tributaries are the Dore and the Sioula '
ALLIGATOR, (probably derived from the Spanish el
lagarto, the lizard), an animal so closely alUed to the
crocodUe that some naturalists have classed them together
as forming one genus. It differs from the true crocodUe
principaUy in having the head broader and shorter, and
the snout more obtuse ; in having a large canine tooth of
the under jaw received, not into an external furrow, but
into a pit formed for it within the upper one ; in wanting
a jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet of
the crocodile; and in having the toes of the hind feet
webbed not more than half-way to the tips. The principal
species, aU found in America only, are the common alUgator
(Alligator Mississippiehsis or Crocodilus Lucius.), occurring
in the southern United States; the caiman or cayman
(A. palpebrosus), in Surinam and Guiana ; and the spec-
tacled alUgator or jacar6 {A. sclcrops), principaUy in.
Brazil. The names alligator and crocodile are often eoo-
founded in popular speech ; and the structure and habits
of the two animals are so similar that both may be con-
veniently considered under the heading Crocodllb.
ALLITERATION. As Milton defined rhyme to be
" the jingUng sound of like endings," so aUiteration is the
jingle of like beginnings. AU language has a tendency to
jingle in both ways, even in prose. Thus in prose we
speak of " near and dear," " high and dry," " health and
wealth." But the initial form of jingle is much more
common — " safe and sound," " thick and thin," " weal or
1—20*
586
A L L - A L L
woe," "fair or foi'd," "spick and span," "&ah, flesh, or
fow}," " kith and kin." The poets of nearly all times and
tongues have not beeii. slow to seize upon the emphasis
which could thus be produced. Accordingly wo read in
Shakespeare ; —
"Full fathom five tjiy father lies:
Of his bones are cor&U made."
In Pope : —
"Here flics of pins extend their shining rows
Puffs, powders, patches, bibles, billet-dour
In Qroy : —
" 'WeaTe the warp and weave the woof.
The *inding-sbe«t of Edword's-race."
In Coleridge :■ —
" The fair breeze blew, the white foaia flew,
The furrow followed free ;
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea."
Churchill describes himself as one
" "Who often, but without success, had prayed
For apt alliteration's artful aid, — "
an example which is itself a proof of his failure; for allitera-
tion is never effective unless it runs upon consonants.
As thus far considered, alliteration is a device wholly
dependent on the poet's fancy. He may use it or not,
or use it much or little, at his pleasure. But there is
an extensive range of poetry whoso metrical laws are
entirely based on alliteration. This, for example, is the
principle on which Icelandic verse is founded ; and We
have a yet nearer interest in it, because it furnishes the
key to Anglo-Saxon and a large portion of early English
vera'e. For a specimen take the following lines, the spelling
modernised, from the beginning of Piers the Ploughman; —
"But in a .Vay morning I on J/alvem hills,
Jle be/el a/erly | of /airy methought,
I was weary of wandering | and went me to rest
Under a iroad £ank | by a turn-side ;
And as I /ay and leaned | and /ooked on the waters,
I slumbered in a sleeping 1 it sounded so merry."
The rule of this verse is indifferent as to the number of
syllables it may contain, but imperative as to the number
r>f accented ones. The line is divided in the middle by 'a
pause, and each half ought to contain two accented syllables.
Of the four accented syllables, the first three should begin
with the same letter ; the fourth is free, and may start
with any letter. Those who wish for a more minute
analysis of the laws of alliterative verse, as practised by
the Anglo-Saxon and early English poets, may consult
an exhaustive essay on the subject by the Rev. W. W.
Skeat, prefixed to vol iiL of Bishop Percy's Folio Manu-
script; only the reader must be on his guard against an
error which pervades it, and which this able writer seems
to have derived from Rask. The question arises — What
is the nature of the cadence in alliterative verse? Now
all metrical movement is of two kinds, according as the
beat or emphasis begins the movement or ends it. If the
beat is initial, we say in classical language that the move-
ment is trochaic or diactylic, according to tL, number of its
syllables ; and if the beat is final, we in like manner say
that the movement is iambic or anapaestic. Mr Skeat and
many others object with some reason to use the classical
terms, and therefore brushing them aside, let us put the
question in the simplest form — Has the movement of
alliterative verse got the initial or the final beat 1 In the
middle of last century Bi&hop Percy decided this question
with sufficient accuracy, though he mixed up his statement
with* a blunder which it is not easy to account for. He
points out how the poets began to introduce rhyme into
alliterative verse, until at length rhyme came to pre-
dominate over alliteKitioD, and " thus was thia kind of
metro at length swallowed np and lost !n onr oommoD
burlesque Alexandrine oc anapiestic verse, as
A cobbler there was, and he lived in a stalL"
Percy made a serious mistake when bo gave the name of
Alexandrine to anapa:stic verse; but ho is quite right in
his general statement that alliterative verse became lost in
a measure, the movement of which had the final beat.
Conybeare has stated the fact still more accurately. " In
the Saxon poetry a trochaic character is predominant. In
JPiei'i Plowman there is a prevailing tendency to an
anapaistic cadence." It is the result of a change in the
language — the loss of inflection. Take the word man.
The genitive in Saxon would be mannet, a trochee; in
English, of man, an iambus. The tendency of the language
was thus to pass from a metrical movement, in which the
beat was initial, to one in which it was final It may
therefore be quite right to speak of Anglo-Saxon alliterative
poetry as trochaic or dactylic, and quite wrong to apply the
same terms to the cadence of our later alliterative verse.
And this b precisely the error into which Mr Skeat has
fallen. He says — "Lines do not always begin with a loud
syllable, but often one or two and sometimes (in early
English especially) even three soft syllables precede it
These syllables are necessary to the sense, but not to the
scansion of the line." That is just the point at issue.
By leaving out of account the light syllable or syllables at
the beginning of a line, and taking his start from the first
syllable that has the alliterative beat, Mr Skeat may certainly
prove that all the later alliterative poetry has a movement
of initial beat. But English ears will not submit to thia
rule. It is those light syllables of no account which have
altered the rhj-thm of English descant from' one of initial
to one of final beat (e. s. d.)
ALLIX, Pierre, a distinguished divine of the French
Reformed Church, was bom at Alenfon in 1641. He was
pastor first at St Agobile in Champagne, and then at
Charenton, near Paris. The revocation of the Edict of
Nantes in 16S5 compelled him to take refuge in London,
where, under the sanction of James 11., he opened a church
for the French exiles. His reputation' for learning was
such as to obtain for him, soon after his arrival, the degree
of doctor of divinity from both universities, and in 1690 he
received from Bishop Burnet the more substantial honour
of the treasurership and a canonry in Salisbury cathedraL
He died at London in March 1717.
The works of AUix, which are very ntimerous, are
chiefly of a controversial and apologetic character, and, Uke
most works of that class, are not thoroughly trustworthy.
At the invitation of a number of English ministers, he is
said to have written a history of the councils of the church,
which, however, owing to want of support, never was
published. In opposition to Bossuet he issued Some
Eemarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient
Churches of Piedmont (1.690), and Semarks upon the Eccle-
siastical History of the Ancient Churches of the Albigensa
(1692), with the view of showing that the Albigenses were
not Mauichasans, but historically identical with the Wal-
deuses. His Dissertation on the First Rise of the Trisagium
or Doxology (1674), and Rejiections upon the Looks jf Holy
Scripture (1688), are of little present value.
ALLOA, a seaport town of Scotland, in the county of
Clackmannan, situated on the north side of the Firth of
Forth, 25 miles from Edinburgh, and 6 below Stirling, with
which it is connected by railway. The town as a whole is
irregularly built, although in the modem portions there
are several spacious streets, with good shops and houses.
The parish church, opened in 1819, is a fine Gothio
edifice, with a handsome spire 200 feet high; there are
also places of worship belongicg to the other denominar
A L L — A L L
ftions, aa well as the county court-house, a com exchange,
and schools of various grades. In the immediate vicinity
of the town is an ancient tower, 89 feet high, with walla 1 1
feet in thickness, said to have been built about the year
1315, formerly the residence of the powerful family of
Erskine, descendants of the Earls of Mar. Here many of
the Scottish princes received their education as wards of
the Lords Erskine and the Earls of Mar, the last of these
educated here being Henry, the eldest son of James VL
Among the manufactures of Alloa are ale, whisky, iron
goods, glass (especially bottles), bricks, yarns, shawls, and
blankets. Shipbuilding is also carried on to some extent,
and in the neighbourhood there are several coUieries. The
harbour is safe and commodious, having a depth of 16
feet at neap, and 22 at spring tides; adjoining it is an
excellent dry dock, and a capacious wet dock was con-
Btructed in 1863. In 1872, 446 vessels of 49,941 tons
entered, and 533 of 70,499 cleared the port of AJloa, in
addition to coasting vessels in ballast; and in the same
year £453 were derived from customs duties. The chief
exports were pig-iron, ale, glass, and coals; the imports,
timber, grain, iron, linseed, and flax. There is a ferry
here across the Forth. Population in 1871, 9362.
ALLODIUM or ALODIUM denotes lands which are
the absolute property of their owner, and not subject to
any service or acknowledgement to a superior. It is thus
the opposite of fe-odum or fief. The proper derivation of
the word has been much discussed and is still doubtful,
though it is probably compounded of all, whole or entire,
and odh, property. Allodial tenure seems to have been
common throughout northern Europe, It exists in Orkney
and Shetland, where the proprietor of an allodial estate
■was known until recently as an udaller. (See Sir Walter
Scott's Pirate.) In England allodial tenure is unknown,
the feudal system having been made universal by William
the Conqueror.
ALLORI, Alessandeo, a painter of the Florentine
school, was born at Florence in 1535, and died in 1607.
Having lost his father in his fifth year, he was brought
up and trained in art by his uncle, Angelo Bronzino, whose
name he sometimes assumed in his pictures. Visiting
Rome in his nineteenth year, he carefully studied the
works of Michael Angelo; but having himself little genius
and no originality, the influence of that great master can
only be traced in the anatomical correctness of his draw-
ing of nude figures. He was very successful as a portrait-
painter.
ALLORI, Cbistofano, son of the preceding, was born
at Florence on the 17th October 1577, and died in 1621.
He received his first lessons in painting from his father,
but becoming dissatisfied with the hard anatomical drawing
and cold colouring of the latter, he entered the studio of
Pagani, who was one of the leaders of that later Florentine
school which endeavoured to unite the rich colouring of
the Venetians with the correct drawing of Michael Angelo's
disciples. AUori became one of the foremost of this school.
His pictures are distinguished by their close adherence to
nature and the delicacy and technical perfection of their
execution. His technical skiU is proved by the fact that
several copies he made after Correggio have been taken
to be duplicates by Correggio himself. His extreme
fastidiousness limited his power of production, though the
number of his works is not so small as is sometimes
assertc \. Several specimens are to be seen at Florence
and elsewhere. The finest of all his works is his ".Judith
and Holofemes," in the Pitti palace. The model for the
Judith was his mistress, the beautiful Mazzafirra, who is
also represented in his Magdalene ; and the head of Holo-
femes is generally supposed to represent himself, thougli
.this U questioned by the best authorities.
587
ALLOTEOPY (from aXXos, other, and TpoVo;, manner),
a name applied to a property, whereby certain substances,
chemically simple, assume different forms and conditions
without undergoing chemical change. Sulphur and phos-
phorus, for instance, occur sometimes in crystals and
sometimes in an amorphous state, being in the latter case
sometimes translucent and sometimes ooaque, and present
very different properties under these different conditions.
Ozone is an allotropio form of oxygen. The name
isomerism is given to the similar by no means imcommon
property whereby compound • bodies, although entirely
distinct, are made up of the same chemical elements in
precisely the same proportions.
ALLOXAN, a product of the action of oxidising agents
on uric acid, obtained by adding slowly, in small quantities,
uric acid to strong nitric acid of specific gravity 1'4, kept
cool, and stirring constantly. Carbonic acid and tiitrogea
are evolved during the action, and the alloxan crystaUisea
out on standing. It is purified by recrystalUsation from
water, and then has the composition CjH.N„0, -f aq. The
crystals of this compound are large and colourless, and
when heated to a temperature of 150° C, lose the water of
crystallisation, and acquire a red colour. Alloxan is readily
soluble in water and alcohol, and its aqueous solution
reddens litmus, has an astringent taste, and colours the
skin purple after some time. It produces a great number
of derivatives, for which see Ueic Acid.
ALLOy, the name given to a combination obtained by
fusing metals with each other. Few metals are employed
in the pure state, with the exception of iron, copper, lead, tin,
zi:Jc, platinum, aluminium ; metals are more frequently used
in the forms of alloys for technical purposes. Every indus-
trial application necessitates special qualities that may not
occur in any isolated metal, but which may be produced
by the proper mixture of two or more of these substances.
Thus gold and silver, which in their pure state are too soft
and flexible for the manufacture of plate, coin, trinkets, ic,
are hardened by the addition of a tenth part of copper,
while the colour and other valuable qualities are not mate-
riaUy impaired. Similarly copper is rendered hard by
mixture with zinc, when we obtain brass, an alloy of a
beautiful yellow colour, easier to work than the pure metaL
If brass has to be used in turning operations it is found to
tear under the action of the chisel, unless a small quantity
of lead has been added. These examples are sufficient to
show that an alloy is really an industrial metal, often of
greater importance than the metals which compose it.
Alloys are equally interesting from a purely scientific
point of view. They are not only mixtures of metals
having certain particular qualities, but in reality are true
chemical compounds, generally dissolved in an excess of
one of the constituent metals. In the appearances which
accompany the union of the metals, and in the properties
of the resulting products, we observe that which charac-
terises the manifestation of afiinity, that is, an evolution
of heat and light, resulting in the formation of substances
having a definite composition, distinct crj-stalline form, and a
varietyof properties different from thoseof the constituen'.d.
11 a piece of clean sodium is mbbed in a mortar with a
quantity of dry mercury, the metal dissolves, producing a
harsh sound resembling the immersion of red hot iron :3
water. This phenomenon is due to the large evolution of
heat which accompanies the combination, as the mercury
rises rapidly in temperature on the addition of each succes-
sive piece of sodium. If the mass is allowed to cool after
the action, long needles of a white brilliant alloy of definite
composition crystallise from the middle of the liquid, from
which the excess of mercury may be separated by decanta-
tion. Platinum, iridium, gold, rhodium, ruthenium, and
silver unite »vith tin, producing an evolution of he.it : if
58«
A L L- A L L
tho tin 13 in excess after cooling, a metallic mgot is
obtained resembling closely tho original subatance ; but if
the nriss is treated with strong hydrochloric acid, tho
excess of tin ia dissolved and crystals remain of a definite
alloy of tin and the precious metal. These alloys are iu-
Bolublo in strong hydrochloric, acid, ■nhich dissolves tin so
easily ; but they are soluble in aqua rogia, oven when tho
precious metal contained therein (rhodium, ruthenium,
iridium) is in the free state absolutely insoluble. This is
no proof that tho industrial allcrys are always tho result of
one definite combination dis.solved in excess of one of the
metals, as many combinations aro able to co-exist in tho
same alloy. This may be proved by taking an alloy of tin,
load, and bismuth, which' melts below tho boiling point of
water, heat'ng to a temperature of 25° C, and observing
tho rate of cooling by means of a thermometer. The
thermometer falls at first regularly as far as a certain
degree, where it remains stationary for some time, after
which it descends to a lower temperature, where it is again
similarly arrested. These two stoppages in the rate of
tooling can only bo explained by adiuitting tho production
of a less fusible alloy in tho fluid mass, which solidifies
with an evolution of. heat, rendering tho thermometer
stationary for a time. Each successive arrest will therefore
correspond to the formation of more fusible combinations.
Thus the metals form amongst themselves true chemical
combinations ; and alloys are often formed by the mixture
of one or more of these compounds with excess of one of
the constituents.
Eecently hydrogen, which, although a gaseous substance,
has chemical properties resembling those of the true metals,
has been combined with palladium, sodium, and potassium,
producing compounds similar in properties to tho recognised
alloys.
Peoperties op Alloys. Density. — If the density, of
any alloy is calculated from that of the components— assum-
ing that there is no condensation of volume — the resulting
number is sometimes greater than, equal to, or less than,
the experimental result. Thus the alloys of gold and sUver
are less dense than the theoretical mean density ; whereas
brass and the alloys of lead and antimony vary in the
opposite direction. The. former are therefore produced
through an expansion, the latter through a condensation of
their constituents. In the formation of many alloys there
is no alteration of volume, and then tho calculated den.sity
is correct Colour. — This is generally grey, unless when
we have a coloured metal like copper or gold present in
suiEcient quantity. Hardness, Duclilitt/, and Tenacity. —
Alloys are for the most part harder and more brittle, and
are generally less ductile and possess less tenacity than the
constituent metal that has these properties in excess.
Aluminium bronze is an exception, as its tenacity is
greater than that of either of the components. Fusibility,
— This is always greater than that of the least fusible
metal entering into the composition of the alloy, and is
sometimes greater than in any of the components. Thus an
alloy, composed of 5 parts of bismuth, 3 of lead, and 2 of
tin, melts at 91° C. Alloys of lead and silver, containing
a small quantity of the latter, are more fusible than lead,
and potassium and sodium form an alloy fluid at the ordi-
nary temperature of the air. Liquation. — The constituents
ef an alloy heated gradually to near its point of Uquefitation
frequently unite anew in such proportions as to form a mass
that is fusible at the given temperature. If the fluid por-
tion is poured off, there remains a solid alloy less fusible
than the original. Copper is separated from silver by this
process. Decomposition. — When the alloy contains a vola-
tile metal like zinc or mercury, he.it decomposes it, but
the t«iiperature required to expel the last trace of tho
ToLitile metal must be considerably higher than that
metal's normal temperature of ebullition. Temper. — The
alloy of 94 parts of copper and 6 parts of tin forms- a
bronze so brittle that it may bo pulverisod with a hammer
when it has been slowly cooled; but if, on the contrary, it
is cooled rapidly by tempering it in cold water, it becomes
malleable. Injlumce of the Constituent Mdali.—llercury,
bismuth, tin, and cadmium give fusibility to alloys into
which they enter; tin also gives hardness and tenacity if
presenfin considerable quantity; lead and iron give hard-
ness; arsenic and antimony render alloys brittle.
CoMposmox OF .iUloys.— A statement of the average
proportions in which the metals enter into the best known
alloys, the composition of which is generally very variable,
is given in the following table : —
* ' ( Copi-cr, 10.
Cold Jcwdllery ( Gold, 76 to 92,
and j)latf, ) Copper, 25 to 8.
SUver, flO.
Copper, 10.
SUver, 95.
Copper, C.
■SllTcr coinage,
SUrcr vessels,.
Silver jewellery,..
A 1 u ml n 1 a m
[ SUver, 80.
t Copper, 20.
[ Copper, 90 to 95.
Uronzc, ( AJumlnlum, 10 to 5
-I
Bconze. — Cannon,
Tin, 4 to 0,
Zinc, I toi5.
Copper, 80.
Tin, 10.
Spocui* of Icic- ( Copper, 67.
•copM, .'.... I Tin. 33.
Pinchbeck. S^,""'^:;"'-
( Zinc, 10.
Bro5, j Copper, 8T 10 7»
1 Zinc, 33 to 2a.
fCtippw. 60.
/.luc, 25.
.Mcktl, 25.
I LciJ. ttO.
I Antimony, 2ft
iTln. 100.
Antimony S.
Ulunuth, 1
Type metal,..
f ewter,..
Liquid mcasdrcB,
( Copper,
[ Tin, 92.
I Lud, 8.
( Tin. f.2.
I Lead, la.
ritunba™' Mlder, ( P"'/':,,
' I Lcod, 33.
Bronz,.-Bell*.... { ^^^^ '«•
Bronze. — Cym* ( Copper, 80.
bila, I llo, 20.
Prepajiatiox of Alloys. — The metals are generally-
fused together under. a layer of charcoal to prevent oxida-
tion, thoroughly mired by agitating, and the mass left to
cool slowly. This process can only be employed when the
constituent metals are all non-volatile at the temperature
required for combination. If the mixture contains volatile
metals, like sodium, potassium, magnesium^ or zinc, they
are added after the more refractory metal is fused.
ALLSTON, Washinoton, an eminent American his-
torical painter and poet, was born 5th Kovember 1779, at
Waccamaw, in South Carolina, where his father was a
planter. Ho early displayed a taste for the art to which
he afterwards devoted himself. He graduated at Harvard
in 1800, and for a short time pursued his artistic studies
at Charleston with Malbone and Charles Fraser. He then
removed to London, dnd entered the Royal Academy as a
student of Benjamin West, -with whom he formed a life-
long friendship. In 1804 he repaired to Paris, and from
that city, after a few months' residence, to Rome, w-here he
spent the greater part of the next four years studying
Italian art and Italian scenery. During this period he
became intimate with Coleridge and Thom-aldsen. From
1809 to 1811 he resided in his native couLtry, and from
this latter date to 1817 he painted in England. After
visiting Paris for a second time, he returned to the United
States, and practised his profession at Boston (1818-30),
and afterwards at Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he
died on the 9th July 1843. He was elected an associate
of the Royal Academy in 1819. The paintings of Allston
are characterised rather by grandeur of conception than by
skilful execution. In colour and the management of light
and shade he closely imitated the Venetian school, and ho
has hence been styled "the American Titian." Many of hia
pictures have biblical subjects, and Allston himself had a
profoundly religious nature. His first great painting, "The
Dead Man Revived," executed shortly after his second
visit to England, gained a prize of 200 guineas from the
British Institution ; in England he also prepared his " St
Peter Liberated by the Angel," " Uriel in the Sun," " Jacob's
Dream," and "Elijah in the Wilderness." To the period o£
A L L — A L M
589
lis residence in America belong " The Prophet Jeremiah,"
"Saul and the Witch of Endor," "Miriam," "Beatrice,"
"Eosalie," "Spalatro'a Vision of the Bloody Hand," and the
vast but unfinished " Belshazzar's Feast," at which he was
working at the time of his deatk As a writer, Allston
ehows great facility of expression and imaginative power.
His friend Coleridge said of him that he was surpassed by
no man of his age in artistic and poetic genius. His literary
works are — The Sylphs of the Seasons and other Poems
(1813), where he displays true sympathy with nature and
deep knowledge of tlje human heart; Monaldi (1841), a
tragical romance the scene of which is laid in Italy ; and
Lectures ore Art, edited by his brother-in-law, E. H. Dana
the novelist (1850).
ALLUVIUM, 8o0 or land made up of the sediment
deposited by running water. Rivers act on the rocks in
their course both mechanically and chemically, and are in
consequence always more or less loaded with detritus,
which in its turn again aids the water in abrading other
rocks. A great proportion of the matter with which rivers
are thus charged is carried out to sea. But in level tracts,
where the motion of a river is slow, it frequently overflows
its banks, and leaves a sediment of earth, mud, gravel, &c.,
when it returns to its ordinary channel The principal
alluvial tracts are the deltas or deltoid formations at the
mouths of large rivers. These vary in character very con-
siderably. The Delta of the NUe is the best-marked speci-
men ; the waters of the Rhine, Ganges, &«., arrested by
the solid matter they have washed down, force their way
through it in numerous smaller channels ; the Mississippi
lias carried the solid matter it holds in suspension far into
the Gulf of Mexico, forming long spits of land on the
banks of the stream. The cogncte term diluvium (now
little used) has been applied to formations produced by
eKtraordinary aqueous agencies.
ALMA, a river of Russia, in the S.W. of the Crimea,
which falls into the sea about 16 miles N. of Sebas-
topol. It gives its name to a battle gained over the
Russians, on the 20th September 1854, by the allied
British, French, and Turkish armies. The British num-
bered 25,000 men, with 60 guns, and were commanded
by Lord Raglan ; the French force consisted of 30,000
men and 68 guns, to which were added 7000 Turkish
infantry — all under the command of Marshal St Amaud.
To these were opposed 36,000 Russians, with 122 guns,
under Prince Menschikoff, strongly posted on the heights
on the left bank of the river. The victory was largely due
to the determined advance of the British in face of the
Russian fire.
ALMADEN, OT Almaden del Azogue (in Arabic, the
"Mine of Quicksilver"), a town of Spain, in the province of
Ciudad Real, lies in the Sierra Morena, 55 miles S.W. of
the town of Ciudad Real It is the Sisapon of the Romans,
and is famous for its quicksilver mines, which have been
wrought extensively both in ancient and in modern times.
They were the richest and most productive in the world
•untU the discovery of quicksilver at New Alraaden in
California. The annual yield is about 1,400,000 B), and
4000 workpeople are employed. The principal vein is 25
feet thick ; a depth of 1000 feet has been reached, and the
ore increases in richness with the depth of the descent.
These mines belong to the Spanish Government, and yield
a large revenue. At various periods they have been leased
to private speculators. The town has a good hospital and
mining schools. Population, 9000.
ALMAGEST, compounded of the Arabic al and /xtyicrrr),
the name applied by the Arabians to their translation of
the MfyaX?; SvVto^is of Claudiufi Ptolemy, which contains a
large collection of problems in geometry and astronomy.
The translation was made about the year 827 A.D. by order
of the caliph Al-Mamun. The name is also applied to
other editions and translations of the work, as well as ta
other scientific compilations. Thus Riccioli published a
book of astronomy, the New Almagest, and Plukenet an
Almagestum Sotanicum.
ALMAGRO, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad
Real, 12 miles E.S.E. of the town of that name. It stands
in a fertile plain, and is a well-built town, mth spacious
streets and a fine square. It was once almost excl-usively
inhabited by monks and the Knights of Calatrava, and
contains several ruined churches, monasteries, and con-
vents. In the town and neighbourhood lace is extensrvely
manufactured, as many as 9000 workmen being employed.
Brandy, soap, earthenware, and leather are also made ; and
the surrounding district is famous for its breed of asses and
mules, for the sale of which two great fairs are annually
held. Excellent red wine is produced in the district.
Population, 14,000.
ALMAGRO, DiEoo de, a Spanish commander, the com-
panion and rival of Pizarro, was born at Aldea del Rey in
1475. According to another account he was a foundling
in the village from which he derived his name. Nothing
is known of his life until 1525, when he joined Pizarro
and Hernando de Luque at Panama in a scheme for the
conquest of Peru. The details of his subsequent career
are given at length in the article Peku. He was executed
by order of his former associate Pizarro in 1538.
ALMALI, a prosperous town of Asiatic Turkey, situated
on the river Myra, 25 miles from its mouth, and 50 miles
W.S.W. of AdaUa. It lies 5000 feet above the sea, in a
valley at the extremity of an extensive plain, the neigh-
bouring mountains rising to a height of 10,000 feet. The
town is well built, with handsome houses, several mosques,
and a bazaar; and its appearance is rendered very attractive
by the lofty trees interspersed through the streets, and by
the gardens of the environs. There are numerous miUs
and factories, tanyards and dyeworks; and the inhabitants
are exceedingly industrious. The town is much frequented
by merchants from Smyrna and other places, who purchase
the produce of the district and send it to the coast for shio-
ment. Population, 8000.
AL-MAMUN (also written Al-Mamoun, AL-MAiiotf,
and simply Mamun), one of the most renowned of the
Abbasside dynasty of caliphs, was born in 786 a.d. He
was the son of Harun-al-Raschid, whose caliplii^^e is the
golden age of Mahometan history. Harun, dying in 808,
left the supremacy to his son Al-Amin, Al-Mamun being at
the time governor of Khorassan, and favourable to the
succession of his brother. Irritated, however, by the treats
ment he received at the hands of Amin, and supported by
a portioa of the army, Mamun speedily betook himself to
arms. The result was a five years' struggle between tie
two brothers, ending in the death of Amin, 4th October
813, and the proclamation of Al-Mamun as calipn at
Baghdad. Various factions and revolts, which disturbed
the first years of his reign, were readily quelled by
his prudent and energetic measures. But a much more
serious rebellion, stirred up by his countenancing the here-
tical sect of Ali and adopting their colours, soon after
threatened his throne. His crown was actually on the
head of his uncle Ibrahim ben Mahdi (surnam'ed Jlobarek)
for a short time, and a civil war with the orthodox Mussul-
mans was imminent, when the timely death of Mamun's
vizier and of the imam Rizza removed his principal here-
tical advisers, and restored the people to their allegiance.
This inaugurated a period of tranqui'iity, which Al-Mamun
employed in patronising and fostering the cultivation of
literature and science thrcughout his empire. He Lad
already, while governor of Khorassan, founded a college
there, and attracted to it the most eminent men of th<
590
A L M — A L M
day; and now Baghdad became, under liis auspices, tlie
Beat of academical instruction and the centre of intelli-
gence. At Ilia own expense he caused to bo translated
into Arabic many valuable books from the Greek, Persian,
Chaldean, and Coptic languages; and ho was himself an
ardent student of mathematics and astronomy. The first
Arabic translation of Euclid was dedicated to him in 813.
Mamun founded observatories at Baghdad and Kassiun
(near Damascus) for astronomical purposes, and he suc-
ceeded in determining the inclination of the ecliptic. He
also caused a degree of the meridian to be measured on the
plain of Shinar; and he constructed astronomical tables,
•which are said to bo wonderfully accurate. The supposed
antagonism uf orthodoxy and science receives some support
from the conduct of Mamun. A lover of philosopliy and
letters, ho did not concern himself about the creed of the
professors he appointed to his colleges, or the physicians he
employed at his court; and on the occasion of his marriage
ho distributed largesses to Mussulmans, Jews, and Chris-
tians indiscriminately. These liberal measures culminated,
however, in his becoming a convert in 827 to the heterodox
f.ath of the Motasali, who asserted the free-will of man
and denied the eternity of the Koran. The later years
(829-830) of his reign were distracted by hostilities with
the Greek emperor Theophilus, occasioned, it is said, by a
dispute about an eminent Greek priest whom the caliph
wished to attach to his college at Baghdad. A series
of revolts in different parts of the Arabian empire be-
tokened the d«cUne of the military glory of the caUphs.
Already had Spain and part of Africa asserted their inde-
pendence, and Egypt and Syria were now inclined to follow.
In 833, after quelling Egypt, at least nominally, Mamun
inarched into Cilicia to prosecute the war with the Greeks;
l)Ut with this expedition the career of one of the most
famous of the caUphs was to terminate. He died near
Tarsus, leaving his crown to a younger brother, Motassem.
The death of Al-Mamun ended an important epoch in
the history of science and letters, and the period of Arabian
prosperity which his father's reigil had begun. The in-
t!ucnce of these two sovereigns is sometimes exaggerated;
but there can be no doubt we owe much to their exertions
at a time when Europe was sunk in barbarism. Mamun
was the author of Inquiries into the Koran, of a tract on
the Signs of Prophecy, and of one on the lihetoric of the
I'riests and Panegyrists of the Caliphs.
ALiFANAO, a book or table, published from year to
year, containing a calendar of the .days, weeks, and months
of tlje year, a register of ecclesiastical festivals and saints'
days, and a record of various astronomical phenomena,
particularly the rising and setting of the sun, the changes
aud phases of the moon, eclipses of the sun and moon, the
times of high water at particular ports, ic In additi'ii
to these contents, which may be regarded as essential to
tho almanac, it generally presents additional information,
which is more or less extensive and varied according to
the many different special objects contemplated in works
of this kind. The derivation of the word is doubtful
The first syllable is the Arabic definite article; the rest of
the word has been variously derived from the Greek ^i]v,
a month; the Anglo-Saxon mona, the mot)n; and (which
appears the most probable derivation) the Arabic manah,
to reckon.
The Caiendab will be treatea of in a separate article
(which see). Here we have to do with the publication
v.hich contains the calendar of any particular year, along
with other matter, astronomical, statistical, political, itc.
The Ephemeris again, it is to be observed, is a strict
e-stronomical term, being a register from day to dav of the
p'aoes and motions of the heavenly bodies.
The attention given to astronomy by Eastern nations,
and the practice that prevailed among them of divination
by means of tho stars, must have led to tho early con-
struction of such tables as are comprised in our almanacs.
Our information respecting these is extremely scanty; but
we are not left in the sapie ignorance with regard to the
practice of the ancient Romans. Tho peculiar arrangement
of their calendar ia well known, and their fasti sacri or
kalendares were very similar to modem almanacs. Origin-
ally knowledge of the calendar was confined to tho class of
pontifices or priests, whom the people had to consult not
only about tho dates of the festivals, but also regarding
the proper times of instituting various legal proceedings.
But about 300 B.C. one Cn. FlaWus, tho secretary of
Appius Claudius, possessed himself of the secret, either by
tho stealthy use of documents in the possession of lu3
master, or, according to Pliny, by repeatedly consulting
the pontifices and jurists, and collating the particulars of
the information he obtained from them. It was neither
more nor less than publishing an almanac when, as Livy'
relates, he exhibited the fasti on white tablets round the
forum. From this time tablets containing the calendar,
the festivals, astronomical phenomena, and sometiinea
historical notices, seem to have been common. The Fasti
of Ovid is a poetical relation of incidents and traditions
connected with the calendar. The researches of anti-
quaries have brought to light numerous fasti or calendaria
cut on marble and other kinds of stone. Representations
of several of these will bo found in Grutcr's Inscriptionet.
One figured there, the Famcse rustic calendar, is a cubical
block of stone, on each of the four vertical faces of whicTi
throe columns are engraved, detailing for each different
month the number of days, the date of the nones, the
lengths of the day and night, the sun's place in the zodiac
(which is also indicated by a representation of the sign at
the top of the column), the tutelary deity of the month,
the niral operations of the season, and the chief festivals.
Almanacs of a ruder kind, known as clogg almanacs,
were in use in some parts of England as late as the end of
the 1 7th century. Dr Robert Plot, keeper of the Ashmolean
Museum and professor of chemistry at Oxford, gives a
figure of one of these, with a very minute description, in
his Natural History of StaffordsldrK (Oxford, 1686); and
another is represented in Cough's edition of Camden's
Britannia (1806, vol ii. p. 499). The cloggs were square
blocks of hard wood, about 8 inches in length, with
notches along 'the four angles corresponding to the days of
the year. The accompanjing illustration shows the angle
on which is registered the almanac for the months of
January, February, and March, taking it from left to right.
The marks on the under side in the figure exhibit tho
primes or golden numbers of a cycle, which is fully
described in Plot's work. They generally increase by 8,
19 being struck off when that number is exceeded; and
the same number will be found to stand against all the
dates (approximately) of new moon throughout the year.
The cross mark is for X, and the hook at the end of a line
for V. The weeks are indicated by a deeper notch for
every seventh day, and a broadening stroke on the upjjcr
side in the figure represents the first day of each month.
^ " Fastod circa forum \n a]bo proposuit, at qaondo leg« sgi poeset,
scirettti" (ix. 46\
ALMANAC
591
The other r:1iaraftT9 on the upper side are for saints' days
and festivals. Thus Epiphany (Jan. 6) is indicated by a
Btar, St Hilary (Jan. 13) by a bishop's double cross, the con-
version of St Paul (.Ian. 25) by an axe, St Valentino (Feb.
14) by a true lover's knot, St Matthias (Feb. 24) by a
battle-axe, &c. Ail the fea.its of the Virgin, as the Puri-
fication (Feb. 2) and the Annunciation (March 2.')), aro
denoted by a heart — Dr Plot was greatly puzzjed to know-
why. St Blaise (Feb. 3), St Agatha (Feb. 5), and others
were indicated by their initials; and opposite the day
(March 1) consecrated to David, the patron saint of
Wales, is a symbol which some consider a harp and others
a leek.
The earliest almanac regarding which Lalande (whoso
Bibliographie Astronomique, Paris, 1803, is the best autho-
rity on publications of this kind) could obtain any definite
information belongs to the 12th century. Manuscript
almanacs of considerable antiquity are preserved in the
British Museum and in the libraries of Oxford and Cam-
bridge. Of these the most remarkable are a calendar
ascribed to Roger Bacon (1292), and those of Peter de
Dacia (about 1300), Walter de Elvendene (1327), John
Somers (1380), &c. It is to be remembered that early
calendars (such as the Kalendarium Lincolniense of Bishop
Kobert Grosseteste) frequently bear the names, not of
their compilers, but of the writers of the treatises on
ecclesiastical computation on which the calend»rs are
based. In 1812 there was printed at Hackney what pur-
ported to be a transcription of the greater part of an
almanac for 1386. This, if it exists, must be one of the
earliest, perhaps the earliest, in the EngUsh language that
has been preserved. The earliest English calendar in the
British Museum is one for the year 1431. The first
printed almanac known is one for the year 1457; the
first of importance is that of Joannes de Monte-Regio,
better known as Regiomontanus, which appears to have
been printed at Nuremberg in 1472. In this work the
almanacs for the different months embrace three Metonic
cycles, or the 57 years from 1475 to 1531 inclusive. The
Ephernerides of Regiomontanus, which are to be distin-
guished from his almanac, were sold, it is said, for ten
crowns of gold, considerably more than their own weight.
The earliest almanac printed in England was The Kalendar
of Shepardes, a translation from the French, printed by
Richard Pynson about 1497.
The exclusive right to sell "almanacs and prognostica-
tions," enjoyed in the time of Elizabeth by two members
of the Company of Stationers, was extended by James I.
to the two universities and the Stationers' Company jointly;
but the universities commuted their pri^'ilege for an annuity
from the company. About a century ago one Thom^-s
Carnan, a bookseller, conceiving that the company had no
just title to its- monopoly, published an almanac for three
successive years, and was thrice imprisoned on that account
by the company. In 1775 the case came before the Court
of Common Pleas, and was decided in Carnan's favour.
The question argued was, " Whether almanacs were such
public ordinances, such matters of state, as belonged to the
king by his prerogative, so as to enable aim to communi-
cate an exclusive right of printing tliem to a grantee of the
crown 1" and the judges were unanimously of the opinion
that the crown had no such right. The minister, Lord
North, made an attempt in 1779 to put the company in
possession, by a parliamentary enactment, of what the
judges h''d denied it; but the proposed monopoly was
denounced by Erskine and others with such ability and
severity that the bill was thrown out by a majority of
forty-five. In consequence of this loss to the company of
hs exclaaive right to issue almanacs, the universities lost
tbair title to theit.linnuity, end in lieu of it they received
a parliamentary grant. Tlie company continued, however,
virtually to retain its monopoly by bujnng up as much aa
possible all the almanacs issued by other publishers, and
by means of the great influence it pnssp.ssed over the book
trade. In more recent times the power to control the sale
of this class of publications has altogether ceased, but a
considerable proportion of the almanacs published in this
country still issue from the hall of the Stationers' Company.
A lively de.scription of " Almanac Day " at Stationers'
Hall will be found in Knight's Cydopasdia of London
(1851), p. 588.
The influence of the heavenly bodies on the conditions
and affairs of men has been believed in, and a superstitious
importance has been attached to particular times and
seasons by the credulous from the remotest times. As
might be imagined, therefore, since the bases on which the
whole system of judicial astrology rested all fall within
the field of the almanac-makers' labours, grfeat prominence
was given to omens and predictions in many of these
publications. The early almanacs had commonly the name
of " prognostications " in additi'^n, and what they pro-
fessed to show may be gathered irom titles like the fol-
lowing, which is quoted by Mr Halliwell : — " Pronosty-
cacyon of Mayster John Thybault, medycjTier and astro-
nomer of the Emperyall Majestic, of the year of our Lords
God Mcccccxxxiij., comprehending the iiij. partes of this
yere, and of the influence of the mone, of peas and warre,
and of the sykenesses of this yere, with the constellacions
of them that be under the vij. pianettes, and the revolu-
cions of kynges and princes, and of the eclipses and
comets." In 1579 Henry III. of France deemed it neces-
sary to prohibit all almanac-makers from indulging in
predictions. No such restriction, howaver, existed in this
country ;'and it was to their prophesyings that the almanacs
of the Stationers' Company were long indebted for much
of their popularity. Among almanacs of this class pub-
lished in England, and principally by the Stationers' Com-
pany, are Leonard Digges's Prognostication Everlasting of
Right Good Effect, for 1553, 1555, &c.; William Lilly's
Merlinus Anglicus Junior, for 1644, <tc., and other al-
manacs and "prognostications;" Booker's Bloody Almanac
and Bloody Irish Almanac, for 1643, 1647, &c. — the last
attributed erroneously to Napier ; Partridge's Afercuriua
Coelestis, for 1581, Merlinus Bedivivus, etc The name
of Partridge has been immortalised in Pope's Bape of the
Loch; and his almanacs were very cleverly burlesqued by
Swift, who predicted Partridge's own death, with all details
of time and circumstance, in genuine prognosticator's style.
The most famous of all the Stationers' Company's predict-
ing almanacs was the Vox Stellarum of Francis Moore,
dating from about 1680. Of a difi"erent but not a bettet
sort was Poor Bobin, dating from»l&63, and published by
the company down to 1828, which abounded is coarse,
sometimes extremely coarse, humour.
On the 1st of January 1828 the Society for tte Diffu-
sion of Useful Knowledge issued the British Almanac for
that year — a publication greatly superior in every way to
the almanacs of the time. To quote the society's AlmancOi
for 1829—
" This waa almost the first attempt in this country to produce an
almanac that should not olil> be useful to all classes, and of which
the information should be wholly of a popular character, but which
should be purified from the superstitions, prejudices, and indecencies
which have characterised some of the almanacs of which the circula-
tion ha-s been the most extensive. By a parliamentary return of tho
year 18'^8 we find that the stamp duty paid upon the alnianac-s of
'England exhibits a circulation of 451,593 annually, it may be
safely asserted that two-thirds of these publications contain soma
large portion of the matter iust described ; and they tlius Tcoep aljvo
a spirit of ignorance utterly opposed to the desire for sound and
practical infcumation which distinguishes oar own times." •
The success of the British Almanac, with, its raluabla
592
.V L M - A L M
supplement, tiao Compan'on to th( Almanac, led to a groat
improvement in this class of publications. The Stationeri'
Company issued the Enr/lish Almanac, a work o( a similar
kind. The entire repccl in lS3-t, by the 3d and 4th Will.
IV., c. 07, of the heavy stamp duty on all almanacs of
fifteenpence per copy, gave an additional stinuilua to the
publication of almanacs of a better class, and from that
time the number has greatly increased. It is interesting
to remark that the Jiriiish Almanac and Comjxinion still
exist, and retain their original form and character, and
tliat this has from 1870 been the principal almanac pub-
lished by the Stationers' Company.
The variety of extraneous matter included in almanacs,
corresponding to the very numerous other objects to which
t)\e almanac proper is often only secondary, can be merely
alluded to here. A number of publications, issued in Ger-
many from the middle of the I8lh to the middle of the 19th
c^.rtUTy,undcr sachlitUsaa Musenalmanach,or Almanack dc8
Mwes, contain some of the best works of some of the most
celebrated German poets. The Almanack dc Goiha, which
has existed since 17(31, and is published at present both in
French and German, gives a particular account of all the
royal and princely families of Europe, and ample details,
■ ompresscd into little space, concerning the n.dministration
and the statistics of the dilTerent states of the world. As
works of general statistical reference, the two national
almanacs, Oliver and Hoijd's New Edinburgh Almanac
(from 1837) and Thorn's IrisJi Almanac (hom 1843), are of
.very great value.
; The Nautical Almanac is a publication the object of
which is to supply information that is indispensable to the
navigator and the astionomer. It gives with the utmost
precision the positions of the principal heavenly bodies at
short intervals of time, and other important details of
celestial phenomena. The moon's exact position is regis-
tered for every hour, and also the angular distances at
noon and midnight daily of the moon from the sun and
several fixed stars. By means of the data thus supplied, in
connection with observations of the heavenly bodies, time,
latitude, and longitude can be determined. The Nautical
Almaitac has been published regularly since the issue in
1766 of the Almanac for 1767. It wa^ originated by Dr
Maskelyne, the astronomer-royal, who conducted it for
many years. About 1830 the Lords of the Admiralty
were induced by complainvi of its defects to -bring the
subject under the notice of the Royal Astronomical Society.
The society appointed a committee to consider what changes
seemed necessary, and, on the committee's recommendation,
the form was adopted which has continued with little
change from 1834 to the present time. .During that period
the Ahnanac has been published under the superintendence
of the Admiralty. It is issued generally three years at least
before it comes into use. The Connaissance dcs Temps
(from 1679), the Berliner Jahrbuck (from 1776), and the
American Ephemervs and Nautical Almanack (from 1865)
are publications of a similar kind.
(See, in addition to works referred to above, interesting
papers by Mr J. O. Halliwell and Profeswr De Morgan in
the Companion to t/ie Almanac I'or 1839, 1840, 1845.
1846.)
ALMANSA, a town of Spain, in the province of Al-
bacete, 35 miles E.S.E. of the town of that name, on the
Madi-id and Alicante railway. The surrounding plain is
very fertile, and irrigated by means of a large reservoir.
There are manufactures of linen and cotton fabrics, and
also of ..Ijrandy, leather, and soap. A Moorish castle is to
be seen on a hill to the north-west of the town. About a
mDe from Almansa stands an obelisk commemorating the
'decisive battle fo'itjht here on 25th April 1707, in which
tbo KroQch, undi;i the Duko of Berwick, the natural son
of James XL of England, completely defeated the allied
English and Spanish armies. The French greatly out-
numbered the opposing force. This battle hastened the
conclusion of the war of the Spanish succession. Popula-
tion of the town, about 8000.
AL.^I K, or Almai (from dlim, wise, learned), the name
of a diiitinct class of singing girls in Egypt To be received
into it, according to M. Savary, it is necessary to have a
good voice, to u.idcrstand the language well, to know the
rules of poetry, and bo able to compose and sing impromptj
couplets adapted to the circumstances. The almai are
present at all festivals and entertainments, and also at
funerals, where they act the part of hired mourners. They
are to bo distinguished from the ghawazeo, or dancing
girls, who perform in the public streets, and are of a lower
order.
ALMEIDA, a strongly-fortified town of Portugal, in the
province of Beira, situated between the Coa and the Duaa
Casas, a branch of the Agucda, 95 miles N. E. of Coimbra,
aad 25 miles from the Spanish fortress of Ciudad Rodriga
It was taken by the Spaniards in 1762, and again by the
French in 1810. The recapture of it by th.e Duke of
Wellington in 1811 was deemed one of the most brilliant
exploits of the Peninsular war. It is well fortified, and
contains an ancient church snd two hospitals. Popula-
tion, C580.
ALMEIDA, Don Feancisco de, the first viceroy of
Portuguese India, was born at Lisbon about the middle of
the 15th century. Ho was the seventh son of the second
Count of Abrantes, and thus belonged to one of the most
distinguished families in Portugal In his youth he took
part under Ferdinand of Aragon jn the wars against the
Moors (1485-92). In March 1505, having received from
Emmanuel I. the appointment of viceroy of the newly-con-
quered territory in India, he set sail from Lisbon in com-
mand of a large and powerful fleet, and arrived in July at
Quiloa, which yielded to him almost without a struggle.
A much more vigorous resistance was offered by the Moors
of Mombaza, but the town was taken and destroyed, and
its large treasures went to strengthen the resources of
Almeida. At other places on his way, such as the island
of Angediva, near Goa, and Cananore, he built forts, and
adopted measures to secure the Portuguese supremacy.
On his arrival in India he took up his residence at Cochin,
where a Portuguese fort had been built by Albuquerque
in 1503. The most important events of Almeida's brief
but vigorous administration were the conclusion of a com-
mercial treaty with Malacca, and the discoveries made by
his son Lorenzo, who acted as his lieutenant. The latter
was probably the first Portuguese who visited Ceylon,
where he established a settlement, and is also celebrated as
the discoverer of Madagascar and the Maldive islands. In
1508 he was killed at Dabul in a naval engagement with
the Moors. His father was preparing signally to avenge
his death when Albuquerque arrived in Cochin, and pre-
"ented a commission empowering him to supersede Almeida
in the government. It was probably Almeida's unwilling-
ness to be thwarted in his scheme of vengeance that chiedy
induced him to refuse to recognise Albuquerque's con»
mission, and to cast him ''nto prison. (See Albuqueeque.)
The punishment he inflicted on the Moors was speedy
and terrible. Sailing along the coast, he pillaged and
burned various ports, including Goa and Dabul, and
finally encountering the enemy's combined fleet off Dia
early in 1509, he completely destroyed it. Returning
immediately to Cochin, he held out for a few months
against the claims of Albuquerque, but in November 1509
he was compelled to yield. On the 1st December he set
sail for Europe vnlh an escort of three vessels. On the
voj-age the fleet called at Saldanha Bay, in Soutt Africa, to
A L M — A L M
593
procuro water, and Lero Almeida was killed (March 1,
1510) in an unprovoked attack upon the Caffre natives,
during which he showed great personal courage. His body
■was recovered on the following day, frightfully mutilated,
and received a hasty burial
ALMERIA, a modem province of Spain, comprehending
the eastern portion of the ancient kingdom of Granada.
It is bounded on the N. by .Jaen and JIurcia, on the E.
and S. by Murcia and the Mediterranean, and on the W,
by Granada ; with an area of about 3300 square miles.
The province i» traver.'sed by mountain ridges, some of
them of considerable elevation, with corresponding valleys
and plains of great fertility. The principal sierras are
those of Maria, Almahilla, Cabrera, Almagrera, Gata, and
Gador, and in the W. some offshoots of the Sierra Nevada.
The most considerable rivers are the Almanzora, running
from west to east, with a course of about 50 miles ; the
Almoria, flowing from north-west to south-east ; and the
Adra from north to south, watering the fertile district
between the Sierra de Gador and the Alpujarraa. On the
S. coast is the Gulf of Almeria, a spacious bay, 25 miles
■wide at the entrance, and about 10 miles in depth. The
climate of the province is mild, except in the interior,
where the winter is cold. On the coast rain seldom falls,
a ad south-west winds prevail The inhabitaJits are prin-
cipally engaged in mining and agriculture. Many of the pro-
prietors farm tlieir own land, the numbers of landed pro-
perties being -14,858, whils the tenants are only 7365. Of
the area of the province, 376,698 acres are arable and pasture
land, 13,538 acres vineyards; 5360 acres olive plantations;
30,797 acres cultivated mountain and wood lands ; and
1,686.738 acres uncultivated. There are 438,357 head of
live stock. All kinds of grain are raised in abundance.
The common fruits are plentiful, as well as oranges, lemons,
and vines. M-uch e.Kcellent silk is produced in the western
districts ; cotton is raised to some extent along the coast,
and the sugar-cane is also cultivated. Cattle are extensively
bred ; those of the valley of the Almeria are especially
remarkable for their size and beauty. The province is one
of the richest in minerals of all Spain, the mountains
yielding silver, mercury, lead, antimony, copper, and iron.
The silver mines of the Sierra de Almagrera, opened in
1839, produced in 1843 nearly 1,700,000 ounces ; while
the lead mines of the Sierra de. Gador are computed to
have yielded, from 1795 to 1841 inclusive, 11,000,000
quintals of load, and the present annual output is from
30,000 to 40,000 tons of ore. In the Sierra de Gatii,
jaspers and agates are found ; in the Sierra Nevada, to the
west, are the celebrated quarries of Macael marble; and the
Sierra Cabrera yields antimony, malachite, gypsum,
magnetic iron, &c. The manufactures of the province
consist chiefly of esparto cordage, ■white-lead, shot, salt-
petre, soap, leather, and earthenware. The principal
exports are lead, esparto, barilla, and soap ; while the
imports include coal and machinery from England, woollen
and cotton stufl^s from Catalonia, sUk from Valencia and
Malaga, and linen from Marseilles and Gibraltar. From
the want of a<:Iequate facilities for communication, the
development of the agricultural and mining resources of
Almeria has not been so rapid as might have been expected.
The disturbances attending the revolution of 1868 have
also had a prejudicial efTect Education is in a backward
state, the proportion of the population at school being
only fifteen jn the thousand. Crime, although great, is
not excessive, offences against the person forming the
greater number of the cases tried. The people generally
are simple, sober, and religious. Population in 1870,
estimated at 361,553.
Almeria, the capital of the alwvo province, lies on
the Gulf of Almeria. on the Mediterranean, 72 miles E.S.E.
of Granada. From the strength of the port it was deeme<1
by the Moorish kings of Granada one of the most valuable
of their fortresses and their best commercial harbour.
Sailing hence, their cruisers overawed the Catalans and
Italians, and their merchant ships conveyed the produce
of the country to Africa, Egj'pt, and Syria. In the time
of the iloors Almeria was the seat of hordes of pirates.
The walls of the town, and the Moorish fortress, or
Alcazaba, overlooking it, as well as the architecture of
many of the houses, still attest its Moorish origin. It is
pretty well built, and has several handsome squares,
although the streets are generally narrow. Almena is the
seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral and theological
seminaries. Off the port there is good anchorage in 12
and 14 fathoms water; and in addition to its landward
defences the place is protected towards the sea by the
forts of Trinidad and Tiro. In 1866, 46 vessels, of 21,603
tons, with cargoes, entered and cleared the port ; and
the annual value of the exports is about £50,000. The
manufactures are trifling, but there is a good export trade
in wine, soda, esparto, silk, and lead; while the imports
consist chiefly of coal and manufactured goods. Hera
there are also some mineral springs. Population (1857),
27,036.
ALMOHADES (Almoanfdun, Unitarian), a Mahometan
dynasty that flourished in Africa and in Spain during the
12th and 13th centuries. Mohammed-Ibn-Abdallah, the
founder of the Almoahedun sect, was the son of a lamp-
lighter in the great mosque at Sous-el-Aksa. He studied
at Cordova, and afterwards visited Cairo and Baghdad,
where he became the disciple of the famous philosopher
AlgazalL In ordei' to establish his power with his country-
men, he connected himself with Abd-el-Mumen, a young
Mussulman of great abilities, whom he sent forth as his
apostle to propagate the new doctrine (1116-17); while
in his own person he affected an unusual degree of piety ,
and mortification, appearing in tattered garments, and
interdicting the use of wine and music and every gratifica-
tion of the senses. His fame spread rapidly among the
mountaifi tribes of ilaligreb, and the ignorant multitude
adopted his opinions with eager zeal. His followers saluted
him as the Al-Mehedi on the 2Sth November 1121.
Entering the city of ilarocco, this new prophet foretold
the downfall of the existing dynasty, and mocked the
authority of the reigning prince Ali-Ibn-Yussef. Ali, lulled
in security, despised his predictions as the mere ravings of
a fanatic ; and it was not without some difiiculty that he
was at length prevailed on to banish him from the city.
Mohammed retired to the mountains, and fortified the
town of Tinmal, which he defended against every assault
of his enemies (1123). His retreat became the rendizvoua
of a numerous sect, who assumed the title of Almoahedi,
or Ahuohadcs, and asserted that they alone of all the
Mussulmans maintained the religion of Islam in its original
punty. Many Arab and Berber tiib&s acknowledged hiiu
as their political chief, and 20,000 sold'crs rallied afound
his standard. Ali only perceived the error ho had com-
mitted when it was too late : his armies, at each encounter,
were panic-struck, and fled. Yet notwithstanding the
great success of the Almohades, the vast empire of the
Almora'vides was not at once subdued: and Mohammed,
after an ineffectual attempt to reduce the city of Marocco,
died in the year 1130, having failed to fccomplish the
object of his ambition, the pos.session of a throne. Ha
was succeeded by Abd-el-Mumen, who assumed the title of
Emir-el-Mumenin, or Commamler of the Faithful During
the thirty years that ho reigned, and under his descendants,
Yussof and Yakub, called Almanzor-Billah, the dj'nasty of
the Almohades was exceedingly illustrious, and the aria
flourished greatly. They tendered themselves masters df
I- - 75
594
A L M — A L M
the provincM of Fez, Marocco, Tlcmcen, Oran, and Tunis;
wid passing into Spain, they overran Andalusia, Valencia,
and s part of Aragon and Portugal, as far the Ebro on one
side and the Tagua on the other. But tliis vnst empire
waa not of long continuance; for in the year 1212, when
the Moslems under Mohammed were defeated by the
Christian princes of Spain in the great battle of Las Navaa,
near Tolosa, the governors of tho several provinces took
advantage of that disaster to throw off their allegiance, and
declared themselves independent — an ciamplo that was tho
eigtral for a generaJ revolt Tho dynasty of the Almohades
bocSffe extinct in Spain in the year 1257, and in Africa in
12G9. Tho last sovereign of this raoc, Abu Dabus Edris,
who had with difliculty maintained a shadow of power in
the city of Marocco, was assassinated by a slave. They
were succeeded by the dynasties of the IlafsideB, the
Mevanides, and the Mcrinides. See Almoeavides.
ALMON, John, a political pamphleteer and publisher
of considerable note, was born at Liverpool about 1738t
In early life he was apprentice to a printer in his native
town, and he subsequently spent two years at sea. He
came to London in 1758, and at once commenced a career
which, if not important in itself, had a very important
influence on the political history of the country. The
opposition, hampered and harassed by the government to an
extent that threatened the total suppression of independent
opinion, were in great need of a channel of communication
:vith tho public, and they found what they wanted in
Almon. He had become personally known to the leaders
through various publications of his own which had a great
though transient popularity; the more important of these
being The Conduct of a late Noble Commander [Lord
George Sackville] Examined (1759); a Revitw of the Reign
of George II., pumished on the death of that monarch; a
Review of Mr Pitt's Administration (1761); and a collec-
tion of letters on political subjects. The review of Pitt's
administration passed through four editions, and secured
for its author the friendship of Lord Temple, to whom it
was dedicated. Being thus in the counsels of the party,
he was persuaded in 1763 to open a bookseller's shop in
Piccadilly, chiefly for the publication and sale of political
pamphlets. As he generally received with every pamphlet
a sum sufficient to secure him against all contingencies, it
cannot be said that he acted entirely from disinterested or
patriotic motives. At the same time, he deserves the credit
of intrepidity; and it cannot be denied that, whether he
knew the full value of the principle for which he was con- ■
tending or not, he did very much to secure the freedom of
the press. The government of course were not unobservant
of Almon's proceedings, and, as has often been the case,
strengthened his influence by the very measures they took
to repress it. In 1765 the Attorney-General moved to have
him tried for the pubhcation of the pamphlet entitled
Juries and Libels', but the prosecution failed; and in 1770,
for merely selling a copy of the London Jfuscum con-
taining Junius'a celebrated " Letter to the King," he was
sentenced by Lord Mansfield to pay a fine of ten marks,
and give security for his good behaviour. It was this trial
that called forth the letter to Lord Mansfield, one of the
most bitter of the Junius series. Almon himself published
an accouht of the trial, and of course did not let slip the
opportunity of reprinting the matter that had been the
ground of indictment, but no further proceedings were
taken against him. In 1774 Almon commenced the pub-
lication of his Parliamentary Register, and he also issued
an abstract of the debates from 1742, when Chandler's
Reports ceased, to 1774. About the same time, having
earned a competency, he retired to Boxmoor in Hertford-
shire, though he still continued to write on political subjects.
He afterwards became proprietor of the GcTteral Advertiser,
m the management of which he lost his furtiine, and was
declared insolvent To these calamities waa added an
imprisonment for libel and a sentence of outlawry. Being
enabled at last to return to Boxmoor, ho continued for
some years a career of undiminished literary activity. Hia
hist work, a Life of Wilkes, in five volumes (1805), was
perhaps his worst, being entirely wanting in proportion
and arrangement He died on tho 12th iJeccmber 1805.
A complete list of Almon's works, most of which appeared
anonymously, is given in Watt's Bibliotheca lirilannica.
Though their literary merit is not great, they are of very
considerable value to tho student of the political history
of the period.
ALMOND. This is the fruit of Amygdalua communit,
a plant belonging to tho natural order Rosacea;, sub-order
AmygdaleiB or Drupiferm. The tree appears to bo a native
of Asia, Barbary, and Marocco; but it lias been extensively
distributed over tho warm temperate region of the Old
World. It is a tree
of moderate size ; the
leaves are oblong-
lanceolate, and ser-
rated at the edges;
and the flowers,
which appearearly in
spring, are of a pink
colour. The fruit is
a drupe, having a
downy outer coat,
called the epicarp,
covering a tough
portion called the
mesocarp, which en-
closes the reticulated
Bard stony shell or
endocarp. The seed '
is the kernel which '
is contained within
these coverings. TTie
aViolI almnn^s . Tho AlmonJ-lreo (.(mvjdaluj (onimiinu). the fmlt 0/
sneii-aimonas oi ,m^ ^-j a,-„p, ,„,, , to„Kh mt.M.n). xbt
trade consist of the Hebrew word Shnled la generally trandateil Al-
j , . mond (Oen. xlUMl: Exod. IXT. 83, a4; XHTll.19;
endocarps enclosing Namlj. nU. 8). The word Lui, which occura 1q
thfi DpoHa T>iA trdft OenoalB xxx. 87, end U lliero Iraneleted HoieL
UIH Betua. Llia ixoe ,pp„„ ,„ t, the name o( the Almond-tree, while
grows in SjTia and seated is the name of the fruit.
Palestine ; and is referred to in the Bible under the name
of SAai^rf, meaning " hasten." Tho word Luz, which occurs
in Genesis xxx. 37, and which has been translated hazel,
is .supposed to be another name for the almond. In Pales-
tine the tree flowers in January, and this hastening of the
period of flowering seems to be alluded to in Jeremiah L
11, 12, where the Lord asks the prophet, "What seest
thou!" and he replies, "The rod of an almond-tree;" and
the Lord says, " "Thou hast well seen, for I will hasten my
word to perform it." In Eccksiastes xiL 5 it is said the
" almond-tree shall flourish." This has often been supposed
to refer to the resemblance of the hoary locks of age to
the flowers of the almond ; but this exposition is not borne
out by the facts of the case, inasmuch as the flowers
of the almond are not white but pink. The passage is
more probably intended to allude to the hastening or rapid
approach of old age. The application of Shaked or hasten
to the almond is similar to the use of the name "May"
for the hawthorn, which usually flowers in that month in
Britain. The rod of Aaron, mentioned in Numbers ivii.,
was taken from an almond-tree; and the Jews still carry
rods of almond-blossom to the synagogues on great festival
days. The fruit of the almond supplied a model for certain
kinds of ornamental carved work_ (Exodus ixv. 33, 34;
xxxvii. 19, 20). Dr Tristram remarks: "The blossom of
the almond is a very pale pink, but where, as in the
A L M — A L M
595
oicharoa near Nablous (ShecLem), the peach and almond
,^ees are intermingled, the almond looks white by com-
parison. In early spring it forms a beautiful feature in the
landscape there, as the lower slopes of Qerizim, as well as
the valley, are studded with almonds and peaches, in lively
contrast with the deep green foUage of the orange-trees,
and rivalling an apple orchard in splendour of colour.
There are also many wild almond-trees on Mount CarmeL
Jhe tree seldom exceeds 12 to 16 feet in height." There
are two varieties of the plant, the one producing sweet, the
other bitter almonds. The kernel of the former contains a
fiied oil and emulsin ; while that of the latter has in addi-
tion a nitrogenous substance called amygdalin, which, by
combination with emulsin, produces a volatile oil and prus-
bic acid. The flowers of the bitter almond-tree {Amygdalus
commwnit, variety amara) are larger and whiter than those
of the sweet almond-trte {Amygdalue communis, variety
dulcis). The sweet almond is bland and inodorous. There
are numerous commercial Varieties, of which the most
esteemed is the Jordan almond, imported from Malaga.
V'alentia almonds are also valued. Fresh sweet almonds
are nutritive and demulcent, but' as the outer brown skin
or episperm sometimes causes irritation of the alimentary
canal, they are blanched by removal of this skin when used
at dessert. When bitter almonds are pounded in water
a ratafia odour is produced, on account of the formation of
prussic acid. The essential oil or essence of almonds, so
much employed for flavouring dishes, requires to jbe used
with caution, as it possesses marked poisonous qualities.
In some cases the oil, even when taken in smaU quantities,
produces nettle-rash. The iniport of sweet almonds into
Britain in 1870 amounted to 36,189 cwt.: of bitter almonds,
7.618 cwt
ALMONDBUEy, an extensive parisn and township of
Torkshire in England, lying to the S.E. of Huddersfiuld.
As the manufactures of Huddersfield have increased,
various outlying districts have been built on, so that the
parish of Almondbury now includes a considerable part of
that important and flourishing town. The parish contains
28,092 acres. The town lies on the river Calder, 2 miles
S.E. of Huddersfield, and had formerly a cathedral and a
Btrong castle. By some writers it is supposed to occupy
the site of the Roman Campodunum mentioned by
Antoninus ; but whether or not, the place can boast a
Roman origin — it was at least a town of importance in
Saxon times, and a seat of the kings of Korthumbria. It
has a free grammar school founded by James I., a good
church, and several other public buildings. The inhabitants
of the toivn and parish are chiefly engaged in the manu-
facture of fine cloths, and woollen, cotton, and silk goods.
In 1871 the population of the parish was 46,299; of the
township, 11,CC9.
ALMONER, in its primitive sense, denotes an officer in
religious houses, to whom belonged the management and
distribution of the alms of the house. By the ancient
canons, all monasteries were to spend at least a tenth
part of their income in alms to the poor, and all bishops
were required to keep almoners.
LoED Almoneb, or Lord High Almonee op England,
is an ecclesiastical oSicer, generally a bishop, who has a
right to the forfeiture of all deodands and the goods of a
felo d« se, which he is to distribute among the poor. Ho
ha:, also, by virtue of an ancient custom, the power of
giving the first dish from the ling's table to whatever poor
person he pleases, or, instead of it, an alms in money.
See MA-.NDAY TUCTRSDAY.
ALMORA, the principal town in the British district of
Knmdon, within the lieutenant-governorship of the North-
western Provinces, is situated in 29° 35' N. Ut., and 79°
♦2' E. long. The town is built on the crest of a ridge of
the Himilayas, running east and west, and 5337 feet above
sea-leveL It consists chiefly of a Kngle street, about 50
feet wide and three-quarters of a mile long, closed by a
gate at each end. A few detached houses, inhabited by
Europeans, are scattered along the face of the mountain
below the town. The town was captured by the Qurkhis
in 1790, who constructed a fort on the eastern extremity
of the ridge. Another citadel. Fort Moira, is situated on
the other extremity of the ridge. Almori is also celebrated
as the scene of the British victory which terminated ths
war with Nepdl in April 1815, and which resulted in the
evacuation of KumAon by the GurkhAs, and the annexa-
tion of the province by the British. According to the
census of 1872, the town contains a population of 5900
r^uls. It has'been constituted a municipality, the revenue
and expenditure of which in 1871-72 is returned as fol-
lows : — Revenue — Receipts from octroi, £29, IBs.; house-
tax, X211, 8s.; other sources of income, j£30, 14s.: total,
£271, I83. Expenditure — Establishment, including cost
of collection, poKce, aud conservancy, XI 82; repairs, X90,
169.; other items, X3, 16s. : total, X276, 123.
ALMORA VLDES, a family of Mahometan princes who
reigned in Africa and in Spain between 1073 and 1147
A.D. This appellation was derived from the sect of Al-
Morabethun (Dedicated to the service of God), which arose
about the middle of the 11th century, among a poor
ignorant tribe of Berbers inhabiting the mountains of
Atlas, on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. At the request
of a sheik of Lamtouna, who had acquired some taste for
learning by travelling in the East, Abdallah-ben-Tazim,
an Arabian of extraordinary erudition, consented to instruct
the people in the truths of Islam. The enthusiasm of
AbdaUah created a like zeal in the hearts of his ignorant
hearers ; and by the energy and novelty of his discourses
he so inflamed the minds of his disciples that they com-
pelled those whom persuasion could not move to embrace
the new religion. Thus AbdaUah found himself at the
head of a numerous sect, who soon began to regard him aa
their leader both in temporal and spiritual matters. Under
the name of Almorabethun or Almoravides, they overran
the country of Daza, lying between the desert of Sahara
and the ancient Getulia, and ultimately extended their
conquests from the shores of the Mediterranean to the
frontiers of Nigritia. AbdaUah died on the field of battle in
the year 1058. He was succeeded by Abu-Bekr-Ibn-Omar,
a man whose abilities were scarcely equal to the difficulties
of the position in which he was placed. In 1072 he
was supplanted by Yussof-lbn-TashfjTi, to whom he had
entrusted the government on setting out for Atlas to
queU an insurrection of the Berbers. Yussef completely
established the Almoravide power in Al-Magreb in 1073.
On the invitation of Mohammed of Se'S'iUe, he crossed to
Algeciras in 1086, and at once marched against Alphonso
VI. , the most powerfid prince in Christendom. They met in
the plains of Zalaca (23d Oct. 1086), and Alphonso was
defeated with terrible slaughter. The news of Yussefs
success induced many of the Arabs of Spain to enlist
under his victorious banner. In a third expedition to
Spain (1091), he attacked Mohammed, and after a protracted
siege became master of SeviUe. This conquest was followed
by the subjugation of Almeria, Denia, Xativa, and Valen-
cia. The acquisition of the Balearic Isles was the com-
pletion of this vast empire, which extended from the Ebro
and the TagUs to the frontiers of Soudan. Although
JIarocco was his capital, ho frequently visited his Spanish
dominions ; and on the last occasion, having assembled the
governors of the province at Cordova, he appointed Ali,
the youngest of his sons, as his successor. Ho then re-
turned to Marocco, where he died at a very advanced age,
1106 A.D. (500 of the Uegira), after a reign of forty years.
596
Few kings liave received so noble a heritage as that to
which AU succeeded. The firat years of his reipi were
lirosperoua, though disturbed by the AJmohades, who were
jireparing the way for the destruction of the Almoravidcs.
All was at last obliged to recall from Spain his son Tashfyn,
who was using his utmost endeavours to oppose the victo-
rious career of AJphonso of Aragon, Buniamed the Fighter.
But the valour of Tashfyn was of little avail against the
rising power of the Almohades: disaster followed disaster;
and when, in 1143, ho auccocded to the throne, but a
moiety of the kingdom remained. It was in vain that ho
received succours from Spain, the troops from that soft
climate being little fitted for acrvice in the wild regions of
Atlas. Driven from Tlemecen, he sought refuge in Oran ;
but Abd-el-Mumen appeared before its walls, and by threats
80 intimidated the inhabitants that Tashfyn was compelled
to attempt escape on horseback, with hia favourite wife
behind him ; but being closely pursued, he urged his horse
over a jirecipice, and with his wife was dashed "to pieces.
With Tashfyn expired the domination of the AlmoraWdes ;
for although they still remained in possession of the city
of Marocco, their power was completely broken. Ishak-
Ibrahim, the son of Tashfyn, was taken and put to death
at- Alcazar in 1147, on the surrender of Marocco by
treachery, and with him the dynasty of the Almoravides
became extinct. The remnant of the sect, driven from Spain,
took refuge in the Balearic Islands, but it was finally sup-
pressed in 1208. (For the history of the Arabians in Spain,
see the works of Cardonne, Gondii, St Hilaire, D'Herbelot,
Al-Makkari, and Dozy.)
ALMQYIST, Kabl Jonas Ludtvio, one of the most
extraordinary figures that the history of literature can
produce, was born at Stockholm in 1793. He began life
under highly favourable auspices ; but becoming tired of a
university career, he threw up the position he held in the
capital to lead a colony of friends to the wilds of Werm-
land. This ideal Scandinavian life soon proved a failure ;
AJmqvist found the pen easier to Tyield than the plough,
and in 1829 we find him once more settled in Stockholm.
No'w began his literary life; and after bringing out several
educational works, he made himself suddenly famous by the
publication of his great novel, Tlie Booh of the Thom-liose.
The career so begun developed with extraordinary rapidity;
few writers have equalled Almqvist in productiveness and
versatility ; lyrical, epic, and dramatic poems ; romances ;
lectures ; philosophical, a;sthetical, moral, political, , and
educational treatises ; works of religious edification, studies
in lexicography and history, in mathematics and philology,
form the most prominent of his countless contributions to
modern Swedish literature. So excellent was his style,
that in this respect he has been considered the first of
Swedish writers. His life was as varied as his work.
Unsettled, unstable in all his doings, he passed from one
lucrative post to another, at last subsisting entirely on the
proceeds of literary and journalistic labour. More and more
vehemently he espoused the cause of socialism in his
brilliant novels and pamphlets ; friends were beginning to
leave him, foes beginning to triumph, when suddenly all
minor criticism was silenced by the astounding news that
Almqvist, convicted of forgery and charged v.-ith murder,
had fled from Sweden. This occurred in 1851. For many
years no more was heard of him ; but it is now kr.own
that he wont over to America, and under a feigned name
succeeded in being appointed secretary to AbrahaLi Lincoln.
After Lincoln's death, Almqvist again fell under the ban
of the law ; his MSS., including several unprinted novels,
were confiscated and destroyed, but he himself escaped. to
Europe, where under another alias he continued to exist a
short time longer. His strange and sinister existence came
to a clnse at Lremeo in 1860. It is by his romances, un-
A L :il — A L N
doubtcdly the best in Swedish, that his literary fame WiD'
mainly bo supported ; but his singular history will always
point him out as a remarkable figure even when hia works
are no longer read. He was another Eugene Aram, but of
greater geniua, and so far more successful that he escaped
the judicial penalty of his crimes. (e. w. g.)
ALMUa or ALGUM TREE The Hebrew words
Almuggim or Alyummim are translated Almug or Algum
trees in our version of the Bible (see 1 Kings- 1. 11, 12;
2 Chron. iL 8, and ix. 10, 11). The wood of the tree was
very precioua, and was brought from Ophir (probably some
part of India), along with gold and precious atonea, by
Hiram, and was used in the formation of pillars for the
temple at Jerusalem, and for the king's house; also for the
inlaying of stairs, as wcU as for harps and psalteries. It is
probably the red sandal-wood of India {Plerocarpua tanUu
tinus). This tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosae,
aub-order Papilionaceaj. The wood is hard, heavy, close-
grained, and of a fine red colour. It is diflTerent from the
white fragrant sandal-wood, which is the produee of San-
talum album, a tree belonging to a distinct natural order.
ALMUNECAR, a small seaport town of Spain, in the
province of Granada, about 33 miles south of the town ol
that name. It is a place of Moorish origin, and is toler-
ably well built. The harbour is fit for small vessels only,
and is much exposed to gales from the east. Sugar,
cotton, and fruits are the chief products of Almunecar and
the surrounding country, which is naturally very fertUe,
but the trade is small compared with that of former timea
Population, 5000.
ALNWICK, the county town of Northumberland, is
situated on the south bank of the river Alne, 310 miles N.
of London, 34 N. of Newcastle, and 29 S. of Berwick.
There are remains of the old wall which surrounded the
town, and one of the four gates still exists; but most of the
houses are comparatively modern, and are laid out in well-
paved spacious streets. In the market-place there is a
large town-hall, and a handsome building containing an
assembly-room and a reading-room. Besides the pariah
church, Alnwick possesses a beautiful district church, a
Roman Catholic chapel, and several Protestant dissenting
places of worship. The chief employments are brewing,
tanning, and brickmaking, but these manufactures are
here of little importance. A small export trade is carried
on through Aln mouth in com, pork, and eggs, and a
market is held every Saturday chiefly for these articles.
The local government consists of a bailiff, nominated by the
Duke of Northumberland, and twenty-four common couu-
cilmen, four of whom are elected annually as chamberlains;
the councilmen fill up vacancies in their body from the
freemen, who usually are about 300 in number. The
ceremony of making freemen is of a very peculiar kind.
The candidates, mounted on horseback, assemble in the
market-place very early in the morning of St Mark's day —
the 25th April — clad in white from head to foot, with
swords by their sides, and attended by the bailiff .'nd
chamberlains, who are mounted and armed in the same
manner. From the market-place they proceed; with music
playing before them, to a large pool called Freeman's Well,
where they dismount and draw up in a body at some dis
tance from the water, and, on a given signal from the
bailiff, rush into the pool, and scramble through the mad
as fast as they can. As the water is generally very foul,
they come out in a dirty condition ; but they put on dry
clothes, remount their horses, and ride at full gallop round
the boundaries of the town. According to tradition, the
observance of this custom was enjoined by King John to
punish the inhabitants for their carelessness, the king
having, it is said, lost his way, and been bemired in a bog,
from their neglect of the roads near the town. Tc Xha
A L O — A L P
r.97
north we^t of the town is Alnwick Castle, which has
belonged to the Northumberland family since 1310. In
early times this fortress was an important defence against
the Scotch, and was besieged by them on several occasions,
most memorably in 1093, when Miitcoim Canmore and his
Bon Edward were slain under its walls; and in 1174, when
Wilham the Lion was defeated and taken prisoner. For
a long time it^was permitted to fall into decay, but it has
recently been restored, and to some extent remodelled, and
b now one of the most magnificent specimens of a baronial
' residence in England. The grounds are extensive, and
contain the remains of two abbeys, Alnwick and Hulme.
The population of Alnwick in 1871 was 5822.
ALOE Aloes is a medicinal substance used as a
purgative, and produced from various species of aloe, such
as A. spicata, vulgaris, socotrin,a, indica, and purjiurascens,
all belonging to the natural order LUiaceie. Several kinds
of aloes are distinguished in commerce — Barbadoes, soco-
trine, hepatic, Indian, and Cape aloes. The first two are
those commonly used for medicinal purposes. Aloes is the
inspissated juice of the leaves of the plant. When the
leaves are cut the juice flows out, and is collected and
evaporated. Aft«r the juice has been obtained, the leaves
are soiietimes boiled, so as to yield an inferior kind of
aloes. The active principle is called aloein. Aloes is used
in the form of extract, pQl, tincture, and wine, It is
irritant, and requires to be used with caution.
The plant called American aloe belongs to a difi'erent
order, viz , AmaryUidaceie. The plant is called Agave
Amfricana. The juice of the plant, taken immediately
before flowering, is used in America for the manufacture
of an intoxicating beverage. In Ecuador the spongy
substance of the flower stem is used instead of tinder, and
in tho schools the green leaves serve as paper. A punish-
ment among the Aztecs was introducing the spiny points
of the leaves into the skin. The plant often delays flower-
ing for many years, and then pushes up a flowering stalk
with great rapidity, sometimes at the rate of 1 foot or even
2 feet in twenty-four hours. The fibrous matter procured
from the agave by maceration supplies pita flax.
The aloes or hgn aloes of the Bible (Numb. xxiv. 6, and
Pbalm xlv. 8) is quite difi'erent from the medicinal aloes.
The Hebrew words ahalim and aliafoth, and the Greek
word alof, are rendered aloes in our verbion of the Scrip-
tures. The substance is supposed by some to be the
fragrant wood of AquUaria Agallochum, a plant belonging
to the natural order Aquilariaccie. There are, however,
considerable doubts as to the correctness of this view, more
espeeioUy as the tree io a native of Cochin China, Silhet,
and Northern India, and is not found in Chaldea or Syria.
From tho allusion made to the trees of Ugn aloes by Balaam,
it eecms probable that they were known as growing in
Syria. It is quite pos-^ible, however, that the precious
fragrant substance called aloes, and mentioned in Scripture
along with cinnamon, cassia, myrrh, and spices, may have
been brouglit from India. As a perfume it is noted in
Psalm xlv. 8; Prov. vii. 17; Song of SoL iv. 14. The
use of aloes in perfuming the coverings of the dead is
referred to in John xix. 39, 40.
ALOID^, or AL0IAD.E, the designation of Otus and
Enhialtes, sons of Poseidon by Iphimedea, wife of Aloeu.s.
They are celebrated for their extraordinary stature, being
27 cubit.s in height and 9 in breadth when only nine years
old. '''ho story of their piling PcUon upon Ossa in then-
War with the Olympian gods is one of the best known of
the early Greek myths. According .to Homer's account,
they were destroyed by Apollo ere their beards began to
grow. {OJt/ssry, xL 305; Ihad, v. 385.)
ALOMPllA, Alounq Fhouba, fo\indcr of the reigning
dynaety in Buruiah, was boru in 1711 at Mouchoboo, a
small village 50 miles north-west of Ava. Of humble
origin, he had risen to be chief of his nativa village when
the invasion of Eirmah by the kuig of Pegu in 1752 gave
him the opportunity of attaining to tho highest distinction.
The whole country had tamely submitted to the invader,
and the lc3.ding chiefs had taken the oaths of allegiance.
Alompra, however, with a more independent spirit, not
ordy contrived to regain possession of his village, but was
able to defeat a body of Peguan troops that had been sent
to punish him. Upon this the Birmese, to the number of
a thousand, rallied to his standard, and inarched with him
upon Ava, which was recovered from the invaders before
tho close of 1753. For several years he prosecuted the
war with uniform success. In 1754 the Peguans, to
avenge themselves for a severe defeat at Keoum-nuoum,
slew the king of Birmah, who was their prisoner. The sou
of the latter claimed the throne, and was supported by the
tribe orQuois; but Alompra resisted, being determined to
maintain his own supremacy. In 1765 Alompra foundel
the city of Rangoon. In 1757 he had established his
position as one of the most powerful monarchs of tha
East by the invasion and conquest of Pegu. Ere a year
elapsed the Peguans revolted but Alompra, with his usual
promptitude, at once quelled tho insurrection. The Euro-
peans were suspected of having instigated the rising, and
the massacre of the English at Negrais in Oc'X)ber 1759 is
supposed to have been approved by Alompra after the event,
though there is no evidence that he ordered it Against
the Siamese, who were abo suspected of having abetted
the Peguan rebels, he proceeded more openly and severely.
Entering their territory, he was just about to invest the
capital when he was seized with an iUness which proved
fatal on the 15th May 1760. Alompra is certainly one of
the most remarkable figures in modern Oriental history.
To undoubted military genius he added considerable poli-
tical sagacity, and he deserves particular credit for his
eflforts to improve the odministration of justice. Hig
cruelty and deceitfulnesa are faults common to all Eastern
despots.
ALOST, or Aalst, a town of Belgium, on the eastern
frontier of the province of East Flanders, about midway
between Ghent and Brussels. The Dcnder, a navigable
tributai-y of the Scheldt, passes through the town, which is
a clean, well-built place, surrounded by a wall with fiva
gates. The church of St Martin, a fine edifice, although
unfinished, contains a celebrated picture by llubens, " St
Roche Praying for the Cessation of the Plague." Among
the other public buildings are a town-hall, which was
founded about 1200 A.D., a college, and an hospital The
trade is extensive, chiefly in corn, oil, hops, and beer; and
there are linen, lace, and cotton manufactories, and iron
foundries of considerable importance. Alost was formerly
the capital of imperial Flanders. Tho French under
Turenne took it in 16G7, but were obliged to abandon it
after the battle of Ramilliea in 1706. Population, 19,000.
ALPACA is a name applied generally to several, allied
South American wool-bearing animals, but more properly
restricted to one of the species. It is further used to dis-
tinguish the wool obtained from these animak, and the
woven textures manufactured from the wool are also known
as alpacas. The alpacas or llamas are natives of the lofty
table-lands and mountain range of the Andes in Peru and
Chili, and in that region of the globe they long occupied the
position held in the Old World by their congeners of
larger size, tho camels. To tho ancient Peruvians the llamas
were the only available beasts of burden and wool-bearing
creatures, just as to the present day the camel is to the tribes
of the Asiatic deserts. The camel {Camelui) and the llama
(Auchenia) form the two existing genera of tho family
Camclids; and thus in a zoological sense also the one
598
A L P — A L P
represents the other in difi'erent regions of the earth. A
great deal of doubt and confusion has existed as to the
number of species into which the Uamas can be divided — a
very common occurrence in dealing with domeaticated or
semi-domesticated creatures. Most authorities now, how-
ever, agree in regarding them as separable into four
species, following the classification of Von Tschudi, who
has given much careful consideration to the subject. The
species, according to that naturalist, are the llama [Auchenia
lama), the huanaco or guanaco {A. huanaco), the alpaca or
paco {A. paco), and the vicugna (J. vicunna.) The two
iirst-named species are, or rather were, more valued as
beasts of burden, and for their flesh, than as sources of
wool, being able to bear from 120 to 150 lb burden over
long distances daily. The guanaco attains a size not much
less than our red deer; and is the largest and most widely
spread of all the species, being found from the equator
southward to Patagonia. The llama is next in size, but
its habitat is limited to the loftier mountains of North
Peru. Although both species yield a serviceable quality of
•wool, which is used by the Peruvians and found in com-
merce, it is chiefly to the alpaca we owe the supplj' of
wool imported into this coi ntry under that name. The
alpaca is considerably smaller than either the llama or the
guanaco, but in general outline all the species resemble
each other. In its native condition the alpaca ranges
between 10° and 20'' S. lat, from the centre of Peru into
Bolivia, not coming lower down in vertical distribution
than between 8000 and 9000 feet above the sea-level.
At and above these heights it Uves in herds in a semi-
domesticated condition, being only driven into the villages
to be shorn. The wool, which varies in length from 2 to
6 inches, is of a very lustrous and fine quality, and is
mostly white, black, or gray, shades of brown or fawn
being rarer. The vicugna is a much rarer animal than
the alpaca, being found sparsely scattered from Ecuador,
throughout Peru, into Bolivia, but seldom descending
under 13,000 feet above the sea-level. It is about the
same size as the alpaca, and yields an exceedingly delicate
wool, varying in colour from a reddish yellow to a dull
white. It is usually worth about twice as much as
alpaca, and is greatly valued for fine felts.
There is evidence of these animals having Deen held
domesticated and used for their wool in their native region3
from remote antiquity. Remains of clothing made from
alpaca wools have been found in the graves of the lucas;
and when, in the early part of the 16th century, Europeans
first visited Peru, these animab formed the chief wealth of
the natives, being the carriers of their commerce as well a3
the main source of their food and clothing. Small quan-
tities of the wool were occasionally met with in English com-
merce; but it was not till 1836 that it became established
as a regular trading commodity with Europe. In that year
Mr (now Sir) Titus Salt, a wool-broker and manufacturer
in Bradford, purchased a quantity he met with in a Liver-
pool warehouse at 8d. per D), and set himself to discover
its capabilities. The amount and manner of his success
will be described in the articles Wool and Worsted
Manufactures; it need only be remarked here that his
experiments have resulted in making alpaca a staple second
in importauce to wool, and so creating an industry of
great and rapidly increasing dimensions. The success of
his experiments led to the erection of his great manu-
facturing establishment of Saltaire, in which upwards of
3000 hands are employed in the alpaca manufacture. The
quantity of alpaca imported into England from 1836 — the
year of Sir Titus Salt's first experimental purchase — to
18-iO, averaged 560,800 lb yearly, which sold at about
lOd. per tb. In 1852 the imports had risen to 2,186,480
D). and the price advanced to 23: 6d per lb. In lSG-1 the
imports amounted to 2,664,027 ft>, and in 1872 they were
3,878,739 lb; the value of average qualities being from
2s. 64 to 23. lOd. per lb. The introduction of the various
species of llama into Eulope has been frequently urged.
Geoflfrey St Hihiire and other French naturalists having
specially pointed out the desirability of their introduction .
into France, and at one time a herd existed in the
Pyrenees; but in Europe the creatures mnst bo still to-
garded aa curiosities of zoological collections. In 1859
systematic and costly attempts were made to accKmatise •
the alpaca in our Australian colonies by Sfr Ledger, a gen-
tleman who had devoted many yoara to observation of tha
conditions of life of the aniinaL At first the experiment
presented most encouraging prospects; the herds continued
he.althy and increased in numbers; but gradually the subtle
influences of the loss of their native mountain climate
became apparent, — the creatures drooped, their numberB
dwindled, and for the present the undertaking must be
regarded as a complete failure.
ALP ARSLAN or AXiU^, Mohammed Ben Daoud, the
second sultan of the dynasty of Seljuk, in Persia, and great-
grandson of Seljuk, the founder of the dynasty. He wa.'S
born in the year 1029 a.d., 421 of the Hegira. He assumed
the name of ilohammed when he embraced the Mussulman
faith; and on account of his military prowess he obtained
the surname Alp Arslan, which signifies "a valiant lion,"
Ho succeeded his father Daoud as ruler of Khorassan in
1059, and his uncle Togrul Bey as sultan of Oran in 1063,
and thus became sole monarch of Persia, from the river
Oxus to the Tigris. In consolidating his empire and sub-
duing contending factions he was ably assisted by Nizani-
al-Mulk, his vizier, one of the most eminent statesmen
in early Mahometan history. Peace and security being
established in his dominions, he convoked an assembly of
the states, and declared his son Malik Shah his heir and
successor. With the hope of acquiring imii^ense booty in
the rich temple of St Basil in Ca;sarea, the capital of
Cappadocia, he placed himself at the head of the Turkish
cavalry, crossed the Euphrates, and entered and plundered
that city. He then marched into Armenia and Georgia,
which, in the year 1064, he finally subdued. To punish
the Georgians for the brave defence which theyJjad made,
and as a badge of their humiliating condition, the conqueror
obliged them to wear at their cars horse-shoes of iron. lu
the year 1068 Alp Arslan invaded the Roman empire,
the seat of which was then at Constantinople. The Emperor
Romanus Diogenes, assuming the command in person,
met the invaders in Cilicia. In three several campaigns
his arms were victorious, and the Turks were forced to
retreat beyond the Euphrates. In the fourth he advanced
with an army of 100,000 men into the .i\j-menian territory,
for the reUef of that country. Here he was met by Alp
Arslan; and the sultan hanng proposed terms of peace,
which Were insultingly rejected by the emperor, a bloody
and decisive engagement took place near Malazkurd, in
which the Greeks, after a terrible slaughter, were totally
routed. Romanus was taken prisoner and conducted into
the presence of Alp Arslan, who treated him with a noble
generosity. A ransom of a million and an annual tribute of
3000 pieces of gold, an intermarriage between the families,
and the deliverance of all the captive Mussulmans in the
power of the Greeks, having been agread to as the terms
of peace and the liberty of the emperor, Romanus was
dismissed, loaded with presents and respectfully attended
by a military guard. He was unable, however, to fulfil
the terms of the treaty, and the war was accordingly
renewed. At this time the dominion of Alp Arslan
extended over the fairest part of Asisl: 1200 princes or
sons of princes surrounded his throne, and 200,000 soldiers
wore ready to execute his commands. Ho now declared
A L P — A L P
599
T-is purpose of attempting the ccjquest of . Turkestan, the
original seat of his ancestors. After great preparations
for the expedition, he marched with a powerful army, and
arrived at the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass
the river with safety, it was necessary to gain possession
of some fortresses in its vicinity, one of which was for
several days vigorously defended by the governor, Tussuf
Kothual, a KharLzmian. He was, however, obliged to sur-
render, and was carried a prisoner before the 'sultan.
Being condemned to suffer a cruel death, Yussui became
incensed, rushed .^pon the sultan, and stabbed him
in the breast. The wound proved mortal, and Alp Arslan
expired a few hours after he received it, on the 15th Dec.
1072.
ALPES, the name of three departments in the south-
east of France, — Basses Alpes, Uautcs AlpeSj and Atpes
Maritime!.
Basses Axpes is bounded on the JNT. by the department
of Hautes Alpes; on the E. by the kingdom of Italy and
the department of Alpes Maritimes; on the S. by the
departments of Var and Bouches du Rh6ne; and on the
W. by those of Vaucluse and Dr8me. It extends at the
widest points 90 miles from N.E. to S.W., and 70 from
E. to W., and contains an area of 2680 square miles. Its
surface is mountainous, especially on the north-east, where
offshoots of the Maritime Alps penetrate into the country,
rising near the river Ubaye to an elevation of over
9000 feet above the level of the sea. With the excep-
tion of the south-eastern comer, which is drained by
the Var, the whole department is in the basin of the
Durance, which for a considerable distance separates
Basses from Hautes Alpes, but eventually strikes south-
ward through the former. Its chief tributaries are the
Buech and the Jabron on the right, and the Ubaye, the
Bl^one, the Asse, and the Verdon on the left. The climate
in the mountainous districts of the north is cold and
variable. The soil there is poor, but it is cultivated with
great industry — producing rye, oats, barley, potatoes,
and timber. In the south and south-west, however, where
the country is comparatively ilat, the temperature is milder
and the soil more fertile; here plums, almonds, apricots,
peaches, and other fruits are produced in large quantities,
as well as wine of an excellent description, chiefly for home
consumption. Considerable numbers of cattle, sheep, goats,
and pigs are reared in the Basses Alpes, besides which
many flocks of sheep, from Var and Bouches du Rh6ne,
are pastured during summer in the tipper valleys of the
department. Game is abundant. There are mines of lead
and other metals of some value. The manufactures are
few and of little importance, the chief being leather,
coarse woollen cloths, cutlery, earthenware, and paper.
Basses Alpes, one of the departments formed out of ancient
Provence, is divided into five arrondissements — Digne, in the
centre; Barcelonnette and Castellane, on the east; Sisteron
and Forcalquier on the west; which together contain 30
cantons and 251 communes. Digne is the capital and
the seat of a bishop, whose diocese is co-extensive with the
department; and among the other towns are Barcelonnette,
Castellane, Sisteron, Forcalquier, and Manosque. Popu-
lation (1871), 139,332.
Hautes Alpes is bounded on the N. by the depart-
ments of Isfere and Savoir; on the R by the kingdom
of Italy; on the S. by the department of Alpes Basses;
a-d on the W. by that of Dr6me. It extends nearly 80
miles from N.E. to S.W., and contains an area of 2108
square miles. Its surface is very mountainous, being tra-
versed in all directions by the Cottian and Dauphin(S Alps,
which, in Mont Pelvouz and other peaks, riae to an eleva-
tion of about 13,000 feet above the sea, the highest sunj-
mits in France. The Drac, flowing northwards into the
Isire, and the Durance, with its tributaries the Guil and
the Buech, are the chief rivers of Hautes Alpes. The
climate is cold in winter, and in summer variable ; the soil
is barren, yielding only oats, barley, potatoes, rye, and
timber, except in a few favoured valleys, where wine of
a fair quality and fruits of various kinds are produced.
Large numbers of sheep and other domestic animals are
reared or pastured in the department. Game, both large
and small, is found in great abundance. The mines
produce lead, copper, iron, and other metals. There are
no manufactures of any commercial importance, although
some leather, coarse woollen cloth, hats, woodwork, and
ii-on wares are made. Hautes Alpes, a part of the old
province of Dauphin^, is divided into three arrondisse-
ments: Gap on the west, Embrun on the south-east, and
Brianfon on the north-east, vrith 24 cantons and 89 com-
munes. The capital is Gap, the seat of the bishop ; Em-
brun and Brianfon being the only other towns of any size
Population, 118,898.
Ai,PE3 JIaeitimes, bounded on the N. by Basses Alpes
and the kingdom of Italy, which also forms its boundary •
on the E. ; on the S. by the Mediterranean Sea; and on
the W. by Var and Basses Alpes. It extends at the
widest points 55 miles from N. to S., and 50 from E. to
W. ; and contains an area of 1517 square miles. The
surface of this department, like that of the two former, is
more or less mountainous, branches of the Maritimes Alpes
covering the greater part of the territory. It is watered
by the Koya, the PaUlon, the Var (with its tributaries the
Tin^a and the Esterou), the Loup, and the Siagne. The
climate is on the whole warm and gentle, except among
the higher mountains; while the mildness of the tempera-
ture along the shores of the Mediterranean has made that
portion of the department a favourite resort for invalids.
The upper valleys and mountain slopes are chiefly devoted
to pasture for sheep, being ill-suited for cultivation, although
a little barley and maize is grown ; the richer districts of the
south produce fruits of various kinds, tobacco, honey, and
flowers, used in the making of perfumes. The other manu-
factures are of dried fruits, olive-oil, preserved anchovies
and sardines, silk, soap, and paper. Alpes Maritimes is
divided into three arrondissements — Grasse and Nice on
the south, and Puget Th^niers on the north, containing
25 cantons and 146 communes. The arrondissements of
Nice and Puget Th^uiers constitute the bishopric of Nice ;
Grasse belongs to that of FrfSjus. Nice is the capital; and
among the other towns are Mentone, Villafranche, Grasse,
Antibes, Cannes, and Puget Th^niers. The Marseilles,
Nice, and Ventimille railway, skirting the coast, connecta
Cannes, Antibes, Nice, and Mentone, and joins an Italian
line which affords direct railway communication with
Genoa. The department of Alpes Maritimes was formed
in 1860 from the territory of Nice, which had been ceded
to France, together with Mentone and Roccabruna, pur-
chased from the Prince of Monaco, and the arrondisso-
ment of Grasse, transferred from Var. It had a popula-
tion of 119,037 in 1871.
^ ALPHA and OMEGA (A and fi), the first and last
letters of the Greek alphabet, frequently employed to
symbolise the idea of completeness or infinity. They are
used as a designation of himself by the speaker in Rev. L
8; xxi. 6; xxiL 13. In the last passage the speaker i£
undoubtedly Jesus Christ. In the symbolism of the early
church A and O, combined with a cross or with the mono-
gram of XpioTo?, represented Christianity, or, more speci-
fically, faith inf the divinity of Christ.
600
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9
fp
R
T
Vf
Y
-
(DO
x +
Y
9a
9ii
CHA.LCIDIAN
C0L0NIE3
IN ITALT
(iHSCBtPTIOSS)
Ditto
(Vases)
AA
A
AA
A
B
c
D^
-«-^
6
B
H«0
1
KK
1-
^^M
.v,v
00
00
nr
m
9
9C
PR
# 2
TT
T
VV
VY
X
®4>
0
._-
B
c
>D
E
C
I B
1
K
p
^»
10
OLD LATIN
A A
A
^B
<c
>D
1]
il ^
E
F
1
■i
1 1
K
U L
J.
MM' N
1
00
n r
p
9C
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TT
1
V
X
r
601
ALPHABET
BY an alphabet wejnean a list of symbols which repre-
sent conventionally to the eye the sounds which are
heard in the speech of a nation. An alphabet will
therefore be perfect if the number of its symbols exactly
corresponds to the number of simple sounds which are
commonly distinguishable in the spoken language. But
tiiia perfection has probably never yet been reached : all
known alphabets have failed, either by defect, i.e., from
not representing all the simple sounds ; or by redundancj',
in having m.ore than one symbol for the same sound.
They must also necessarily become imperfect by lapse of
time. No nation keeps the sound of its language unaltered
through many centuries : sounds change as well as
grammatical forms, though they may endure longer, ' so
that the symbols no longer retain their proper values ;
often, too, several different sounds come to be denoted by
the same symbol ; and in strictness the alphabet should be
changed to correspond to all these changes. But little
inconvenience is practically caused by the tacit acceptance
of the old symbol to express the new sound ; indeed the
change in language is bo gradual that the variation in the
values of the symbols is imperceptible. It is only when
we attempt to produce the exact sounds of th* English
language less than three centuries ago that we realise the
fact that if Shakespeare could now stand on our stage he
would seem to us to speak in an unknown tongue ; though
one of his plays, when written, is as perfectly inteUigible
now as then. Such changes of sound are most developed
in countries where many different dialects, through con-
quest, immigration, or otherwise, exist side by side : they
are checked by the increase of education and by facility of
locomotion — both of which causes tend to assimilate all
dialects to that one which by some lucky chance has become
the literary speech of the nation.
The term alphabet has come to us from the Latin
alphabefum, which, however, occurs in no prose writer
before TertuUian. It could not have been used, for
metrical reasons, by Juvenal, when he wrote, " Hoc discunt
omnes ante alpha et beta pueUae " — their A B o. But there
is no reason why it should not have existed earlier : the
word was borrowed from the Greek, as seems clear from
the compound ava\<^a/3vjTos, which is as old as the comedian
PhilyUius (Meineke, Com. Irag. ii. 857), and he was aUve
in 392 B.C. It does not seem likely that this compound
adjective would have been coined if the noun itself had
not already existed in the same sense which it now bears.
The symbols of our alphabet are nearly those of the
Latin ; these in their turn were borrowed from a Greek
alphabet ; and there seems no reasonable ground for
doubting the common tradition that the Greeks derived
their characters from a Phoenician source. All these
borrowings will be fully described hereafter. At this
point absolute certainty ends. We cannot prove to de-
monstration the origin of our alphabet ; but positive facts
and analogical arguments may be adduced which enable
us to attain a very high degree of probability. ^ It is now
commonly believed that the characters were originally
hieroglyphics, and in that ultimate form were devised in
Egypt. There, for convenience of writing, they took a
aimj-'of form (called hieratic). In this shape they were
borrowed by the Phcenicians ; and thus, in their long
courBe down to us, they passed gradually from being the
written expression of an idea into the written expreBsii>n
each of a single sound. It is true that the proof is not
clear throughout : sometimes the links are feeble, and here
Wo have to employ the analogy of other languages, in t\(hich
the particular step which we want to prove has un-
doubtedly been made under similar circumstances. Still,
it may with some truth be said thiH we ran only prove the
possibility of such a- process, while any given alphabet may
have had a perfectly independent origin ; the Phcenician
alphabet may have been developed in Phoenicia itself, and
never been hieroglyphic at all But this is very difficult
to conceive. The a priori argument for the derivation of
phonetic from hieroglyphic characters is strong. Hiero-
glyphics have unquestionably been the first attempt of
many nations in a rude state to record their thoughts in a
permanent and universally inteUigible form. It is also
certain that these hieroglyphics have undergone progressive
degradation, of shape, so that their visible connection with
the thing signified was Often lost ; they became in many
cases the expression of those combinations of sounds by
which the things were denoted in the spoken language,
though they still generally retained their original value as
weU. Here, at all events, a certain connection between
hieroglyphics and sounds estabUshes itself ; and a priori it
is more probable that all alphabets should have derived the
single sounds of which they consist from hieroglyphics,
through the medium of their derived phonetic values, than
that any alphabet should have been produced independently
of hieroglyphics (which are admitted to have wasted), by
some arbitrary process of formation for which absolutely
no testimony can be adduced. As we have said above,
such a process is not impossible, and may be true for any
particular alphabet ; but the opposite theory has the most
internal probability and all the evidence of which the case
admits. Against this it seems insufficient to urge (as has
been done) that there exist upon earth savages who have
never developed any alphabetic writing out of their rude
attempts — a fact which may be readily granted ; or that
civilised men often return to the simple methods employed
by uncivilised nations, such as cutting notches on sticks or
tying knots in strings — such return being apparently
adduced to prove that two totally different methods of
expression can co-exist without there being any tendency
to pass from one to the other ; nay, it is added that in
Egypt the hieroglyphic and the common (or demotic)
character did certainly exist side by side ; and if the latter
were borrowed froin the former, it would have superseded
it, which it did not do. Now, in answer to this, reasons
will appear shortly why the hieroglyphic characters lingered
so persistently, even when the later phonetic character was
in common use — nay, in the very same inscription or docu-
ment with the hieroglyphic. Still, the argument would
have some weight if it were not grounded on the false
assumption that the demotic alphabet was a purely phonetic
one, totally unconnected with its more aged rival But
modern research has proved incontestably that the demotic
characters can be traced back to their original hieroglyphic
shape through the medium of the hieratic ; in fact, that
the cumbrous hieroglyphics were successively put into
more and more abbreviated shapes, for convenience of
writing, as its use increased.
Excluding, then, attempts of savages such as have been
mentioned above, whioh were neither durable nor in-
telligible enough to make them of service, except for the
smallest number of men during the most limited time —
excluding these as not deserving the name, we derive all
real writing from hieroglj-phics, such hieroglyphics being
either purely pictorial, the expression of visible objects in
the external world ; or symbolic, when some external
object is conventionally chosen to represent some action or
L - 76
G02
A L P H A B E T
some abstract iden. These two metliodi were probably
nearly contemporaneous in their origin, because the
necessity of writing at all supposes a considerable advance
in eivilisation, and therefore a considerable development of
ideas. To this system as a whole the convenient term
ideography is now generally applied. From this men have
passed to phonetic writing, first, apparently, in the form
of eyllabiam, in which each syllable of a word is regarded
as an independent whole and represented by a fitiglo sign ;
then from this to alpkahetism, in which the syllable is no
longer denoted by an indivisible symbol, but is resolved
into vowel and consonant, each with its own accepted
sign.
It seems probable that all known alpliabets (with one or
t.vo possible exceptions) may be traced back to four or five
parents. These have differed much in fi-uitfulness, but all
were originally hieroglypiuc. These five systems of writing
are the Egyptian, the cuneiform, the Chinese, the Hexican
or Aztec, and the curiously cumbrous characters of Yacatan
and central America : these last may bo seen interspersed
with figurative paintings in a facsimile given by JI. do
Uosny at p. 20 cJ his very useful little summarj', Les £eri-
tures Figuratives 'les Diffrrcnis Peuples Anciens et Modernes.
Of these, the first three alone can be said to have had any
great extension ; and the first, if the Phcenician, and by
consequence the European alphabets, were derived from it,
far exceeds in importance all the rest together. These
systems were perfectly independent, and developed them-
selves, each in the same course, but in its own manner, and
each in the main to a different degree. At certain points
in their history all but one became crystallised, and
remained to show us the steps by which the progress to
phonetism can be made. We do not propose to describe
here fully any of these systems of hieroglyphics. We are
onl)' concerned to point out their relative degrees of de-
velopment, their deficiencies, and the consequent motives
which mvist have impeUed men by degrees to the produc-
tion of a genuine alphabet.'
There are obvious deficiencies even in the most highly
developed hieroglyphics. In the first place, they must
have been excessively burdensome to the memory. They
speedily lost their original form, which was in most cases
too cumbrous to he retained when T\riting became frequent;
their pictorial value was therefore lost, and the new form
could not generally have been intelligible to a learner, who
was thus obliged to acquire by memory an enormous
number of symbols, compared with which even the Sans-
krit alphabet may be regarded as easy. Secondly, it is
impossible by hieroglyphics to express grammatical rela-
tions : the order, indeed, in which the s^Tnbols are placed
may denote the distinction between subject and object ;
plurality may be expressed by the repetition of a symbol ;
some even of the relations in space, denoted in more
advanced languages by cases, may be pictorially rendered ;
but all these helps do not go far to remedy this obvious
want. Experience, however, shows how much incon-
venience a nation wUl undergo rather than make any
radical change in its phonetic system. We have only to
look at our own alphabet, with its numerous and univer-
sally confessed deficiencies and redundancies,^ ana then
* The authorities referred to chiefly are Endlicher {Cliincsische
Orammatik), Oppert (Expedition Sciintijiqve en Misopotamie, torn. 2),
and Bunsen {Effypt'i PUice in History^ vol. v.) Frequent use has
been made of De Rosny'a book mentioned above, and still more of the
Kssai svr la Propn/jation de I' Alphabet Ph^ticien dans V Anrien Monde,
by M. Frantjois Lenormant, of which the first volume cnly has y*t
appeared. It contains an introduction to his special subject, in which
the labourd of Champolllon, Young, Lepsius, Bunsen, De Roug6, in
Kiiyptian hieroglyphics, and of Grotefend, Rawlinson, Hincks, and
'ippert, among the cuneiform character^ are ably summariaed, and set
forth with much cleamesa
remember the fruitless attempts whicli have been made to
work a reform in it, to bo convinced that no people will of
its own accord strike out a thoroughly new system of
writing. Such revolutions can only be produced by the
meeting of two difTerent civilisations, and the reception
by the one of the arts and ideas of the other. But such a
meeting may, and more commonly does, only stimulate the
inferior race to some partial development. For the new
ideas new names are required : these may be metaphori-
cally represented out of the old vocabulary, as when the
Romans called the unknown elephant the Lucanian ox,
and of course wrote it so. liut su[)poso the inferior people
to be one which has not yet advanced beyond hiero-
glyphic writing ; their simplest and most obvious plan
will bo to take the strange name, and express it by those
symbols out of their old stock which denote the nearest
sounds to that of the name required. Such sj-mbols then
cease to represent ideas only, as they used to do ; they are
consciously employed to represent mere sounds, and thus
arise the first beginnings of phonetism. A good example
of tliis process may be found in the Aztec (Lenormant, L
29; De Rosny, p. 19, who also gives others). When
Christianity was introduced into Mexico, the Lord's Prayer
was reduced to wTiting in the following manner : — The
M(:x!can symbols nearest to the two syllables of pater were
a flag (sounded aspantli), and a rock ((<■(/) -.pater was there-
fore represented pictorially by a flag and a rock ; we cannot
tell whether it was sounded as pan-tetl, or only as pa-te —
the nearest possible equivalent in the Mexican language,
which has no r. Similarly, noster was phonetically repre-
sented by nocli-tctl, pictorially by the Indian fig (noc/Uli)
and the rock as before. Here, then, we have the application
of symbols to denote sound without regard to thfe original
sense ; just as we might draw the figures of an eye, a saw,
and a horse, and convey by them the idea, " I saw a horse."
The Aztec would not long have the ideas of a flag, a rock,
and a fig pji'esented to his mind when he read these sj-mbols;
and so the first conception of phonetism was gained, the
first move from hierogljfihic to alphabetic writing. Yet
he had not attained the first real step in the progress — i.e.,
syllabic writing — because if he had decomposed his new
words, pan would not have represented to his mind merely
so much sound — a syllable by itself meaningless » it would
have given him only the idea of a flag. And further than
this the Aztec language did not pass : probably it only
reached this stage incompletely with a small number of
words. Th', great advance to syllabic writing is to be
found elsewhere ; first in the Chinese, perhaps through the
accident of the monosyllabic nature of the language ; but
mth a clearly-developed purpose in the Aramaic cuneifona
inscriptions.
In the Chinese written character we find a considerable
number of symbols which were unquestionably at fi^rst
pictorial Though but very slight vestiges of their original
meaning can now be seen in them, yet they can be traced
back to older forms which are unmistakeable ; and their
origin is further attested by the name " images," which
the Chinese give them, as distinguished from others which
they call "letters." These S}Tnbol3 were simple, and
.denoted very ingeniously natural objects — the sun (by a
circle with a dot inside), the moon (by a crescent with a
line insidet. a mountain ^bv three "^eaks side by side), rain
(by drops unde."- an overarching nne), a cnild (thus
a mother (
^,
A'),
a figure expressing the arms and bosom
effectively enough), &c These symbols could be combined :
thus the symbols for water and eye combined denoted
tears, an ear and a door expressed hearing and under-
ALPHABET
603
standing; but such com'binations of pure hieroglyphics
were rare, as they would have been liable to be confused
with combinationo of the same kind used in a diiTerent
way, as will be seen immediately. There were also some
hieroglyphs used symbolically; e.g., a hand to denote a
workman, the two valves of a shell-fish to denote friends..
These also are few in number, and not very ingenious.
Last in this class come some sjonbols which are essentially
pictorial, though they represent no visible object; e.g.,
" above " was expressed by a dot above a horizontal Une ;
" below," by a dot below it ; the numerals one, two, three,
bv so many horizontal lines ; " right," by the svmbol ^
" left," by k , (fee. So far, we have simple hieroglyphs,
or ideograms (a more convenient term), — pictorial repre-
sentations, expressing not merely visible objects, but also
abstract ideas, and even actions ; but each of these could
also have the phonetic value of the name of the object
which it depicted. ■
Distinct from these are the " letters " — in use, though
not in origiru These have two parts — one, a symbol which
was originally an ideogram, and which could still be used
asj such, but which in this particular combination lost its
ideographic value, and retained only the phonetic value of
the name of its object ; the other, an ideogram, which laid
aside its phonetic value, and only restricted to a particular
class the phonetic symbol which it accompanied. Thus,
for example, the ideogram of a ship had also the phonetic
value tcheu — i.e., the name denoting ship in the spoken
language ; the ideogram of fire had the phonetic value hv6:
these two symbols combined were still pronounced tcheu,
and meant the flickering of flame. The second symbol
dropped its phonetic value altogether, but kept the generic
idea of fire : the ship was lost, but the idea of undulating
motion modified that of fire, and the complex symbol com-
bined the two ideas, with the one sound tcheu. Similarly,
the ideogram ship and speech combined expressed
loquacity, and this in the spoken language was also tcheu,
the phonetic value of the symbol for speech being dropped,
just like that of the symbol fire above. In this way there
are ten different idea* given by Endlicher (p. 10), all called
in the spoken language tcheu, and all expressed to the eye
by different complex symbols formed on this principle.
These symbols, he reckons, form at least §^th3 of the
written language.
This is a very imperfect sketch of the Chinese system
of writing, and into the history of the " keys," which indeed
belong rather to Chinese lexicography, we do not propose
to entef. But it is enough to throw light on some
questions connected with our subject. First of all, we see
ideography and phonetism existing side by side ; and even
the same symbol, having in most cases (not in all) either
an ideographic or a phonetic value at will. Therefore, in
this case the passage from the one system to the other
may be considered as certain ; but how it was made there
is not sufficient evidence to show. It must have been
earUcr than the combination of pure ideojrams mentioned
above. It was probably greatly facilitated by the Chinese
being a monosyllabic language ; each syllable is a complete
word in itself, expressing a complete notion : hence the idea
on completeness and individuality would attach to such a
combination of sound more easily than would be possible
in pr'vsyllabic language ; and it would seem more natural
to give that sound a symbol for itself, quite apart from its
ideographic meaning. Further, as the whole number of
single syllables of which the language consists is only 450,
the effort of remembering the symbols could not bo great,
and the memory must h^vo been already trained m that
direction, because the symbols (even in their ideographic
acceptation) had lost their obviously pictorial character,
and must have been kept by the memory, not recognised
each time by the eye ; just as children, in learning to read,
commonly remember short and familiar words as a whole,
without analysing them into the component letters.
The explanation of the cumbrous " letters " described
above is simple ; and it wiU show us, secondly, how so ap-
parently monstrous a system of writing could be maintained,
and has been in its essence maintained, down to the presen^t
day. With so few radical sounds in the language, it waj
inevitable that many difl'erent objects must have been
expressed, as ideas grew and multiplied, by the same sound,
as we saw above that there were eleven different ideas
(including the ship itself) all called tcheu. These could
be distinguished in the spoken language by tone or accent,
and actually were so distinguished. But how were they
to be distinguished in vrritingl Now, vrriting is but the
visible exponent of language, and therefore is naturally
formed under the same conditions — those conditions which,
because the effect is obvious while the reason is often
dilEcult to detect, we vaguely call the genius of the
language: and it must accommodate itself to the defects
as well as the strength of the language. There is an
inherent evil in Chinese speech — inevitable in a mono-
syllabic language with a limited number of radicals — that
the same combination of sound should serve to express
many different ideas. A combination, therefore, of symbols
is absolutely necessary, which shall represent to the mind
through the eye the fact that the sound which is heard
has changed its meaning to meet that of another sound
which is not heard — that tcheu no longer means a ship, but
means the flickering of flame, or. something else quite
different. It would have been easy enough to have had
different symbols for the different meanings of tcheu ; but
it would not practically have been so convenient, because
it would not have represented so well the facts of the
language. If the Chinese had chosen in their speech to
do universally what they did occasionally, to form com-
pounds like " ear-dooring " for " hearing " a thing, the
native genius for pictorial representation would have pro-
duced a symbolism which might have supplied all its
wants down to the present day. But that was not the
bent of the language ; and the writing therefore remains
to the present day a mixture of ideography and phonetism,
and is perhaps better so. Still, a great deal of confusion
is possible. In modem writing, according to Endlicher, each
syllable, has several sjraibols, partly because of the extra-
ordinary number of meanings belonging, as we have seen,
to each combination of sound, partly from considerations of
calligraphy, because it is not every s} nbol which will
combine neatly with every other; and therefuie for par-
ticular combinations a different symbol with the sAmo
phonetic value is required, so that the shapes of the mixed
symbols increase in number. Also, the pictorial symbols
being comparatively few, and many of these being em-
ployed phoneticallv for the same syllable, it is obvious
that, with the growth of ideas, many ne.v symbols must
have been required. To meet this want, the mixed
symbols so often mentioned were employed purely phoneti-
cally, each in new comb' ^atioc on the old principle with
an ideogram, whose meaning was disregarded. Generally
these symbols kept their phonetic worth, but sometimes in
combination with particular ideograms they change. Thus
we see a double evil arise in the language. Noi only have
we severr.l symbols for each combination of sound, but
also the same symbol can under certain circumstances have
different phonetic values. But the difficulties thus caused
seem greater to a stranger than to a native ; and the
Chinese have never been moved thereby to exchange their
604
ALPHABET
picturesque but unwieldy system. The impure syllabism
marked out for them by the genius of their language has
been their furtliest development. It was reserved for the
Japanese to borrow the Chinese characters, and, expelling
all ideographic asaocixtions, to cmjiloy them eimply as
syllables, thus advancing to a pure syllabic writing. This
borrowing and extension of a system by a foreign nation
will be more fully dwelt upon hereafter. It should perhaps
be added that the expression of many different senses by
one symbol, which has so largely modified the Chinese
writing, b not peculiar to monosyllabic language. It is
found in all language^, though not to the same extent :
roots of different sense have been worn down by phonetic
decay till thoy reach the same form, and this cause may
have operated to some extent in China, thouch it cannot
have been very important.
The cuneiform writing, so called from the wedgo-like
shape of the characters, y or ▼ , which compose it, was
employed by different nationalities. It was first deci-
phered by Grotcfend on inscriptions of Persepolis, and
was found to be the exponent of tlio Arj-au spoken
by the conquering Persians, which belonged, as ia well
known, to the Indo-European family of languages. But
cuneiform inscriptions in three languages were found on a
monument at Behistun : the first was the Persian, and
much the simplest in form ; the- second and third were
composed of elements of the same shape in much more
unwieldy combinations.' It was obvious that the three'
inscriptions were identical in meaning, but in different
languages; and principally by the help afforded by recur-
ring proper names, whoso value could be compared with
the known values in Persian, the characters of the last two
inscriptions were deciphered, and found to belong, one to
the language of the Assyrian and Babylonian subjects of
Darius, the other to the old Scythian population of Media,
who used a Turanian speech. Other languages, the old
Annenian and that of Susa, were found afterwards to be
represented by the same characters; and to these different
systems the collective name Anarien (i.e. non-Aryan) has
been given by French writers (Oppert, &c.), to distinguish
them from the Aryan-Persian, which is a purely phonetic
character.
It seems clear that the origin of this system was
Turanian, and that it was borrowed by the Semitic races
who used it. It was originally hieroglyphic, though the
stiff combinations of wedges give but little indication of
such an origin. But both in Assyrian and Babylonian
tliere is an older character and a newer one, and the older
forms can again be traced back to a still more archaic
shape, which was unquestionably the original of both, and
which is not cuneiform, but composed of straight lines only.^
These show little of thebriUiancyof invention of the Chinese;
they seem to appeal to the reason rather than to the eye;
they are obviously intended to recall the image of the
object, but they must have been first explained in order
to be intelligible at all, and then they might be remembered.
For example, a house was denoted by 17^3 ; a town by
#.
Neither of these are symbols which will be intelli-
gible as soon as seen by a. person who has not been taught
them. This is probably due to the fact that they were
produced, not by the hair-pencil of the Chinese, but by the
chisel; they were intended to be written on rock, and for
this straight lines are more convenient ; and the wedge
shape which they assumed afterwards may be explained
' A part of this trilingual inscription is printed in Da Rosny's
Bcritures Figvrativis, p. 70.
• For specimonj, see Oppert, vol. ii. , p. 63.
Dy the ease witn which it can be made by two strokes ol
the chisel — perhaps no other figure bo clear can be produced
wth such facihty.
This system seems to have reached syllabism before it
was adopted by the Aramaic peoples. But the syllabism
was still mixed up with ideography, just as we have scon
was the ca.se in China — that is, the same symbol denoted
idoographically the object, and phonetically the sound, of
the name of the oVjject; as though in English we should
denote by the symbol B both the insect hee and the sound be.
But there is a difference between this idiom and the Chinesa;
it was polysyllabic, whereas Chinese was syllabic. When,
then, the name of the object contained more than one
syllable, the first alone was taken to be denoted phoneti-
cally by the symbol. The evidence for this is small in
quantity, owing to the scanty remains of the language of
that Turanian element of the Chaldce nation from which
the cuneiform writing was borrowed. To this language
the name Accadian has been given by Dr Hincks, and
this name seems to be now generally received. But the
MedoScythic, mentioned above, which is a closely-con-
nected dialect, supplies us with forms sufficiently close to
the old Scythian spoken originally by all the Turanian stock
in that part of Asia. Thus one symbol in Assyrian denotes
idcographically God and phonetically an; now. the name
for God in Medo-Scj'thic is ^nna/). Another denotes a city
and but; batin is a city in Scythian. Another is a father
and at; in Scythian a father is atta. (Oppert, ii. 79;
I.enormant, i 41.) This evidence will doubtless be
strengthened with time, but even now it Ls conclusive;
and the principle thus established, the arbitrary selection of
the first part of a name to have a particular phonetic value,
seems to be exactly the principle which we should a priuri
have expected to Cud if we had tried to conceive the
possible ways in which ideography could pass into
phonetism.
The confusion which was occasioned by the imperfection
of Assyrian writing was immensely increased by the fact
of their characters being borrowed, not indigenous, as in
China. There is first of all the obvious difficulty of
adapting Turanian .symbols to a Semitic language, in which
the short vowels were not written, and the meaning of the
radical gro^ip of consonants in any particular place "had to
be determined by the context. Instead of being able to
retain the same symbol to express a root in its modified
forms, e.g. in the conjugation of a verb, a new symbol
would be necessary for each person-form, which could be
expressed by mere vowel change in the root, and these sym-
bols might be totally unconnected, so that all sense of the
connection of different parts of a verb would be lost. This
ia bad enough, but it is an evil inherent in the borrowing
of such a system of writing to express a language whose
genius was so essentially different. But there was another
evil, much greater, which might have been avoided, and
was not. This is polj-phony — the expression of many
different sounds by the same symbol ^Nten the Assj-rians
took an Accadian symbol, they should have taken only
its phonetic value, or one of them, if it had more than one,
and in this way they might have acquired a purely syllabic
character, as the people of Susa afterwards actually did.
But,, as was not unnatura. at the time, they took it with all
its values, ideographic and phonetic, and added more of their
own. A striking example given by Oppert (iL 85) will
make this plain. In Accadian this symbol ^f* w'as the
ideogram for an open hand, doubtless originaDy in a more
elaborate form. In fhe spoken language a hand was called
kurpi, and therefore, by the principle mentioned above,
this symbol had abo the phonetic value kur. But by a
metaphor the hand symbol had the further ideographic
ALPHABET
60v5
rakies of seizing, poasessing, and understanding: To seize
in the spoken language must have been Tnat, or something
yery like it (imid occurs in this sense in the Scythian), for
this phonetic value also belonged to one symboL But
further, in Accadian a mountain was caUed kur; suniise,
^rra; earth was mat; to go was mit; and these sounds,
identical or nearly identical, were every one expressed by
the same symbol, which thus had eight ideographic and
two phonetic values, kur and mat; and in this wretched
condition it was taken by the Assyrians, and employed by
them in all these different senses. But this was not all.
In the Assyrian language kur was the name of a furnace,
[ind mat meant to die ; and as it must have been to obtain
a visible exponent for these sounds that the foreign symbol
was adopted, both of these ideas were necessarily denoted
by it. Again, in Assyrian, " to understand " was pro-
nounced as nat, and to " possess " was nal; and so were
added two more phonetic values by reason of the meta-
phoric value of mat in Accadian. Lastly was added the
phonetic value s/iat, because that was the Assyrian name
for a mountain, which we saw was denoted in Accadian by
kur. Thus, when an Assyrian cam« upon this little plain-
looking symbol he had to determine whether it meant the
earth, a mountain, sunrise, a furnace, or seizing, possessing,
understanding, going, or dying ; or whether it had only
one of the phonetic values, kur, Tnat, shat, nal,fOt nat.
And a large Ust of other symbols is given by M. Oppert,
which, in a simOar way, have two, three, four, and even
six different phonetic values. It may seem incredible that
a people under such difficulties should ever have been able
to express what they wished to say, much less to understand
what was written. It is a great witness to the strength of
the feeling which must have existed in these old people
that ideography was the natural and proper method of
writing, and phonetics were only a supplement to eke out
its deficiencies. To us such a feeling is at first incompre-
hensible, but after such an example we cannot doubt its
existence. With respect, indeed, to the difficulty caused
by one symbol having many ideographic values, wo have
only to think of the many different significations expressed
in our own language by the same combination of sound,
without any confusion arising, because the particular
meaning is marked out by the context; for instance, when
the one sound hut denotes a conjunction, a verb, and a
noun with two senses — one original and one derived, but
now quite different, — we should therefore only see in the
Assyrian an aggravated case of this want of clearness.
But the difficulty is much more serious when the same
symbol/has different phonetic values; and much help can-
not have been obtained from the grammatical lists which
have actually been dug out under the superintendence of Mr
Layard, in which the Assyrian kings state, avowedly for the
instruction of their subjects, the different values which each
symbol could possess. (See Oppert, ii. 53.) By these lists
some limit might undoubtedly be put to the further multipli-
cation of values for the same sign, but it could not help a
reader to trace which of all the authorised values he was
to give to a symbol at any particular time. It would
appear that in the cuneiform, as unquestionably in the
Egyptian, conventional phonetic symbols could be used
as complements to other symbols, which might represent
an lu a or a mere syllable, and by these phonetic comple-
ments the special sense could be defined with some approach
to exactness. But into these remedies of the ills of poly-
phony we need not further enter.
It is far beyond the scope of the present article to
describe fully the development of hieroglyphism in Egypt,
the country in which the last st«p to alphabetism — the
separation of the vowel-symbols from those which mark the
coDaonaata — was undoubtedly taken, though with much
faltering, and even turning back. According to M. Lenor-
mant, the Egyptians passed through every stage which we
have already seen successively reached by different peoples ;
and at one of which every one of these peoples halted, with-
out ever achieving for themselves the triumph of alphabetic
writing. And evidence of each stage, more or less distinct,
certainly lingers in the Egyptian, producing an extra-
ordinary medley, little suited for popular or even literary
use, but well adapted for the transmission of occult records
and rituals, the purpose for which the Greeks not un-
naturally supposed the whole hieroglyphic system to have
been invented by the priests. As we have already de-
scribed the phenomena of each stage with some fulness, it
ia not necessary to do more here than to indicate their
occurrence in Egyptian. , The hieroglyphs themselves are
cei-tainly the finest of their kind. Whether they represent
the full contour of the object with aU the assistance of
vivid colouring, or whether they are simply formed by
lines which convey its essential character — a practice which
doubtless owed its origin to the increased use of writing —
it is impossible not to admire the extraordinary complete-
ness of the representation. Nothing can be more perfectly
pictorial than the portraiture of the different emotions, each
by the figure of a man affected by it : the position of the
body and the gestures of the arms are simply perfect.
These belong in the main to the symbolic usii of the
hieroglyphs : this use we saw in Chinese was but slight,
but in Egypt it was immense. Thus, the sun, with rays
streaming from it, denoted to the Eg)rptian light and clear-
ness ; the moon, with its horns turned downward, denoted
the month, — in these cases the cause is put for the effect.
Sometimes the part is put for the whole : two arms, one
holding a shield and one an offensive weapon, express
battle ; two legs with the feet denote movement, forward
or backward according to the direction of the feet, ^/^ or
/^ ; an arm holding a stick denotes force. Sometimes
the s)Tnbol is purely metaphorical : as when a king is
expressed by a bee ; knowledge by a roll of papyrus ;
or justice by the feather of an ostrich, because all feathers
of that bird were supposed to be of equal length. Such
symbols are clearly of later origin than the other ; they
imply the existence of conventional rules, which could
acquire currency for meanings quite unintelligible in them-
selves. These symbolic ideograms were not very often
used alone ; most commonly they accompanied other
symbols used phonetically, merely to determine their
special meaning in each place : as such they are commonly
called determinatives ; this practice we also saw in China,
less skilfully employed. Thus, for example, on the Kosetta
stone — -whose trUingual inscription, hieroglj'phic, demotic,
and Greek, is the basis of aD our knowledge of Egyptian
writing — the word for a decree is expressed by characters,
consonant and vowel, which denote the sounds of which it
is composed, just as in any modern writing ; but at the
end of these, forming part of the word, though adding
nothing to its pronunciation, is the figure of a man with
his hand raised to his mouth, which adds the idea of pas-
sive obedience to the phonetic combination, and limits it
to the idea of a decree. In like manner, the arm with the
stick, which as we said denotes force, is added as a deter-
minative to express actions which require force ; and the
ideogram of motion is also very frequent. This seems to
us unnecessary and cumbrous ; but when a phonetic com-
bination might Jbave two different meanings, they could
hardly have been differentiated in a more intelligible
manner. A good list of these symbols may be seen in Da
Rosny, p. 46.
The traces of the rehu$ stage which wo saw in the Aztec
GOG
A L P H A B E 'J^
iu which a f.ymbol could bo tranaferred from one object to
another, because the names of the two had the same sound
in the spoken language, are not very distinct, and have not
been fully examined ; on this point wu may hope for more
light from M. Lonormant Ho points out that tho same
symbol denotes "holiness" and a "slave." Ko meta-
phorical explanation seems posaible here ; but both are
sounded hen in tho spoken language, and the community
of symbol becomes at once intelligible. In such a practice
as this wo see at once a cause of great confusion, especially
when the same symbol was employed to denote two things
the names of which wore not exact homophones, and yet
sufficiently near iu sound to allow themselves to be ex-
pressed by the same symbol ; e.g., when the circle which
denoted the sun was also taken to denote the idea of day,
tlio sun was called ra, tho day hru, and so tho symbol
became a polyphono ; it had two not very diiferant sounds.
It is true that here tho application of tho symbol for the
sun to denote the day was not caused only by the similarity
of sound in tho two words — it was probably employed at
first metaphorically ; but there can be little doubt that it
was helped to its double use by the indistinctness of tho
Egyptian vowel-sounds, which caused tho two words to be
sounded nearly alike. From this and similar causes arose
that polyphony which necessitated the use of the deter-
minatives described above. Vestiges of the syllabic stage in
Egyptian exist beyond a doubt, and they point to a slowly-
etl'ected transition from the older to the newer form of
writing. Thus the symbol of a fish represented at the
syllabic stage the syllable an ; later on, tho letter a alone
came to bo denoted by a reed, and » by a waving line.
Now we find the syllable an represented not merely by its
own simple exponent, tho fish, but al.so by the reed and
fish together, that is, iu phonetic value, hy A . an ; by tho reed
above the waving line ( — J ; and even by all three I A. — )
(Lenormant, u. 44). This surely points to a stage at which
the alphabetic values of the reed and lino were not yet so
finuly fixed that the writer could dispense with the older
and more familiar sign of the fish to specialise tho other
two. Of Eg)'ptian alphabetism proper it is not necessary
to give examples ; we are sufficiently acquainted with the
use cf letters pure and simple, and their use in Egypt is
not denied.
To what cause are wo to assign the progress of the
Egyptian beyond the Assyrian method of writing 1 What
circumstances enabled the one nation to develop at least an
imperfect alphabetism, while the other never advanced
beyond syllabism? No certain answer can bo given; but at
least a probable suggestion is made by M. Lenormant. The
Egyptian vowel-sounds were indistinct: the consonants were
clear and definite. Therefore it was natural (as Lepsius
pointed out) that in each syllable the consonant should
come to be regarded as the important element, and should
finally extrude the following vowel altogether. Thus a large
number of symbols, which originally represented syllables
beginning with the same consonant but followed by differ-
ent vowels, would become in time absolutely identical iu
value, tho different representatives of the same consonant.
And a great abundance of such homophones is actually
found in Egyptian. The method, therefore, which was
followed in passing from the syllable to tho mere alphabetic
sign, was identical with that which we have already pointed
out in Assyrian, by which the symbol of a polysyllabic
word was taken to have the phonetic value of the first
syllable of that word ; in each case it denoted the first
element of the name — the syllable in Assyrian, the single
sound iu Egyptian. And iu each language the symbol thus
applied to a new use still retained for a long time its old value
as the hieroglyphic or at least conventional exponent of a
material object or of an idea. Thus in Egypt uf/er meant
good. This word in writing ia expressed in two ways :
first, by a single symbol — which had originallr been the
pictorial rei)resentation of some material object, but was
afterwards tho conventional symbol of tho idea of good-
ness ; secondly, by this same symbol followed by • two
others, which had also, from being originally hieroglj-phs,
acquired tho phonetic values of / and r ; that is to say,
one symbol could at will express the whole word nf/er and
ita initial letter n. ThLs ia the natural, perhaps the only
possible way of eliminating the single sound ; but it ia
obvious that great difficulties would attend it at the outset
There could bo at first no convention to restrict the symbol
for »» to that of tho jiarticular word ne/er; any other begin-
ning witli n would have served. There was no law to
prevent a writer taking as many symbols for n as took hie
fancy ; and in fact eaih letter in this way did have several
different symbols.
It follows that while Egypt must be credited wiih Having
first invented an alphabetic system, and must for ever
claim for this the gratitude of the world, yet that system
was far too imperfect to become the instrument of a popular
literature. It suffered equally from the opposite diseases
of homophony and polypliony, from the expression of the
same sound by many different symbols, and from the use
of one symbol to denote many different syllables. And
each of these evils was only aggravated by time. The
earlier Egyptian writing is much more simple than the
later, wherein homophones increased to a degree to which
there was practically no limit except the strength of the
memory; and the numerous phonetic devices to unravel the
confusions of polyphony must have been equally burden-
some. It miglit have been expected that polyphony at
least would have become extinct with time ; that the
different symbols for the same syllable would all have been
worn down into single letters, and th'is, though homophony
might have multiplied, polyphony would have porishei
This might have been the case if these symbols had over
become perfectly clear of their originally pictorial or con-
ventional origin. But this was never the case. To the
last, tho employment of a symbol to express an object or
idea continued side by side with its employment as a single
letter. The spirit of hieroglyphism, real if not apparent,
could not be vanquished by alphabetism ; and in order
that ideography may be finally expelled, it would seem
that circumstances are needed more favourable than can
be often found combined at any period of any nation's
history. In fact, a purely phonetic alphabet is most likely
to bo produced when one nation borrows from another such
portion of that nation's symbols as it requires for ita own
needs, and rejects that superfluity which only leads to
confusion. Via have already seen indications of this fact.
Many circumstances combine to render it difficult for a
nation to reach of itself pure phonetism in writing. There
is tho strong disinclination to change, of which we have
before spoken. It ia always easier to put up with diffi-
culties to which we have been accustomed all our life than
to make any radical change, especially when that change
causes at once serious difficulties at every moment. It
was easier for the Egyptians to retain the odd mixture of
ideographic, syllabic, and alphabetic writing, and occasion-
ally to add some new key for unlocking the difficulties to
the formidable list which was already in use. The in-
genuity of theso grammatical devices almost surpasses
belief. We can only refer the curious to the hieroglyphic
gramma.' in the fifth volume of Eunsen's Egypt's Place in
Univenal Jlistorjf, In the second place, a good deal must
be allowed to the restraining influence of religion. It ia
well knowTtt that most of the ancient nations ascribed a
divine origin to their systems of writing. It might well
ALPHABET
607
seem to them to be too wonderful a thing for the result of
human ingenuity. Thus in one qf the Assyrian lists of the
ditferent values of syllables, published, as has been already
mentioned, by royal authority, Sardanapalus V. states that
the god Nebo has revealed to the kings, his ancestors, the
cuneiform writing, which he thus endeavours to simplify
for the better understanding of his people (Oppert, ii. 53).
The hanskrit character, which is now known to be duo to
a Phoenician source, was called Devanugan, " belonging to
the city of the gods," unless, as Prof. M. Miiller suggests
{Sanskrit Grammar, p. 1), we are to understand by the
gods here only the Brahmans ; but whatever the name may
mean, their belief in its divine origin is certair- enough.
And M. Lenormant points out (L 80) that the native
Egyptian term for writing meant "writing heavenly words."
Now it is clear that no nation among which this belief
lingered in any degree would be likely to alter fundament-
ally the .spirit of their .system of writing. Lastly, it is
possible, though, as we have suggested above, not -very
probable, that the obscurities of the existing system may
have recommended it to the priests. These reasons may
suffice to show that it was not in Egypt that we should
expect to find the development of a purely j)honetic system.
But just as the Japanese took the Chinese characters, and
gave them a development which they have never ^lad in
the land of their creation — ^just as the people of Susiana
took the cuneiform writing and made it purely phonetic,
^cithout any remnant of ideography, — so the work of ex-
tracting order out of the chaos of Egyptian writing was
reserved for the Phoenicians.
The Phcenicians were peculiarly fitted to perform this
inestimable part in the history of human development.
An active and enterprising nation, they were early brought
into commercial relations with Egypt, and must of neces-
sity have- learnt something of their system of writing;
they could see its advantages and its perfectly remediable
faults ; the advantage of one definite symbol for one sound,
and the disadvantage of a dozen; the desirabihty that this
symbol should signify that sound only, and the undesir-
abihty of its denoting a horse or a man as well. And the
religious scruples which may have affected the Egyptians
jieed have no weight for strangers. If the characters were
divine for the priests of Isis, they were a convenient instru-
ment to supply every-day wants for the sailors of Tyre.'
These considerations do not, of course, amount to a proof
that the Phoenician alphabet was derived from Egypt. It
is of course possible that it disengaged itself by degrees
out of an earlier hieroglyphic system at home. But of
such a system no vestiges remain ; and the correspondence
between the Phcenician characters and those of the earlier
Egyptian hieratic is sufficiently striking to warrant us in
regarding it as at least provisionally true that what was
natural and perfectly possible did actually take place.^ The
general testimony of the early Greek and Roman writers,
that the alphabet was invented in Phoenicia, must then be
limited to the sense in which Tacitus says that the Phoeni-
cians had this credit — tanquam repererint, quae accelerant.
It cannot be known with certainty whether the Phceni-
cians took, together with the Egyptian symbols, the
phi'uetic values which they had in Egypt, or whether
they totally disregarded those values, and simply assigned
to the symbob the value of their own sounds at will. The
first viev., however, seems clearly the more probable. The
Phcenicians could only become acquainted with the Egyptian
' M. LenoiTJant (p. 83) will have it that the Fhcsniciana must
have been " tr^ peu reli^eQX, €t au fond presque ath^c." Thej
"lajk^ have been bo, but surely not merely in order to borrow an
alphabet from £g}pt It is enough that that alphabet could bare
bad no sanctity for them.
' For avldeace o' this. a«e plate, p. 600.
symbol and sound together ; the one would naturally sng
gest the other ; and we should expect that they would firsl
take the symbols belonging to those sounds which exactly
corresponded in Egyptian and Phcenician, then' the symbols
of other Egyptian sounds which did not exactly correspond
to their own, but which seemed in each case the most
analogous to them ; but that there would never be any
violent rupture between the symbo- and its old sound.
Yet it seems quite certain that there is no connection
between the names which the letters bore in Phoenicia
and the original object of which the Egyptian character is
the debased representation. Thus the first letter of the
Phoenician alphabet (corresponding to the Hebrew alep/i)
was named from its fancied resemblance to an ox's head,
the second (Hebrew beth) to a house, and so on. But the
symbol which strangely seemed to the Phoenicians like an
ox is only the form, rapidly drawn, of an eagle ; heih, in
like manner, is the quickly-diawn figure of a crane. It
would seem, then, that the Phoenicians borrowed sound
and symbol, but no name. They cared nothing for the
history of the symbols; and when they found it convenient
to have a name for each symbol they chose some object
whose name began with the letter in question ; and we should
have said that it was totally impossible that any similarity
in form between the letter and the object whose name it
borrowed could have helped to give currency to the nomen-
clature, did we not see evidence of similar and apparently
equally impossible fancies in the names of the constella-
tions, let the origin of those names be what it may.
Such, very briefly traced, seems to have been the origin
of the Phoenician alphabet, the parent of almost every
alphabet, properly so called, existing on the earth. For
the main ramifications of this alphabet in subsequent times
we cannot do better than translate the summary of an
author already often referred to, M. Francois Lenormant.
He distinguishes (p. 110) five main stems. These are —
1. The Semitic stem, wherein the values of the letters have re-
mained exactly the same as those of the Phoenicians, except in a
few derived alphabets framed in Persia and the countries imme-
diately adjacent, which bein(» employed to write Indo-European
languages, turn the soft breathings of the Phcenician into genuine
vowels. This stem subdivides itself into two main branches — the
HebrBBo-Samaritan and the Aramaic.
2. The Central stem, whose province includes Greece, Asia
Minor, and Italy. The transformation of the symbols of the
smooth, and even of the rough, breathings into symbols of vowels
is here the invariable rule. This stem contains first the different
varieties of the Hellenic alphabet, then the alphabets derived from
the Greek, including three families — the Albanian, Asiatic (taking
Asia in the same sense as the old Greeks did), and the Italian. In
the Asiatic family we distinguish two groups — one for the Phrygian
alphabet only, wliich is made up of -elements whose origin is exclu-
sively Greek, the other containing the Lycian and Carian, whore
these elements are mixed up with Cypriote' characters. The Italian
family must also be subdivided into an Etruscan group and a Latin
group, between which stands the Faliscan alphabet, of a mixed
character.
3. The TVestern stcrr-, containing tne systems of writing which
resulted from the sjjread of the alphabet by the colonists of Tyre
among the indigenous inhabitants of ancient Spain. This stem
reckons but one single family. It has, as that which precedes it,
for its fundamental character the change of the value of the Phfeni-
cian breathings. But the direction in which the forms of the letters
vary is signally different. , . .
4. The Northern, stem, containing only one oranch, the runea
of the Teutonic and Scandinavian pcoiiles, who were settled at ft
particular epoch in the north of Europe, but had arrived from Asia,
where they stiU lived during a part of historic time, and where they
must have had imparted to tnem the alphabet produced by the
Phoenicians. Some elements in the runic writing seem to point to
a direct reception of the writing from the seamen of Canaan ; others,
on the contrary, bear a certain stamp of Greek intluence. , . .
* The only two alphabets, in the strict sense of the term, which M.
Lenormant cannot classify as of Phoenician origin are the Cypriota
and the Persian cuneiform — the former fitill imperfectly deciphered,
but seemingly to fiome extent syllabic ; the latter perhaps not pure
alphabetic, but letuiuing certain ideogracu.
1308
ALPHABET
B. The Jndo-HomtrUe stem, disluiguished by the appearance of a
iww principle, the expression of vowel sounda by meaua of conven-
tional adjuncts attached to the symbol of the consonant, and thos
sometimes considerably modifying its shape. The place of its oriein
seems to have been southern Arabia. From thence it has radiated
on the one side to Africa, where the Abyssinian and the African
systcina form a separate family with the Himyaritic, or alphabet of
the old inhabitants of Yemen ; on the otlier side to Ariaua, where
a special form of writing established itself ; and to India, whoso
most ancient alphabet, Mdgadht, now referred by A. Weber to a
Phoenician origin, has given birth to an enormous list of derivatives,
which can be classified among six families — Devan&gar), Tilll,
Dravidian, Transgangetic, Oceanic, and Thibetan — which we her«
enumerate in their chronological order of descent
It will of course be observed that this classification of
alphabets runs entirely counter to the universallj'-accepted
classification of languages into certain well -recognised
groups under three main heads — Indo-European, Semitic,
and that family which, rather because its members differ
from the two first-named than from any especial bond of
union among themselves, is called Turanian. This is in
nowise surprising. There is no necessary connection what-
ever between the sound and the symbol which signifies it
— between the language and the alphabet. The languages
of nearly all Europe are Indo-European (or Aryan, as they
are sometimes called); the alphabets are universally Semitic
— that is the fact, explain it as we may. In fact, if we
wish to maintain that sound and symbol correspond, so
that the second is the only natural exponent of the first,
we must form two hypotheses which refute themselves —
first, that it was possible that any race of men, when they
first felt the need of an alphabet, deliberately set them-
selves to form their letters so as to represent the different
positions of the organs of speech as each sound was pro-
duced ; secondly, that such forms could have been exactly
preserved through long lapse of time, so as to convey to
subsequent generations exactly the same idea as they
gave to their inventors. But each supposition is clearly
impossible. An alphabet so formed would also be an
artificial alphabet, such as could never have entered the
minds of men who needed to supply just their actual
wants as they arose, not to construct a scientific table of
signs to denote all possible sounds. But the construction
of such a pictorial alphabet as we have supposed is quite
possible, and it has actually been formed most ingeniously
by Mr Melville Bell. In his system, which he calls
" Visible Speech," consonants are denoted by curved lines,
which represent the position of the tongue or hps in their
formation. For example, in forming the gutturals k, g, ng,
the back of the tongue is raised, and this is expressed by
the curve Q ; in pronouncing y, the front of the tongue is
arched, and this is denoted by f^ ; in pronouncing dentals,
the point of the tongue ia raised, and this is expressed by
(^ ; in sounding labials, the lips are closed, and this is
denoted by Q ; where the passage of the mouth is com-
pletely closed by Ae symbolised organ (as in J, g, t, d,
p, b), the ends of the curve are shut by a connecting line —
thus Q denotes k; the consonants which are voice articu-
lations {i.e., in producing which the chordm vacates vibrate,
and so produce voice), as g, d, b, <tc., are further distin-
tinguished by a short straight line within the curve, the
physiological sign which is chosen (conventionally, it must
be allowed) to represent voice being (I) a straight line;
and the other distinguishing marks of the consonants are
sinxilarly expressed either by added marks or by slight
modifications of the primary curve. Equally ingeniously,
the vowels are expressed by the straight line which is the
sign of voice, a subordinate symbol, or " definer," being
added to denote the part of the mouth which modifies th«
vowel — eg., a hook or a solid point at the top or bottom
of the vowel-line, a bar across the line to express that the
lips are contracted or drawn across the aperture of the
mouth, <tc., <tc. We need not enter further into the
minutiae of the system ; enough has been said to show the
principle on which it is formed. It is obvious that there
would bo no greater difiiculty in teaching this alphabet to
a child than in teaching it a, b, c, except that the number
of symbols is greater, because one is provided for every
sound in the language, which our alphabet certainly faiU
to do ; still, to learn either our alphabet or " visible
speech " must for a child b« simply an effort of memory.
And one great practical gain which would be derived from
the general adoption of such a system is the ease with
which foreign languages covdd bo mastered. The great
difficulty in learning to speak a foreign language does not
consist in the mere mastering so many declensions ; it lies
in the fact that two alphabets may bo composed of exactly
the same symbols, and yet many of these symbols may
express to the two nations quite different sounds. This is
a preliminary difficulty which must bo mastered at once ;
and it would be immensely lessened if such dissimilar
sounds — as, e.g., the German, French, and English u — were
not all presented to the learner under the same symbol It
seems certain that, with the lapse of time and the progress
of invention, the intercourse between nations must be
largely increased ; and the need of some more perfect
instrument of speech between them must increase propor-
tionately. But in spite of the obvious gains, it is Utopian
to suppose that the world will ever be converted to a
system of universal writing ; and the real and immense
gain of such a method is the power which it gives to a
linguistic inquirer to denote accurately on paper the exact
sounds heard in any dialect spoken in any part of the
world, ci%'ili3ed or uncivilised ; for it is as competent to
register the click of the Hottentot as the most subtle
vowel sound of Europe. With our present alphabet it 13
utterly impossible to represent adequately the strange
sounds of some out-of-the-way dialect (which for students
of language may be as important as the literary speech) in
such a way as to be generally inteUigible, because there
often is no symbol to correspond exactly, and naturally no
two inquirers agree upon the nearest out of the existing
symbols. The science of language is therefore greatly
indebted to Mr Bell for providing so effective a method
for preserving for ever those dialectic peculiarities which
are vanishing with startUng rapidity in these days of con-
stant communication between different parts of a country.
Another system, equally valuable scientifically, has been
invented by the eminent philologer, Mr Alexander J. Ellis.
In his " Palaeotype " only the ordinary symbob are employed,
but they are printed in different ways to denote different
sounds — sometimes as capitals, sometimes in itahcs, some-
times turned upside down ; so that, despite the famjharity
of the letters, a page of palseotype is at least as appalling to
the uninitiated as the curves and lines of "visible speech."
We may proceed to trace the variations from the Phoenician
alphabet to our own, down the central stem of Greece and
Italy. The Phcenician alphabet consisted of twenty-eight
letters, which for convenience we may call by the names of
their Hebrew equivalents. These were (1) Aleph, (2) Beth,
(3) Gimel, (4) Daleth, (5) He, (6) Vav, (7) Zayin, (8) Cheth,
(9) Teth, (10) Yodh, (11) Kaph, (12) Lamedh, (13) Mem,
(U) Nun, (15) Samekh, (16) Ayin, (17) Pe, (18) Tsadhe,
(19) Koph, (20) Hesh,-(21) Shin, (22) Tav. None of these
were vowel sounds. Aleph was the lightest guttural or
rather faucal sound, being pronounced below the guttural
point at the very top of the larynx : it can have been barely
audible even before a vowel. He corresponded nearly
ALPHABET
609
to our h. Clieth was a strongly-martcd ch, a continuous
guttural sound produced at the back of the palate. Ayin
represents a faucal sound peculiar to the Semitic race,
Tarying between an evanescent breathing and a g roUed in
the throat.
The Phoenicians employed hardly any vowel signs : in
Hebrew the three principal sounds a, i, u (see article A)
were sometimes expressed in writing, and long i and u were
denoted, not by special signs, but by consonants akin to
them, yodh and vav: a was regularly omitted except at the
end of a word, where it was denoted by He and sometimes
by AlepL In fact, in all Semitic languages the practice
was to ignore vowels in writing, leaving it to the reader
to fill in, according to the context, the unvarying frame-
work of consonantal sounds: the Hebrew vowel-points
were a later invention, rendered necessary when the lan-
guage had ceased to be spoken.
When the Greeks received the Phcenician alphabet it is
obvious that they must have made considerable changes
in the values of the symbols. Several of them would be
unnecessary, for they had no sounds in their language to
correspond to them : while for other most important sounds,
e.g., the vowels, no symbol was provided. It is clear how
imperfect any previous alphabet of the Greeks must have
been when they adopted in its stead another so foreign to
the genius of their language, which developed the voweb
and marked strongly the momentary consonants and aasals,
but rejected as far as possible the continuous consonants,
both palatal and labial, and even under many circumstances
tho dental «, the one sibilant they employed. But they
ingeniously adopted the strange signs to new ends. Aleph,
He, and Ayin were turned without difficulty into a, e, and
o .• Yodh became i, as it seems that the semi-vowel y had
totally disappeared from Greece even at that early period :
on the same principle Vav might have served to express
u, although apparently the w-sound was still sufiiciently
common to require the retention of Vav with its con-
sonantal value. But from what source they took their
npsilon cannot be known with certainty. Professor Key
thinks that it is the Hebrew form of Ayin, which diflTers
much in shape from the nearly perfect circle of the old
Phcenician. This is pos.sible enough, for the sound of
Ayin was not more like o than v,; and if the Greeks knew
the two forms,, it is not likely that they may have taken
both. On the other hand, it is equally possible that v may
be a remnant of an earlier native alphabet. Among the
consonants /3, y, 8, k, X, fx, v, ir, p, t were borrowed with
little change of form, and probably of value. And these
letters (with <r and the vowels already mentioned) are
stated by tradition to have been the only ones brought
to Greece from Phoenicia by Cadmus, others having been
added by Palamedes, Simonides, or Epicharmus; but which
were the letters added by each of these is a question on
which the different authorities do not agree ; and the incor-
rectness of most of them is proved by the letters being found
in Greek inscriptions before the time of their supposed
inventor. In fact, all tradition on this point is worthless,
unless it is borne out by inscriptions. It is at least probable
that the whole alphabet was borrowed at one time, for all,
or nearly all, the characters occur on the oldest inscriptions
W8 possess. Thus on inscriptions of Thera dating from
Olympiad 40 (see Franz, Epigraphice Grceca, pp. 51-59;
KirchL *T, Studien zur Geschichte dea GrUchis<j/ien Alp/tabeis,
p. 41), we find Cheth in the formQ , denoting mainly the
rough breathing h, but also applied to denote e, as it
afterwards did regularly by the name Ma : Teth occurs
as ®, nearly the later jThcia ; and Koph as O , Koppa, a
Bvmbol which was onco current throughout Greece, and
1—21
remained universally as the numeral DO, though as a letter
it was retained only by the Dorians, and _passed with the
Doric alphabet into Italy as Q. It may be observed that
fa this alphabet, and in some later ones of Crete, Corinth,
and Corcyra, Iota appears not as a straight line, but in
many curved shapes, approximating much nearer to the old
Phcenician ; and the same is true of Pi, which has the top
rounded like a crook. We have then left only the four
sibilants, Zaj-in, Samekh, Tsadhe, and Shin. These are
believed to have had the values dz, e, is, ah respectively.
We have already said that the Greeks had no great affec-
tion for sibilants ; witness the manner in which a- was
constantly dropped, e.g., in yiv(o% for yo-tCT-os. It was
therefore not to be expected that they could employ all
the wealth of the Phoenicians; and one symbol (Tsadhe)
appears in no Greek alphabet. The name, however, recalls
the name Zeta; but the shape of Zeta (alwajra T) ia-
unquestionably that of Zayin ; and its place in the alphabet
agrees to this. It seems, therefore, most probable that the
Greeks confounded together the two compound sounds
dz and ts, and kept but one symbol, perhaps with the
name of the other (Tsadhe), because it was most like that
of the neighbouring letters Eta and Theta. This con-
fusion of the two sounds seems the more probable when
we remember that no symbol was required for the com-
pound ts at the time when a special symbol for ps was
added, and that for ks (another analogous compound)
perhaps revived. There is also much uncertainty with
regard to the relations of Samekh and Shin in their Greei
dress. Xi {-ks) occupies the place of Samekh, sigma of
Shin. One form of Samekh seems unquestionably to have
furnished that of the Greek 2 (see the forms, p. 600);
another "-^ is exactly the Greek | of all the inscriptions.
Sigma had the sound (s) of Samekh, and cannot be shown
ever to have had the sound {sh) of Shin. Two names were
preserved among the Greeks, sigma and san. Herodotus
(L 139) speaks of the " same letter which the Dorians call
o-av, the lonians o-iy/xa ; " and though ean, was no letter
of the Ionic alphabet, the compound sampi ( = a-av + iri)
denoted 900. The name san is obviously the Semitic shin
or sin: it is just possible that a-iy/xa may be an attempt to
turn samekh into a form which should explain its moaning
to Greek ears. The oldest Greek alphabets known to us —
those of Thera, Melos, Crete, and the earUer forms of
those of Argos, Corinth, and Corcyra — have the form M
to denote s, — that is, the equivalent of Shin. It seems
fair to infer that this was originally the case in the other
alphabets also. Then this symbol was dropped by degrees
to avoid confusion with m, while one form of samekh, with
the name si</ma, was introduced into its place : another
form was kept in its old place to denote the compound
ks (xi).
We now come to tho apparently non-Phoenician letters
of the Greek alphabet, <^ X' '/'> "■ Of v we have
already spoken : we may add that its sound was not a
pure u, but modified, perhaps as is the German «. This
appears from the fact that, when the Romans borrowed
Greek words in the later times of the republic (when
Roman taste had grown more scrupulous), they did not
use their own symbol « to denote the Greek vpeilon (as
their forefathers had done), but together with the sound
borrowed the symbol also: which clearly shows that the
sound of vpsilon was different from the ordinary w. We
now take the aspirates <^ and x. It is most probable that
the sounds of the Greek aspirates y^, $, <f>, were not those of
the German ch, and the English th and /.• that is, they
were probably not continuous consoi'anta, but momentary
610
ALPHABET
Bounds, fuUowcd in each caso by a slight but diitinctly
audible broath; so that ;^ might bo represented in English
characters by kh, though the following breath is not so
distinct as an English h, — if it were, we should have
a compound, not a simple sound. Now two of these
Mpiratos were actually written in the oldest alphabets KH
and n H {pi having the right down-stroke much shorter
than the left) : for the dental the single symbol 6, borrowed
from the Phoenician, sufficed. Afterwards the symbols
<f> and X (variants © and 4- ) were taken to supply the
place of theaa compounds, from what source cannot be
certainly known; but it is not impossible that they may
have been characters of an older Greek alphabet which
originally had the values p and k. This draws some proba-
bility from the hiatory of \jr. That letter was originally
written r*C • and i, of which we have already spoken,
written as K2 (or KM). But each of these also appears
as 4>2 and X2; so that here at least 0 and ;( appear as no
more than p and k: the compound 01 remained perma-
nently in the Western alphabets. It is to Epicharmus thai
tradition (hero with some probability) ascribes the estab-
lishment of \j/ in the alphabet ITie history of m is closely
connected with that of 77. At an early period, certainly
before the 40th Olympiad, in the eastern part of Hellas
an attempt was made to distinguish the different kinds
of e. The symbol c had hitherto denoted both e and the
diphthong ti, where the 1 was probably not a much more
important sound than the y — e.g., in our day. The habit
of writing the two symbols came in late in the Ionic
alphabet, and so spread through Greece. But at the earlier
time of which we speak the symbgl H began to denote
some e. It is commonly supposed that this was long e as
distinguished from epsilon, which, by the way, does not
mean short e, but " e unaccompanied," perhaps by that
after sound of t mentioned above, though a different reason
is commonly given for the name. It seems very strange
that the Greeks should have introduced symbols to express
long e and 0, and none to mark the length of the other
vowels, which must have been just as urgently needed ;
surely this would have been done at Athens at the time of
the formal introduction of the Ionian alphabet. Again,
there are a great many recognisable varieties of sound
which border closely on pure e and 0 (but none of im-
portance near i and u), and such varieties are clearly
marked in the south of Europe now. For these two
separate reasons, it seems at least more probable that t;
was adopted to express a sound the same, or nearly the
same, as the open « of the Italians. For the same reasons,
it seems probable that m was taken not to denote long 0,
but a more open sound; perhaps something between open 0
and the English au. The form n is of doubtful origin. It
is found in an alphabet of Miletus of about OljTupiad 60;
not earlier. It looks like a conscious modification of O.
Greek writing in the earliest times was from right to
left, following the example of Phcenicia: several specimens
of this still exist. The more convenient practice of writing
from left to right soon became universal. It was preceded,
however, by an intermediate method, in which the direction
of the lines was alternately right to left and left to right,
so that it was hot necessary to carry the eye back, as with
us, from the end of one line to the beginning of the next.
This was called /3ova-Tpo<^r;So'r, because the lines were made
in the same way as the furrows by oxen in ploughing.
Kirchhoff distinguishes two main divisions of Greek
alphabets — the East and the West; not that this geographi-
cal distribution is exact, but it is the most convenient. The
e-istern includes first the alphabets of the towns of Asia
ilinor — Halicamossus, Ephesus, Tco-i, Miletus, Colophon
and Rhodes, which, agreeing essentially, became that lonii.
alphabet that was adopted at Athens 4C3 B.C., and is
the Greek alphabet with which we are familiar ; secoudly,
those of the .^Egean islands — Thera, Melos, Crete, Paros,
Siphnos, Thasos, Naxos, — in which 0 docs not stand fur
Omega, but occasionally appears as well as 0 for Omicron,
and there are other minut« differences in the shape of the
letters ; thirdly, some of the alphabets of the mainland of
Greece, which have a closer aflinity to the Ionic than to
their neighbours, viz., the old one of Attica, lown to
01. 94 — Argos, Corinth and its colonies, Corcyra, and even
Syracuse. The western division includes the remainder
of the towns of Greece proper and their Sicilian and
Italian colonies ; these are marked by peculiar variations
of certain characters, especially g, e, h, th, I, r, and », by
the use of A as the aspirate only, by the absence of omega,
and by the universal application of the symbol ^ or ^
to denote, not ps, but ch, whilst X or +, the symbol of
ch in the eastern alphabets, here denotes x. Compare Wiih
this last variation what we have said above of the use of
X2 to express X : there can be little doubt that it was
from the occurrence of X in this collocation, and no other,
that this new value for it arose, and 2, was dropped. It
is significant that in the old Latin alphabet XS appear
instead of X. The difference in value of y in the eastern
and western alphabets is perplexing : it seems that in out
or the other the original value must have been consciously
changed, but it is not easy to say in which. The most
important alphabet of this group for our purpose is that ol
the Chalcidian colonies of Sicily and the west coast of
Italy — CumjB, Neapolis, etc. — because from this was derived
the Latin alphabet, the direct progenitor of our own. It
is distinguished from others of the same class by the
rounded form of the Gamma ^ ,'by the peculiar form of
the Lambda L > by ^hs very old Mu (/w), and by a rounded
Sigma ^ , though it has also the two other ordinary forms
^ and 2.: in common with some other western alphabets,
it has a double rlio (P and R). (See p. 600.)
From this Chalcidian alphabet it seems clear that aU
the Italian alphabets were derived. They fall into two
families, which differ from each other considerably, but
principally in the loss of old letters and the insertion of
new — differences which do not militate against their com-
mon origin, but show the cause of their separate develop-
ment. The first family contains the Etruscan, Umbrian,
and Oscan alphabets ; the second the Latin and Fahscan.
Into the peculiarities of the members of the first group we
do not propose to enter at length : they agree in the total
rejection of O and X, and the addition of a strange symbol
§ to denote the/ sound, van being retained with a slightly
modified form for v : the Etruscan retains the symbols
O and V which the other two dropped, and the Etruscan
and Umbrian agree in rejecting the_ soft mutes. The
Umbrian, however, has a new sjTnbol for a modified d,
peculiar to itself, and also for a modified k ; the Oscan
has new symbols for a modified i and a, and in general
shows a difference in the shape of its. characters from all
the other Italian dialects, which does not seem duo to any
other foreign influence so much as to its own individuality.
These three languages are all written from right to left,
in which the Faliscan agrees with them : the Latin alone,
from the earliest time of which we have any records, was
written from left to right ; but there can be little doubt
that it did not originally differ from its fellows, but
ch.anged at a later time, just as the Greek alphabet it'<el/
ALPHABET
611
nad done. The fact tiat X, found in the Latin and
Faliscan alphabets, has the value of x, and not of ch, and
that Vi as already mentioned, ia found with the value of
ch in Etruscan, shows that the common source of these five
alphabets was a western, not an eastern Greek alphabet ;
and the rounded form of C, and the peculiar L (V, not A)
limit the choice to the Chalcidian family. The points in
which the Latin differs from the Chalcidian alphabet of
Cumse, from which it was probably derived through com-
mercial intercourse, lie-
(1.) Li the application of the symbol vau (F), to denote
not the V but the / sound, which was probably strange to
the Greeks.
(2.) In allowing K to fall almost out ot use — it was
employed only in abbreviations, such as the first letter of a
prasnomen, as Kobso, or for Kalend£e, <tc. — and employing C
instead, which had of course in the present Greek alpha-
bet the power of g. This change may point to a time when
the distinction of the sounds h and g was obliterated, to
be afterwards restored.
(3.) In the formation of the new sj-mbol G — i. e., C
with a distinguishing line — to mark the soft gutturals,
when the want of a distinctive symbol was again felt.
This was some time in the 3d century B.C. ; but instead of
replacing K for the hard guttural sound, they preferred to
leave C in its old place, but with a new value, k instead of
g ; while the modified form G was inserted into thg place
of T (Z), which may have been taken by the Romans
(as it certainly was found in the other Italian alphabets),
but which fell out of use absolutely without any record.
(4.) In absence of the aspirates V. ®. and O : these
sounds were not natural to the Komau tongue, and there-
fore the symbols wera never regularly received into their
alphabet, though they were taken to represent numerals.
Their forms, however, were much altered, and so in process
of time they became confused with other letters : thus Y
denoted 50; but it came to be written J., and so naturally
passed into the quite meaningless L : © denoted 10,
but being too cumbrous to write, the circle was dropped,
and the cross (X) alone remained. A variant form of the
same letter (©) seems to have originaUy represented 100,
and either to have been shortened into the common form
C, or C superseded it as being the first letter of cmtum.
dJ was taken for 1000, but for convenience of writing it
was broken up into CIO, and this was the more easily done
because the parts were characters in use; but this symbol
also was replaced by M, the first letter of nii/te. It is
probable that CD was simply divided, and the half of it (D)
then stood for half of 1000, or 500; and half of X, ten,
became V, five. Neither D nor V have any other propriety
as symbols.
(5.) In the addition, in the 1st century b.c., of the two
symbols Y and Z after X (which had long been the last
letter of the alphabet), to express the Greek sounds v and
Z. In borrowed words these in earlier times had been
roughly denoted by u and ss; but in Cicero's day greater
precision was desired; and not being able to compound
two charactera of their own to denote the strange sound
(as they did for the aspirates kk, th, ph, formerly denoted
only by k, t, and p or b), they took sound and symbol
together, so that 4>pvyes appeared, not as Bruges, but as
Plirygn : Tpairt^mjs ceased to be tarpcssita, and sona be-
came !0>i2, &C.
The Latin alphabet agrees with the Chalcidian in the
retention of koppa ( 9 ) ; the downward stroke became by
degrees more oblique. This symbol had a much wider
use in Latin than it had in any Greek language : it was
needed to express a modified A-^sound which the Latins
liked, wherein a slight w sound was heard after the k.
This sound was distasteful to the Greeks, and consequently
they changed this kw (or qu) into p; so also did the other
Italians (compare equos, fjnros, Epona, (tc); but the Romans
liked it. and therefore, alone in Italy, kept the 9 to denote
it. It is true that the Q was generally followed by a
written «, though not always in the older inscriptions ;
but it was fully recognised that this « was not a real
letter. It was only a symbol expressing further, and
somewhat unnecessarily, the indistinct after-sound which
made Q difi'erent from K ; it would have been more logical
to have written Q alone, as was actually attempted under
the empire, where we find on inscriptions forms such as
qis, qidem, qaerella ; but this never became general The
Latin and Chalcidian alphabets are again at one in not
having the symbol M for s, differing in this respect from
the alphabets of South Italy, and also from the Etruscan
and Umbrian, which had both forms. Lastly, the Chal-
cidian (as we saw) had two forms for r, P and R; of these
the Latin chose the last, and generally employed the first
for p; though for that letter the genuine Greek form P
also appears rarely.
The Romans did not retain the Greek names for the
characters of the alphabet. The vowels were known by
their sounds only. The momentary sounds and h were
denoted by their own sound followed by a vowel, as le, ce,
de, ge, pe, and te, but ka, ha ; q, as we saw, had sufficient
vowel sound to float it ; on the other hand, the continuous
consonants were preceded by the vowel, as ef, el, em, en,
er, es ; x was called ix. The difference in the names of
the consonants ob'.dously was caused by their nature :
momentary sounds are produced by a complete closure and
opening of the organs required in each case ; when this
opening is made, the organs are so placed as to form a
vowel, which naturally is produced by the remnant of
sound required for the consonant ; whereas a vowel cannot
be produced before any one of these sounds without
conscious eS'ort : hence it was simpler to caU k, ka, than to
call it ak. But the continuous sounds are pronounced
when the necessary organs only approximate more or less
closely to each other; the channel through which the
sound passes from the larynx to the lips is never^ closed
altogether, and by reason of this slightly open position a
certain amount of vowel sound tends to escape just as the
organs are drawing together to produce the consonant, aud
thus is heard before it ; but to sound a vowel after one of
these consonants the organs must be intentionally put into
the proper position. Thus, then, exactly the same principle
— the conscious or unconscious strinng for ease of articula-
tion— produces exactly opposite results in the case of the
momentary and the continuous consonants. The same
reason caused a different vowel to be employed for h and k
from that which is used for the other letters. In sounding
a the organs are in nearly the same position as in sounding
these two gutturals, only a little more open ; whereas the
position of « is more nearly that of all the other consonants.
It must of couree be remembered that a Roman, if he had
wished to speak of his a B c, would not have said, as we
do, a-bee-aee, but ah-hay-kajj.
The arrangement of the letters of the alphabet has
caused much ingenious speculation It has been more
than once pointed out (as by Prof. Key, The Alphabet, p. 28)
tliat there are cni-tainly traces of regularity of arrangement.
The three soft momentary scHUids i, g, d, were placed
together ; and it is possible that p, k, t (if denoted by
Pe, Koph, Tau), may have once been together, and sepa-
rated by later intrusions ; I, m, n have an afiinity more
appatent than real, which was perpetuated by their
meaningless designation as "liquids;" stdl, the appearance
IB suQicient to justify the idea that they may have been
612
A. L P H A 13 E T
]>urpo3el7 put together. It has been suggested that the
alphabet was at first composed of " four quaternions" of
letters, each headed by a vowel, and the scattered position
of the vowels lends itself to this arrangement ; but it must
be remembered that the arrangement of the European
alphabets is certainly the same as that of Phoenicia, and in
the Phceuician there were breathings but no vowel symbols.
Besides, the remaining letters are just as necessary as any
sixteen which wo might so arrange, and to all appearance
just as ancient. The auUibr of the New Cratylus, indeed
(p. 170, ed. 3), actually drew up his list of fours : the
three soft momeutaries headed by alepk ; then came h,
followed by van, chetk, and teih, oddly grouped as
aspirates ; then the three " liquids," with samckh behind
them ; and lastly, pe, koph, and tau, under the care of ayin.
This, of course, renders it necessary to " omit caph, which
is only a softened form of coph, the liquid resk, and the
semi-vowel yodh, which are of more recent introduction."
Also it is " quite certain that at the first there was only
one sibilant, ta'mekh." In this way Dr Donaldson satisfies
himself that the " origipal Semitic alphabet contained only
sixteen letters." We give this futile attempt at arrange-
ment with no wish to sneer at a philologcr who did good
work in his da^, but simply to show vhe arbitrary nature of
all such attempts, resting as they must do simply on internal
evidence. If wo bear in'mind the history of the derivation
of the Phoenician alphabet, as we have attempted to give
it, from the Egyptian hieratic, we shall conclude that it is
hardly probable that symbols borrowed for practical uses
should have been arranged upon any scientific method ;
that chance guided the general arrangement, though a few
sounds obviously similar may have been put intentionally
together. No argument can be drawn (as by Rodiger in
his Hebrew Grammar) from the juxtaposition of two letters
meaning a hand (yodh and kapK), two meaning a head
(koph. and resh), itc. ; reasons have been given above for
believing that these names have no relation to the original
import of the signs, but were merely fanciful analogies
drawn by the Phcenicians themselves , and it seems as
possible that the juxtaposition may have suggested the
idea of the names as that the names caused the arrange-
ment. But if the argximent be sound, it is valid against
the supposition that the ' order was fixed throughout on
scientific grounds.
It is quite certain that the Teutonic tribes of north-
western Europe possessed characters of some sort before
they received the Greek or Latin alphabets. These
characters are generally called runes, and have been the
subject of some sound scholarship and much baseless
speculation. They may be divided into three main classes
— the Anglo-Saxon, the German, and the Scandinavian ;
each of these contain a number of lists of characters,
which, however, do not diftor from each other more than
the Greek alphabets ; and there is so much likeness in the
whole famQy that we may infer a common origin for all
The term rune is recognised as the name of a German
letter by Venantius Fortunatus at the beginning of the
seventh century, in the lines —
Barbara fraxineia picj^tur rhnna tabellis ;
Quodfjue papyrus agit, virgula plana valet.
i.e., these characters were cut on smoothed ash-boughs.
The meaning of the word run in Anglo-Saxon is a " secret;"
and the verb rynan, which is derived from the same,
means " to whisper" — the same verb which appears in the
now disused phrase, to " round in the ear." Jiuna denoted a
magician ; the word is contained in the German alriina,
the well-known designation of those prophetesses whom
the German tribes venerated, which appears corrupted by
Tacitus (Germ. c. viiL) into aurinia. There is sufficient
evidence to show that the knowledge of these runes was
conuned to a small class ; that they irere used as magical
characters, and also as means of augury. It was for this
reason undoubtedly that they were generally proscribed on
the introduction of Christianity ; and the reception of the
Latin characters by the Anglo-Saxons was regarded as
important as their reception of the Christian doctrines.
It is impossible to believe that the barbarous inhabitants
of the German forests should have worked out for them-
selves a genuine alphabet before they came into intercourse
with the civilised nations of the south. WTien we
remember the long process through which a pure alphabet
was reached by the highly-developed -nations which dwelt
on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, it is utterly
incredible that such success should have been achieved, as
it were, per taltvm, under so much more unfavourable
circumstances in the West. It may be asserted with some
confidence that if the runes were genuine alphabets (which
there seems no reason to deny), they must have been derived
from the Phoenicians in process of commerce. There is quite
sufficient similarity in several of the characters to make
this view antecedently probable, but any historical proof
would be extremely difBcult, if not impossible. It is true
that even where the characters resemble the Phcenician the
names of the letters difTer altogether ; but this, as we have
before seen in the case of the Phoenicians themselves, is
nowise unnatural when an alphabet is borrowed ; the form
is important, the name signifies little, and new names are
attached according to the fancy of the borrowers. It \&
highly probable, both from the meaning of the word rune
itself and from the evidence of foreign writers, that these
symbols were not used by their owners for any of the
ordinary ends of an alphabet (except, perhaps, for inscrip-
tions) until the Teutonic nations came into contact with
Greek and Roman ci-i-ilisation ; by the mass of the people
they were probably looked on simply as charms, the
unknown symbols of an occult science. Nay, it might be
held that even to the initiated they had merely a sort of
hieroglyphic value, and were developed into phonetic
significance only by the contact of the Greek and Roman
alphabets. For this view, indeed, there is no evidence,
and it is not in itself probable. ■ But we should be driven
to it if we were to suppose that the runes were the creation
of the Teutonic intellect.
These ancient characters occur plentifully on memorial
stones, rings, coins, &c., in Scandinavia. In England they
have been found principally in Northumbria, Mercia, and
East Anglia. It has been suggested (by Mr Haigh) that
this may be due to the milder principles of the Irish
monks, who restored Christianity to the north of England
after its fall with Edwin in G33, and did not pursue that
system of eradicating every trace of paganism which bad
been originally commanded by Gregory. Runic writing
was even employed in the service of Christianity. Jlr
Kemble (Archceologia, vol. xx\iii. p. 3-19) interpreted with
great ingenuity the mutilated inscription on the famous
cross discevered at Ruthwell, and showed that it refers to
the Crucifixion. But the Anglo-Saxon alphabet was soon
^-early in the 7th century — conformed to the Latin type,
those letters of the older form alone being retained which
were required to denote sounds that had no counterparts,
in Latin-; these were f (wen), and -p (thorn), the latter of
which expresses the surd breathing heard in "thin:" in
order to express the corresponding sonant (heard in "that,"
and confusedly denoted by the same compound th) a stroke
was drawn across the simple d (8), and the new letter
was called edh. The symbol j is sometimes found instead
of y. Curious admixtures of runes with Latin ch^ractors
occasionally occur even to late times. Thus, in the C-jrfrz
Fxoniends (p. 400, ed. Thorpe), an enigma occurs m verse,
and the parts apparently cf the subject to be guessed are
ALPHABET
613
written in runes; the odd effect is increased by these runes
being wrjtten in the regular way — (sometimes they were
■written /iova-Tpo<jirjSiJv) — from right to left, contrary to the
general run of the words. Kemble, in the Archceologia, has
given an interesting translation of an Anglo-Saxon poem,
each stanza of which begins with the name of a runic
letter; thus the first stanza begins with Fesh, " money,"
the name of/, the first runic letter, and goes on to say —
*' Money is a consolation
To every man :
Yet shall every man
Liberally distribute it ;
If he will that, before God,
Honour shall faU to his lot.''
The second stanza is dedicated to the bull, Ur {u), the
third to thorn [ih), <&c. This poem accordingly gives the
order of the alphabet, which agrees in the main with that
of aU other runic alphabets. Yet the poem is not old, for
the name of s (Sigel, " the sun ") is treated by the writer
as though it had been Segel " a sail "—clearly a mistake of
a later time, when the true name had passed out of use.
It may bo added that the names of this alphabet are some-
times strangely abstract : thus we find " gift," " Lope,"
" need," " war^" which differ much from the very concrete
objects whii h the Phcenicians chose, to denote their letters.
In consequence of all these old alphabets beginning with
the letters /,■«, th, o, r, c, in the same order, the alphabets
are called by some antiquarians "futhorcs," just as we
commonly speak of the ordinary alphabet as the A B c.
The doctrines of Christianity were first presented to a
Teutonic people in a written form by Ulfilas, who, though
not thefirst successful missionary to the Goths, has thereby
established his claim to be regarded as the apostle of his
race ; and whije the main body of the Goths, spurning the
ifeak control of Rome, poured westward in their fierce
career of victory towards Italy and Spain, a remnant was
left in Miesia, to whom Ulfilas gave the gos;iol in their own
tongue. This was at the end of the 4th century of our era.
He employed an alphabet of twenty-four or twenty-five
letters, some of which are unmistakably Greek in form;
others are common (or nearly so) to the Greek and the
runic alphabets, and may therefore have been derived
from either ; but if they were runic, they at least received
a more rounded form, it being no longer necessary to
retain those angles which (as we saw above in describing
the cuneiform characters) were most convenient in days
when writing meant cutting on stone or wood. But some
of the letters seem to be beyond doubt runic: most clearly
60 are /, r, u, y, and the symbol for the compound sound
kxo ; and the reason for all these (except r) appears to be
the lack of a proper equivalent in Greek. The letter which
Ul.filas adopted to denote the eurd breath th is not runic,
80 that the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon alphabets here differ:
it is apjiarently the Greek <^. It would seem, therefore, that
this letter still denoted an aspirate (p'h) in Greek, and not
a breath, otherwise it would surely have been taken for/;
here, on the contrary, it seems to have been selected at
random from a list of symbols which denoted no corre-
sponding sounds in Gothic. On the same lack of principle
© was taken to denote hw X was the exponent of the
breath ch, as heard in German words : here the difference
between the true aspirate and the breath is not great.
Long 1 formed a symbol which is very like omega.
Anotuer alphabet which has had an important influence
on, Europe, and which may be destined to a yet wider
extension as the alphabet (in a modified form) of the
great and progressive Russian empire, is the Cyrillic. This
was the work of Cyril, a monk of Constantinople, who,
together with Methodius preached the gospel among tho
Sclavonic tribes of Bulgaria and Moravia, in the Oth
eentury, long after the Teutons had como under the infiu-
ence of Chnstianity. Cyril held the services of the church
among his new converts in the vulgar tongue, into which
he also translated certain books of the Scriptures. The
alphabbt which he employed for' this purpose is more
thoroughly Greek than that of Ulfilaa ; but since the
Greek alphabet was not nearly sufficient to express aU the
Sclavonic sounds — especially the numerous sibilants — he
added further signs, the history of which is not clear.
This alphabet has been largely adopted by the easterc
branches of the Sclavonic race, including the Russians,
Bulgarians, and the Illyrian division of the Sclaves. The
old Bulgarian (commonly called the Ecclesiastical Sclavonic)
is the language into which Cyril translated the Scriptures ;
in philology it holds the same rank as the Gothic has
among the Teutonic languages : it is the parent, however,
only of one of the least important dialects, the modem
Bulgarian. The Illyrian family is divided into the Servians
on the one hand, and the Croats and Slovenian peoples on
the other. These parties are separated by difference of
religion : the Servians belong mainly to the Greek Church,
while the others are exclusively Roman Catholic ; and tho
members of the Greek Church naturally cUng to tho
Cyrillic characters, while the Catholics have adopted the
Latin alphabet. It is not easy to predict which characters
will ultimately predominate. The Latin letters are in-
sufficient to express the Sclavonic sounds ; but this deficiency
can be eked out by diacritical signs, and the greatest
literary activity is shown by the Latinising party. Lastly,
tho Cyrillic alphabet has been adopted by the Wallachians,
through the influence of their Sclavonic neighbours,
though it is little adapted to express their essentially
Latin speech, derived from the colonists whom Traj-in
settled in the new Roman province of Dacia. Most of
the needless symbols have been dropped in the newest
form of the W'allachian alphabet. (See Max Miiller,
Survey of Languages, ]i'p. 39-8-t.)
Cyril's original alphabet consisted of forty-eight symbols,
but some of these are slightly different representations of
the same sound; others are tachygraphies for combina-
tions of sound, as sht, ts, &c. The names were not Greek,
with the exception of three — fai, psi, and ihita — which
were relegated to the end as unnecessary, but they retained
their original Greek place as numerical signs. The alphabet
is printed at the end of this article. It will be seen that
B occupies the third place, while a modified B stands
second: the reason is, that B had come to denote the
V sound in Greek, and therefore carried this value into
tho Sclavonic. The modified letter denotes the old b sound.
Tho 7th letter, which is not Greek, had the sound of
English soft J, a Uttle softer than the French y in jamais.
Tho 8th and 9th sjrmbols are the Greek s and z; thoy
are supposed to have had the same sound, that of the soft
English 2 (not dz) — perhaps one of them m.iy have originally
denoted dz, a sound which easily passes into dj; dj had a
special symbol both in the Servian and Wallachian, though
it had none in the Cyrillic, probably because tho sound
had not then been produced; if it had, we may conclude,
from the exactness which the Cyrillic alphabet everywhere
shows, that it would not have been left without a mark.
The 8th letter has been expelled from the Russian alphabet a8
superfluous: the Russians have no i/;' sound. The 10th and
1 1 th letters were sounded alike as i; tho 10th is the Greek
Ela, which had therefore become undistinguishablo from
Iota in Cyril's day, as it is in modern Greek. Tho 12th
letter, / pure and simple, denoted the semi-vowel y. The
2 2d was t, followed by a parasitic y. Tho 23d and 2Uh
are only different ways of wiiting tho same combination ou;
tho Greeks having clmngcd the u sound into u, Cyril win
obliged to write ou for w, as the Greeks themselves dicu
The Russian has one symbol lY) to denote ihia sound: it is
014
ALPHABET
probably a tachygraphy of the 24tli. The 20tli and 26th
denoted respectively the breathings / and German cA, We
may recall here the different treatment of <l> by Ulfilaa; it
seems a fair inference that the sound of <f> had changed
from an aspirate to a breathing between the timc« of
Umias and Cyril The 27th and 28lh are the Greek
Omega in the simple ana in a modified form: they de-
noted the sounds heard in note and not respectively;
these have been dropped in all the derived al[iLabet8, in
which the 17th letter does work for both. We now come
to a series of letters (29-44) which aro not Greek, and
denote sounds which were probably unknown, or at least
had no separate exponents, in the Greek system. The first
four are sibilants, simple or compound. It will be remem-
bered how the Greek dropped the largo Phoenician stock
of sibilants, through their own disinclination to such
sounds. Cyril, however, did not go back to the original
tyi)e3, but had recourse to the inartistic expedient of
using two or three upright strokes, with small modifiers
below. Letter 29 is the compound U, 30 denotes the fuller
compound tsch (English ck in "church"), 31 is the simple
sh, 32 is sht, which in Russian is said to bo expressible
only by schtsch, unquestionably a very strong sibilant; the
newer form of Wallachian used 29 to express (ij. The
letters 33-36 were attempts to express the neutral vowel
(hoard in English in fir, sun, &.C.), the first two in "its
aspect nearest to n, the last two nearer to i. The first and
last are important in Russian : they aro written, but not
pronounced; but the first hardens a preceding letter, or,
if it be a continuous consonant, makes it be sounded as
though it were double. The 36th, on the contrary, softens
a preceding letter, giving it the mouilU sound. The 34th
letter has been dropped in Russian ; the 35th has a pecu-
liar kind of i sound. The 37th letter has an e sound; it
was apparently introduced into the alphabet in consequence
of the polyphony of the original e, which in Russian does
the work of c, o, and m, and also of each of these preceded
by the semi -vowel y; but as the new letter has three of these
sounds, there is not much gain of clearness. A third symbol,
however, has been introduced — an inverted e, ^, which did
not belong to the Cyrillic alphabet : it is used at the begin-
ning of words where the pure e sound is heard — not ye, and
also in foreign words beginning with a?. Letters 38-40 are
compounds expressing the «, a, and e sounds, preceded
by y. The combinations seem to us needless, but the
Greek had no symbol for y; therefore Cyril probably
thought it necessary to connect the I-symbol with the
following vowel, in order to show that it was only the
eemi-vowel, not a full vowel, which would have caused
another syllable. The first of these symbols has been
retained in Russian unchanged; the second is now written
rather lil:<< au inverted r ff; the third was suffered to
drop — whence arose the confusion respecting c which we
have just mentioned. Nos. 41 and 42 denote nasalised
vowels, « aud o, as heard in the French en and on : these
sounds seem to have fallen out of all Sclavonic languages,
except the Polish. 43 and 44 denote the same vowela
" pre-iotiscd," like the three 38-40 : these also are now
unknown. Then came the Greek Ksi and Psi, the char-
acters being very slightly altered : they have fallen out of use
altogether. No. 47, Thita, is refaincd in Russian, but sounded
as an /, which has th\is two exponents, 0 and (p. Lastly
came the equivalent of the Greek Upsilon called (jica ■ this
is employed in Russian in words borrowed from the Greek.
Fourteen of these letters have been expelled from the
Russian alphabet, namely 8, 11, 22, 23, 27, 28, 34, 40-46;
their list of 35 letters is made up by the addition of the
inverted e, which stands in the 31st place of the alphabet.
The forms of the letters are more rounded than those of
Cyril, as wiU be seen by a comparison of tho two. This
reform, among others, was due to Peter the Great, who
printed the first Russian periodical at Moscow in 1704.
(Max Midler, Survey, p. 49.)
, The Servian alphabet differs from tho Russian chicfiy
by the insertion of symbols to denote modification of sound
caused by a following y. Thus we find a character to
exjiress dy (equivalent to the Hungarian gy heard in
"Magyar"); another for ly, denoting the sound of the
Italian gli ; another for ny, the Italian and French gn;
and one for ty, a softer sound than the tscti, the symbol
for which is common to Russian and Servian.
Tho Wallachian adopted nearly all the Cyrillic charac-
ters, except the superduous vowel-symbols and the nasalised
vowels. The list was soon considerably shortened, as was
natural in a language originally non-Sclavonic, though in
the course of time it has naturally borrowed many words
from its neighbours. Since it has been used for literary
purposes, it h.is been further diminished to 27 symbols by
the loss of the short sibilant (32), the second e, and tho
iotised a; the other iotised vowels had gone before. Tho
forms of the characters have also been much assimilated to
the Latin t)q)es: instead of the peculiar symbol for ccti,
which the Russian retains, the new Wallachian has a J
with a wavy stroke through the middle; n is written as N,
not as H; and Cyril's combinations of perpendicular linea
are more rounded than the Russian. The WallachiaB has
T
to denote the sound uti.
one special symbol
We have thus described the alphabets used in modern
Europe. The only others which have any special interest
for Englishmen are tho different Indian alphabets ; but
these are too numerous and complicated to be fully
described here. (j. p.)
CYRILLIC 1
LXD RUSSLVN ALPHABETS.
CYB. '; RUSS.
CYR. i RUSS.
CYR. i RUSS.
CYR.
RUSS.
CYB.
RUSS.
CYR.'
i RUSS.
a a i A a
H
HlIHHfl
P D iP p
& u i
-K t
% t
1^
3C
i
K B ;B (5
i
1 ;
C C
C c
M M m «
3 3
^4^
*
K kIB b
1
illiX
T T
T T in
Y Y
^ ^
K) w
10 H) i 0
•6-
Q 9
r r|r r
K
k|K k
1L t
Ul ui
UIiu
t^ n
K a.
V
V
y V
A A;4 4
\
a\JI 4
OVoy
1|J HI
lUm
16 lei
e e
E e
M
m;M m
K « iy y
'L -b
1» -b
A A
aj 1R
JK ■£.
N
liiH H
$ $ :$ «
^1 T.t-1
7i\ s
S s
0
o|0 0
X js !x X
U bl
LI H
u ^
3 3
n
n n n
(i) w i
h h
h i
,
A L P — A L P
615
ALPHEUS, fAXi^cios), the chief river of Peloponnesus,
now called Rufia or Jiouphi. Its sources are in the
mountains of ^jcadia, to the east of Megalopolis. Being
fed by a great number of small streams, it becomes navi-
gable, and traversing Elis, empties itself into the Ionian
sea. At several points in its course it runs in a subter-
ranean channel This fact probably gave rise to the well-
known myth which represents Alpheus, the river-god,
as passing under the sea to the nymph Arethusa, who had
been changed into a fountain in the island of Oitygia.
Milton in his Arcades thus aUudes to the story —
" That renowned flood, so often sung,
Divine Alpheus, who by secret sluico
Stole nnder seas to meet his Arethuse."
ALPHONSO, Alfonso, Alonzo, Atfonso, or Ildefonso.
This name, so famous in the annals of the Spanish peninsula,
has been borne by no fewer than twenty-two of its sovereigns
— ^viz., by ten of the Asturias and Leon, one of Castile when
separate from Leon, five of Aragon, and six of Portugal
\st, Asturias and Leon. — Alphonso L, surnamed " The
Catholic," King of the Asturias, the son of Pedro, duke of
Biscay, was born in the year 693. On the death of Favila,
the son of Pelayo, Alphonso, who had married Ormisinda,
the daughter of the latter, was proclaimed king of Asturias.
During his whole reign he was engaged in almost perpetual
con diets with the Moors, and is said to have wrested Leon,
Galicia, and Castile from their hands. His zeaKfor the
cLurch, displayed in endowing and repairing monasteries
and churches, gained for him his surname of " The
Catholic." Alphonso died at Cangas in 757, and was
succeeded by his son Fruela I.
Alphonso IL, surnamed "The Chaste," King of the Astu-
rias, the son of Fruela L, was but a child when his father
was assassinated in 768, and consequently his claims to
the throne were passed over in favour of Aurelio, who was
probably a cousin of Fruela. Alphonso was invested with
regal authority by Silo, the successor of Aurelio ; on whose
death, in 783,he became sole ruler. He was afterwards
dethroned by his uncle Mauregato, and was compelled to
retire into Biscay. Mauregato, after a reign of about five
years, was succeeded by Bermudo, who, in 791, took
Alphonso as his partner on the throne. Bermudo reigned
for only about four years longer. A rebellion of many of
the chief nobles in 802 compelled Alphonso to surrender
liis throne for the third time ; but he was soon afterwards
restored, mainly through the assistance of Theudius, one
of his most faithful followers. Li addition to having to
defend himself against these internal dissensions, Alphonso
was during the greater part of his reig-i at war with the
Moors, obtaining, among other successes, a signal victory
over Mohammed, governor of Merida, in 830. Alphonso
died in 843, in the city of Ovicdo, which he had greatly
adorned and made the capital of his kingdom. He had
some years previously abdicated in favour of Ramiro, son
of Bermudo. His surname of " The Chaste " has been
connected by some with' the legend that he refused to pay
the Moors their tribute of a hundred Spanish virgins, but
is rather to»be ascribed to his vow to preserve an absolute
continence.
Alphonso III., surnamed "The Great," King of the As-
turias, was born in the y^ar 848, and succeeded his father
OrdrMO I. in 866. In the'following year, Fruela, count of
Galicia, disputed Alphonso'a right of succession, and forced
hi^n to retire to Alava ; but Fruela's tyranny so exasper-
ated the people that ho was assassinated before ho had
been a year in power, and they gladly recalled Alphonso to
the throne. Other conspiracies marked the beginning
of Alphoiiso's reign, but ho soon felt himself tolerably
secure at home, and turned hia arms against the Moor.s.
liy 001, the year iu which ho gained a splendid victory at
Zamora, he had, it is said, ertenJed Lis empire to the
banks of th^ Guadiana, and had, by founding and fortifying
cities, made good his hold over a large part of the con-
quered territory. But Alphonso's victories abroad were
greatly neutralised by discontent among his own subjects,
who found it difficult to bear the heavy war taxes that had
been imposed upon them. There was a rising under Ano
in 885, and another under Witiza in 894 ; and in 907 a
more formidable insurrection broke out, headed by Garcia,
the king's eldest son. Garcia was defeated and tak^u
prisoner ; but as the greater part of the nation sided with
the queen in demanding that he should be released,
Alphonso, either wishing to prevent a civil war, or think-
ing that his cause was hopeless,- resigned his crown to his
son in 901. After his abdication, Alphonso, offering hia
services to his son in the true spirit of the age, led an
expedition against the Moors, in which he gained fresh
victories. He died towards the end of the same year (901).
He was the last monarch who bore the title King of Astu-
rias, his successors being called kings of Leon, from the
new capital of the kingdom. It was in Ms reign that the
counts of Navarre became independent. There is still
extant a Latin chronicle, treating of the history of Spain
from the Moorish invasion down to the death of Ordoiio,
which is usually attributed to Alphonso.
ALPnoNfcO rV., " The Monk," King of Leon, succeeded
Fruela 11., his uncle in 924. On the death of his wife,
about six years afterwards, he resigned his crown to his
brother Eamiro, and retired into a cloister ; but soon grow-
ing weary of monastic life, he made an attempt to resume
the sceptre. He was, however, taken prisoner at Leon,
and confined in the monastery of St Julien, where he died,
probably about two and a half years after.
Alphonso V. succeeded his father Bermudo II. in 999,
being then about five years of age. Gonsalez, count of
Galicia, and his wife, were, by appointment of Bermudo IL,
guardians of the young king ; and on arriving at manhood
he married their daughter Elvira. Th« regency is remark-
able for the defeat and death of the famous Moor Almansur
in 1002 — a success that led ultimately to the conquest of
Cordova by the Christians. Alphonso himself made war
upon the Moors, recapturing Leon and other places that
had been lost during his minority. Alphonso died at the
siege of Viseo in 1028. He was succeeded in the king-
dom of Leon by his son Bermudo III., while the hitherto
dependent countship of CastOe became a separate kingdom
under the sovereignty of Sancho el Mayor, king of Navarre,
and husband of the eldest daughter of the late count.
Alphonso VI. of Leon, and eventually I. of Castile,
surnamed " The Valiant," was born in the year 1030. Hia
father, Fernando the Great, who in his own right was
king of Castile only, but succeeded to the throne of Leon
iu right of his wife, died in 1065, leaving his kingdom
divided among his children. Sancho, the eldest son,
received as his portion Castile ; to Alphonso was given the
Idngdom of Leon, the territory of Campos, part of Asturias,
and some towns in Galicia ; and Garcia the youngest
brother, received a part of Galicia and of Portugal ; whilo
the towns of Toro and Zamora. were left to Urraca and
El^Tra, Femando's two daughters. Peace was not long
maintained between the three brothers. In 1068 Sancho
made war upon Alphonso, and defeated him in a bloody
battle at Piautica, on the Pisuerga. In 1071, hostilities,
which seem to have been suspended, again commenced,
and Alphonso having recruited his army, defeated Sancho
at a place called ValpeUage, on the banks of the Carrion ;
but the latter, being reinforced, it is said by the famous
Roderigo Diaz de Bivar, commonly called " The Cid," made
an attack during the night, and almost oxtcrniinated the
Leonnese army, Alphonso himself being taken prisoner. He
616
ALPHONSO
was compelled to abdicate lii3 tlirone, andTrs" impnsonod
in the monastery of Sahagun, probably with the intention
of making him become a monk ; but escaping from this
place of confinement, he sought refuge with Almamun, the
Moorish kinp of Toledo, who received him with great hospi-
tality. Kaucho having taken possoasion of Leon, advanced
into Galicia against Garcia. The two brothers met at
Saiitarem, when the Galicians were defeated with great
slaughter, and Garcia himself captured and thrown into
prison. Bancho was assassinated in 1073, and AJphonso,
after making a solemn declaration that ho was guiltless of
his brother's death, was reinstated in his own dominion,
besides receiving his brother's kingdom of Castile. Garcia,
who had been liberated on the death of his brother, was
preparing to recover his throne, when Alphonso, having
treacherously invited liim to his court, shut him up in the
castle of Luna, where he died ten years afterwards. Being
now the undisputed master of nearly all his father's king-
dom, Alphonso was at liberty to turn his arms against the
Moors. His first erpedition, in 1074, was in defence of
Almamun of Toledo, who had befriended him in his ad-
versity, and whose kingdom was now invaded by the Cor-
dovan!). Some yean later, however, disregarding the
ties of grptitude, he himself laid waste the territories of
Yahia ben Ismail, the son and successor of Almamun, and
ended by taking the city of Toledo itself in 1085. Many
parts of Spain, hitherto subject to the Moors, were now
added to the empire of Alphonso ; and it is not improbable
that he would havu reduced the entire peninsula to his
sway, had not a new nnd formidaye power arisen, which
threatened to undo all he and his predecessors had accom-
pUshcilT'A large army of Moors from Africa, under Yusscf
ben Tashfyn, one of the Almoravides, entered Spain, and,
with the assistance of Ben Abad, king of Seville, inflicted
a terrible defeat upon Alphonso near Zalaca, in the year
1086. Fortunately for the Christian cause, the Moorish
chiefs began to quarrel among themselves, and Alphonso
was enabled not only to recover his position, but even to
eitend his conquests in some directions. In 1108, how-
ever, the Almoravides made another serious attempt to
destroy the power of Alphonso. A bloody battle was
fought at Ucl^s, in which the Leonnese army was com-
pletely defeated, and Sancho, Alphonso's only son, who
commanded in place of his father, slain. Alphonso died
at Toledo in 1109, and was succeeded by his daughter
Urraca, whoso husband, Alphonso I. of Aragon, is by
some historians enumerated among the kings of Leon
as Alphonso VIL Through his illegitimate daughter
Teresa, whom he gave in marriage to Henry of Burgundy,
Alphonso became an ancestor of the kings of Portugal.
Alphonso VII., the same as Axphgnso L of Aragon
Alphonso VIII. of Leon (or Vil., according to thrse
who do not consider Alphonso of Aragon cs properly a
king of Leon) and 11. (or IIL) of Castile, often called
Alphonso Raymond and " The Emperor," was bom in
the year 1106. He was the son of Urraca, daughter
of Alphonso VI., and Raymond of Burgundy, her first
husband. In 1112 he wa^ proclaimed king of Galicia, by
whom it does not clearly appear ; in 1122 he was associated
with his mother in the government of Leon and Castile ;
and on her death in 1126 he became sole monarch. Soon
after this event he made war upon his stepfather, Alphonso
of Aragon, in order to recover the territories, properly
belonging to Leon and Castile, which had been lost owing
to his mother's misgovemmcnt. The two kings came to
an agreement about the year 1129, Alphonso of Leon
having regained most of his possessions. In 1135,
AJphonso, elated by the homage of the king of Navarre
End the couats of Barcelona and Toulouse caused himself
to DO solemnly crowned emperor of Spain. This dignity
was, however, little more than & name, for Alphonso
Henriqucz of Portugal and Garcia Kamiro of Navarre
declared war upon the new emperor almost immediately
after his elevation. Intestine feuds between the variouj
Christian princes of Spain, which resulted in no very
definite gain to any of them, lasted until the advance of
large Moorish armies under the Almohades compelled the
ChrLstians to turn against their common foe. AJphonso
invaded Andalusia in 1150, and gained several victories,
which contributed greatly to the extension of Christian
territory in Spain. He died in 1157 at Tremada, on hi*
return from an indecisive battle with Cid Yussef at Jaen ;
and was succeeded by his elder son, Sancho, in the throne of
Castile, and by his younger, Fernando, in that of Leon.
In 1156 he instituted the order of St Jidien, afterwards so
celebrated under the name Axcantaea (y.v.J
Alphonso IX. (VIII.), King of Leon only, succeeded his
father Fernando in 1 188. In 1 190 he sought to strengthen
his pasition by marrying his cousin Teresa of PortugaL
This marriage, being within the forbidden degrees, was pro-
nounced null by the pope (Celcstine III. ), who excom-
municated Alphonso and his queen until 1195, when they
agreed to separate. In 1 197 Alphonso a second time defied
the papal authority by marrying his cousin Berengaria,
daughter of Alphonso IIL of Castile, with a view of putting
a stop to the frequent quarrels between the two kingdoms.
As before, the pope (Innocent III.) prevailed, and in
1 204 the separation took place. Innocent, however, granting
that the children already born should be recognised as
legitimate. After the dissolution of the marriage the old
chronic state of feud between the two kings returned, and
was kept up, although with little actual warfare, until the
death of Alphonso of Castile in 1214, In 1217, Fernando,
the eldest son of Alphonso and Berengaria, became king
of Castile. Alphonso, thinking that his own claims had
been unjustly passed over, declared war upon his son ; but
finding that the people preferred Fernando, he relinquished
his claims. The remainder of Alphonso's reign was chiefly
spent in campaigns against the Moors. Along with his
son, he captured Merida, Badajoz, and other cities ; ajid in
1230 gained a brilliant victory over Mohammed Ibn Hud
at Merida. He died in the same year, and was succeeded
by his son Fernando, who thus finally imited the kingdoms
of Leon and Castile.
Alphonso X., surnamed El Sabio, or " The Wise," King
of Leon and Castile, was bom in 1221, and succeeded his
father Femando IIL in 1252. He ascended the throne
with the entire approbation cf his subjects, and with every
prospect of a happy reign ; but, through the ill-directed
aims of his ambition, few sovereigns have been more
unfortunate. He first attempted to gain possession of
Gascony, contending that he had a better right to that
province than Henry IIL of England. The arms of
England, however, proved too formidable ; and he agreed
to renounce his claim on condition that Henry's son,
afterwards Edward I, should marry his sister Eleonora.
The marriage was solemnised with great pomp and magni-
ficence towards the end of October 1254. Alphonso's next
act was to lay claim to the duchy of Swabia, which he
believed to be his in right of his mother Beatrix, daughter
of the late duke. This claim was passed over, but when
advancing it Alphonso formed a connection with the
German princes, and in 1256 became a competitor, against
Richard, Earl of Comwall, for the imperial crown. He
was again unsuccessful, the Earl of Comwall being elected
by a small majority. In 1271, on the death of Richard,
he a second time attempted to make himself emperor of
Germany, and even after Rodolph of Hapsburg had actually
been elected, he undertook a fruitless journey to Beaucaire
ALPHONSO
617
m oraerxo prevent the pope (Gregory S.) from confirm-
iijg the election. These repeated attempts to increase hb
dign-ty weakened rather than strengthened the power of
Alphonso, and forced him to impose heavy taxes upon his
subjects, and even to debase the coinage, thus producing
much discontent and disturbance, while the Moors were
ever ready to take advantage of any misfortunes that
might happrai to him. From 1261 to 1266 he was
engaged in a war with Mohammed of Granada, during
which his army suffered several defeats. In 1270 an
insurrection broke out, headed by Felipe, brother of the
king, who wag assisted by Mohailuned of Granada ; it
was only quelled after nearly all their demands had been
conceded to the rebels. In 1275, Vi'hen AJphonso was
absent on his fruitless journey to Beaucaire, his eldest son,
Fernando de la Cerda, died, an event which, rsising as it
did the question of the succession to the crown, threatened
anew to involve fb* kingdom in war. Sancho, Alphonso's
second son, was, according to the law of the Visigoths,
proclaimed heir hs the Cortes at Segovia; but Philip
of France, uncle of the two young sons of Fernando,
declared war with Alphonso on their behalf; actual
hostihties were, however, prevented by the intercession of
Pope Nicolas III. Tn 1 28 1 , Sancho, irritated probably by
some attempt that Alphonso had made to favour the sons
of Fernando, raised the st«.ndard of jevolt against his
father. Sancho, .who was a favourite with the 'people,
having secured the assistance of Mohammed of Granada,
reduced his father to such extremities that the la'rter
solemnly cursed and disinherited his son, an acf which he
confirmed by his will in 1283° and at the same time
solicited aid from the king of Marocco. At the com-
mencement of the following year, however, Alphonso, on
receiving intelligence from Salamanca that Sancho was
dangerously iU, pardoned him. {Alphopso died a few days
afterwards, on 4th April 1284. He was a learned prince,
end a great encourager of learning, brave and energetic,
but at the same time restless and ambitious, He has been
charged with impiety, chiefly on account of a well-known
Baying of his, that " had he been present at the creation, he
could have given soihe useful hints for the better ordering of
the universe." To him science is indebted for a set of astro-
nomical observations known as the Alphonsine Tables, which
were drawn up under his auspices by the best astronomers of
the age ; and in the palace of Segovia a room is still shown
as the observatory of Alphonso. He was also distingmshed
as a poet and as a legislator. In the Escurial is preserved
a curious manuscript containing some hymns of his com-
position; and he was the principal compiler of a code of
laws which is -*■" extant under the name of Lou Side
Partidoi.
Alphonso XI., "The Avenger," was an infant when he
succeeded his father, Ferdinand IV., in 1312. During
his long minority the kingdom was cruelly distracted by
intestine warfare. Assumiag the reins of_ government in
1324, he strove to repress the turbulent spirit of the
nobility, and to put down that system of brigandage to
which it hadgi jn rise, acquiring by his inflexible severity
the title of " The Avenger." He lost Gibraltar in 1329, but
as comiflander of the allied armies of Catholic Spain, on
the 29th Oct. 1340 he gained a complete victory over the
kingr of Morocco and Granada at the Salado. The
slaughtAi was immense, and the booty so rich that the
value of gold is said to hau; fallen one-sixteenth. In
1342 Alphonso laid siege to Algcciras, where cannon
were employed fi>r the first time in Europe by the Moors
in defence of their walls. This siege had lasted two years,
when the Moors capitulated on condition of a truce between
tie two nations for Von years; but the king of- Castile
broke his word a few years after by bcsiej^ng Gibraltar,
1—21'
where he died of the plague on tb<! 26th MarcU 1350,
aged 40. He was succeeded by his son, Pedro the Cruel.
From this reign dates the institution of regidors or
jurats, to whom was committed^ the administration of
the communes ; and these regidors became the exclusive
electors of the Cortes, in which the people ceased to have
a voice.
2d, Castile. — Alphonso III. (according to other enimie-
rations, VTII. or IX.), surnamed " The Noble," is the only
king of Castile of the name who was not also king of Leon.
Ho was born in 1155, and succeeded his father, Sancho III.,
in 1158. His minority was disturbed by the contention
of the two powerful houses of Lara and Castro for the
regency ; but after his marriage with Eleanor, daughter
of Henry II. of England, he was proclaimed sole ruler.
After compelling the kings of Aragon, Navarre, and Leon
to surrender the territories they had taken possession of
during his minority, he turned his arms against the Moore,
and at Alarcos, in 1195, sustained one of the most terrible
defeats recorded in the annals of Spain. This disaster
encouraged the kings of Leon and Navarre to renew their
hostilities, which were carried on for several years with
varying success. In 1211 the Moors again th/eatened
Castile ; but in the following year, Alphonso, ak-ng with
Pedro n. of Aragon and Sancho VIL of Navarre, gained
a most complete and splendid victory over them at La
Navas de Tolosa. Alphonso died at Garci Munos in
1214, and was succeeded by his son, Enrique I. Alphonso
was a patron of hterature, and in 1208 founded a university
at Palencia, the first in Christian Spain. This universitT
was afterwards transferred to Salamanca.
3d, Aragon. — AlphoNso I., surnamed El Bdtatiaaor,
" The Fighter," E^g of Navarre and Aragon, was the
second son of Uon Sancho Eamirez, and succeeded his
brother Pedro I. in 1104. By his marriage in 1109 with
Urraca, daughter and heiress of Alphonso VI. of Leon and
Castile, he became her associate in the government of
these kingdoms, and in the same year assumed the title
of " Emperor of all Spain." Misunderstandings soon
arose between Alphonso and his wife, and he separated
from her shortly after their marriage, an act which was
confirmed by the council of Palencia in 1114. Alphonso,
however, refused to give up his claims to the kingdoms of
Leon and Castile, and maintained a constant struggle with
Urraca till her death in 1 126. Alphonso's chief victories
were gained over the Moors. He laid siege to Saragossa
for the first time in 1114, but the city was not captured
until 1118, after several bloody battles had been fought in
its neighbourhood. In 1120 his territories were menaced
by a large force sent against him by AU ; but engaging the
enemy near Daroca, he left 20,000 Aknoravides d?ad oa
the field. Three years afterwards, while the ling of
Marocco was fully occupied at home by the rise of a
dangerous sect of Almohades, Alphonso seized the oppor-
tunity to invade Valencia. In 1125 he undertook a new
expedition against Granada in aid of the Mozarjbcs or
Christian Moors. The Moors in their reprisals invaded
Estremadura, and defeated the CastiUans near Badajoz.
The king of Aragon, so far from rendering his neighbour
any assistance, determined to take advantage of the
critical position of Alphonso Raymond, as well as of the
troubles which the death of Urraca had occasioned in
several parts "of his dominions, but when on the point of
battle the two kings came to an agreement. Alphonso
next crossed the Pyrenees, and captured the cities of
Bordeaux in 1130, and Bayonne in 1131. On his return
to Spain ho took Meq\iinenza from the Moors in 1133, and
invested Fraga in 1134, where, during a sally from.tha
town, ho received a wound from which he died a few days
after. •
618
ALPHOJ^SO
Alphonso n. was born in 1152, and in 11C3 bUccecdeU
his father, Kaymondo V., as count of Barcelona, his
mother, Potronilla, daughter of Ramiro 11, king of Aragon,
at the same time resigning that kingdom to him. He was
frequently at war with Uaymondo of Toulouse, and also
directed an expedition against the Almolmdes, from which
the invasion of Aragon by Sancho of Navarro recalled him.
He assisted Alphonso of Castile against Cuen^a, lor which
service he was relieved from doing homage to Castile. He
died in 1196. He was a patron of the troubadours, and
wrote some poems in the Provenyal language.
Alphonso III., the son of Pedro III., was bom in 1265,
and in 1 285, on the death of his father, being -absent in
Majorca on an expedition against his uncle Jayme, assumed
the title of king without taking the oaths of adherence to
the articles to which his predecessors had subscribed.
^V^len he returned in 1286, however, he was compelled to
go through the usual coronation ceremony. In 1287 he
signed the Privilege of Union, which permitted his subjects
to have recourse to arms to defend their liberties, and
invested the justizero with the power of citing the king
himself to appear before the Cortes. Alphonso's chief
wars were with Jayme of Majorca, Sancho of Castile, and
the pope. He died in 1291.
Alphonso PV., son of JajTne H, was bom in 1299,
and ascended the throne in 1327. During almost the
whole of his reign he was occupied in war with the
Genoese about the possession of Corsica and Sardinia,
lie died in 1336.
Alphonso V. of Aragon, L of Sicily and Sardinia, and
latterly I. of Naples, was bom in 1385, and succeeded his
father, Fernando the Just, as king of Aragon and of Sicily
and Sardinia, in 1416. In 1420 Joanna I. of Naples
offered to make Alphonso her successor if he would assist
her against Louis of Anjou. This he did ; but, owing to
misunderstandings, the queen revoked her adoption of
Alphonso in 1423, making Louis of Anjou her heir.
Recalled to Spain immediately after by an attack made by
the Castilians upon his hereditary kingdom, he left his
brother Pedro as his lieutenant at Naples, which he had
taken by storm the year before. On his way to Spain he
captured, but generously refrained from pillaging, Marseilles,
a city belonging to his rival the duke of Anjou. After
restoring peace at home, Alphonso again turned his atten-
tion to Naples, where his cause now appeared to be hope-
less. Louis of Anjou died in 1434, and Queen Joanna the
following year, leaving Naples to Louis's brother Reni,
who had in his possession the whole kingdom 'except a few
fortresses which still held out for Alphonso. In the same
year (1435) Alphonso laid siege to Gaeta, but the siege was
raised, and Alphonso himself taken prisoner by PhdUppo
Maria Visconti, duke of Milan. Visconti, however, being
greatly pleased with the high character and noble appear-
ance of Alphonso, soon released him, and even made him
his ally. Immediately on recovering his liberty, Alphonso
made a third attempt upon the kingdom of Naples. The
issue of the war at first was doubtful, but latterly the arms
of Alphonso were nearly everywhere victorious. He laid
siege to Naples, and after an obstinate resistance captured
it in 1442. The States-General were then convoked, and
solemnly proclaimed Alphonso king; his election l)eing
sanctioned by Pope Eugenius IV., who had previously
promised that honour to Ren^. Alphonso now fixed his
residence at Naples, and devoted himself chiefly to the
improvement of his kingdom ; although he was also fre-
quently involved in the wars and disputes of the Italian
princes. He died at Naples on the 27th June 1458 ; and
was succeeded in his kingdoms of Aragon and of Sicily and
Sardinia by his brother John, and in that of Naples by
his natural son Ferdinand. Alphonso was undoubtedly
QUO of tne best monarchs of his name. His bravery and
generalship fitted him for the warlike entoipiises he hntl
to undertake ; and it is evident that, from his generous
and humane disposition, as well as from his love of litera-
ture and encouragement of law and justice, his rale would
have been equally successful had it been his lot to live in
more peaceful tunes.
4<A, Portugal. — Alphonso I., Enriquei, son of Henry
of Burgundy, count of Portugal, and Teresa of Castile, was
bom at Guimaraens m 1094. He succeeded his father in
1112, and was placed under the tutelage of his mother.
When ho came of age he was obliged to wrest from her
by force that power which her vices and incapacity had
rendered disastrous to the state. Being proclaimed sole
ruler of Portugal in 1128, he defeated his mother's troops
near Guimaraens, making her at the same time his prisoner.
He also vanquished Alphonso RajTnond of Castile, his
mother's ally, and thus freed Portugal from dependence
on the crown of Leon. Next turning his arms against the
Moors, he obtained, on the 26th July 1139, the ^moua
victory of Ourique, and immediately after was proclaimed
king by his soldiers. Not satisfied with this, howevef, he
assembled the Cortes of the kingdom at Lamego, where hi
received the crown from the archbishop of Braganza; thj
assembly also declaring that Portugal was no longer a
dependency of Leon. Alphonso continued to distinguish
himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom ho
wrested Santarem in 1 1 46, and Lisbon in 1 1 47. Some years
later he became involved in a war that had broken out among
the kings of Spain; and in 1167, being disabled during an
engagement near Badajoz by a fall from his horse, he was
made prisoner by the soldiers qf the king of Leon, and was
obliged to surrender as his ransom almost all the conquests
ho had made in Galicia. In 1184, in spite of his great age,
lie had still sufficient energy to relieve his son Sancho,
who was besieged in Santarem by the Moors. He died
shortly after, in 1185. Alphonso was a man of gigantic
stature, being 7 feet high according to some authors. He
has long been regarded as a saint by the Portuguese, who
reverence him both on account of his personal character
and as the founder of their kingdom.
Alphonso IL, "The Fat," was bora in 11 85, and succeeded
his father, Sancho L, in 1211. He was engaged in war
with the Moors, and gained a victory over them at Alcazar
do Sal in 1217. He also endeavoured to weaken the power
of the clergy, and to apply a portion of their enormous
revenues to purposes of national utility. Having been
excommunicated for this by the pope (Honorius IIL), he
promised to make amends to the church; but he died in
1223 before doing anything to fulfil his engagement.
Alphonso framed a code which introduced several bene-
ficial changes into the laws of his kingdom.
Alphonso III., son of Alphonso II., was bom in 1210,
and succeeded his brother, Sancho II., in 1248. Besides
making war upon the Moors, he was, like his father, fre-
quently embroiled with the church. In his reign Algarve
became part of Portugal Alphonso died in 1279.
Alphonso TV. was born in 1290, and in 1325 succeeded
his father, Dionis, whose death he had hastened by his
intrigues and rebellions. Hostilities with the Castilians
and with the Moors occupied many years of his reign,
during which he gained some successes; but by consenting
to the barbarous murder of liiez de Castro, who was secretly
espoused to his son Pedro, he has fixed an indelible stain
on his character. Enraged at this barbarous act, Pedro
put himself at the head of an army, and devastated the
whole of the country between the Douro and the Minho
before he was reconciled to his father. Alphonso died
almost immediately after, on the 12th May 1357.
Alphonso V., Africano. was bom in 1432. and succeedfii
A L P- A L P
eif)
hia father Edward iu 1438. During his minority he was
lilaced under the regency, first of his mother, and latterly
of his uncle, Don Pedro. In 1448 he assumed the reins
uf government, and at the same time married his cousin
Isabella, daughter of Don Pedro. In the following year,
being led by what he afterwards discovered to be false
representations, he declared Don Pedro a rebel, and de-
feated his army in a battle at AJfarrobeira, in which his
uncle was slain. In 14§8, and with more numerous forces
in 1471, he invaded the territories of the Moors in Africa,
and by his successes there acquired his surname of "The
African." On his return to Portugal in 1475 his ambition
led him into Castile, where two princesses were disputing
the succession to the tlirone. Having been affianced .to
the Princess Juana, Alphonso caused himself to be pro-
claimed king of Castile and Leon; but in the following
year he was defeated at Toro by Ferdinand, the husband
of Isabella of Castile. AJphonso went to France to obtain
the assistance of Louis XI., but finding himself deceived
by the French monarch, he abdicated in favour of his son
Juan. When he returned to Portugal, however, he was
compelled by his son to resume the sceptre, which he con-
tinued to wield for two years longer. After that he fell
into a deep melancholy, and retired into a monastery at
Cintra, where he died in 1481.
AxPHONSo VI.', the second king of the house of Braganza,
was born in 1G43, and succeeded his father in 16d6. In
1667 he was compelled by his wife and brother to abdicate
the throne, and was banished to the island of Terceira.
These acts, which the vices of Alphonso had rendered
necessary, were sanctioned by the Cortes in 1668. Alphonso
died at Cintra in 1675.
ALPHONSUS A Sancta Mabia, or Alphonso de
Cartagena, a celebrated Spanish historian, was bom at
Carthagena in 1396, and died on the 12th July 1456.
He succeeded his father, Paulus, as bishop of Burgos. In
1431 he was deputed by Juan II. of Castile to attend the
council of Basle, in which he made himself conspicuous by
his learning. He was the author of several works, the prin-
cipal of which is a History of Spain from the earliest times
down to the year 1496, printed at Granada in 1545, foL
ALPINI, Pbospeko (in Latin Prosper Alpinus), a cele-
brated physician and botanist, was born at Marostica, in
the republic of Venice, on the 23d November 1553. In
his youth he seVved for a time in the Milanese army, but
in 1574 he quitted it, and went to Padua, to study medi-
cine. He was admitted to the degree of doctor of physic in
1578, soon after which he left the university, and settled
as a physician in Campo San Pietro, a small town in the
Paduan territory, at the invitation of its citizens. In the
course of his studies he had paid particular attention to
botanical science; but the sphere of his present practice
was too limited to afford him much opportunity of prosa-
cuting his favourite study. ' He wished particularly to
extend his knowledge of exotic plants, by observing their
economy and habits in their native soU. To gratify this
laudable curiosity an opportunity presented itself when
George Emo or Hemi, the consul for the Venetian republic
in Egypt, appointed AJpini his physician. ' They saOed
■from Venice in September 1580, and arrived at Grand
Cairo in the following' year. * Alpini spent three years in
Egypt, and by his industry and assiduity greatly im-
proved his botanical knowledge, having travelled along
the banks of the Nile, visited every place, and consulted
every person from whom he expected any new information.
From a practice in the management of date-trees which
he observed in this country, Aipini seems to have deduced
the doctrine of the sexual diffdrence of plants, which was
adopted as the foundation of the celebrated system of
Linnaeus. He says that " the female date-trees or palms
do not bear fruit unless the branches of the male and
female plants are mixed together; or, as is generally done,
unless the diist found in the male sheath or male flowers
is sprinkled over the female flowers." His treatise De
Medicina ^gyptiorum contains the first account of the
coffee-plant that was published in Europe. When Alpini
returned to Venice in 15S6 he was appointed physician
to Andre Doria, prince of Melii; and during his residence
at Genoa he was esteemed the first physician of his age.
The Venetians were unwilling that the Genoese state should
number among its citizens a person of such distinguished
merit and reputation; and in the year 1593 he was recalled
to fill the botanical chair in the university of Padua, with
a salary of 200 florins, afterwards increased to 750. Ea
discharged the duties of his professorship for many yearj
with great reputation, till his declining health interrupted
his labours. He died of slow fever on the 6th February
1617, in the sixty -fourth year of his age, and was succeeded
as botanical professor by one of his sons. The genus
Alpinia, belonging to the order Zingiberaceae, is named af cer
him. Alpini wrote the foUowing works in Latin: — 1. De
iledicina Jigypliorum Libri iv., Venice, 1591, 4to; 2. De
Plantis Ji^gypti Liher,\eTnce, 1592, 4to; 3. De Bahama
Dialogus, Venice, 1592, 4to; 4. De Praesagienda Vita et
Morte ^grotantium Libri vii., Venice, 1601, 4to; 5. De
Medicina Meihodica Libri xiii., Padua, 1611, folio; 6. De
Ehapontico Disputatio, Padua, 1612, 4to. Of all these
works various editions have appeared; and besides these,
two posthumous treatises were published by his son —
1. De Plantis Exoticis Libri ii., Venice, 1627, 4to; 2.
UistoricE Naturalis Egypti Libri iv., Lugd. Bat. 1635, 4t<.<.
Several other wo^ks of Alpini remain in manuscriot.
ALPS
TAKING a general view of the earth's surface, the
continent of Europe appears to be no more than a
great peninsula extending westward from the much vaster
continent of Asia. Its shores are deeply indented by twx)
inland seas connected by narrow straits with the Atlantic
Ocean, and these in their turn are divided into gulfs that
penetrate still more deeply into the land, and form a
number of secondary peninsulas. The Mediterranean Sea,
by its branches — the Gulf of Genoa, the Adriatic, and the
.(Egean Sea — forms the Iberian, the Italian, and the Greek
peninsulas; and the Baltic Sea, extending northward into
the Gulf of Bothnia, forms on one side the great Scandi-
navian peninsula, and on the other that of Denmark.
Save the last, all these peninsulas of Europe are essentially
mountain regions, traversed by lofty chains that occupy
a large portion of their surface. But in height and im-
portance these are much surpassed by a great mountain
zone stretching from the south-east of France to the fron-
tiers of Hungary, and between Italy and the plains of
southern Germany, which is collectively known as the
Alps, and which must be considered as the most important
feature in the physical geography of our continent. Of
the influence of this mountain system on the climate of
the surrounding regions, on the distribution of animal and
vegetable life, and, indirectly, on the political condition of
Europe, some brief notice will here be given; but it may
be well to remark that owing to the peculiar disposition
of the greater masses which form this system, the Alps do
not present so continuous a barrier as might bo expected
from a comparison with other great mountain ranges.
620
ALPS
Thus il we take tho great znassee of the Himalaya in Asia,
the Andes in South America, or even 8uch lesser ranges
as tho Pyrenees tyc the Great Atla-s, we find that they
interpose a far more absolute limit between the regions
lying on their opposite flanks than occurs in respect to tho
Alps. These are formed of numerous ranges divided by
comparatively deep valleys, which, with many local excep-
\ tions, tend towards parallelism with the general direction
of tho entire mass. This, between Dauphini and the
borders of Hungary, forma a broad Vjand convex towards
the north, and most of the main valleys lie between tho
directions west to east and south-west to north-east. But
in many parts deep transverse valleys intersect the pre-
vailing direction of tho ridges, and facilitate the passage
not only for purposes of human intercourse, but also for
the migration of animals and plants, and for currents of
air which mitigate the contrast that would .otherwise be
found between tho climates of the opposite elopes.
Origin of The received opinion is, that the name Alps is derived
the name from a Celtic root — alp or alb — signifying height. This
Alps. jjjg been connected by some writers with the Latin alb,
albus, white, referring to tho colour of the peaks. Strabo
Bays that tho name 'AXjria was formerly 'AA/3ia. Alp in
Bo\ith Germany — alpa in old High Gorman — Is exclusively
applied to mountain pastures, for the present the deriva-
tion must remain somewhat uncertain.
Limits of To define the precise limits of tho Alps, as will be seen
the Alps, fully in describing tho several groups, is a somewhat arbi-
trary operation. To the W. they extend through a largo
portion of the French depairtments of Savoie, Haute-Savoie,
Halites Alpes, and Basses Alpes, being divided from the
mountain district of the Cevennes by the broad and deep
valley through which the Rhone flows from Lyons to
the Mediterranean. The Jura range, usually regarded as
distinct from the Alps, is nevertheless closely connected
on one side with the outer ranges of the Alps of western
Savoy, and on the other with those of northern Switzer-
land. On the N. side the Alps are definitely bounded by
the lake of Constance, tho plain of Bavaria, and the low
country extending from Salzburg to the neighbourhood of
Vienna. By these they are completely separated from the
mountainous districts of central Germany, which extend
tirough western Bohemia and Saxony in one direction to
• the Hartz mountains, and in the other to the Sudeten,
or Riesengebirge, of Silesia. Hence it happens that the
drainage of the northern slopes of the Alps flows either to
the North Sea through the Rhine, or is diverted through
the Danube to the Black Sea, and no portion of it reaches
the Baltic. The eastern limit of the Alps is not easily
defined with accuracy. The region of high hills, chiefly
formed of tertiary strata, that extends from the left bank
of the Mur into Hungary is continued by the north side
of Lake Balaton to the Danube near Buda ; and some
geographers see in the hilly district that stretches thence
to the northern Carpathians a connection between that
range and the Alps. For practical purposes it seems that
the line of depression, partly formed by the valley of the
!Mur, through which the railway is carried from Vienna to
Laybach, may be considered as the eastern boundary of
the Alpine chain. On the southern side the difficulty of
fixing the precise limits of the Alpine chain is £*ill more
apparent. For a distance of some 350 r.ules, from the neigh-
bourhood of Turin to that of Gorizia, the boundary is
sufficiently obvious. The mountains subside into the con-
tinuous plain which includes the greater part of Piedmont,
Lombardy, and Venetia; and their drainage is all borne
eastward to the Adriatic. But on the west side of Piedmont
the Alpine chain dividing Italy from France extends nearly
due southward till it approaches to the Mediterranean in the
neighbourhood of Nice. About 40 miles north of this city,
that which, from its superior height and its geological struo.
tvire, we call the main chain, is bent round from west to east
in a curve, slightly convex towards the south, till it becomes
parallel to tho Mediterranean shore, and is merged in t.'ie
chain of the Apennines. For reasons hereafter mentioned it
would appear that the limits of the Alps in this direction m;.y
best be fixed at tho Col d'Altare, west of Savona, though
tho boundary commonly adopted is that of the Col di
Tonda, lying considerably farther to the west. At the south-
eastern extremity of the Alpine chain the difficulty of fixing
its limits arises rather from the vague use of geographical
terms by ancient and modern writers than from the physical
structure of the region. Taking no account of tho arbitrary
proceedings of geographers who have included in the Alps
the mountains dividing Bosnia from Croatia and Dalmatia,
and regarding only tho natural features of the country, it
seems clear that the south-eastern extremity of the Alps
must be looked for in the group of lofty peaks between the
head waters of the Isonzo and those of the Save, whose
highest summit is tho Terglou ; and if we are not to include
all the mountain ranges of European Turkey and Greece
witliin tho same designation, tho plateau of the Karst must
be held to form the boundary between these and the Alps.
Within these limits the Alps extend from about the 44th
to the 48th parallel of N. lat., and from about 5° 10' to
18" 10' K long.-
In every mountam system geographers are disposed to Main chiio
regard tho watershed, or boundary dividing the waters of the Alps
flowing towards opposite sides of the range, as marking
tho main chain ; and this usage is often justified by the
fact that the highest peaks lie on, or very near, the
boundary bo defined. In applying this term in the case
of tho Alps, there arc, however, difficulties arising from
their great extent and the number of their branches and
ramifications. Many of the loftiest groups lie altogether
on. one side of that which we call the main chain, and at
the eastern extremity, where all the drainage is ultimately
borne to the Black Sea, we must be partly guided by
geological considerations in deciding which of several
ranges deserves to be considered pre-eminent.
Starting from the pass of Altare or Cadibona, west of
Savona, the main chain extends first south-west, then
nearly due west, to the Col di Tenda, but nowhere rising
beyond the zone of coniferous trees. Beyond that hmit
the range is more lofty, and includes four peaks exceeding
10,000 feet in height, till the line dividing the waters
flowing to the Adriatic, through the Po, from the short
streams that flow into the Gulf of Genoa, reaches the
Mont Enchastraye. Beyond that point, although the line
of watershed is very sinuous, its general direction for a
distance of about 75 miles is nearly due north. On the
east side the waters run to the Po ; on the west they flow
through the Durance to join the Rhone, near Avignon.
The most considerable peaks in the range immediately
north of the Mont Enchastraye are the Grand Rioburent
and the Aiguille de CharabejTon ; but these are much
surpassed by the Monte Vise, which Is the highest peak
in the range dividing Piedmont from Dauphind On the
north side of Monte Viso the main chain diminishes much
in average height, and presents no prominent peaks until
we reach the Mont Tabor. That summit forms the apex
of a salient angle which the main chain here presents on
the side of France. For a distance of about 28 miles this
extends eastward to the prominent peak of the Roche
Melon, which may be considered as a re-entering angle in
the great rampart by which Italy is guarded from her
northern neighbours. Here the main chain resumes its
northerly direction, and attains a greater average height
than it had previously exhibited. Several of the prominent
peaks in the range connecting the Roche Melon with Mont
ALPS
621
Blauc exceed 11,000 English feet in height, though they
are much surpassed by the highest group of the Graian
Alps, lying on the side of Piedmont, and that of the
Tarentaise Alps in Savoy ; while there is in this part of the
main range but one considerable depression, which is that
crossed by the road of the Little St Bernard. In the range
crowned by the summit of Mont Blanc the Alpine chain
attains its highest elevation. From thence to the Pass of
St Gotthard its general direction varies between east and
north-east. To the east of Mont Blanc a comparatively
low tract allows of several comparatively easy passes
between Switzerland and Piedmont, one of which has long
been famous as the Pass of the Great Si Bernard ; but from
that to the Simplon Pass, a distance of about 52 miles in
a' straight line, or about 75 miles if measured along the
watershed, the main chain preserves a greater average
height than in any other part. Several peaks lying in the
dividing ridge, such as the Grand Combin, Matterhom,
Lyskamm, and Monte Rosa, exceed 14,000 feet in height;
and these are rivalled by at least six summits on the north
side of the same ridge, which at two points only, sinks
below the level of 10,000 feet. The Simplon Passcorre-
tponds to what may be called a dislocation of the main
chain. From fueuce to the St Gotthard the dividing ridge
runs nearly due north-east, and does not present any
dominant summit excepting the Monte Leone. On the
east and south-east side of the St Gotthard Pas3,^s far as
that of the Maloya, the Ime of watershed between the
affluents of the Rkine and that of the Po is determined by
what may be called accidental conditions. The chief
mountain ridges, which culminate in the Cima Camadra,
Piz Valrhein, and Tambohorn, instead of being arranged
along the parting of the waters, lie in a transverse direc-
tion, and hence the natural frontier of Italy is here more
broken and irregular than elsewhere ; and it is only on the
south side of the ilaloya Pass that the main chain assumes
a tolerably continuous direction from west-south-west to
east-north-east, as between Piz Giiz and the Berniua Pass
it rises into the lofty group whoso dominant peaks are
Piz Tremoggia, Piz Bernina, and Piz Cambrena. East-
ward of the Bernina Pass the same dii'ection is preserved,
and in the range including the Corno di Campo, Monte
Zembrasca, and Monte Foscagno the level scarcely sinks
below 9000 feet ; but beyond the last-nan»cd summit,
in the space lying between the Lower Engadine, the head
waters of the Adige, and those of the Adda, the semblance
of a continuous ridge forming the watershed between the
Inn and the Adriatic altogether disappears. If we adhere
to the usage of designating as the main chain the ridges
which part the waters flowing in different directions, it
must be owned that the disposition of the chief mountain
masses has no connection with the direction of that chain.
Lying between the great mass of the Orteles Alps to the
*outh and the considerable group of the Silvretta Alps on
the north side of the Inn, the greater part of the mass in
question is drained by streams that flow into the latter
river; but the arrangement of the valleys seems to be
largely due to erosive action. Few summits in this part
of the main chain exceed 10,000 feet, the highest being
Piz Scesvenna, on the east side of Val Scarla.
The break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked
by the deep valley through which the main branch of the
Adige descends, first southward and then eastward from
its source to Meran and Botzen, is one of the most remark-
able features in the orography of the Alps. The little
lake which is regarded as the chief source of the river lies
■within less than five miles of the Inn, where that river
enters the Tyrol, and no apparent barrier divides the lake
from the Inn valley. Eastward of this limit the Alpine
chain exhib.t?. a degree of order in its general arrange-
ment which it is impossible to trace in its western and
central portions. For a distance of some 250 miles a
broad zone of crystalline rocks extends from west to east,
flanked on the north and south sides by parallel zones of
sedimentary rocks, chiefly belonging to the older secondary
formations. Two great valley systems on the opposite
sides of the central zone closely coincide with those
geological boundaries, and mark out in the physical aspect
of this region the limits between tlie central and the
secondary zones. In the former are situated all the
highest peaks of the eastern Alps. For a distance of
about 140 miles, from the Schafkogel, south-east of
Nauders, to the Markkahrspitz, the average level of the
main chain is nearly as high as in any equally long section
of the central or western Alps. ' There is one very con-
siderable depression which is marked by the Brenner Pass,
but elsewhere in that long barrier there are but three
P'iipts where the range is passable by beasts of burden.
Between the two main sources of the Adige, at the Reschen
Scheideck and the Brenner Pass, the considerable groups
of the Oetzthal and Stubay Alps attain a great average
elevation, though two points only — the Wildspitz and the
Weisskugel — surpass the level of 12,000 feet. The
drainage of these groups is mostly carried to the Ii.';:, and
the line of watershed, about 53 miles in length, is much
less direct than in the more easterly portion of the chain.
This extends nearly due east for about 90 miles from the
Brenner Pass, nowhere faUiug below the level of 8000 feet,
and in two promiiic'nt peaks — the Gross Venediger and the
Gross Glockner — rising considerably above the limit of
12,000 feet. At a point somewhat north of the Mark-
'kahrspitz the 'central chain divides into two parallel ranges,
between which lies the upper valley of the Mur. This
river flow; for a distance of fully 80 miles nearly due east,
till at Bruck-an-der-Mur it turns southward to approach
the Drave, and ultimately joins that stream. Various
reasons combine to induce geographers to regard the more
northern of the two ranges above mentioned, which divides
the Enns and other minor tributaries of the Danube from
those of the Drave, as constituting the eastern extremity
of the main chain of the Alps. This extends a little north
of due east for more than 110 tmles, with a comparativtiy
low mean elevation, from the Arlscharte to the Semmering
Pass, which we regard as the eastern limit of the main
chain of the Alps.
Measured along the watershed, as above defined, hut
without taking into account the minor sinuosities, which
would considerably increase the total, the length of the
main chain is about 790 English miles.
For ages before there existed any correct knowledge of Passes m
the configuration of the Alpine chain, the needs of war and tl : -Ups.
Commerce had urged the people dwelling on the opposite
sides of the great barrier to seek out the easiest and most
direct routes for traversing it. Hence the chief passes of
the Alps have been known and frequented from a period
antecedent to authentic history, while until a quite modem
period little attention was given to the parts of the chain
which did not lie in or near the lines of traffic. It is
highly probable that many other passes, affording the
easiest means of communication between adjacent valleys,
have been known and used by the native population from
a very remote period, but only those which served fot
international purposes of war or peace became knovvn at a
distance, and are alluded to by ancient writers. A pass is
a depression between two adjacent mountains, and the
track is usually carried over the lowest part of that depres-
sion ; but nevertheless nearly all the passes of the Alp.'
involve a long ascent to reach the summit, and a long
descent upon the opposite slopes. Hence the Romans,
who were the first semi-civilised people to make ertensiva
G22
ALPS
ADcient
(Tivtb-ions 01
tbe AJi's.
use ul tiiu Alpiiio poesca, uppliixl to etich u( them thn torm
Mons. Tho Bame namos, more or Iobs modified in the
middlo ages, have been preserved in the dialecta of Latin
origin that prevail throughout the western half of the
Alpine chain, and tho modern name for tho chief passca are
still Mont Gcndvre, Mont Conis, Mont Lsd-ran, Petit Mont
St Bernard, Grand Mont St Bernard, Monto Moro, and
Monte Son Gottardo. In more recent times, eince
geographers have attempted to fix tho namea and poeitione
of tho chief summits of the Alps, they have boon con-,
tinually misled by tho supposition that a name of high
antiquity designating a mountain must belong to somo
prominent Ix^ak. The errors arising from that source have
not yot disappeared from geographical works of high
repute, but in point of fact each of the names above
enumftratftd belongs solely to the pass, and there is no
neighbouring peak entitled to the samo designation. The
more important parses of tho Alps are enumerated in tho
following description of the chief groups of the Alj^ , but
it may bo hero remarked that the direction of the main
routes for traffic is not exclusively determined by the
position of the lowest and easiest passes over tho main
chain. Tho configuration of tho mountains is such tliat a
traveller proceeding from Italy to France, Switzerland, or
Germany, after crossing a comparatively easy pass over
tho main chain, may find it necessary to traverse a Becond
and loftier pass over a lateral chain, or olso follow a
circuitous route that may double the length of his journey.
Thus a traveller going from Turin to Lyons, who should
take what appears to be the direct course over tho pass of
Mont Goncvre, the easiest in tho whole range of the
■western Alps, will find on descending tq Brianfon that he
must cross the much higher and more difficult pass of the
Col do Lautaret, or else descend along the Durance till it
emerges into the lower country near Gap, and thus more
than double tho length of his journey. Including the
Semmering Pass, there are now not leas than 60 Alpine
passes that are traversed by carriage roads { and besides
three lines of railway now open for traffic, several others
are in co;irse of construction.
From the time of Julius osesar downwards, the Romans, in the
prosecution of thoir policy of universal dominion, or for the purpose
of maintaining communication with their military colonies, nad
become acquainted with all the easiest and moat serviceable passes
of the Alps, and were thu3 naturally lud to attach names to the
chief groups. As their acquaintance with the entire region waa
very incomplete, the exact boundaries of these groups were imper-
fectly understood, and the denominations adopted by them were
never accurately defined. As might have been expected, the
divisions thus roughly established had reference rather to the aspect
of the moimtains as presented to one travelling from Italy towards
the north or west, than to a general view of the physical conforma-
tion of the entire region. Hence the ancient divisions are essentially
defective, as taking no note of some important groups, or including
under a single designation groups entirely distinct. Notwith-
standing these defects, the ancient divisions have been adhered to
by all but a few modern geographei-s, and it is therefore desirable
to record them separately.
1. Maritime Alps (Alpes Maritime). — These included the portion
of the main chain dividing south-western Piedmont from the coast
of the Mediterranean, and extending northward to the neighbour-
hood of the conspicuous peak of Monte Viso.
2. Cottian Alps {Alpes Cottise or Co ttianai) included the portion
of the main chain dividing Piedmont from Dauphine and Savoy,
and extending from Monte viso to the neighbourhood of the Mont
Cenis. The name appears to be derived from Cottius, the king or
•hief of a powerful tribe who ruled the greater part of this region
when the paramount authority lof Augustus was established in
Cisalpine Gaul. ^
3. Qraian Alps (Alpes Graige).— Under this designation was
known the great group of mountains between Turin and the upper
Vai d'Aosta, and the portion of the main chain lying between the
Mont Cenis and the Little St Bernard. Pliny and other Latin
writers derive the name ft-om the legendary passage of a body of
Greeks led by Hercules through this region ; but the true derivation
is probably -from some lost Celtic appellation.
■' Pennine Alps {Alpes Penninee) waa thf napit lyTilipd to tho
^Tf-at rnnge Luciuding llout Hlaoc and Monte Uoaa, which, fyoni
tiio time bf JqHus Cee«ar, If not earlier, wfls recoguisod aa the htj(hef»t
portion of Iho entire chain. The word Pen or Ben is still in use in
Iho living dialoijtu of tho ColtJo stock as a'common dosi^ation foi
a coaspicuoufl mountain, and was certainly in use in the speech
of thin i)art of Cijulpine Gaul, where many other Celtic terms ara
pruBorvfd in tho local namca. The Roman dcHignatiou Jupitar
I'cniiinxu waa undoubtedly taken from thd Celtic root, but tha
aHHcrtod ubo of tho name Vvm for a divinity by the native tribes is
not establihhod by valid ovidonce.
6. Lejx>ntiM Alps (Alptw LoiK)utinffi). — It would appear that thi»
denomination was originally rostrioted to tho [xwU of iho main
chain lying on either Hide of tho paw of St Ootthard, including the
hourcca of tho river Ticino, with those of ita tribularioa, of which
tho moMt important i* the Tosa or Toccio, draining tho range
Iwtween tho neighbourhood of the Simplon Poas and that of the
Orios. Tho name ia derived from tho Loponlii, a trilte of doubtful
extraction {Rhojti&n, (according to Slrabo) who inLahilod tho main
valley of tho TesHin or Ticino, tho upj*r ^wirt of whiirh is atiU called
Val Loventina. Tho eautorn limit of this group was usually fixed
at the posa of San Bernardino.
6. Wtwtian Alps (A1i>c'b Ithajtic©) derived their name from the
Rhajti, a poworful tribe or nation holding a large tract of territory
which appears to have extended from tho Bourcoa of the Rhino and
the Ticino on tho west, to those of tho Adigo and tho Salza on the
east. The area included xinder this vague hooding is at least oqua!
in area to that of tho five divisions hitherto enumerated.
7. Nurio Alps (Alpes Noricffi). — Under this name the entire
region lying north of tne Drave, and extending thenco to tho volley
of tho iJanube on tho north and tho plains of Hungary on the east,
was included.
8. Camio Alps (Alpca Comicae). — Thia name was given to the
mountain tract lying between the upper Drave and the low country of
Kriull By some writers it has been limiU'd to the rangts that feed
tho Tagliaraento ( Tilaix'?iius) and ita tributarica ; by olhcra the range
Ecems to have been held to extend from the sources of the Piave to
those of the Save. The name Camia is still in use in Friuli, but is
strictly limited to the basin of the Taglianienta
7. Julian Alps (Alpes Julia)). — This designation has been etiU
more vaguely used by ancient and modem goographera than any of
tlio preceding. The lofty group of peaks crowned by the Tergloo,
and lying between the head waters of tho I&onzo and those ol the
Save, undoubtedly forms the chief nucleus of the group diaticguiahed
by this name ; but it alao appears to have included the ranges of
eastern Friuli, which province, oe well as the Alps in question, took
its name trom the Roman Forum Julii, now known as Cividale,
By others, and even by contemporary Italian writers, the term
Julian Alps is made to extend southward through tlio diistrict of
Karat between Camiola and tho shores of the Adriatic, and thence
through Croatia to the frontiers of Bcwnia. A great part of this
district is an undulating platvau, in part not attaining to 2000 feet
above the sea-level, to which by no stretch of language can the
term Alps be properly applied.
In addition to the groups above mentioned eome writers have enume*
rated the Dinaric Alps (Alpes Dinaricee), and include under that term
tho mountain range extending along the western frontier of Bosnia.
Thisjaaportionoftheextensive mountain system ofEuropean Turkey,
which' IB one direction includes the Balkan, and in another is contiaued
through Albania into Greece. The Romans probably applied to these
the designation Alps as some of their later writers did to the F^yrenees
and the mountains of southern Spain ; but it can merely cause
confusion to speak of them aa a portion of the great system to which
the name Alps specially applies. . For the reasons already mentioned
it is impossible to regard the ancient groups above enumerated aa
affording a satisfactory division of the region under consideration |
but 80 far as they can be made to correspond with the divifiiooa
suggested by a more exact knowledge of ita physical configuration,
it seems'desirable to retain the established nomenclature.
Actual observation of the Alpine region through the Moden
greater part of ita extent, or even the careful study of *hv-isici ol
accurate models, must convince any one who seeks to . ^ "'
divide it into groups that it is not possible to do this by groups,
adhering rigidly to any single test or rule. In a general
way, it is nattiral and desirable to include under the samo
name mountain masses that are not divided by a broad
and deep opening; bul it is sometimes more convenient to
include in one group disjoined masses that have some
natural connexion with each other, rather tban multiply
groups to an inconvenient extent. In some cases tho
geological structure may supply a rational ground for pre-
ferring one arrangement to another, when the choice would
otherwise be arbitrary; and in a few casee it may be well
to yield something to ancient usage, based upon political
ALPS
G23
iir t,! buological grounds. Accurate knowledge of the Alps
IB BO recent that few attempts have been made to establish
a general division of the entire region, and it cannot be
said that any one arrangement has obtained such general
recognition as not to be open to future modification ; but
there is a pretty general agreement as to the main features
of that here proposed, to which a few general remarks
must be premised.
Whatever may have been the original cause of those
disturbances of the earth's crust to which great mountain
chains owe their existence, it is generally, though not
universally, true that the higher masses (formed of rocks
geologically more ancient) are found towards the central
part, and that these are flanked by lower ranges, composed
of more recent rocks, which surround the central groups
very much as an outer line of entrenchment may be seen
to surround a fort. In most cases it is not possible to
descend continuously in a nearly direct line from the crest
of a great mountain chain to the plains on either side, for
there are usually intermediate valleys, running more or
less parallel to the central range, which separate this from
outer secondary ranges. These, in their turn, are often
accompanied by external ranges, intermediate between
them and the plains, and related to them as they are to
the central ranges. The type of arrangement here described
is piore or less traceable throughout the greater part of the
Alps, but is most distinctly exhibited in the eastern por-
tion lying between the Adige and the frontier of Hungary.
We have a central range, composed mainly of crystalline
rock ; a northern range, formed of secondary rocks, sepa-
rated from the first by the great valleys of the Inn, the
Salza, and the Enns ; a southern range, somewhat similar
to the last in geological structure, divided from the central
one by the Rienz, or east branch of the Adige, and the
Drave. Flanking the whole, as an external entrenchment
on the north side, are the outer ranges of the Bavarian
Alps, of the Salzkammergut, and of Upper Austria, to
which correspond on the south side the Monti Lessini,
near Verona, the mountains of Recoaro, those of the Sette
Comuni, and the considerable masses crowned by the
summits of the Grappa, the Col Vicentino, the Monte
Cavallo, the Monte Matajur, and Monte Nanos. Where,
as in the cases above mentioned, the secondary ranges of
the Alps rise to a greater altitude, and are completely
separated from the neighbouring portions of the central
chain, it is impossible not to distinguish them as distinct
groups ; but the outermost ranges, which rarely rise above
the forest zone, are in all cases regarded as appendages of
the adjoining groups. These outer ranges are called in
German Voralpen, and in Italian Prealpi, and it is to be
desired that equivalents should be introduced in other
European languages. A complete catalogue of the peaks
and passes of the Alps would exceed the limits of this
article, but it seems desirable to append to each of the
main groups in the following arrangement the names of
the more conspiuuous summits, with the height of each
above the sea-level in Ekiglish feet No limit of absolute
height has been fixed in selecting the peaks here enume-
rated, as the highest summits of the less lofty groups would
appear insignificant in those whoso average elevation is
much greater. The more important passes are also enu-
merated, distinguishing those traversed — (1) by carriage
road, (2) by bridle-path, practicable for beasts of burden,
and (3) by footpath ; and (4) snow passes, involving the
necessity of crossing snow-fields or glacier
Main Divisions op the /Vlps.
1. Maritime Alps. — On examining a map of tho region
where tho chain of the Alps approaches the shores of tho
Mediterranean, it will be seen that, about 50 miles
N.N.W. of Nice, and about 20 S.S.W. of the Monte \iao,
several valleys diverge in various directions, disposed,
roughly speaking, Uke the rays of a fan. These are formed
by a number of ridges which converge towards, although
they do not actually meet at, the Mont £nchastraye or
Cima dei Quattro Vescovadi. On the west side one of
these ridges divides the upper valley of the Ubaye from
that of the Verdon, and sends out a branch which sepa-
rates the latter from the B16one. A third ridge divides
the Verdon from the Var, and a fourth separates this from
its main affluent, the Tin(5a. As already mentioned, thr
range extending S.E. from Mont Enchastraye is regarded
as the main chain of the Maritime Alps, and extends, with
numerous diverging secondary ridges, in a curved line,
gradually approaching nearer to the coast till it is merged
in the chain of the Apennines. To fix the Limit between
the AJps and the Apennines in this direction is necessarily'
a somewhat arbitrary process, and different criteria may
be applied with diS'erent results ; but it seems most natural
to fix on the depression west of Savona known as the
Col d'AItare or Col di Cadibona, over which the road is
carried which leads in one direction to Alessandria, and in
the other to Mondovi. This is by far the lowest depres-
sion in the barrier dividing the Adriatic from the Jlediter-
ranean, the summit being only 1 608 feet above the sea-
level ; and during the Miocene epoch it formed a strait
connecting those seas. In modern times the project of
utilising the same pass for the construction of a canal to
connect the Po with the Gulf of Genoa is an illustraticm of
its geographical significance. On the north side of the
Mont Enchastraye, a comparatively low pass. Col de
rArgenti}re, divides that mountain from the adjoining
portion of the main chain. This might properly be regarded
as the northern limit of the Maritime Alps, but ancient
usage has included in that group the ranges that enclose
the Val Maira, and separate it on one side from the Rtura
di Demonte, and on the other from the Vraita. Conform-
ing to that practice, we fix the northern limit of the
Maritime Alps at the Col de Longet, S.E. of the peak of
Monte Viso, connecting the head of Val Vraita in Tied-
mont with th« sources of the Ubaye in France.
Chiff Peaks of the Maritiwie Alps.
(The heights are ci^en Id English feet.)
Monte Gal« 6,649
Monte Fronts .... ... 7,193
Monte Bertrand ... 8.209
Rocca dcir Abiaso 9,193
Cima dei Gelaa .10,433
Rocca deir Argentera 10,617
Monte Matto
Mont Tinil'ras
Mont Enchastraye
Grand Rioburent 11,142
Aiguille de Cbambeyron 11,155
Pointe Haute de Mary 10,537
10,2.%
10,223
9,747
Chief Passes of the Maritime Alps.
Col di San Bernardo (Albenga to Garessio), carriage road 3301
Col di Nava (Oneglia to Ormea), carriage road 31.'iO
Col di Tenda (Tenda to Cuneo), carriage road 6158
Col delle Finestre {S. Martiuo to Entracque), footpath 8189
Col dene Cerese (S. Martino to Valdieri), footpath 8412
Col di Frema Morta (Val Tinea to Valdieri), bridle-path : 8839
Col della Lombarda (Val Tinea to Vinadio), footpath 7858
Col di Sta. Anna (samel, footpath 8009
Col de Pouriac (San Stefano to Bereesio), foolpau 8360
Col de I'Argentifere (Val. of the Stura to Barcelonnette), bridle-path 6545
Col de Sautron (Val Maira to Barcelonnette), footpath about 8(K)0
Col do Lauzanier fVal Tinea to the Ubaye), footpath about 8300
2. Cottian Alps. — In the well-known panorama pre-
sented to an observer who takes his stand on the Su])erga,
or some other eminence near Turin, tho most distant
objects are the peaks of the Maritime Alps south of Cuneo
and, exactly in the opposite direction, tho great mass of
Monte Rosa. In the western horizon, subtended by this
chord, about 120 miles in length, the eye follows the
irregular curve traced out by the main peaks of the western
Alps, that separate upper Italy from France. More than
any other part of tho Alpine chain, this is characterised by
extreme irregularity in the disposition of tho mountain
masses and the chief valleya On the west side the ^td-
624
ALPS
Mont Albaron 12,014
Mont Chardoimet I2,.'t7li
La Levnnna » 11,516
Pointe de Sainte Anne, or
Pte. des Orchcs about 11,000
Roche Bruno 10,906
Mont Cbaberton 10,258
vaiJ&ig direction seems to be from south-west to north-eaat,
wliile on the east side it is more nearly from west to east;
tut the valleys and the ridges that enclose them are often
curved or irregularly sinuous. Convenience seems to conBrm
immemorial usage in subdividing this region into two or
more groups ; but it is not easy to decide how this is to be
•cilected. The great valley of the Dora Ei[jaria, and the
low passes connecting it with the valley of the Durance,
Seem to afford the most uatural division,' Ancient and
modern usage being alike opposed to this, it ajipears that
the valley of the Oreo in Piedmont and that of the Arc in
)SavDy, with the connecting p:vs3 of the Col del Carro, may
best be takeii as the boundary between the northern and
Bouthern portions. The latter is distinguished as the group
of the Cottian Alps. This includes a number of secondary
ridges tiat e.ittend from the main chain on the side of
Piedmont, with a general direction from west to east; and
on the French side one considerable range, stretching south-
west from the neighbourhood of Monte Viso, 'that divides
the Ubaye from the Guil, besides a lesser parallel ridge lying
between *he Guil and the head waters of the Durance.
Chief Peaks of the Cottian Alps.
Mont« Viso .12,605
Monte Meld,i8sa 10,991
Mont Albergian ....: 9,990
Roche du Grand Galibier .;.10,637
Mont Tabor ......:::;.10,436
Roche d'Ambin ...^;;iK;n:n!;.ll,096
Roche Melon :::r....:..ll,621
CiamaroDft • 12,031
Chief Pusies of the Cottian Alps.
Col de LonRet (Val Vraita to tlie Ubaye), footp.ilh 8,727
Col de St Veran (Val Vraito to Queyras), footpath 9,564
Col do la Traversctto (Crissolo to Abrifes), footpath 9,827
Col de la Croix (l,a Tonr de Luscme to Abrifro). bridle-path 7,611
Col do Sestricrcs (Pigncrol to Ceaanne), carriage road 6,335
Mont Genfevre (Ceaanne to Brianijon), carriage road 6,102
Col d'Izouard (Qucyraa to Bii.in(;on), briillc-path about 6,660
Col dc3 Echelles de Planpinet ( Bardonnfcho to Briani;on), footpath 6,873
Col de la Roue (Bardonn^che to Modanc), bridlo-path 8,334
Col d'Etiachcs (Bacilonn^che to Bramans), fcotp.ilh 9,30!
Col du Clapier (Bramans to Susa), footpath .;;:; 8,107
Mont Cenis (Susa to Lanslebourg), carriage '"""^ ■"■■'■ ^■'^l'^
Col de I'Autaret (Vii. to Lanslebourg), snow 10,170
Col de Colorin (Ala to Lanslebourg), gbcier ; 10,062
Col de S4» (Groscavallo.to Lanslebourg), glacier.... 10,154
Col della Crocetta (Groscavallo to Ceresole), footpath 9,179
^. Vauphine Alps.— On the west side of the Cottian
Alps, and separated from these by the broad valley of the
Durance, rises a group of lofty peaks, surpassing them
considerably in height, and almost completely isolated
from their neighbours. This group has not usually been
included amongst the Cottian Alps by geographers, and
it is more natural to regard it as the nucleus of a distinct
divisinh cbnstituting the Dauphin6 Alps. On the north
side of this cetitral mass, and separated by the valley of
the Hoftiatiehe ahd the Col. de Lautatet, is a considerable
group, includitig Ihree principal ridges, whose direction is
neariy dtle north and south, separated from the neighbour-
ing mountains of Savoy by the deep vaUeys of the Arc
and the Isfere, which may best be regarded as &n oiitlying
portion of this division. On the South side bf the main
group another outlying mass, which on one side feeds the
chief sources of the Drac, and bn the other sevefal short
tributaiies to the Durance, liiuSt also be included in this
division. The ranges bf secondary rbcks lying west of the
broad valley between Grenoble and Chambery, which are
geologically and brogtaphically a southern extension bf the
thain of theJuta, are at the same time exactly parallel to
the northern ifenges of the Dauphind Alps, and must be
regarded as the outer range or "Border Alps" (T'or-a/pfTi)
of°the group.' ■ The only doubt in fixing the limits of the
Dauphind Alps is as to the boundary between their northern
group and the adjoining mass of the Cottian Alps. Jt
seems that this may best be fixed at the Col de Galibier,
Grander Houaaes..' :.'..\ 1 ,395
Tailltfer ::. 9,387
Pic de Bclledoime 9,780
Pic du Kr«ne 9,203
Pic Bonvoisin .11,503
Dormillouso 10,571
Chamechaude '. 6,847
Mont Granicr 0,348
Dent du Chat 5,302
connecting the chier source of the Durance witli the Taller
of Valloires in Savoy.
Chief Peaks of the Dauphinl A Ipi,
Pic ae« Ecriiu, or Pointe r
des Arcinos 13,402. '
La Meije, or Aiguille du
Midi do la Grave 13,081
Pic d'Ailefroide about 13;000
Mont Polvoui (highest ptal:) 12,973
I'icd'Olan 11,739
Aiguille d'Arve(highc»t) 11,529
Aiguille de laSauase (high'st) 10, 8^6
Chief Passes of the Dauphinl Alps.
Ool de Galibier (Brian(on to St Michel), footpath 9,154
Col de Lautaret (Monestierto Bourg d'Oisans), carriage road 0,791
Col dea Ecrins (Vallouise to La Birarde), glacier 11,071
Col da Glacier Blanc (Vallouise to La Grave en Oisans), glacier. .10,811
Col de I'Echauda (Vallouise to Monesticr), bridle. path 7,936
Col de la Lauzc (St Christoplie to La Grave en Oisans), glacier ...10,5(^9
Col de Venose (Venose to Frcncy), bridle-path 6,292
Col de Saij (La Bfirarde to Val Oodcmar), glacier ;. 10,289
Col de Caar (Vallouise to Val Goderaar), glacier. 10,092
Col des Toujettcs (Orciiires to Chateauroux), footpath 8,465
Col de I'lnfemet (La Grave en Oisans to St Jean de Mauricnnc),
footpath 8,828
Col de la C^-oix de Fer (Bourg d'Oisans to St Jean de Maurienne),
bridlepath 6,600
4. Graian Alps. — The lofty group of snowy mountains
lying between the plain of Piedmont and Mont Blanc has
from a remote period borne the designation Graian Alps.
To the north they are bounded by the Val d'Aosta, and to
the south by the valley of the Oreo ; but on the west side
the boundary is not so easily deterniined. The portion of
the main chain dividing Savoy from Piedino'nt, between
the Levana and Mont Blanc, must undoubtedly be in^
eluded in this division; but it is not so easy to determine
the relations of a group of lofty summits that are divided
from the rest of the Graian Alps by the upper valley of
the Istre, filling the space between the upper course of
that river and that of the Arc. This is further geologically
distinguished by the fact that the higher summits are
chiefly composed of nearly unaltered sedimentary- rocks.
This group has by some writers been associated with the
mountains of Beaufort, lying between the Isfcre and the
Arly, to form, with some subordinate branches, a group of
south Savoy Alps j but we prefer to adhere to the older
usage of those who have united them with the Graian
Alps. The exact boundary between these and the Mont
Blanc group may best be fixed at the pass of the Little
St Bernard, the lowest in the Main chain between the
Mont Cenis and the Simplon.
Chief Peaks of the Graian A Ipi.
La Grivola 13,023
Beccadi Nona 10,384
Mont Emiliua 11,677
Punta di Tersiva 11,603
Savoy Group.
Grande Motto about 11,800
Grande Cassc 12,780
Bent Parassie 12,137
Roche Cbevricre 10,765
Mont Poorri 12.491
Main Chain.
Grand Apparei ....-.* 11,494
Aiguille de la Sassi^re 12,326
Mont Bassac 11,200
Onnelune 10,833
Ruitor 11,480
Piedmontese Group.
Grand P,iradis 13,.300
Tour du Grand St Pierre... 12,069
Punta di Lavina ...» 10,824
Bee d'lnvergnuon...... about 12,100
Chief Passes in Vu GrAian Alps.
Col del Carro (Locana to Lanslebourg), glacier 10,292
Col de Galese (Locana to Tignes), snow ; 9,833
Col de Gailletta (Tignes to Val de RhSmes), glacier 10,049
Col V'audet (Tignes to Val Grisanche), snow 9,305
Col du Mont (Sainte Foi to Val Grisanche), footpath 8,635
Pass of Little St Bemrfrd (Bourg St Maurice to Aosta), car. road 7,192
Col de la Croix de Nivolct (Cerosole to V.al Savaranche), l>r>ile'path 8,624
Col de Grancrou (Cogne to Noafica), glacier 11,034
Col de Telleccio (Cogne to Locana), glacier 10,925
Col della Nouva (Ponte to Cogue), glacier 9,664
Col de Lauzon (Cogne to Val Savaranche), bridle-path about 9,509
Fenetre de Cogne (Cogne to Bard), bridle-path 8,860
Col de Lore (Cogne to Brissogne), glacier .-. 10,049
Col d'Iseran (Bourg St Maurice to Lanslebourg), bridle-path 9,085
Colde la Leisse (Tignes to Entre-deui-Eaui), snow 9,127
Col de la Vanoise (Moutiera Tarentaise to Lanslebourg), footpath 8,271
Col de Chavi^re (Praloguan to Modane), snow 9,144
Col de la Platii;rc(Moutier3 Tarentaise to St Jean de Maurienne), ,•
footpath 6,300
Col de la Madeleiv.e (Albertville to La Chambre), bridle-path 6.637
ALPS
625
6. Pennine Alps. — The portion of the great chain that
includes the peaks of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa has
always been recognised as the most important among the
divisions of the Alps. This pre-eminence is due not only
to its surpassing height, but to the fact that its peais are
BO conspicuous. Throughout the plain of Upper Italy,
from Turin to Milan, and even as far as the slopes of the
Apennines, Monte Rosa, with its attendant peaks, is com-
monly the most remarkable object in the northern horizon ;
while in western Switzerland, and as far westward as the
heights above Lyons, the dome of Mont Blanc, rising in
the distant eastern horizon, attracts the frequent attention
alike of natives and strangers. Some doubts may arise as
to the precise limits that should be assigned to this group.
Towards the north-east - it is generally agreed that the
Simplon Pass is the most natural limit. In the opposite
direction most writers have fixed on the Col de Bonhomme,
south-west of Mont Blanc, as the proper boundary ; but it
seems reasonable inageneral arrangement to regard the range
extending from the last-named pass to Grand. Cceur, in the
valley of the Isfere, as a south-western prolongation of the
range of Mont Blanc. From the portion of the main chain
connecting the Mont Combin with Mont« Rosa, numerous
branches, with peaks that rival these in height, diverge
northward. The secondary ranges that extend on the side
of Italy, southward and eastward from Monte Rosa, are
much inferior in altitude. On the north and frest sides
of Mont Blanc an extensive mountain district, including
the French department of Haute Savoie, must be considered
as an appendage to the group of the Pennine Alps. On
the south side, the short range extending parallel to that
of Mont Blanc, from Courmayeur to the Val de Bellaval,
corresponding to the range of the Aiguilles Rouges and the
Br^vent, on the opposite side, mav best be included within
the group of the Pennine Alps.
Cima des Fours 12,615
Aiguille de Trflatete 12,607
Aiguille de Bionnassay 13,324
Mont Blanc (Calotte) 15,781
Aiguille Verte 13,527
Grandes Jorasses 13,799
Aiguille d'Argentiere 12,796
Grande Rossere 10,904
Mont Velan 12,353
Grand Combin 14,164
MontOeU 11,539
Mont Colon 12,264
Dentd'H«ren3 .• 13,714
Bee de Luacney 12,350
Matterhom, orMontCernn 14,780
Breithora 13,685
Lyskamm 14,889
MU. Rosa (highest peak)... 15,217
Weiaamies 13,225
Chief Peaks of (he Pennins Alps.
Fletschhorn (Laquinhom)
Grauhaupt
Como Bianco
Pointe de Salles about
Buet
Tour SaUi ire
Dent du Midi
Pigue d'AroIla
Rouinette
Mont Blanc de Cheillon ...
Dent Blanche
Grand Cornier
Sasseneire '
Gabelhora
Rothhom, or Morning
Weisflhom
Strahlhom
Miscbabelhdraer (Dom) ...
13,176
10,702
11,014
10,200
10,207
10,587
10,450
12,471
12,727
12,700
14,318
13,022
10,692
13,863
13,855
14,804
13,750
14,935
Chief Passes of the Pennins Alps.
Col de Bonhomme (Contamines toChapiu), bridic-path 8,195
Col de la Seigne (Chapiu to Courmayeur), bridle-path 8,327
Col du Mont Tondu (Contamines loAlUe Blanche), glacier 9,204
Col de Miage (Contamines to Courmayeur), glacier 11,076
Col du Geant (Chamouni to Courmayeur). glacier 11,030
Col du Tour (Chamouni to Oraiferes), glacier 11,213
Colde Forrex (Courmayeur to Orsi^res), bridle-path 8,320
Great St Bernard Pass (Oraieres to Aosta), bridie-patU 8,120
Col de Fenitre(Chable3 to, Aosta), bridle-path 9,141
Col de Colon (Aosta to Evolena), glacier 10,269
C9I de la Val PeUina (Aosta to Zermatt), glacier. 11,687
Col de Vessona (Oyace to St Barthelorai), footpath about 8,600
C^l do Vacornfere (Prarayen to Vat Touni.-inche), enow .., 10,335
Col de C^ermontane (Chermontane to Evolena), glacier 10,349
Col d'Herens (Evolena to Zennatt), glacier 11,413
Col do Torrent (Evolena to Vissoie), footpath 9,593
Pas du Boeuf (St Luc to Turtmanthal), footpath 9,154
Angstbord Pass (Gruben to St Niklaua), bridle-path 9,615
Trift Joch (Zinal to ZermattI, glacier 11,614
Col do St Theodule (Zermatt to Val Toumanche), glacier 10,899
Schwarz Thor (Zermatt to Val d'Ayas), glacier 12,777
Lys Joch (Zermatt to Val de Lys), glacier 14,050
V/eiss Thor (Zermatt to Macugnaga), glacier 11.851
Betta Fuike (Val d'Ayas to Val do Lys), footpath 8,639
Col d'Ollen (Gresjonay to Alagna), bridle-path - 9,544
Col di Val Dohbia (Gressonay to Riva), bridle-path , «.. 8,360
Turlo Pass (Alagna to Macugnaga), anow ...'. .'... 9,088
Col di Barranca ( VaraDo to Ponte Grande), bridle-path 5,749
Alphubel Joch (Zermatt to Saaa), glacier. „ 12,474
Adler Pass (Zermatt to Distel Alp), glacier 12,461
Monte Morp (Saaa to Macugnaga), snow 9,390
Saas Pass, or Passo d'Antrona (Saaa to Val Antrona), glacier 9,331
Zwischbergen Pass (Saas to Gondo;, glacier 10,732
Simplon Pass (Brieg to Domo d'Ossola), carriage road 6,595
Col de Balme (Chamouni to Martigny), bridle-path 7,231
Col d'Anteme (Servoz to SLxt), bridle-path — 7,612
Col de Sesanfe (Champ^ry to Martigny), footpath 7,940
6. Bernese Alps. — There is no considerable mass of
Alpine summits whose boundaries are better defined than
that which is generally known as the group of the Bernese
Alps. By the number and height of the peaks, that rise
far above the limits of perpetual snow, it ranks next in
importance to the Pennine group ; and its position with
reference to that group has largely contributed to the fame
of the region which they occupy for' a marvellous and
almost unique combination of grandeur and variety. The
most characteristic feature in the orography of Switzerland
ia the great valley system that extends in a nearly direct
line from Martigny to Coire — interrupted, it is true, by
two passes (the Furka and Oberalp) of small elevation
compared to the surrounding heights. On the opposite
sides of this great trench the. chief groups of the central
Alps are arranged in masses that, amid much apparent
irregularity, approach to parallelism with the direction of
the central valley. Hence the traveller who attains any
considerable height on either side sees over against him
the dominant summits of the opposite group in constantly
varying combination. The highest groups (the Pennine
and Bernese) are so placed that the chief peaks on the one
side are rarely more than 20 miles apart from their rivals
in the opposite chain, and the projecting summits of the
secondary ridges between them afford panoramic views of
wonderful beauty and grandeur. What may be called the
main chain of the Bernese Alps, forming the boundary
between the Swiss cantons of Bern and Valais, extends
parallel to the course of the Rhone, from the glacier which
is the main source of that river, to Martigny, a distance of
about 70 miles ; and we must regard as a dependency of
that chain the mountain district that lies on its northern
side, between the upper course of the Aar and the head of
the Lake of Geneva. Desiring to adhere to the divisions
of the Alps admitted, by ancient geographers, many modern
writers have included the Bernese group among the Lepon-
tine AJps ; but this arrangement is not consistent with any
rational criterion that can be applied. The only question
admitting of doubt is as to the eastern limit of this group.
The Aar issues from its parent glacier at a point very near
to the chief source of the Rhone, and separated only by a
comparatively deep and broad depression, the Grimsel
Pass; and it might appear that the Bernese Alps. should
be defined as the group enclosed between those rivers.
But some ten miles east of the Grimsel Pass the range
lying north of the great valley of Switzerland is completely
cut through by the valley of the Reuss, where that stream
descends towards the Lake of Lucerne through the famous
defile of the DevO's Bridge; and as it would be incon-
venient to reckon the comparatively small group that lies
between the head waters of the Reuss and those of the
Aar as a separate division, we prefer to include this as a
portion of the Bernese Alps.
* Chisf Peaks of the Bernese Alps.
Grand Movcran 10,043
Diablereta 10,666
Wildhom 10,722
Wildstrubcl 10.715
Balmhom 12,100
Doldenhom 11 ,965
Bltimlis Alp (Bliimlisalp.
horn) 12.041
Bietachhom ..12.969
Aletschhom 13,803
Jungfrau 13,671
Mbnch 13,438
EiKcr l.'^.OJS
Finsteraarhoro..* 14.02C
Schreckhorn 13,394
\Vetterhora(MitUlhom) 12,16«
Rizlihom 10.774
£g);ischhoni r.e^S
i — 70 -
626
ALPS
LSfrelhqra - 10,138
Oalenstock 11 ,968
Daramastock 1 1 ,920
Sultenhorn 11,619
Qroas Spanuort 10,616
Titlls 10,627
Url liothstoclt ti,820
NlMon 7,703
Bricnwr Rothhom 7,917
I'ilatuB (Oborbaupt) 7,290
Chief Passes in th« Btmese Alps.
Col do Chovlllo (Box to Slon), bridlepath 6,080
Banetsch Pass (Sion to Saanon), briiUe-patli - 4?,S09
Rawyl Pass (Sion to Zwciairamon), bridle-path 7,913
G«mmt Pass (Kandorsteg to Louk), bridle-path 7,653
Ltitschea Paaa (Kanderateg to Ttirtruan), glac'.or 8,790
Tschiligol Pass (Kandoratcg to LauU3rl)runnon), glacior 9,252
Petersgrat (Lauterbrunnon to Kippol), glacier 10,660
Ldtschen LUcke (Kippol to tbo ^f;siftchiiom), glacier 10,512
Kleine Scheidegg (Lauterbrunnen to GrindelwaTd), bridlo-path ... 6,763
Groase Schoidpsg (Urindelwald to Moyringen), bridle-path 0,910
M6nch Joch (Grindolwald to Vieach), glacier about 11,000
Btrahlcck Paaa (Orindelwald to the Orimael), glacier 10,994
BrllDig Pass (Brieni; to Sarnen), carriage road 3,6-18
Engelberger Joch (Moyringcn to Engelbcrg), bridle-path 7,244
Suaton Paaa (Meyringen to Wasen), carrlajje road {Ij 7,440
Triftliinmi ('i'nft Glacier to Grimsel), glacier Jlbout 10,200
Oeachcnunlinimi (Gcschenon to Stein Alp), glacier about 10,170
Burencu Piws (Engelberg to Altdorf), bridle-path 7,602
7. North Swiss Alps. — Attention has already been called
to the great lino of valley that traverse-s Switzerland from
Martigny to Coire. The range of high peaks Ij-ing on the
north side of this valley is interrupted at one point only,
where, the Eeuss flows through the deep defile of the
Devil's Bridge from Andermatt to Altdorf, and this breach
in the continuity of the range has been hero regarded as
the eastern limit of the Bernese Alps. The range extend-
ing eastward from that boundary to the neighbourhood of
Coire might perhaps bo considered as a prolongation of
the range of the Bernese Alps ; but independently of the
inconvenience of assigning such wide boundaries to a single
group, there are geologic as well as orographic grounds for
preferring to class this along with the dependent ranges
IjTng further north as a separate division of the Alps.
With regard to the latter ranges, those lying between the
valley of the Eeuss and the Lake of Lucerne, on one side,
and the ancient valley of the Rhine, v.-hich included the
lakes of Wallenstadt and Zurich, on the other, manifestly
correspond to the outer ranges of central Switzerland,
which we regard as appendages of the Bernese .Alps. The
case is somewhat different as regards the email detached
group culminating in the Hoh Sentis, and lying in the
angle between the ancient course of the Rhine and the
modem Rhine valley from Sargans to the Lake of Con-
stance. This is so far separated orographically and by
geological structure that it might properly rank as a
separate division, but it is on the whole more convenient^
to reckon it as an outlying portion of this group. The
Oberalp Pass, a few miles east of Andermatt, forms the
watershed between the Reuss and the main branch of the
Rhino, and the waters meet again at the confluence with
the latter of the united streams of the Aar and the Reuss
at Waldshut, so that the entire territory comprehending
this division of the Alps is enclosed between the two first-
named rivers.
Chief Peaks of the yorth Siffiss A tps.
Crispalt (Piz "iif) 10,164
Oberalpatock (Piz Cotschen) 10,925
Todi 11,887
PizTuaibif,or Brigelaerbom 10,063
Bifertenstock, or Piz Durgin 1 1 ,237
Hausstock 10,355
Segneshom 10,870
Calanda 9,213
Eristenstock 10 ,089
Scheerhoro 11,142
Claridenstock 10,709
Selbsanft 9,921
Chief Passes of the North Sioiss Alps.
Oberalp Pass (Dissentis to Andermatt), carriage road - «,. 6,
Kreuzli Paaa (DiBsentis to Amateg), footpath 7,
Sand Grat Pass (Disaentis to Staclielberg), glacier.
Clariden Grat (Amsteg^ to Stachelberg), glacier ....
Kisten Pass (Ilanz to Stachelberg), snow 8,
J'sojior Pasa (llanz to Elm), bridle-path 7,
Karpfstock 9
Saurenstock 10
Scheibe 9
Mythen (higher peak) 6
Glamiach (highest peak,
Bachistock) 9
MlirlscheDstock
Mageren
Churfirsten (highest peak,
Scheibenstoll) *... 7
Faulflrat 7
Bob Sentis
,180
,020
,537
,244
,584
,012
,294
,554
,916
,215
732
,710
',138
i,842
,281
,907
Begnes Pan tRelcbenan to Elm), mow 8,611
Sardon* Pasa (Elm to Vattia), glacier about 9,r>00
Itamln Pa«« (Elm to Sargans), footpath 0,772
Kiausen Pass (Altdorf to Stachelbei-g), bridlu-])atli .• 6,437
Pragel Pasa (Sohwyz to Olarus), bridle-path 6,062
tUmor Pass (Wuissbad to lUlti), bridle-palli about 6,300
8. I,epontine Alps. — The portion of the Alpine chain
lying between the Siinplon and Spliigen passes, and form-
ing the boundary between the tributaries of the Po and
those of the Rhine, presents some peculiar orographic
characteristics. The line of watershed is pretty nearly
parallel to that great line of depression traced across
Switzerland by the valley of the Rhone, the Urserenthal,
and the valley of the Vorderrhein ; and a tendency to
parallelism with the same system may bo traced in many
parts of this group. But the dominant direction of the
secondary valleys and ridges is that of the meridian ; and
on the south side we find a series of long valleys running
from north to south, with occasional slight distortions. The
most considerable of these are partly occupied by tlie two
famous Lombard lakes — Maggiore and Ccmo — which have
from an early period attracted the admiration of stiangera
to this region. Ancient geographers limited the term
Lepontine Alps to the portion of this group that sends its
drainage on the south side to the river Ticino ; but the
ranges between the Spliigen and Bernardino passes, and be-
tween the lakes Maggiore and Corao, evidently belong to the
same system, and must bo united in any natural arrange-
ment of the -Alps. On considering a tolerably correct
model, it is impossible not to be struck by the fact that all
the valleys that contain the most considerable streams of
the central Alps appear to radiate from the neighbour-
hood of the St Gotthard Pass. If wo measure from the
summit of that pass to the head valleys of the Rhone, the
Aar, the Reuss, the Vorderrhein, the Ticino, and the
Toccia, we find that the most distant hes within 9 English
miles from that point. Tliis fact has doubtless a signifi-
cance which we are not yet able fully to appreciate, but
scarcely suflicesto justify the view of those who regard the
St Gotthard Pass as in some special sense the central point
of the whole system of the .(Vlps. It is worth remarking
that, so far from being distinguished by superior height,
the neighbouring peaks are surpassed by all the surround-
ing groups, and that the valleys are much deeper than in
many other districts, and especially than those of eastern
Switzerland.
Chief Peaks of the Lepontini Alps.
V\i Vial, or Gallijiarlo 10,387
PizVahhein „ 11,143
Vogelberg 10,664
Pis Terri 10,338
Pii (^veL 9,659
Fanellahom _ 10,243
LSchliberg 9,990
Piz Beverin 9,843
Tambohom 10,748
Cima di Balniscio ..» 9,967
Moate Camoghe 7,304
Monte Leone 11 ,696
Wasenhora 10,628
Ofenhom , or Pnnta d'ArboIa 10 ,728
BUnnenhom 10,932
Monte Basodine 10,748
Pizzo Rotondo 10,489
Pizzo di Campo Tenca 10,096
Pioda di Oana 7,959
Cima di Lsurasca 7,264
Badus, or Six Maduna 9,616
Scopi 10,199
Cima Camadra 10,609
Chief Passes in the Lepontine Alps.
Rittor Pasa (Viesch to Isella), snow ., 8,854
Albnin Pasa (Vieach to Premia), bridle-path 8,005
Griea Pass (Obergestelen to Formazza), Dridle-path 8,050
Nufenen Pasa (Obergestelen to Airolo), bridle-path 8,009
Passo di San Giacomo (Formazza to Airolo), bridlepath 7,572
Furka Pasa (Obergestelen to Hospenthal), carriage road. 7,992
St Gotthani Pasa (Bospenthal to Airolo), carriage road 6,936
Criner Furka (Locarno to Val Formazza), footpath 7,631
Passo di Narret (Locarno to Airolo), footpath 8,013
Pasao dell' Uomo (Dissentis to Airolo), footpath ''?^^
Lnkmanier Pass (Dissentis to" Olivone), briale-path 6,289
Greina Pass (Trons to Olivone), bridle-path 7,743
Disrut Pass (llanz to OlivDne), footpath 7,963
Scaradra Pass (llanz to Ghirone), snow 9,088
Passo di Buffalora (Val (^lanca to Mesocco), bridle-path 6,6£6
Bernardino Pass (Hinterrhein to Val Mesocco), carriage road 6,709
Valaerbcrg Pass (llanz to HinteiThcin", bridle-path .' 8,225
LOchlibrrg Pass (Beichenau to Spliigen), footpath. _«.>'$^66
ALPS
627
BpIUgen Paaa (Splupen to Chiavennal, carnage roaa „ 6,945
Pasao di Balniscio (Campodolcino to Me50cco), footpath 7,715
Passo della Forcola (Chiavenna to Roveredo), footpath 7,274
Passo di San Jorio (Gravedona to Bellmzona), footpath 6,417
9. The Rhcetian Alps. — The older geographers included
under the term Rhsetiau Alps a vast mountain region
extending over 6°-of long., from the east side of the Lago
Maggiore to the left bank of the Salza, arid through 2i°
of lat., from the neighbourhood of Brescia to the plain of
Bavaria. There is no assignable reason for uniting in a
single division mountain groups so distinct as many of
those included within this wide space — scarcely less than
that occupied by all the divisions hitherto enumerated —
save the fact that at an early period theyTeceived a com-
mon designation from writers who had a most imperfect
acquaintance with their topography. It might be expe-
dient to discard a term to which it is difficult to assign a
limited meaning without incurring the risk of confusion ;
but general usage has so constantly applied the term
Rhsetia to the mountain region of Switzerland lying east
of the Rhine, with the adjoining portion of Tyrol, that
it seems best to preserve the ancient name while endeavour-
ing to restrict it within juster limits. With that object it
is necessary to take account of one of the iiiost remarkable
features in the orography of the Alps — the great breach in
the continuity of the main chain shown in the upper valley
of the Adige. On a general view of western Tyrol it is
apparent that the lakes which feed the head of that stream
lie on the northern side of the a:ns of elevation of the
main chain, and in fact several streams draining the
northern slopes of the central mass are borne southward
to the Adriatic through that opening. This is not the
place to take into consideration the important influence
that this breach in the line of defence between Italy and
the north, and the equally deep opening of the Brenner
Pass at the head of the other main branch of the Adige,
has had on the history of Europe, nor to discuss the
geological significance of the same depression throughout
an incalculably longer period ; but it is sufSciently clear
that this should be taken as the eastern limit of the group
to which the term Rheetian Alps most properly applies.
On the west the Hmit, as we have already seen, is marked
by the valley of the Rhine, and the line of depression over
which the Spliigen road is carried to the head of the lake
of Como. In the space between these boundaries the
chief mountains of the Rhsetian Alps appear as islands of
crystaUino rock, divided by intervening masses of palseozoic
and oldersecondary strata; but on the south side'lies a district
which differs considerably in geological structure, and is
cut off by a distinct orographic boundary. A straight line
drawn from the head of the lake of Como to Cles in Tjrrol,
will throughout lie close to a trench formed by the valley
of the Adda, the low pass of Aprica, the head of Val
Camonica, the Tonale Pass, and the Tyrolese Val di Sole.
On the south side of this trench, and parallel to it, extend
in succession a broad band of palaeozoic rock and a still
broader zone of trias, bordered on the southern slope by a
narrow girdle of Jurassic rocks which decline towards the
plain of Lombardy. Towards the east thes& are interrupted
by a great mass of very peculiar granite, the most consider-
able tract of true granite to be found in the Alps. Beyond
this the ridges and valleys no longer preserve the direction
from east to west, but become parallel to the lake of
Garda and the valley of the Adige. The district thus
limited is enumerated hereafter as a distinct division under
the designation Lombard Alps, the boundary between this
and the Rhcetian division being the trench above described,
which is prolonged from near Cles over the low Gampen
Pass to the neighbourhood of Mcran. On the northern
side the Rhsetian Alps are divided from the Vindelician
by a well-marked trench closely corresponding with the
northern limit of the crystaDfne rocks cf the Silvretta
group, formed by the valley of the 111, the Vorarlberg Pass,
and the course of the Bosanna. Within the Hmits here
assigned the Rhsetian Alps occupy an area measuring
about 80 miles by 60. The entire m^sa is divided into
two nearly equal portions by the upper valley of the Inn,
known in Switzerland as the Engadine.
Phief Peaks of the Rhcetian Alps.-
Ofen Wand „ 11 ,558
Venezia Snitze 11,095
H.isenolir" ,.,.„..10,673
Pallon deila Mare _12,038
Tresero 11,633
Monte Confinale ..11,076
Monte Sobretta aboot 11,000
Piz Curver 9,761
Piz Starlera _ ....10,001
Piz Platta .11,109
Gravasalvas (Piz Lunge:!, -.10,421
Piz d'Aela 10,693
Piz d'Err 11,139
Cima da Flix 10,947
Piz Munteratsch - 11,106
Piz Ott 10,660
PizUertscl .-...10,738
Piz Kesch 11,211
Piz Vadred -.10,610
Schone Bleise _ 9,794
Scesa Plana 9,738
Blankahom 10,382
Piz Linard 11,208
Fluchthom 1 11,142
Muttler 10,824
Pi2 Mondin 10,377
Vesulspitz .10,154
Piz d'Emet 10,502
Piizo Stella 10,266
Pizzo della Duana 10,279
Piz Margna 10,355
Piz Guz 11,066
PizTremoggia 11,326
Piz Eoseg 12,936
Piz Bemini. 13,294
Piz Cambren* 11,835
Punta Tnibinesca 11,106
Cima del Large 11,162
Monte della Disgrazia 12,074
Pizzo di Verona 11,358
Como di Campo 10,843
Mouto FoscagiiG 10,148
PizLanguaid 10,715
Piz QuaterraU 10,359
Piz Miirterol 10,424
Pizzo di Sena 10,099
Como di Dosdt 10,597
Piz Pisoch •. 10,427
Piz Scesvenna ^ .10,563
Piz Umbrail 9,954
M.ate CristaUo U,370
Oitsler Spitze 12,814
Konigs Spitze ..~ 12,646
Monte Cevedale 12,505
PWerspitz (highest peak) ...11.349
Chief Passes in the Pluriian A Ips.
Pa«5o di Madesimo (Campo Dolcino to Ayers Thai), footpath 7,480
Paaso della Buana (Casaccia to ATers Thai), glacier 8,720
Septimer Puss (Caaaecia to Molins), bridle-path 7,582
Maloya Pas* (Cflsaccia to Silvaplana), carriage load 5,942
Paaso di Zoe-ca (Casaccia to Val Masino), glacier 8,957
Muretto Pass (Casaccia to Sondrio), snow 8,616
Bemina Pass (Pontresina to Poschiavo), carnage roaa....- 7,658
Passo di Canciano (Chiesa to Poschiavo), footpath 8,366
Lavinim Pass (Ponte to Val Livigno), snow 9,249
Passo di Val Viola {Poschiavo to Bormioi, footpath about 7,900
Foscagno Pass (Bormio to Zernctz), bridle-path 6,329
Ofen Pass (Zemetz to Santa Maria), carriage road ^ 7,070
ITmbrail Pass (Bormio to Santa Maria), footpath 8,342
Stolvio Pass (Bormio to Prad), carriage road 9,213
Passo Cevedale (Sta. Catarina to Latsch), glacier 10,765
Passo di Vioa (Sta. Catarina to Pejo), glacier - 10.8.68
Passo di SforzeUina (Val Gana to Pejo), glacier 9,950
Gavia Pass (Sta. Catarina to Val Camonica), bridle-path about 8,600
Hohenfemer Joch (Martell Thai to Val della Mare), glacier 9,904
Saent Pass (Martell Thai to Rabbi), glacier 9,954
Kirchberger Joch (Ulten Thai to Rabbi), footpath 8,134
Julier Pass (Molina to SOvaplana), carriage road .*. 7,503
Albula Pass (Bergiin to Ponte), carriage road 7,589
Sertig Pass (Scanfs to Bergiin), footpath „ 9,062
Strela Pass (Coire to Davos), bridle-path 7,739
Laret Pass (Bergiin to Klosters), carriage road 5,338
Scaletta Pass (Davos to Scanfs), snow 8,613
Fluela Pass (Davos to Siis), carriage road 7,891
Vereina Pass (Klosters to Siis), footpath 8,133
Silvretta Pasa (Klostei-s to Guarda), glacier _ 9,928
Cavell Joch (Bludenz to Seewis), footpath 7,562
Schweizerthor (Vadans to Schiersch), footpath 7,120
Drusenthor (Schruns to Schiersch), footpath 7,822
Schlappiner Joch (St Gallenkirch to Klosters), bridle-path (?) .._. 7,185
Fermunt Pass (Pattenen to Guarda), glacief 9,206
Bieler Joch (Montafun to Paznaun Thai), bridle-path about 6,000
Fimber Joch (Ischgl to Remiis), snow 8,547
Vignitz Pasa (Kappel to Samnaunthal), snow .. 8,855
10. Lombard jI/jos.— rThe limits of the Lombard Alps
have been already pointed out. They are enclosed on tha
east and west sides by the Adige and the lake of Como,
extending through about 90 miles from near Meran to
Lecco. Their northern boun"iiary is the great orographic
trough that stretches from the head of the lake of Como
along the valley of the Adda to Trescnda, thence by the
low Aprica Pass to the upper Val Carnonica, and over th6
Tonale Pass to the Val di Sole. ^Tiera. that valley bends
abruptly to SSE., the trough stiU keeps its original direc-
tion acrbss the Gampen Pass to tho right bank of the
Adige below Meran. In spite of the zeal with which
€28
i\ L P S
Crozzon di Larii 10,889
Monto Adamollo ,...11,832
Car!) Alto 11,352
PrejjaDoIla, or Cima di Nar-
dis 11,638
Cima dcllo Rochettc 10,777
Brenta Altn (1)10,771
Monto Baldo (btghe3t peak
—La Colma) 7,212
Mcndola (Monto Kocd) 6,919
MoDto BondoDe 7,412
travellers have of late years explored tlio unfrequented
j/arta of the Alp3, this group continuea to be very im-
j)orfectly known, although it offers abundant attractions to
the naturalist and the lover of picturesque and grand
scenery.
Chief Peaki of the Lombard A Ipa.
Le^ono 8,568
Pizzo doi Tro Signori, about 8,600
Grigna (Monte Codcno) 7,908
Conio Stella 8,846
Aralalta 6,585
Monte Arcra 8,255
Monto Redorta 9,980
Pizzo del Diavolo 9,574
Pizzo di Cocca '9,705
Monte,Presolana o,202
J^Ionte Frorone 8.676
Monte Blumone 9,321
Chief Passes in the Lojnbard A Ips.
Posso di San Marco (Morbcijno to Val Brembana), bridle-path ... 5,997
Passo del Salto (Sondrio to val Seriana), footpath about 7,500
Preaolana Pass (Costiono to Val di Scalvc), footpath 4,265
Aprica Pa.ss (Sondrio to Edolo), carriage road 4.052
Tonale i'nss (Edolo to Val di Sole), carriage road 6,483
Gampen Pass (Clcs to Meran), briule-path about 4,000
Croce Domini Pass (Breno to Lodron), bridle-path about 6,600
Posso di S. Valentino (Val di Fura to Tioue), snow about 9,300
Passo del Lago Ghiacciato (Ponte di Legno to Pinzolo), snow 9,437
Posso di Lares (Pinzolo to Val di Fum), glacier 9,230
Ginevrie Pa.s3 (Pinzolo to Val di Non), bridlo-path 5,200
Bocca di Brenta (Pinzolo to Molveno), snow 8,502
Mendelscharte (Cles to Botzen), bridle-path 4,964
1 1. Vindelician Alps. — Reference has already been made
to the contrast offered by the orderly arrangement of the
Eastern Alps, as compared with the far more complicated
find irregular disposition of the masses that make up the
Western and Central Alps. In the former we have a broad
zone of ciyst^lline or metamorphic palaeozoic rocks, extend-
ing from the upper vaUey of the Adige to the frontier of
Hungary, flanked on either side by a parallel zone of
secondary rocks, which rise into peaks that do not much
exceed the limit of perpetual snow. The northern zone
extends for a distance of fully 2C0 miles from the lake of
Constance to the neighbourhood of Vienna, with an average
■width varying from 30 to 40 miles. For the greater part
of that distance this is separated from the central range by
broad and deep valleys, through which the Inn, Salza, and
Euns flow from west to east, till each of them, turning
abruptly northward, runs through an opening that cuts
across the general strike of the stratification to reach the
plain of South Germany. In geological structure and
general aspect the mountains of this tract show many
common characteristics, and convenience supplies the only
good reason for dividing it into two main groups, separated
by the valley of the Inn, the greatest of the tributaries
which the Alps send to the Danube, Of the western
portion of this region the larger part belongs to Bavaria,
but a considerable share lies in the Austrian provinces of
Tyrol and Vorarlberg; and on this account the designa-
tions Bavarian Alps and North Tyrol Alps are open to
objection, and have the further disadvantage of excluding
the Alpine districts of Bavaria and North Tyrol lying east
of the Inn. The name Suabian Alps is liable to the
serious objection that none but a very small part of this
district was ever included in the circle of Suabia. On
the whole, it seems that the region lying north of the
Vorarlberg road and the vaUey of the Inn, between the
lake of Constance and the latter river, may best be
termed the Vindelician Alps. The whole was included
within the territory of the Vindelici before that powerful
tribe was conquered by the Romans, and their territory
Joined to that of the Rhaetians to form a single Roman
province. In height the mountains of this division fall
considerably short of those hitherto enumerated, not more
than four or five exceeding 9000 feet. It is impossible to
consider a mao of this region without being struck by the
fact, that although the general slope idclines northward
towards the plain of Bavaria, or southward towards the
111 and the lun, nearly all -the ridges and minor valleys
lie east and west parallel to the course of those rivers and to
the outcrop of the sedimentary strata, which is equally the
direction of the lino of depression followed by the Vorarl-
berg road forming the southern boundary of this group.
Chief Paikt of the Vindelician Alps.
Mittagspitz 6,851 Miemingergebirge (highest) 8,858
Karwandlspitz 8,259
Kreuz.spiti 7,156
Solstein 8,649
Edkorspitz 8,911
Lavatscherspiti 9,081
Vomperjoch 7,505
Soiernspitz 7,303
Juifen 7,114
Rothewand 8,842
Schafbtrg 8,774
Madelegabel 8,674
Biberkopf 8,543
Widderstein 8,294
Hoch Vogel 8,501
Stanzorkopf 9,041
Muttekopf 9,077
Zugspitz 9,716
Chief Passes in the Vindelician Alps.
Arlberg Pass (Bludcnz to Landeck), carriage road 5,902
Haldenwanger Eck (Scbrccken to Oberatdorf), footpath 0,070
Schrofen Pass (Oberstdorf to Stcg in Lechthal), bridle-path 5,5'J9
Madelejoch (Oberstdorf to Holzgau), footpath. about 7,000
Kaiserjoch (Steg to Petueu in Stanzerthal), footpath about 7,000
Zaraserjoch (Elbigon Alp to Landeck or Imst), footpath about 7,000
Fern Pass (Lermooa to Telfs), carriage road 4,063
Scefeld Pass (Partenkirch to Zirl), carriage road 3,900
Geissel Pass (Mittenwald to Lcnnoos), footpath 4,258
Stempeljoch (Schamitz to Hall), footpath, 7,346
Haller Anger (Schamitz to Schv/az), footpath 6,835
I'lumscrjoch (Uintcr-Kiss to Pertiaau), bridle-path 5,492
I'fans Joch (Fall to Pertisau), footpath about 5,800
Stockeralp Pass (Schliersee to Brixle^), bridle-path about 4,000
Hbrhag Pass (Bairisch-zell to Kufstem), bridle-path about 4,000
12. Northern None Alps. — We have already spoken of
the broad mountain zone extending from the Inn to the
neighbourhood of Vienna, and bearing a general resem-
blance in orographic and geological character to the group
last described. For reasons given hereafter, it seems
impossible to preserve the ancient designation Noric Alpt
for any portion of the central chain of the Eastern .^ps,
but the name Northern Noric A Ips seems the most suitable
for a region which was altogether included in the Roman
province of Noricum, and which closely coincides with the
northern half of the Alpine district known to them as
Alpes Noricce. The boundaries of this diWsion are easily
determined. To the north and east the mountains subside
towards the valley of the Danube. To the west it is
bounded by the Inn, which bends first to north-east, then
to north, to enter the plain of Bavaria. On the south side
the boundary runs from the Inn through a part of the
ZiUerthal, over the low Gerlos Pass, and along the valleys
of the Salza and the Enns, evidently forming a single line
of depression; but where the Enns enters the defile of
Gesaiise, a broad and low valley, through which runs the
road from Rottenmann to Leoben, seems to form the most
natural division between this and the central chain. The
line of separation is completed by the valley of the Mur
and the depression of the Scmmering Pass, over which the
railroad is carried to Vienna. The highest peaks of the
Dachstein group form the most considerable prominence
in the entire range of the Northern Alps; but the average
heighl; of the mountains of this division does not exceed
that of the Vindelician Alps.
Chief Peaks of the Northern Noric Alps.
Thorhelm 8,548
Hohe Salve »,993
Rettenstein 7,750
SchefTauer Kaiser 7,611
Biinhom 8,635
Staufen &,9if)
Watzmann 8,9S8
Untersberg (bighest point)... 6,467
Hobe GoU 8,266
Hochkalter 8,595
Uebergossene Alp or Hoch-
kdnig 9,643
Tannengebirge(Raucbeck)... 7.947
Schafherg 5,S37
Hollkojl 5,754
Traanstein 6,538
Thorstein 9,677
Dachstein 9.845
Sarsteiii 6,553
Grimming 7,700
Grosser Pricl 6,238
Waschenegg 8,112
Buchstein 7,269
Hochthoi 7,478
Eisenerzer Reichenstein 7,082
Kaiserschild 6,817
Oetscher 6,320
Brandstein 6,542
Hochschwab 7,441
Raialp..... 6,575
Schneeberg 6,809
ALPS
629
Chvif Passes in the Northern None Atpo.
Gerlos Pass (Jenbach \j> Mittersill), bridle-patli 4,717
Pasa Thurn {Kitzbuhel to Mittersill), carriage road 4,371
Salza Joch (Kelschau to Wald), footpath ; : G,633
Waidring Pass (St Joliann to Lofer). carriage road 2,518
Hochlilzen Pass (St Johann to Saalfelden), bridle-path about 3,200
Schwarzbachwacbt (Reichenhall to Ramsau), carriage road 2,907
Hirschubet Pass (Berchtesgaden to Saalfelden), carriage road 3,896
Diesbach Scharte (Kdnigssee to Frohnwies), footpath - 6,679
Weissbach Scliarte (Ktinigssee to Saalfelden), footpath 7,4o2
Torrener Joch (Berchtesgaden to Golling), footpath 5,697
Urschlauerscharte (Werfen to Saalfelden), footpath 6,8S9
Filzen Battel (Saalfelden to Lend), bridle-jath 3,953
Wagram Sattel (St Johann im Pongau to Kadstadt), carriage road 2,933
Pass Gschutt (Abtenaa to Gosau), carriage road 3,247
Pyrhn Pass (Windischgarsten to Lietzen), carriage road 3,162
Prebicbel Pass (Eisenerz to Leoben), carriage road 4,014
Eisenerzer Hdhe (Eisenerz to Wildalpen), bridle-track 4,760
Kastenriegel Pass (Weichselboden to Wegscheid), bridle-path 3,556
Seeb^rg Pass (Mariazell to Aflenz), carriage road 4,099
Niedefalpl (Mariazell to Mxirzsteg), carriage road .- 3,994
Semmering Pass (Bruck-an-der-Mur to Wiener Neustadt), c. Yd. 3.256
13. Central Tyrol Alps. — To the eye of the geologist,
taking a cursory view of the Eastern Alps, it may appear
that the great central zone, extending from the upper
valley of the Adige eastward to the neighbourhood of
Gratz, forms but a single district of tolerably, uniform
structure. He will, however, remark that about the centre
of the range the prevailing crystalline rocks — gneiss and
mica-schist — give place to metamorphic schists, probably
of palseozoio agis, that rise into several of the highest peaks
of the entire mass. Those who are disposed to r»gard the
above-named crystalline rocks as merely extreme forms of
metamorphic sedimentary strata, may not attach much
importance to this circumstance; but it is a still more
sigi^iflcant fact that at a short distance east of the same
extension of the metamorphic rocks we have proof of the
former existence of a depression which seems to have cut
completely through the central range. On the north side
triassic rocks e.xtend from the Enns to the upper valley of
the Mur, and the presence of miocene deposits at several
points in the latter .valley, the Lieserthal and the Malta-
thai, seems to show that at a much later period this portion
of the ehaia underwent great relative depression as com-
pared with those on either side. Another and more
obvious character that distinguishes the western from the
eastern portion of the central zone, is the fact that in the
latter the great range that extends Uke a vertebral column
from the Weisskugel to the Hochalpenspitz forks into two
branches of inferior height, that enclose between them the
upper valley of the Mur. Ancient geographers divided
the main mass of the Alps between the Bernardine Pass
and the frontier of Hungary into two vast divisions, respec-
tively called the Rhaetian and Noric Alps, placing the
boundary between these at or about the Dreiherrnspitz, at
the head of the Ahrenthal, and their exainple has been
foUowed by some modern geographers. Nothing in the
form or structure of the chain justifies the adoption of
that arbitrary boundary between two main divisions of the
Alps. We have already assigned reasons for fixing the
western boundary of the Rhjetian Alps at the upper valley
of the Adige, and we propose t-a retain the designation
Central Tyrol .Alps for the portion of the main chain
extending thence to the head of the Malta Thai in Carin-
thia, nearly the whole of which liea within the limits of
Tyrol. The exact boundaries of this division are, on the
north, the course of the Inn from Landeck to the opening
of the Z.Ulerthal, the track thence over the Gerlos Pass to
the head of the Pinzgau, and the valley of the Salza to
the opening of the Gross Arl Thai ; to the east, the way
through the latter valley, over the Arlscharte, through the
Malta Thai to Gmiind, and the road thence to Villach ; on
theTsouth) the continuous trough extending from near the
latter town to Miihlwald, on the Heinz, through the Oaii
Thai, the Lcssach Thai, tK-j head of the Drauthnl and the
upper valley of the Rienz. From Miihlwald the tortuou3
course of the Eisack forms the boundary as far as Botzen,
whence the high road running N.W. along the Adige and
though the Finstermiinz completes the western boundary.
Although the region thus limited does not present many
prominent peaks, it is remarkable for the great average
height of the main chain which forms the watershed
between the affluents of the Danube on one side, and
those of the Adige and the Drave on the other. In a di^
tance of 120 miles — which would be much increased if
measured along the sinuosities of the main chain — there is
but a single low pass, that of the Brenner, none other being
below 8000 feet in height, or suited for the construction
of a carriage road. The Brenner is the lowest pass in the
entire range of the Alps, and has from a remote period
afforded the easiest access from middle Europe to the plains
of northern Italy, but is properly described as a pasa
rather thilh as a breach in the continuity of the chain.
Chief Peaks of the
Karla-spitz ...10,253
Glockenthurm 10,998
Portles-spitz 10,066
Rems-spitz x0,511
Blickspitz : 11 ,045
Weiskngel 12,277
TVildspitz 12,390
Anichspitz 11 ,654
Similaun. ^ 11,810
Rothbergs'pitz (The "P«othen-
spitz " of Sonklar) 11 ,904
Texelspitz 10,890
Birkkogel 9,281
Grieskogel (highest 'lf5ak) ...10,638
Ruderhofspitz 11,393
Schrankogl 11,474
Serles-spifez, -or Waldraster-
spitz 8,898
Schaufelspitz 10,924
Wilder Pfaff (Zuckerhiitl) ...11,512
Sonklarspitz ;.11,410
Habicht 10,746
Samer Scharte 8,255
Kittnerhom 8,064
Glungetzer 8,781
Gilfertsberg 8,201
Olperer Fuss-stein 11,451
HichfeUer 11.535
Central Tyrol Alvs,
Loffelspitz 11 ,10S
Reicbenspitz 10,866
Wildgerlos-spHz 10,771
Eidechsberg, or Hegede.x 8,975
Dreiherrnspitz 11,494
Eddtspitz 11,459
Gross Diirreck 10,325
Gross Venediger 12,053
Hohe Fiirleg 11,114
Lasdrling 10,171
HochgaU, or Rieser 11,284
Schneebige Nock, or Ruth-
nerhorn 11,068
Tauemkogel ..^ 9,790
Kitzsteinhom 10,482
Johannisberg 11,425
Gross Glockner 12,405
Hoch Schober 10,623
Petzeck i0,761
Vischbachhom 11,738
Fuscherkahrkopf 10,957
Hochnarr 10,692
Ankogl 10,674
Hochalpenspitz ll,(:2fi
Sauleck _ 10,108
Kreuzkofel ~ 8.979
Dobratcb; or Villacher Alp 7,067
Chief Passes of the Central Tyrol Alps.
Resc^ien Scheideck (La^adeck to Meran), carriage rriad 4,59S
Weisse See Joch (Glurns toKatinser Thai), glacier *. 9,657
Langtauferer Jo<^ (Mallag to Fend), glacier .'. .^ 10,335
Hocu Joch (Fend to Kurzras), glacier ^ 9,515
Nieder Joch (Fend to Obervemagt), glacier •< 9,847
Gebatsch Joch (Fend to Kaunser Thai), glacier about 10,800
Timbler Joch (Oetzthal to Meran), bridle-path 8,298
Langthaler Joch (Gurgl to Pfelders Thai), glacier 9,939
Gruben Joch (Pfelders to Schnalscr Thai), glacier.... 9,548
Gurgl Joch (Gurgl to Schnalser Thai), glacier 9,956
Pitzthaler Jdchl (Pitzthal to Solden), glacier 9,806
Jaufen Pass (Meran to Sterzing), bridle-path 6,872
Penser Joch (Botzen to Sterzing), footpath ., '. 7,040
Gries Joch (Selrain to Lengenfeld), snow 8,652
Mutterberger Joch (Neustift to Lengenfeld), glacier. ...i 9,893
Bildstdckl Pass (Neustift to Solden), glacier 10,291
Griib Joch (Pflersch to Oberbergthal), footpath .; „ .7,021
Brenner Pass (Innsbruck to Sterzing), carriage road 4,588
Pfitscher Joch (Sterzing to Mayrhofen), bridle-path' 7,297
Tuser Joch (StalHach to Lanersbach), footpath .' 7,618
I^ippacher Joch (Lappach to Abrenthal), footpath 7,763
Hdrndl Joch (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), snow 8,363
Heiligengeist Jdchl (Mayrhofen to Kasem), footpath .: 8,309
Krimmler Tauem (Krimnil to Kasem), snow 9,071
Dorfer Sulzbach Thdrl (Prcgratten to Wald), glacier '. 9,438
Velbor Tauem (Windisch Matrey to Mittersill), footpath 8,024
Vorder Urabal Thdrl (Pregratten to Kasem), glacier 9,723
Troyer Thdrl (Pregratten to Defereggen),snow 4.845
Mulitz Tlidrl (Vircen to Defereggen), snow 8,911
Klainnd Joch (Defereggen to Taufers), footpath 7,606
Staller Sattel (Defereggen to Antholz), bridle-path 6,738
Gsicsser Joch (Defereggen to Gsioss), footpath ._ 7,353
Kaiser Tauem (Kals to Uttendorf), snow .' _. 8,410
Ka^ininer Thdrl (Stubachthal to Kaprun), glacier '. 8,740
Killtlthor (Kaprun to lleiligenblut), glacier 9,958
Pfandelscharto (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), glacier.) 8,817
Fuschcr Thiirl (Ferleiten to Seidchvlnkelthal), footpath 7.998
Hoch Tlior Hucheben to Heiligenblut), footpath 8,551
Bergcr Thurl (Kals to Ueiligcnblut), footpath ~.. 7,971
G30
ALPS
Aaf der SUnz (BuosoDen to Gastcio), bridle-path S.920
Traraeracharte (Rauris to DuUach), glacier 8,^91
K]ein Zirknitzscharto (Kauris to Frajtant), anow 8,t55
Mallaitzer Tauera (Oastetn to Mal'.Ditz), bridJo-path 8,0li3
Arlacharto (St Johann in I'ongau to Gmund), footpath 7,493
Klein Elonclacharto (Oastein to Omlind), glacier 8,231
DUssncr Scharto (GmUnd to Ober Vellach), snow 8,748
Toblachcr Fold (Bruneck to Lionz), carriage road 3,951
Zocben Pass (Llenz to Maria Lukau), footpath 7.394
Kdtfchach Sattol (Obordrauburg to Kotacbach), carriage road 3,210
14. Styrian Alps. — The boundary between the central
range of lofty peaks that extends through Tyrol and the
adjacent province of Salzburg, and the much lower masses
that spread eastward through Styria to the frontier of
Hungary, has bten already fixed at the Arlscharto. On
the cast side of that pass the moss whoso conspicuous
summits aro the Markkahrspitz and the Hafnereck is
divided into two parallel branches that enclose between
them the upper valley of the JIur. The northernmost
of these ranges is cut through by the broad and deep
valley, traversed by the road that loads from Liesing on
the Enns to Leobon, which we have regarded as the limit
between the Northern Noric Alps and the central mass.
The eastern boundary of this division, which we at the
same time regard as the proper limit of the Alps,, is
marked by the river Mur, which, after flowing eastward
for about 100 miles to Bruck-an-der-Mur, turns southward,
and finally joins the Drave in Hungary. The eastern
limit of the Alps is completed by the depression between
Spielfeld and Marburg, over which is carried the railway
from Vienna to Trieste. The southern boundary of the
central range ia unmistakably marked by the great valley
of the Drave. The whole of this region was, along with
large portions of the adjoining divisions, included under
the term Norio Alps by ancient geographers; but as the
retention of that designation can only lead to confusion,
•we readily adopt the name Styrian Alps, proposed by
Karl V. Sonklar, whose writings have done so much to
increase our knowledge of the Eastern Alps. It must,
however, be remarked that the region above defined also
includes o considerable district of Carinthia, along with a
small part of the province of Salzburg, which extends to
the head o' tjie valley of the Mur. Excepting the com-
paratively high mass in which that nver takes its 60urc»,
the summits of this region do not attain nearly so great a
height as those of the other main divisions of the Alps,
and only two or three reach the limit of perpetual snow.
Chief Peoks of the Styrian Alps.
Eisenhut .... 8,008
WolIanerNock 7,019
Sirbitzkogel 7,863
Sau Alp 6,800
KorAlp 7,010
Rappenkogel 6,310
Obdacher Speikkogel 6,625
Gleinalpen Speikkogel 6,508
M.-irkkahrspitz 9,245
Hafnereck 10,044
Kaschauner Nock 9,130
Hoch Gelling 9,383
Predigtstukl 8,834
Knallstein 8,611
Bosenstsin 8,018
Hoch Reichart 7,900
Konigstuhl .i 7,648
Chief Passes in the Styrian Alps.
Radstadter Tauem (Radstadt to St Michael), carriage road 5,703
Katscbbcrg (St Michael to Gmiind), carriage road 5,261
■Windsfeld (I'lachau to Zederhaus), footpath 7,037
Waldhomthdrl (Schladming to Tamsweg), footpath 7,437
Sblketacharte ((^trobming to Murau), bridle-path 6,767
RottenraannerTauem(Kottenmannto Judenburg),c. road.. .about 4,900
Turrach Paaa (Feldkircheu to Tamsweg), carriage road 5,825
Fladnitz Pass (Friesach to Stadl), bridle-path about 5,000
Perohauer Pass (Friesach to Scheitling), carriage road 3,274
Obdacher Battel (Wolfsberg to Jutlenburg), carriage road -.. 3,174
Stubalp Pas3(Koflach to Weisskirchen), carriage road 5,130
Die Pack (KoHach to Wolfsberg), carriage road 3,870
Qleinalp Pass (Peggau to Knittelfeld), footpath about 6,500
15. South Tyrol and Venetian Alps. — It has been seen
that the mountain zone on the northern side of the main
range of Tyrol extends from the lake of Constance to
near Vienna, with a remarkable uniformity both of general
S-pect and of geological structure, bo that no reason much
more valid than convenience could be assigned for form-
ing it iaiiO two separate divisions. The same remark does
not hold good on the southern side of the main ranga
There is, indeed, a general similarity between the northers
and southern zones, e.specially in their geological etructure,
so far as regards the sedimentary rocks; but in the western
portion of the latter — in the region lying between the
Adige and the sources of the Piave — the intrusion of
igneous rocks on a large scale, and the accumulation of
deposits formed from ejected volcanic matter, have pro-
foundly modified the structure and outward aspect of the
country. Nowhere else in the Alps do the peaks rise so
abruptly and with so little apparent connection, and
nowhere are the contrasts depending on difi"erence8 of
geological structure so marked as those which strike the
mere passing traveller, when, beside rounded masses of
red and black porphyry, he sees white and pink crystalline
dolomite limestone rising in towers and pinnacles of extra-
ordinary height and steepness. Dolomite limestone ia
found in many other parts of the Alps, but nowhere else
is it developed on so grand a scale, and the exquisite
beauty of this region has of late years led an increasing
number of traveUers to spots that before were scarcely
known even to the inhabitants of adjoining valleys.
Though there are abundant grounds for regarding th-e
district here spoken of as a separate division of the Alps,
It IS very difficult to assign to it a satisfactory designation.
The larger portion of the region has long been politically
connected with Tyrol, and is partly inhabited by a German-
speaking population, while' the remainder has been poli-
tically connected with Venice, and the inhabitants are
thoroughly Italian in language and manners. Were it not
for a reluctance to introduce new and unfamiliar terms, the
present division might be denominated Cimhric Alps, ea,
according to ancient tradition, the Cimbri, after their final
defeat by Marius, sought and found a refuge in this part of
the Alps; but for the present it seems best to dcsignace as
South. Tyrol and Venetian Alps the region lying between
the valley of the Adige and the sources of the Drave
and the Piave, and south of the great valley traversed by
the Eisack and the Rienz between Botzen and Innichen.
The eastern limit may best be fixed by the track leading
through the Sextenthal from Innichen to San Stefano in
the head valley of the Piave, and by the road from that
place to Coneghano.
Chief Peaks of the South Tyrol and Venetian A Ips.
Cima delle Dodici 7,661
Cima d'Aste 9,132
Monte Pavione, or Col di
Luna 7,877
Pallo di S. Martino (!) 10,643
Cimon della Pala about 11,000
Monte Civetta 10,440
Pelmo 10,377
Sorapis 10,788
Antelao 10,679
Marmarolo above 10,000
Schlera 8,405
Rosengarten 10,163
Langkofel _... 10,392
Marmolata (?) 11,045
Monte Tofana-...- 10,724
Croda Rossa, or Hobo Gaisl 10,262
Monte CristaUo 10,644
Drei Zinnen, or Cima di
Lavaredo.... above 10,300
Dreischusterspitz 10,368
Cima di Poata. 7,547
Covelalto about 7,500
Chief Passes in the South Tyrol and Venetian Alps.
Piano delle Fugazze (Roveredo to Schio). carriage road 4,117
Passo di Blanazzo (Asiago to Levico), bridle-path 4,662
Caressa Pass (Botzen to Vigo di Fassa), bridle-path 6,966
Mahlknecht Pa^s (VBls to Campidello), bridle-path 7,016
Fedaya Pass (Val di Fassa to Caprile), footpath 6,884
La Costonzella (Faneveggio to Primiero), carriage road 6,657
Passo di Valles (Panevepgio to Oncenighe), bridle-path 6,877
Gredner Joch (St Ulrlchto Bmncckl, bridle-path 7,042
Campolungo iCJorfara to Araba), bridJe-path 6,200
Pordoi Pass (Gries to Araba), bridle path 7,396
Passo dei Tre Sasai (Andraz to Cortina), carriage road 7,073
Monte Oiau, or P. diFalzarego (Capnle to Cortina), bridle-path... 7,511
Peutclstein Pass (Niedemdorf to Cortina), carriage road about 5,000
Passo delle Tre (>oci (O)rtinato Auronzo), bridle-path 5,970
Forcella' Grande (Auronzo to San Vito), footpath 7,536
Kreuzberg (Innichen to S. Stephano), carriage road 6,361
16. South-Eastern Alps. — Ancient geographers, and those
who have followed their example, use the terms Camic
Alps and Julian Alps to designate two of the main divi-
sions of the Alps; bat the latter of these at least hai
ALPS
631
bo?n applied in a vague and inaonsistent way. in point of
fact, the south-eastern portion of the Alps, which includes
both the groups above specified, presents three principal
groups which are very closely connected together. The
first of these — the Carnic Alps, properly bo called — have
been defined as including the region between the upper
valley of the Drave and the plain of FriulL But to the
orographer the true head of the Drave valley is the Gail-
thai, which extends in an almost straight and broad trench
from near Innichen to Villach, while the main stream flows
through a sinuous and contracted valley. For this reason
vie have taken the Gailthal as the boundaiy between the
Central Tyrol and the Camic Alps. Almost continuous with
the Carnic Alps is a range, very similar in geological struc-
ture, which 'divides the Drave from the northern branch of
the Save, and includes the mountains locally known as the-
Karawankas and the Sulzbacher Alps. Throughout these,
which may be called the main range of the South-Eastern
Alps, palaeozoic rocks, probably of carboniferous age, extend
ia a narrow band for a distance of fully 100 miles, giving
place at the eastern extremity to the small granitic mass
that forma the hills of the Bacher Gebirge near Marburg.
On the south side of the main range of the Carnic Alps
two mountain masses, mainly formed of triassic rocks and
Cachstein limestone, attain a considerable height in the
Monte Cavallo on the west, and" the Monte Caniu on the
east side of FriulL In a similar position as regards the
Karawankas is a still loftier mass which is crowned by the
Terglou — the highest peak of the South-Eastern Alps. This
group is referred by geographers to the Julian Alps, which
are said to divide the Save and its tributaries from the
Adriatic. As has been already said, there is no range to
which the term Alps can properly be applied forming such a
boundary. The plateau of the Karst, though rising here and
there into hills of moderate height, has an average eleva-
tion of about 2000 feet above the sea, and cannot correctly
be spoken of as a mountain chain. The orographer, if
seeking an eastern prolongation to the Tgrglou group,
would prefer the hiUy region between the Save and the
southern Qurk; but the low country through which the
raOway is carried from Marburg to Laybach, and the road
thence to Gorizia, may for all practical purposes be taken
as the south-eastern limit of the Alps and of the division
here described.
Chie/Peaks o/ihe South-Eastern Alps.
Monte Paralbaj 9,097
Kellarwand about 9,500
Monte Cridola 8,474
Monte Premaggiore 8,127
Monte Cavallo 7,377
Monte Crostis 7,384
Jof di Montasio about 9,000
Monte Canin (Prestrelenick) 8.711
Stou 7,326
Kosohutta 6,895
Ovir 001
Grintouz 8,386
Oistritza 7,701
Bacber Gebirge (Velka
Kappa) 6,041
Mangart 8,776
Terglou 9,371
Km _ 7,358
Kuk 6.829
Chief Passes o/ the South-Eastern Alps.
Kartischer Joch (SiUian to Tilliach), carriage road
Pasao di Mauria {Ampezzo to Pieve di Cadorc), carriage road
Piano di Sappada (San Stefano to Fomo Avoltri), car. road, about
Giogo Veranis (Fomo Avoltri to Lorenzen), footpath
Wolaver Joch (Fomo Avoltri to Kotachach), footpath
Monto Croce (Tolmezzo to Kbtachach), bridle-path
Nosfeld Pass (Pontebba to Hermagor), footpath about
Saifnitz Pass iPontebbato Tarvie), carriage road
Predil Pasa (Tarvis to Flitach), carriage road
Wurzener Berg ( Vill.ach to Wurzen), carriage road
Loibl Pafls (Neumarktl to Unterbergen), carriage road
Seoberg Pass (Krainhurg to Kappol), carriage road
St Leonhard Battel (Kappel to Sulzbach), bridle-path
Schkuria Pa.s.s (Kulzhach to Stein), footpath
Worachcz Sattcl (Flitsch to Kronau), footpath
Kerma Pass (Mniatrana to ^ciatritz), footpath ^
Skarbinja Joch (Tohnino to Feistritz), footpath about
5,363
4,191
4,100
7,621
6,563
4,337
5,000
2,682
3,822
3,497
4,445
3,976
4,666
0,193
5,254
6,332
6,000
olimate of It is well known that as we rise irom the sea-level into
the Alps. tiiQ upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature
decreases. The effect of mountain chains on previiiliug
wmds is to carry warm air belonging tb the lower region
into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost
of a proportionate loss of heat, often accompanied by tho
precipitation of moisture in the form of snow or rain. The
position of the Alps about the centre of the European
continent has profoundly modified the climate of all the
surrounding regions. The accumulation of vast masses of
snow, which have gradually been converted into permanent
glaciers, maintains a gradation of very different climates
within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of
the mountains and their upper ridges; it cools the breezes
that are wafted to the plains on either side, but its most
important function is to regulate the water supply of that
large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps.
Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during six or
seven months is stored up in the form of snow, and gradually
diffused in the course of the succeeding summer; and even
in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated
during a long preceding period of years in the form, of
glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the
greater streams. Kor is this all; the lakes that fill several
of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are
somewhat above the level of tjie plains of Lombardy and
Venetia, and afford an inexhaustible supply, which, from a
remote period, has been used for that system of irrigation
to which they owe their proverbial fertility. Six regions or
zones, which are best distinguished by their characteristic
vegetation, are found in the Alps. It has been a common
error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height
above the sea-leveL Local conditions of exposure to the
sun, protection from cold winds, or the reverse, are of
primary importance in determining the climate and tha
corresponding vegetation.
1. Olive liegion. — The great plain of Upper Italy has a Zones of
winter climate colder than that of the British Islands. The Vegetation
olive and the characteristic shrubs of the northern coasts
of the Mediterranean do not thrive in the open air, but
the former valuable tree ripens its fruit in sheltered places
at the foot of the mountains, and penetrates along tha
deeper valleys and • the shores of the Italian lakes. The
evergreen oak is wild on the rocks about the lake of Garda ;
and lemons arc cultivated on a large scale, with partial
protection in winter. The olive has been known to survive
severe cold when of short duration, but it cannot be culti-
vated with success where frosts are prolonged, or where
the mean winter temperature falls below 42° Fahr.; and
to produce fruit it requires a heat of at least 75° Fahr.
during the day, continued through four or five months of
the summer and autumn.
2. Vine Region. — -The vine is far more tolerant of cold
than the olive, but to produce tolerable wine it demands,
at the season of ripening, a degree of heat not much less
thafii that needed by the more delicate tree. These con-
diti(As are satisfied in the deeper valleys of the Alps, even
in the interior of the chain, and up to a considerable height
on slopes exposed to the sun. The protection afforded by
winter snow enables the plant. to resist severe and prolonged
frosts, such as would be fatal in more exposed situationa
Along with the vine, many wild plants characteristic of
the warmer parts of middle Europe are seen to flourish.
A mean summer temperature of at least 68° Fahr. is con-
sidered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but in ordinary
seasons this is much exceeded in many of tho great valleys
of the Alps.
3. Mountain Region, or Region of Deciduous Trees. —
Many writers tako the growth of corn as the characteristic
of this region; but so many varieties of all the common
species are in cultivation, and these have such different
cumatal requirements, that they Jo not afford a satisfactory
criterion. A more natural limit is afforded by the piesenoe
632
ALPS
of tho cWof deciduous trees — oalc, bceoh, ash, and syca-
more. Those do not reach exactly to tho same elevation,
nor are they often found growing together ; but their upper
limit corresponds accurately enough to the -change from a
temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by
a change in the wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit
usually lies about 4000 feet above the sea on the north
side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises
to 6000 foot, sometimes even to 6500 feet. It must not
be supposed that thia region is always marked by tho
presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of
man has in many districts almost extirpated them, and,
excepting tho beech forests of the Austrian AJps, a con-
siderable wood of deciduous trees is scarcely anywhere to
be found. In many districts where such woods once existed,
their place has been occupied by the pine and Scotch fir,
which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst
enemies of tree vegetation. The mean annual temperature
of this region differs little from that of the British islands;
but tho cUinatal conditions are widely different. Here
enow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a
cpring and summer considerably warmer than the average
of our seasons.
4. Subalpine Region, or Region of Coniferoiu Trees. —
This is the region which mainly determines the manner of
life of the population of the Alps. On a rough estimate,
we may reckon that, of the space lying between the summits
of the iUps and the low country on either side, one quarter
is available for cultivation, of which about one-half may
be vineyards and corn-field.i, and the remainder produces
forage and grass. About another quarter is utterly barren,
consisting of snow-fields, glaciers, bare rock, lakes, and the
beds of streams ; and there remains about one-half, which is
divided between forest and pasture, and it is the produce
of this which mainly supports the relatively large popula-
tion. For nearly half the year the flocks and herds are
fed on tha upper postures ; but the true limit of the wealth
of a district is the number of animals that can be sup-
ported during the long winter, and while one part of the
population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making
clxeese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and
storing up winter food. The larger villages are mostly
i)i the mountain region, but in many parts of the Alps the
villages stand in the subalpine region at heights varying
from 4000 to 6500 feet above the sea, more rarely extend-
ing to about 6C00 feet. The most characteristic feature
of this region is the prevaienc* of coniferous trees, which,
where they have not been artificiaDy reduced, form vast
forests that cover a large part of the surface. These play
a most important part in the natural economy of the
country. They protect the raUeys from destructive ava-
lanches, and, retaining the superficial soil by their roots,
they mitigate the destructive effects of heavy rains. In
valleys where they have been rashly cut away, and the
waters pour down the slopes unchecked, every tiny rivulet
becomes a raging torrent, that cuts away and carries off the
grassy slopes and devastates the floor of the valley, cover-
ing the soil with gravel and debris. In the pine forests of
the Alps the prevailing species are the common spruce and
the silver fir; on siliceous soil the larch flourishes, and
surpasses every other European species in height. The
Scotch fir is chiefly found at a lower level, and rarely forms
forests. The Siberian fir is found scattered at intervals
throughout the Alps, but is not common. The mughus,
creeping pine, or Krummhoh of the Germans, is common
in the Eastern Alps, and sometimes forms on the higher
mountains a distinct zone above the level of its con-
geners. In the Northern Alps the pine forests rarely
aurpaas the limit of 6000 feet above the sea, but on
the south side they commonly attain to 7000 feet; and the
larch, Sibcnan fir, and mughus often extend above that
elevatiorL
5. Alpine Region. — TTiroughout the Gennan Alps the
word alp is used specifically for the upper pastures, where
cattle are'fed in summer, but this region is held to include
the whole space between the uppermost limit of trees and
the first appearance of permanent masses of snow. It is here
that the characteristic vegetation of tho Alps is developed
in its full beauty and variety. Shrubs are not wanting.
Three species of rhododendron vie with each other in
the brilliancy of their masses of red or pink flowers; tho
common juniper rises higher still, along with three species
of bilberry; and several dwarf willows attain nearly to the
utmost limit of vegetation. The upper limit of this region
coincides with the so-called Umit of perpetual snow, which
demands further explanation.
6. Glacial Region. — On the higher parts of lofty moun-
tains more snow falls in each year than is melted on the
spot. A portion of this is carried away by the wind before
it is consolidated ; a larger portion accumulates in hollowj
and depressions of the surface, and is gradually converted
into glacier-ice, which descends by a slow secular motioo
into the deeper valleys, where it goes to swell perennial
streams. As on a mountain the snow does not lie in beds
of uniform thickness, and some parts are more exposed to
the sun and warm winds than others, we commonly find
beds of snow alternating with exposed slopes covered with
brilliant vegetation ; and to tho observer near at hand
there is no appearance in the least corresponding to the
term limit of perpetual snow. But the case is otherwise
when a high mountain chain is viewed from a distance.
Similar conditions are repeated at many different points,
so that tho level at which large snow-beds show themselves
along its flanks "is approximately horizontal But this
holds good only so far as the conditions are similar. On
the opposite sides of the same chain the exposure to the
sun or to rparm winds may cause a wide difference in the
level of permanent snow; but in some cases the increased
fall of snow on the side exposed to moist winds may more
than compensate the increased influence of the sun's rays.
Still, even with these reservations, the so-called line, of
perpetual snow is not fixed. The occurrence of favourable
meteorological conditions during several successive seasons
may and does increase the extent of the snow-fields, and
lower the limit, of seemingly permanent snow; while an
opposite state of things may cause the Umit to rise higher
on the flanks of the mountains. From these remarks it
may be inferred that all attempts to fix accurately the
level of perpetual snow in the Alps are fallacious, and can
at the best approach only to local accuracy for a particular
district. In some parts of the Alps the limit may be set
at about 8000 feet above the sea, while in others it cannot
brf placed much below 9500 feet. As very little snow can
rest on rocks that lie at an angle exceeding 60°, and this
is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses of rock
remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks,
but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegeta-
tion is covered with snow, few flowering pl.ints are seen
above 10,000 feet. There is reason to think, however,
that it is the want of soil rather than cUmatal conditions
that checks the upward extension of the Alpine flora.
Increased direct effect of solar radiation compensates for the
cold of the nights, and in the few spota where plants have
been found in flower up to a height of 12,000 feet, nothing
has indicated that the processes of vegetation were arrested
by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure.
The climate of the glacial region has often been compared
to that of the polar regions, but they are widely different.
Here, intense solar radiation by day, which raises the
surface when drj-, to a temperature approaching 80° Fahr.^
i^ L P S
633
alternates with severe frost by night. Toere, a sun which
never sets sends feeble rays that maintain a low equable
temperature, rarely rising more than a few degrees above
the freeEing--point. Hence the upper region of the AIds
sustains a far more varied and brilliant vegetation,
fopulation At the earliest period of which records are preserved
•ftheAins. tjje AJps appear to have been mainly inhabited by Celtic
tribes, some of which, before they were subjugated by
the Romans, had made considerable progress in the know-
Fedge of the useful arts. The Rhaetians and VindeUcians
especially, in whom a primitive Turanian stock seems to
have been amalgamated with a dominant Celtic race,
readily assimilated the civilisation of Rome ; and the
language of the conqueror, modified by peculiarities of
pronunciation and the retention of some native terms,
EtiU survives in Eastern Switzerland, and in a few isolated
valleys of Tyrol Throughout by far the larger part of
the Alps however, the flood of Teutonic invasion either
exterminated or drove into exile the previous population.
The Alemanni and other kindred tribes settled in the
main valleys of the Eastern Alps, and finally .became
masters of the greater part of Switzerland, leaving to the
original Celtic population the Western Alps and both
slopes of the great Pennine chain. At a later period the
invasion of Slavonic hordes threatened to substitute a new
nationality throughout the same region, but aStei pro-
longed contests these tribes were restricted to its south-
eastern portion, being nearly confined to the upper vaUeys
of the Drave and the Save, with their tributaries. The
Italian valleys of the Alps, from the Val d'Ossola to the
Tagliamento, inhabited by people of mixed race, have,
with a few exceptions, preserved the language of Italy,
much varied in the local dialects; while the western dis-
tricts, in which the Oeltic element remained predominant,
have for the most part clung to the French tongue. The
estimates formed of the present population of the Alps are
uncertain, because they usually include towns and populous
districts lying. without the mountain region. It is usuaUy
reckoned that there are about 1,500,000 of Celto-Qallic
stock in the French and Savoy Alps, western Switzerland,
and some valleys of Piedmont; about 4,000,000 of Teutonic
origin in the Swiss and German Alps ; about 1,000,000 of
Slavonic sfock, chiefly Slovenes ; and about 1,000,000 of
Italians in the valleys of Northern Italy, the Swiss cantons
of Tessin and Orisons, and in the Italian Tyrol, making an
iiigregate of 7.500,000. To these should be added about
70,000 people speaking some dialect of the Rhseto-Roman
or Romansch. All these numbers excepting the last are
excessive, if we would restrict the estimate within the
proper limits of the Alps.
Faona rf Although no conspicuous species of quaoruped or bird
v* '^'"li ^ known to be exclusively confined to the Alps, they have
afforded an asylum to many animals that have become
rare or extinct elsewhere. The great urus, the elk, and
the wild swine have disappeared since the Roman period,
and the beaver in more recent times ; but the brown bear,
the lynx, the wild cat, and the wolf still survive. Among
Ruminants, the red deer, fallow deer, and roebuck, chiefly
found in the lower forest region, are common to other
mountain districts. More characteristic of the Alps is the
chamois, which is found elsewhere only in the Carpathians,
Pyrenees, and the mountains of European Turkey, and is
the sole representative of the antelopes in this part of the
world. Much rarer is the ibex or bouquetin, which still
lives in the higher Alpine region of the Graian Alps, and
possibly also in some recesses of the Pennine chain. Un-
like the chamois, which descends at night to find suste-
nance as lev as the verge of the pine forests, this fine
animal remains, at least in the summer, in the upper
region, on the verge of the snow-fields, or on the rocks that
rise amidst the glaciers. The massive horns of the male
are often a yard or more in length. Closely, aUied species
are found in the Pyrenees and other mountain ranges of
the Iberian peninsula, and in the Caucasus, but the true
ibex seems to be now confined to this small corner of the
Alps. The few endemic species of Mammalia found in
the Alps are chiefly small Rodentia and Insectivora, which
alone can multiply rapidly in the midst of a large and
increasing human population. The marmot, which is the
most characteristic of the Rodentia, maintains its ground
in the stony recesses of the Alpine region, and does not
diminish in numbers as most other wild animals have
done. The most singular of this group is the snow-vole
(Arvicola nivalis), whose nearest ally is a native of E&st
Siberia. Several forms (varieties or sub-species) are found
in various parts of the Alps. They ascend through the
Alpine region to the rocks of the glacial zone, at least as
far as 12,000 feet above the sea; and, unlike other animals
framed to endure severe cold, they continue in acti'vity
throughout the long winter. There is at least one species
of shrew (Sorex alpinus) peculiar to the Alps. The
Cheiroptera are represented by numerous forms, which,
with one exception ( Vesperiigo maurus), are not confined
to this region ; but the Alps form a limit to the distribu-
tion of many of this order ; some species of middle Europe
do not cross the main range, while several species of the
Mediterranean region find their northern limit in the
valleys on the southern side.
The Birds of the Alps are proportionately very numer- EirJs.
ous. Many southern species find a home in the warmer
Italian valleys, and there meet northern forms that descend
during the winter and spring, but return to the upper zone
in the warm season Of the more conspicuous species of
the high Alps, the lammergeyer {Gypa'etos barbatus) — once
common, but now become very rare — is pre-eminent. It
is also found in Algeria, in Syria, and in Northern Asia,
but is one of those animals that is threatened with ex-
tinction by the progress of civilisation The rock chough
{Pyrrhocorcuo alpinus), distinguished by golden-yellow bUl
and fest, builds on rocks in the glacial region as high as
10,000 feet above the sea. Several song birds, such as
the snow lark and snow finch, ascend to the limits <pf
vegetation. The GalhSacese are well represented. The
cock of the woods ( Tetrao vrogallus), the grouse, ptarmigan,
blackcock, gelinotte, and rock partridge {Caccabis saxatilis),
are the most remarkable. The first, which is somewhat
rare and extremely shy, surpasses the dimensions of an
ordinary weU-grown fowL
Several Reptiles are found even in the upper region of R:ptr.';s
the Alps, though none are very common. Of three
venomous spficies of viper, Vipera herns ascends to about
8000 feet ; and the black viper ( 7. presUr) also reaches
the Alpine region. 7. Eedii is confined to the warmer
Italian valleys. The snakes and lizards frequent tho
lower zones, excepting Lacerla pyrrhogaslra, which is
sometimes seen in the upper region.
Batrachians are more common than true reptiles. An B,'itracli'
Alpine frog attains' the extreme limit of vegetation, and a'lans.
toad ascends nearly as far. These have been considered
by some as distinct species, by others as varieties of the
common animals. At least one triton [T. Wnrfbeinii) is
peculiar to tho Alps. The spotted salamander is common
in the sub-Alpine region, but in tho Eastern A!i» it is re-
placed by S. atra, which is entirely black. This is some-
times found far above the limit of the pine forests.
Tho great lakes of the Alps are very rich in Fish, not Fishes,
only as regards tho number of individuals, but in species
also. Thus in the Chiem-sce, nt the northern foot of the
Bavarian Alps, thirty-three species have been found, in
the lake of Constance twenty-six species, and twenty-four
L — So
G34
ALPS
Inverto-
riora of
^he Alps.
in the lake of Lucerne. The most esteemed are tlioao of
the trout and aalmon tribe, whoso specific diCTcrcnccs have
not yet been fully investigated by ichthyologists. First in
rank ia the saibling (Salmo tahvtlinut), which flourishes in
lakes between 2000 and- 4000 feet above the sea, and
occasionally extends to those of the Alpine region between
MOO and 7000 feet. The fish of the northern side of the
Alps are fuUy described in Siebold's Sihswasser-FiscUe
UitteUuropaa. Those of the waters rxinning to the
Mediterranean have not been so fully investigated. Two
or three. peculiar species have been found in the lake of
Geneva. In some of the Lombard lakes, the agcme, a small
fish of the herring tribe {filupta finta), is a much esteemed
article of diet.
In the classes hitherto noticed tlie number of species
peculiar to the Alps is very small This rule is reversed
among the Invertebrata, especially as regards the Articu-
lata and MoUusca. The number of insects is very great,
and a considerable proportion extend to the limit of per-
petual snow. Oswald Lleer has pointed out several pecu-
liarities in the insect fauna of the higher Alps. In ascend-
ing from the mountain region the proportion of the
carnivorous tribes rapidly increases, and the families that
feed on living vegetable matter either disappear or are
much reduced in numbers. Beetles and other insects
either lose their wings in the upper region, or are represented
by allied wingless species. AJong with the tendency to
lose the power of flight, a diminution of brilliancy of colour
appears, the prevailing hues being black or dingy grey.
These peculiarities are to be explained by the fact that in
the upper Alpine zone most insects live under stones, and
the power of flight generally proves injurious to animals
liable to be carried by the wind and upward air-currents
over the snow-fields, whence they are unable to return.
This' is often seen to occur to butterflies and a few moths,
which ascend as far as the highest flowering plants. The
snow-fields and glaciers are not devoid of insect life.
Several species of snow-flea have been detected ; and
further observation will probably bring to light other
minute animals living in the pools that form on the surface
of glaciers, or on the snow-beds, although their activity
is often interrupted by the freezing of the surface.
Tile Arachnida are eminently characteristic of the fauna
of the high Alps, where they abound both in species and
individuals. Spiders ascend to the utmost limit of vegeta-
tion, and are even to be found on the bare rocks that rise
out of the snow up to a height of 11,000 feet
Although most of the orders of Articulata are repre-
sented in the Alps by numerous forms, these are far out-
numbered by the total number of European species of that
class; but among land and fresh- water Mollusca the pro-
portion is reversed, and as many as seven-eighths of oU
the species known in middle Europe, and a large propor-
tion of those of the Mediterranean region, have been found
in the .Alps. Still more remarkable is the large propor-
tion of endemic species. In the important group of the
Heliceae fully one hundred species, or four-tenthi of the
whole number, are peculiar to the .Alps. Between thirty
and forty species only have been found in the Alpine zone,
and of these but five — Vitrina dUtphana, V. glacialw, Helix
glacialis, H. fodens, and Tertigo Charpentieri — attain the
upper limit of vegetation.
The Annulosa and Radia'ta of the .Alps, so far as they
are known, do not ofi"er any points of special interest; and
the study of the minute organisms, which have been
proved to exist as high ai 12,000 feet above the sea, is
still in its infancy.
In describing the several regions which are found in
ascending from the low country to the snow-clad summits
of the Alps, and whose existence is duo to climatal differ-
ences, it was necessary to refer to the characteristic vege-
tation of each zone, inasmuch as this affords the cliief
apparent distinction which climatal conditions impress on
the earth's surface. The most cursory observation suffices
to show that within each of the zones thus broadly sketched
out there exist marked differences in the vegetable popula-
tion, 80 that a comparison of the local floras in two spots
possessing a similar climate as regards temperature may
exliibit but few points of agreement along with many
marked contrasts. This partly depends on external con-
ditions, of which the most important are differences in the
amount and distribution of moisture in the air and the
soil, and dilTerences in the composition and state of aggre-
gation of the soil itself. But a more important element in
determining the flora of any particular district depends
upon the causes which have operated throughout the whole
period since it has become dry land to facilitate migration
for certain species, and to impede it for others. The sub-
ject of the distribution of Alpine plants, so far as regards
the eastern half of the chain, has been very well discussed
in an essay by Dr A. Kemer in the Ist vol of the 2d edit
of Schaubach's Deutsche Alpen, although some of the con-
clusions of the writer may not bear careful criticism. He
divides the natural floras of the Alps into four — named
respectively Arctic, Baltic, Pontic, and Mediterraneqn, the
term Baltic referring to the region that includes Germany,
Southern Scandinavia, and North-Western Russia; while
Pontic comprehends the region north and west of the Euxine
— the northern provinces of Turkey and the whole space
between the Carpathians and the Crimea. It does not
appear that the writer holds that the plants existing in the
Alps have actually migrated to their present homes from
the geographical regions corresponding to the above deno-
minations, but merely that they belong to the types of
vegetation characteristic of each of them. It must be
borne in mind that the Alps, and especially the mountain
and sub- Alpine regions, produce a large number of peculiar
forms, many of which have no near allies in the other
mountain regions of Europe, whUo at the same time the
differences are seldom so wide as to place these in distinct
generic groups; and it seems quite inadmissible to suppose
that the flora has been altogether formed by colonisation
from surrounding districts. >fo space can be here found
for details, but it may broadly be B.aid that while the
highest zone of all, lying close to the limit of permanent
snow, exhibits throughout the whole chain an approach to
uniformity, several of the most conspicuous species being
common to this and to Arctic flora, the zone immediately
below this, as well as those lower down, shows a large
admixture of quite distinct elements. This is especially
tnie of tho southern slopes In truth, but a very few of
the well-marked endemic species of the Alps are confined
to the north side of the main chain. A considerable
number are common to both slopes, and a still larger pro-
portion are restricted exclusively to the southern side. Of
the larger groups which are represented in the Alps by
numerous well-marked endemic species, the genera AJsine,
Androsace, Arabis, Campanula, Crepis, Gentiana, Pedicu-
laris. Primula, and Sasifraga may be especially noted.
AVithout attempting to enter into details, it may be said
that, along with a general Alpine flora, which extends
throughout the entire chain, there are three large districts
where, along with species common to aD, we find a con-
siderable number of others cither absolutely local and
endemic, or else representative in the Alps of the floras of
other distant mountain groups. Only a few of the more
remarkable species characteristic of each can be cite(^ The
West Alpine Flora is found in Dauphin^, South Savoy,
and Western Piedmont, as far north as the group of tho
Oraian Alps, In the following list of the more remark-
ALPS
635
able species those which are either identical with or
nearly allied to Pyrenean forms have an asterisk pre-
fixed : —
Arabis pcdemontana, Hiigueniiia tanacetifoHa, *IHantkus ne-
glectus, Silcne cordifolia, *Saponaria lutea^ *IIypcricum nummu-
laHafolimmy Astragalus alopccuroidcs, Saxifragd floruleiUa, S.
diapeiisioides, *S. pcdemonUina^ *Asperula hexaphylla, Ccphalaria
alpina, Achillea Hcrbarota, Be'-n.rdia subacaidis, Campajiula
Allioniif C. elathus, Priinula Tnargiitata, P. AUionii^ *Erinus
alpinuSf Veronica. Allionii, Thymus pij)crella^ and Alopecurus
Gerardi.
The Lombard Flora is marked by a considerable number
of very distinct species that are limited to the southern
declivity of the Alps, between the Lago Maggiore and the
lake of Garda, Most of these are absolutely confined
within these boundaries, but a few extend some distance
east of the lake of Garda. The following deserve to be
specifi'ed :-r-
Viola ComoUia^ V. Tieterophylla, Silene Elizahethce^ Arcnaria
grineensis, Cytisus glabrcscens, Sanguisorha dodecandra, Saxifraga
Vcmdellii, S. arachnoidca, Lascrpilhmi nilidum, Telekia speciosis-
aiina, Leuntodon Unuiflorus, -. Hieracium poTrifoliwrn-t Campanula
Raineri, C. elatinoideSf Daphne rupestris, Euphorbia variabUia^ and
Carcx baldensis.
The East Alpine Flora, extending through the region
east of the valley of the Adige, is characterised by a large
number of peculiar species, and by a perhaps equal number
of plants not seen elsewhere in the Alps, but alsp natives
of the Carpathians, or of the region lying between Servia
and the Adriatic. In the following hst those included in
he latter category are marked with an asterisk : —
Arabia vochinensisy *A. Scopoliana-, *Cardami7ie trifolia, Braya
alpina^ Co(^hlearia bremcaulis, Silene pumiliOy S. crXpcstris^ Dianthus
alpiniis, *Genista stricea, Medicago Pironm, *Potentilla Chtaiana^
Saxifraga Burseriana, S. tenella, *S. peircea, *S. hicraci/olia,
*Hacquetia Epipactis, Astrantia carniolicay Hladnikia golaceneis,
Antkemis aljnna, Achillea Chisiema, *Scnecio abrotanifolius, Cen-
taurea alpina^ C. rupestris, * Sauss^irea pygnuea, Phytcuma comosum^
Campanula pulla, 'C. alpina^' C. morcUia/na, C. Zoysiiy Phodod^n-
dron chameecistuSt Qeniiana imbricaia, *G. frigida, G. Frohlichii,
^Primula minima, P. glutinosa, Androsace Sausmanni, Pcederota
Bonarota, P. Ageria^ Wulfenia carinthiaca, Sesleria spha:rocephdia,
and S. microcephala.
It is worthy of remark that the central and highest part
of the Alpine chain, including the Pennine and Bernese
groups, the Lepontine Alps, and those of ^orth Switzer-
land, produce scarcely a well-marked species — with the
doubtful exceptions of Rumex nivalis and of Potentilla
graTYiraopetala, which is confined to a small district south
east of Monte Rosa — that does not spread throughout the
rest of the chain,
Cslaciers of The phenomena of glaciers have been chiefly studied in
the Alpo. tkhe Alps, but they are not especially characteristic of the
mountains of central Europe. The investigation of their
origin and structure, and thia laws of their motion, fall
within the province of the physical philosopher, and are
discussed elsewhere. See Glaciers.
Geology of The geological structure of the Alps is a subject that has
the Alps, occupied the labours of many eminent men of science,
especially during the last thirty years, yet it may be safely
asserted that it will continue to offer new problem^ to the
researches of at least another generation. There is scarcely
a single difficult question regarding the nature and viode
of deposition of the strata that make up the earth's crutit,
the mode of elevation of mountain chains, the causes of
the formation of valleys and lake basins, the action of
meteoric forces, of rivers and ice-streams, that must not be
decided before we can give a rational account of the struc-
ture of the Alps. Along with these, and scarcely less im-
portant, is the study of the various agencies involved in
the ])henomena of mctamorphism, and that of the part
played by volcanic action in some parts of the chain. The
itudy of the organic remains embedded in the rocks is not
ap constantly the duty of the geologist in the Alps as it is
in most other mountain districts; but of late years this has
been actively pursued; and has tended to clear up many
difficulties, while much room is left for further investiga-
tion. The reader is referred to the article Geology, and>
with reference to detailed information as to the structure
of the Alps, to the list of works on alpine geology given
below.
The number of publications relating to the Alps has been so Biblio-
largely increased during the last quarter of a century that a bare graphy ol
catalogue would fill a considerable space. The majority of these the Alps,
are of a narrative and descriptive character, and do not add much
to our knowledge of the Alps, either topoeraphically or scientifically.
It will suffice to give here a brief list of the chief works that may
fairly be considered to have achieved that object. "Works of exclu-
sively scientifi.c character, especially those relating to Alpine geology,
are separately enumerated.
Scheuchzer (J. J.), Itinera Alpina, Leyden, 1723. Griiner, Die
Eisgebirge des Schwei2erlande3, Born, 1760. Saussure {H. B. de),
Voyages dans les Alpes, NeuchStcl, 1803-0. Hu^ (J. J.), Natur-
historische Alpenreise, Solothurn, 1830. Agassiz (L.), Etudes sur
les Glaciers, Neuchatel, 1840 ; Systfeme Glacaire, ou Nouvelles
Etudes, &c., Paris, 1847. Forbes (J. D.), Travels through the
Alps of Savoy, &c., Edinburgh, 1843, Uesor (E.), Excursions et
Sejours dans les Glaciers et les Hautea Regions des Alpes ; 2 series,
Neuchatel, 1844-5. Saluzzo {A. di), Le Alpi che cingono I'ltalia,
!"»• Parte, Torino, 1845. Schla^ntweit {H. und A.), Untersu-
chungen iiber die Physicalische Gcographie die Alpen ; 2 series,
Leipzig, 1850-4. Tyndall (J.), The Glaciers of Jthe Alps, London,
1860. Berlepsch (H. A.), Die Alpen in Natur-und Lebensbildem
dargestellt, Leipzig, 1861. Browne (Rev. G. ?.), Ice-caves
of France and Switzerland, Loudon, 1365. Moreli, Scientific
Guide to Switzerland, London, 1866. Sonklar (Karl von), Die
Oetzthaler Gebirgsgruppe, &c., Gotha, 1860 ; Die Gebirgsgruppe
der Hohen Taueru, &.c,, Wien, 1866. Schaubach Die Deutsche
Alpen; 2d edition, Jena, 1865-71. Bonney (Rev. T. G.), The
Alpine Regions of Switzerland and the neighbouring countries,
Cambridge and London, 1863. Ball (J.), The Alpine Guide; new
edition, in ten parts, London, 1873. Considerable additions to our
knowledge of the Alps are also to be found irf the periodical publi-
cations of the English, Swiss, Austrian, Italian, and German Alpine
Clubs; and also in papers that have appeared in Petennann's
Geographische Mittheilungcn.
No general zoological works of a purely scientific character relat-
ing exclusively to the fauna of the Alps ean be quoted ; but much
valuable information, conveyed in a popular form, will be found in
Tschudi's Thicrlebeu der Alpenwelt, of which translations have
appeared in English and French. The want of a compact work
containing descriptions of all the plants of the Alps has been much
felt by botanists. Those of Switzerland and the Eastern Alps are
included in Koch's Synopsis Flora Germanicae et Helveticse, a
work of high authority, written in Latin ; but it does not compre-
hend the species peculiar to Piedmont and the Western Alps. An
illustrated work, by J. C. Weber, Die Alpenpflanzen Deutschlands
und der Schweiz, may also be recommended. Of numerous books
and memoirs connected with the geology of the Alps, the following
deserve special mention : — L. von Buch, Geologische Bcobachtung-
f-n auf Reisen, 1802. Sir R. I. Murchison, On the Geolv»gical
Structure of the Alps, the Apennines, and the Carpathians, Quart.
Journal Geol. Soc. of libndon, vol. v. ; a translation of this im-
portant memoir into Italian, with a.n appendix, by P. Savi ami
G. Meneghini, Florence, 1851. Sedgi^-ick and Murchison, On tho
Geology of the Eastern Alps, Trans. Geoh Soc. Lond. 1832. J. de
Charpentier, Essai sur les Glaciers et si].r le Terrain Erratiqire du
Bassin du Rhone, 1841. B. Studer, Geologic der Schweiz, 1853 ;
Id. Index der Petrographie und Stratigraphie der Schweiz, &c.,
Bern, 1872. A. Stoppani, Studii Geologichi e Paleontologichi sulla
Lombardia, 1857. C. Lory, Description Geologique du Dauphint^,
I860. Giimbel, Geologie des Kbnigreichs Bayern, 1861. 0. Hecr,
Die Urwelt der Sohweiz, Zurich, 1865. £. Desor, Der Gebirgsbftu
der Alpen, &c., ^'iesbaden, 1865. A, Favre, Recherches G6o-
logiciues dans les Parties de la Savoie, &c. ; Voisines du Mont Blanc,
Geneve, 1867. L. Riitimeyer, Ueber Thai- und Seebilding, Bai>cl,
1860. A copious collection of f-^-^ts and observations bearing on
the physics and recent geology of the Alps will bo found in u work
by M. DoHfuss-Ausset, Materiaux pour 1' Etude des Glaciers, of
which nine volumes have appeared. Many important contributions
to Alpine geology are scattered through the Proceedings uf scientific
societies. The Bulletin of tho Frencli Geological Society contairis
valuable papers by Collegno, Dausse, Gras, Iluber, Mortillet,
Omboni, Rozet, and others. The geology of the Austrian Alps is
illustrated by numerous papers in the Jahrbuch der k. k. Reichsan-
Btalt. The memoirs of A. Sismonda and B. Gastaldi,~"tir the
Memorie della R. Acidemia di Torino, must be consulted by those
who would study the geology of Piedmont. Tho phenomena of the
motion and etructuxe of glaciers have been discussed in iiumorou&
636
A T; P — A L S
papoTD that havo appeared in the Ln:f!/>;i and Edinburgh Philoso-
pMiXil Miiya:int (luring the lost thirty ycura. The iin[>ortnnt
memoirs of Professor Tyndall were published in iho Philo'ophicat
Transacliota for 18!17, 1858, and 18i9 ; and tliono of the lute ilr
Hopkins in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philoaophical Society^
vol. viii. Various contributions \o illuntrate and enforce the views
first not forth by the Intu Priuciiml Furlx'S in his Travel} through
the Alp) were published in a collected form by Messrs Black, Edin-
bursh, in 1850.
Carto- With the exception of special maps of small districts, the only
fn*aphy of maps of the Alps founded on actual surrey arc those which have
'he Alps, been published under the authority of the governments whose
territory is concerned. Among those the first place is due to the
federal map of Switzerland, executed under the direction of General
Dufour, on the scale -rWinpi. in 25 aheeta. Considering the diffi-
culty of the task, this is unsurpassed t>oth for accuracy and skill in
execution. The Austrian \Var Office has brought out, during the
last sixty years, a series of maps, executed on a large scale, of the
several stfttes of the empire. Those are of very unequal merit.
That of the kingdom of Venetian 1-ombardy, in 42 shouts, on the
scale of ttVt?' ^'^ conaiderable merit, but^lls short of the stand-
ard of the Swiss map. A new map of Tyrol is in preparation, and
will doubtless sustain tlie reputation of Austrian cartographers.
Tho general map of Piedmont, in 91 shoots, on the scale TTrfvut i>
Bufhcicntly correct as regards the inhabited districts, but quite
unsatisfactory as regards the higher region. Until lately uiere
existed no tolerable map of tho Alpino provinces of Franca. The
general map of Franco, on tho scale tv^ttzi ^las of late years been
extended to tho greater part of Danphine, and will before long include
the newly-acquired do^uirtments of Savoy and Nice. The portion
already published is quite on a level with modem requirtrun-iits, and
reflects credit on the French war dcpartn>cnt. Tho only tolerable
map that includes tho entire chain of the Alps is that com])iled by
J. G. Mayr. It is on a small scale (rrcVin). and is not free from
sorioua errors. A map publisliod by \Vorl, in 48 sheota, on a scale
TT^^m, entitled " AtLis von Sudwest Deutschland und den* Alpon-
lande, ' is very unsatisfactory. Scheda's general map of the Aus-
trian Empire and adjoining territories, in 20 slieets, is an excellent
compilation. It includes the Alps as far west as Monte Rosa
and tho lake of Than, but tho scale (rrVm) i* inconveniently
small.
Of geological maps including any considerable portion of the
^Ips the following deserve to be specified : —
favjo(A.), Carto GiSologique des Parties do la Savoie, tc, Voisincs
du Mont Blanc. Gilmbel, Geognostische KarU des Konigreichs
Bayem. Hauer (F. von), Geologische Uebersichtskarto der Oester-
roichischon Slonarchio ; sheota 5 and 6 include tho Austrian Alps.
Lory (C), Carte GiSologique du Dauphin^. Morlot, Uelxr^ichts-
karte dor Nordostlichen Alpen. Sismonda (A.), Carta Geologica
di Savoja, Piomonte, e Liguria. Soci(it4 GiSologique do France,
Carte Gdologique do Is Savoie. Studer (B.) n. Ewher V. d. Linth,
Carte Geologique de la Suijiae. (j. fi.)
ALPUJ ARRAS, or Axpuxabas, a mountainous district
in tho south of Spain, in tho province of Andalusia, lying
between the Sierra Nevada and the Sierras Lugar and
Contravieca, and consisting principaUy of valleys, which
descend at right angles from tho crest of the Sierra Nevada.
Those valleys are among the most beautiful and fertile in
SpaiiL They contain a rich abundance of fruit trees,
especially vines, oranges, lemons, and figs, and in some
parts present scenes of almost Alpine grandeur. The
inhabitants are the descendants of the Moors, who vainly
sought to preserve tho last relics of their independence in
their mountain fastnesses, and many of the names of places
in the district are of Moori.sh origin. The principal
villages are Lanjaron, Orgiba, Trevelez, and Ugijar, all
situated at a considerable elevation — the highest, Trevelez,
being 5333 feet above the sea — and containing from 1500
to 4000 inhabitants.
AT.REDUS, Alurkd, or .AitrREDua, of Beverley, one
of the earliest English historians, was bom at Beverley,
in Yorkshire. He wrote in the reign of Henry L, but
little is known ■H'ith certainty of his Ufe. It is generally
believed that he was educated at Cambridge, and afterwards
became one of the canons and treasurer of the church of
St John's at Beverley. We learn from a note in Bishop
Tanner's Bibliotheca Brit.-Hih. that, for the sake of im-
provement, he travelled through France and Italy, and at
Rome became domestic chaplain to Cardinal Othoboni.
He died in the year 1128 or 1129. His chief work,
entitled Annates tive Bistoria de gestis Regum Britannicae,
was edited by Thoma? Hearne from a manuscript belonging
to Thomas Rawlinson, and was published at Oxford in
1716. It contains an outline of the Justory of England
from Brutus to Henry I., written in elegant Latin, and
■with remarkable accuracy as to facta and dates, though, of
course, much of the earlier portion is fabulous. A manu-
script entitled LibeHates Ecclesice S. Joluinnis de Beverlae,
in the Cottonian library, is also ascribed to him, but on
doubtful authority. It is a collection of records relative to
the church of Beverley, translated from the Saxon.
ALRESFORD (New), a market town in Hampshire, so
named from a ford on the river Arle, a tributary of the
Itchin, on which it is situated. It is 58 nules distant from
Xiondon and 7 from Winchester. It suffered severely from
a series of conflagrations, and portly on this account and
from the decline of a small manufacture of linseys, it is now
a place of little importance. Alresford House, the seat "of
tho Rodney family, is in the neighbourhood, and the naval
hero of that name was interred in New Alresford church
in 1792. >fis3 Jlitford was a native of Alresford. Aires-
ford is a station on the L. and S.-W. Railway. Population
of the parish of New Alresford (1871), 1623.
ALSACE (Germ. EUass), a former province of France,
divided after the Revolution into the departments of
Haut Rhin and Bas Rhin, and incorporated since the war
of 1870 with the German empire. It is bounded on the
north by the Rhine palatinate, on the east by the Rhine,
on the south by Switzerland, and on the west by the
Vosges Mountains; and it comprises an area of 3344
English square miles. The district possesses many natural
attractions, and is one of the most fertile in central Europe.
There are several ranges of hills, but no point within the
province attains & great elevation. The only river of
importance is the HI, which falls into the Rhine after a
course of more than 100 miles, and is navigable below
Colmar. The hiUa are generally richly wooded, chiefly
with fir, beech, and oak. The agricultural products are
com, flax, tobacco, grapes, and various other fruits. The
country has a great wealth of minerals, silver having been
found, and copper, lead, iron, coal, and rock-salt being
wrought with profit. There are considerable manufactures,
chiefly, of eotton and Hnen. The chief towns are Miihl-
hausen and Colmar in the upper district, and Strasburg
in the lower. The province is traversed from east to west
by the railway from Strasburg to Nancy, and the main line
north and south runs between Ba">'e and Strasburg.
From a very early period and for many ages Alsace has been a
disputed territory, and has suffered in the contentions of rival races.
It formed part of ancient Gaul, and was therefore included in the
Roman empire. The Romans held it nearly five hundred years,
and on the dissolution of their power it passed under tho s-ATxy of
the Franks and of tho early Frenrh monarcha, by whom It was
governed until the time of Otho 1., Emperor of Germany, w-ho
reigned about the middle of the 10th century. It was ^ that
period that Alsace became German : its original population of Celtic
tribes, which had been firs-t Romanised and then further qualified
by a Frankiah element, was now to a great extent supplanted by s
jiurely Teutonic stock. By Otho II. tie province was Erected into
a landgraviate, and it suteequentlv came into the possession of the
Houflo of Austria, which succeeded in 1273 to the imperial dignity
of Germany. This state of things continued tmtil 1643, when a
large port of Alsace was ceded to France by tlie treaty of Miinster.
In the war which preceded this peace (generally known as the
Thirtv Years' War) Alsace had l)een so terribly devastated bv tho
French that the German emperor found himself unable to hold^"it.
The population was greatly reduced in numbers, and much of the
A L S — A L S
637
land was left micultivated. In the subsequent war between France
and the empire of Germany, arisii:" out of tne attempt of Louis XIV.
to Mize HoUand, that part of Alaace which remained to Germany
was again overrun by the French. Although this war was termi-
nated in 1678 by the treaty of Nimeguen, the French monarch was
desirous of incorporating a stUl larger amount of Rhine territory ;
and accordingly, in 1680 he laid claim to a number of territories,
belonging to princes of the empire, which he alleged had been dis-
membered from Alsace. It was ordered that these territories should
be at once restored to that province under the crown of France, and
several independent sovereigns were cited to appear before two
chambers of inquiry which Louis had established at Brissac and
Metz. The princes appealed to the German emperor and to the
Diet : but the previous wars had so exhausted the power of the
former that nothing, could be done to resist the aggression. In
1681 the French troops under Louvois seized Strasburg, aided by
the treachery of the bishop and other great men of the city. A
further war broke out, but by the treaty of Ratisbon in 1684,
Strasburg was secured to France. Again the war was renewed in
1688, and continued for nine years, when, at the peace of Ryswick,
in 1697, another considerable portion of Alsace was ceded to France.
Some remaining territories of small extent were acquired by the
French after the revolution of 1789.
It will be seen from the foregoing sketch that Alsace was
originally French, that it then became German, and then French
again. From the middle of the tenth century, however, the popu-
lation has in the main been Teutonic ; and the French conquests of
the seventeenth century, while modifying this element, still left it
predominant. The people continued to use German as their native
tongue, though the educated classes also spoke French. Pro-
testantism was professed by a large number of the inhabitants ; and
in many respects their characteristics identified them rather with
the race to tne east than that to the west of the Rhine. In process
of time, however, they considered themselves French, and lost all
desire for re-annexation to any of the German States.
Alsace suffered a good deal in the war of 1870-71.
The earlier battles of the campaign were fought there;
Strasburg and other of its fortified towns were besieged
and taken ; and its people were compeDed to submit to
very severe exactions. The civil and military govern-
ment of the province, as well as that of Lorraine, was
assumed by the Germans as soon as they obtained pos-
session of those parts of France, which was fery shortly
after the commencement of the war. The Alsatian rail-
ways were reorganised and provided with a staff of German
oflBcials. German stamps were introduced from Berlin ;
the occupied towns were garrisoned by the Landwehr ; and
requisitions on a large scale were demanded, and paid for
in cheques which, at the close of the war, were to be
honoured by whichever side should stand in the unpleasant
position of the conquered. The people, notwithstanding
their German origin, showed a very strong feeling against
the invaders, and in no part of France was the enemy
resisted with greater stubbornness. It was evident from
an early period of the war, however, that Prussia was
resolved to reannex Alsace to German territory. When the
preliminaries of peace came to be discussed at Versailles in
February 1871, the cession of Alsace, together with what
is called German Lorraine, was one of the earliest con-
ditions laid down by Count Bismarck and accepted by M.
Thiers. This sacrifice of territory was afterwards ratified
by the National Assembly at Bordeaux, though not without
a protest from the representatives of the departments about
to be given up ; and thus Alsace once more became German.
By the bill for the incorporation of Alsace and German
Lorraine, introduced into the German Parliament in May
1871, it was provided that the sole and supreme control of
the two provinces should be vested in the Emperor of
Germany and the Federal Council until January Ist, 1873,
when the constitution of the German empire was to be
established. Bismarck admitted the aversion of the popu-
lace to Prussian rule, but said that everything would be
done to conciliate the people. This policy appears really
to have been carried out, and it was not long in bearing
fruit. Many of the inhabitants of the conquered districts,
however, still clung to the old connection, and on the 30th
of September 1872 — the day by which the people were
required to determine whether they would consider them-
selves German subjects and remain, or French subjects and
transfer their domicile to France — 15,000 elected to be
StUl French, and sorrowfully took their departure. The
German system of compulsory education of every child
above the age of six was introduced directly after the
annexation. The population in 1871 amounted to upwards
of 1,060,000.
AXSEN, an island in the Baltic, situated off the coast
of Schleswig, in the Little Belt. It formerly belonged to
Denmark, but, as a result of the Danish war of 1864, was
incorporated with Germany. Its area is 1 05 square miles ;
the. length nearly 20, and the breadth from 3 to 12 miles.
The island is fertile, richly wooded, and yields grain and
fruit. Sonderburg, the capital, a town of 5475 inhabitants,
with a good harbour and a considerable trade, is situated
on the narrow channel that separates AJsen from the ,
mainland. Population, 22,500.
ALSOP, Vincent, a celebrated Nonconformist divine,
was educated in St John's College, Cambridge. He received
deacon's orders from a bishop, whereupon he settled as
assistant-master in the free school of Oakham, Rutland.
He was recovered from indifferent associates here by a very
M-orthy minister, the Rev. Benjamin King. Subsequently
he married Mr King's daughter, and " becoming a convert
to his principles, received ordination in the Presbyterian
way, not being satisfied with that which he had from the
bishop." He was presented to the living of Wilby in
Northamptonshire ; but was thence ejected by the Act of
Uniformity in 1662. After his ejection he preached
privately at Oakham and Wellingborough, sharing the
common pains and penalties of Nonconformists — e.g., he
was imprisoned six months for praying with a sick person.
A book against Sherlock, called Antisozzo (after Socinus),
written in the vein of Andrew MarveU's Rehearsal Trans-
prosed, procured him much celebrity as a wit. Dr Robert
South, who cannot be supposed to have been favourably
disposed towards the Nonconformists, publicly pronounced
that Alsop had the advantage of Sherlock in every way.
Besides fame, Antisozzo procured for its author an invita-
tion to succeed the venerable Mr Cawton in Westminster.
He accepted the call, and drew great multitudes to his
chapel. The other books he pubUahed showed a fecundity
of wit, a playful strength of reasoning, and a provoking
indomitableness of raillery. Even with Dr Goodman and
Dr Stillingfleet for. antagonists, he more than held his
own. His Mischief of Impositions in answer to the latter's
Mischief of Separation, and Melius Inqkirendum in answer
to the former's Compassionate Inquiry, remain historical
landmarks in the history of Nonconformity. Later on,
from the entanglements of a son in alleged treasonable
practices, he had to sue for and obtained pardon from
King James II. This seems to have given a somewhat
diplomatic character to his closing years, inasmuch as,
while remaining a Nonconformist, he had a good deal to
do with proposed political-ecclesiastical compromises. He
died May 8, 1703. (a. b. g.)
ALSTED, JoHANN Heinrich, a • German Protestant
divine, and one of the most voluminous WTiters of the
17th century, was born in 1588. He was some time pro-
fessor of philosophy and divinity at Herborn, in the county
of Nassau, and afterwards at Weissenburg in Transylvania,
where he continued till his death in 1G38. His Encyclo-
pmdia, the most considerable of the earlier works of that
class, was long held in very high estimation. It was pub-
lished in 1630, in two large folio volumes, the whole
having been composed by himse.lf. His Thesaurus Chrono-
logioe has gone through several editions. He published
in 1627 a treatise, De Mille Annis, in which he assert
638
A L S — A L T
that tUe reijjTi of the saints on earth was to begin in
161/4.
.ALSTON, Chabces, M.D., a botanical and medical
v.riter, was born iu the west of Scotland in the year 1C83.
He began his studies at the university of Glasgow ; and on
the death of his father, prosecuted them under the patron-
age of the Duchess of Hamilton. AStcr studying at Ley-
den under Boerhaave, along with Alexander Monro (1710-
19), he returned to Edinburgh, and shared with Monro,
Rutherford, Sinclair, and Plummer, the honour of la}'ing
the foundation of the renowned school of medicine there.
He lectured on botany and materia medica with increasing
reputation till his death in November 1700. He was a
man of great ability, and an assiduous student of science.
His most valuable work is his Lectures on MaXeria Medica,
1 vols., 1770.
ALSTKOEMER, Jonas, a Swedish industrial reformer,
was born at Alingsaes, in West Gothland, on the 7th Jan.
1 085. He left his native village at an early age, and in
1707 became clerk to Alberg, a merchant of Stockholm,
■whom he accompanied to London. After carrying on
business for three years, Alberg failed, and Alstrom (as
the clerk then called himself) engaged in the business of
shipbroker on his own account, which eventually proved
very successful. After travelling for several years on the
Continent, he was seized with the patriotic desire to trans-
plant to his native country some of the industries he had
seen flourishing in Britain. He accordingly returned to
Alingsaes, and in 1724 established a woollen factory in the
village, which after preliuunary difficulties was completely
successful. He next established a sugar refinery at Gothen-
burg ; introduced improvements in the cultivation of
potatoes and of plants suitable for dyeing ; and directed
attention to improved methods in shipbuilding, tanning,
and the manufacture of cutlery. But his most successful
undertaking was the importation of sheep from England,
Spain, and Angora. 'In return for his services he received
many marks of distinction. He was created (1748) knight
of the order of the North Star ; and a few years later re-
ceived letters of nobility, with permission to change his
name to Aistromer. He died June 2, 1701, leaving several
works on practical industrial subjects. A statue was erected
to his honour in the exchange at Stockholm. One of his
sons, Clas {i.e., Claude), was a naturaUst of considerable
eminence.
ALT, or Alhta, a tributary of the Danube, which,
rising in the eastern Carpathian mountains, flows through
Transylvania and Wallachia, entering the latter by the
pass of Rothenthurm, and joins the Danube opposite
Nicopoli, after a course of more than 300 miles.
ALTAI MOUNTAINS, a group of mountains in central ,
Asia, separating the table-lands of Mongolia from Siberia.
The irregular chains of which the group consists extend
from 85° to 103° E. long., and from 48° to 34° N. lat.
The great Siberian rivers, the Obi, Irtish, and Yenesei,
take their rise in these mountains, which are said to abound
in scenes of picturesque beauty. The highest summits
exceed 12,000 feet. The range is rich in mineral produc-
tions, particularly silver, copper, and iron. See Asia, and
Geography, Physical.
ALTAMURA, a cathedral town in the south of Italy,
provmce of Terra di Bari, 28 miles S.W. of BarL It is
situated in a fertile country, which produces wine and oil,
and is said to occupy the site of the ancient Lupaiia.
Population, 17,365.
ALTAR, in Classical Antiquity, was a soh'd base or
pedestal on which supplication was made and sacrifice
ofi'ered to the gods and deified heroes. According to this
difference in the service for which they were employed,
tJtars fell into two classes, of which the one, smaller and
Fio.1.— Greek altar:
usuaI form.
lower 80 that the suppliant could kneel upon it, stood
inside temples, in front of the sacred image ; while the
other, destined for burnt sacrifice, was pkced in the open
air, and, if connected with a temple, in frontof the entrance.
Possibly altars of the former class were substitutes for, and Grct-k scJ
rendered the same service in historical times as, in an early ''"""an
age, the base of the sacred imago within a temple. In ^'^'^
this case the altar of Apollo at Delphi, on which Neopto-
lemus is frequently represented on the Greek vases as
taking refuge from Orestes, might be regarded as the
pedestal of an invisible image of the
god, and as fulfilling the same function
as did the base of the actual image of I
ilinerva in Troy, towards which Cas-
sandra fled from Ajax. The other class
of altars, called /Joi^oi by the Greeks and
altaria by the Romans, appear to have
originated in such temporary construe- T
tions as heaps of earth, turf, or stone,
made as occasion o8"ered for kindling
a fire for sacrifice. The next step was
to allow the bones and ashes of the victims sacrificed
to accumulate, and upon this to kindle new fires. Altars
so raised were viewed with particular sanctity, the most
remarkable recorded instances of them being the altars
of Juno at Samils and at Olympia (Pausanias, v. 14, 5;
V. 15, 6), of Apollo at Thebes (Pausanias, ix. 11, 5), and
of Jupiter at OljTnpia. The last-mentioned stood on a
platform (xpo^vo-is) measuring 125 feet in circumference,
and led up to by steps, the altar itself being 22 feet higL
Women were excluded from the platform. AMiere heca-
tombs were sacrificed, the vpoOva-ii necessarily assumed
colossal proportions, as in the case of the altar at Parion,
where it measured on each side 600 feet. The altar
of Apollo at Delos (6 Kepdnvo^ fiiofuoi) was made of
the horns of deer believed to have been slain by Diana ;
while at Miletus was an altar composed of the blood of
victims sacrifieed. The altar used at the festival in honour
of Dsdalus on Mount Cithaeron was of wood, and was
consumed along with the sacrifice (Pausanias, ix 3, 2).
Others, of bronze, are mentioned; but while these were
exceptional, the usual material of an altar was marble,
and its form, both among the Greeks and Romans, either
square or round ; polygo-
W^^.
n^t
nal altars, of which ex-
amples Btill exist, being
exceptions. \Vhen sculp-
tured decorations were
added they frequently
took the form of imita-
tions of the actual festoons
with which it was usual to
ornament altars, or of sym
bols, such as crania and
horns of oxen, referring
to the victims sacrificed
As a rult, the altars
which existed apart from
temples bore the name
of the person by whom
they were dedicated, and
the names of the deities in whose service they were; or, if
not the name, some obvious representation of the deity.
Such is the purpose of the figures of the Muses on an altar
to them in the British Museum An altar was retained for
the service of one particular god, except where, through local
tradition, two or more deities had become intimately asso-
ciated, as in the case of the altar at Oljnnpia to Diana and
Alpheus jointly, or that of Neptune and Erechtheus in the
Erechtheum at Athens, and other-. Such deities were styled
Lii Greek AJtar.
ALTAR
639
^[i^M/jLct, each haTuig a separate part of the altar, if we
may judge from that at the Ainphiareum at Oropos (Pau-
sanias, i. 34, 2). Deities of an inferior order, -who were
conceived as working together — e.ff., the wind gods — had
an altar in common. In the same way, the "unknown
gods" were regarded as a unit, and had in Athens and at
Olympia one altar for all (Pausanias, L 1, 4; v. 14, 5;
(\cts of Apostles, xvii. 18). An altar to aU the gods is
mentioned by iEschylus (SuppL v. 225). Among the excep-
tional classes of altars are also to be mentioned those on
which iire could not be kindled (/Su/ial airvpoi.), and those
which were kept ifee from blood (/3o3fxol ai'at/xaKTot), of
which in both respects the altar of Zeus Hypatos at Athens
was an example. The Io-tm was a round altar ; the tixxapa,
one employed- apparently for sacrifice to inferior deities or
heroes, or on comparatively unimportant occasions, as was
also the ara among the Romans ; though ara is sometimes
used with the same signification as altare, and etymo-
logically would have the same meaning if it is correctly
derived from dcipo!, not from ardere; while altare is con-
iftcted with altns, " high."
Egyptian Egyptian altars were monoliths, in the form of a truncated
Altars. cone about four feet in height. Some are extant, made of
granite, others of green basalt; in almost every case they
bear hieroglyphical inscriptions. In the temple of Jupiter
a.t Babylon there was an altar of massive gold. Assyrian,
Egyptian, .^nd Persian altars were either square or oblong.
Biblical The most ancient altars of which any record has been
Altars. preserved are those mentioned in the Bible. As sacrifice
impUes an alta?; there must have been altars for those of
Cain and Abel; but the first which is mentioned is that
which Noah after the flood "builded unto Jehovah" (Gen.
viiL 20). The three patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
are repeatedly said to have built an altar in the different
parts of the land of Canaan, in which they Sojourned ; and
though it is not stated expressly, yet it may be inferred
from there having evidently been a place where Abraham,
wasjaccustomed to "stand before Jehovah" [ibid. xix. 27),
that, once built, it remained during the whole^'period of
the encampment at the particular place, and was frequently
used for the purpose of sacrificing.
But the most remarkable altar mentioned m the book of
Genesis is that which Abraham buOt for the sacrifice of
his son Isaac, from which we glean several particulars
relative to the patriarchal worship. The altar was evi-
dently something distinct from the wood by whose fire the
sacrifice was to be burnt, for Abraham " built an altar and
laid the wood in order," which he had brought with hirii
from Beersheba, as^f he could not count upon finding it at
the place. The victim also was bound, laid upon the
wood, and there, slain. This was -contrary to the practice
under the Levitical dispensation, when the fire on the top
of the altar was kept continually burning, and the animal
was killed before being carried up to it ; but it is pro-
bably alluded to in a verse of the Psalms, which has given
much trouble to conunentaton . who have tried to reconcile
it with the precepts of the Mosaic law — " Bind the sacrifice
with cords unto the horns of the altar" (Ps. cxviiL 27).
To this simple patriarchal ritual belong also the rules
about the construction of altars given to the Israelites
shortly after they left Egypt (Exod. xx. 2*=-2C). -While
sojourning in that country they lio not seem to have
offered any sacrifice to Jehovah, till, just as they were
leaving it, they were commanded to sacrifice the passover.
[t is not unlikely that they might have despised the simple
altars of their forefathers, and tried to imitate those which
they had seen in Egypt, as they so soon copied their late
oppressors in a still graver matter, the making a supposed
hkeness of the Deity. They were therefore ordered to
make their altars of earth. Stones mi^ht also .be used,
but they were not to be hewn, nor were the altars to be so
high as to require th6 offerer to go up by steps to arrange
the sacrifices upon them.
The first altar, that is Mentioned as ha^dng been built
after these directions were given, was the one for the
solemn covenanting sacrifice between God and the Israelites
(Ex. xxiv. 4-8). There it is mentioned that Moses " builded
an altar under the hiU, and twelve pillars, according to
the twelve tribes of Israel" Its being under the hUl
may have been a significant protest against the prevalent
heathen error of localising the Deity in the sky, and the
twelve pillars or rough blocks of stone appear to have been
a principal part of the materials used in constructing it.
They may be compared with the " twelve stones, according
to the number of the tribes of the sons of Jacob," with
which Elijah buUt his altar on Carmel (1 Kings xviii. 31).
We seem to learn from these examples that when an altar
was to be constructed for a special occasion, it Was fitting
that it should bear a sj-mboUsm of all in whose name the
sacrifice was ofi'ered. It is to be observed that this precept
about making altars of earth or of unhewn stones was
anterior to the Levitical ceremonial, and was superseded
by it. After the sin of making the golden calf, the whole
ceremonial of the worship of the IsraeUtes was altered.
According to the new ritual, two different altars were
required, and they were permanent, being carried about in
the people's wanderings, and replaced by others, similar,
but larger and more costly, when the ark was placed in
the temple on Mount Moriah.
The first of these altars was that for burnt oferings.
For the tabernacle this was hollow, made of boards of
shittim-wood, covered with brass. It was three cubits or
about five feet high, and five cubits or e]ght feet square.
It had a horn at each corner, and was carried about by
means of staves. The corresponding altar in the temple
was of greatly larger dimensions, ten cubits or about 1 8 feet
high, and in the' first temple 20 cubits square, and in the
second 24 cubits. The tradition of the Jews is, that it was
32 cubits (about 50 feet) square at the base, contracting to
24 at the top, by several ledges round it at different
heights. It must therefore have been an inynense struc-
ture, and though called " an altar of brass," was probably
built of stones, and merely covered with plates of that
metal From the account of the building of the altar in
the second temple givea,,in 1 Mace. iv. 45-4", it is pro-
bable that it consisted merely of a mass of masonry of
the proper form. Ezekiel, in his vision of the temple,
gives a% description - of the altar of burnt-offerings, from
which we learn that it was surrounded by several ledges
or steps, each a cubit broad. The uppermost of these
was two cubits (about J feet) below the top of the altar,
so that, standing upon it, the priest was able to arrange
the sacrifice upon the fire, which was kept always burning,
to supply it with fuel, and to remove the ashes. The
lower ledges were to enable him to sprinkle the blood on
the sides of the altar, which (according to the Levitical
ritual) was sometimes to be done on the upper part of the
altaj, and sometimes on the lower part. The lowest step
is said to have had a raised ledge on the outside, by which
the blood poured upon it was confined till it ran through
a hole into a subterranean pipe.
One of the most difficult questions about the Levitical
altars is their having horns ; for these do not seem to have
been used m that ritual, yet they acu specially ordered to
be made, not only in the altar of burnt-offerings, but ,a1so
in that of incense ; and on certain solemn occasions they
were sprinkled with blood, as if thSy were not mere append-
ages .or ornaments of the altar, but had a special signi-
ficance of their own. , From the way they are spoken of in
the book of Exodus, we see that thev must then have beea
G40
Altar
well kiio\vn, and it might almost be thought that tncy were
retaiued from the older ritual, according to which they
were used to bind the victim that was slain upon the altar.
The second temple having suffered greatly in the wars
betwcan the kings, of Syria and Egypt, and been plundered
by the T. ir.ans, was almost rebuilt by Herod, the restoia-
tion occupying forty-sU years. The altar of bumt-ofl'ering
erected then is thus described by Josephus (De Jlell. Jud.
V. 5, G) : — " Before this temple stood the altar, 15 cubits
high, and equal both in length and breadth, each of which
dimensions was 50 cubits. The figure it was built in was
a square : it had corners like horns, and the passage up to
it was by an insensible acclivity from tho south. It was
formed without any iron tool, nor did any iron tool so
much as touch it at any time." A pips was connected
with the south-west horn, through which tho blood of tho
victims was discharged by a subterraneous passage into the
brook Kedron. Under the altar was a cavity to receive
the drink-offerings. This was covered with a marble slab,
and cleansed from time to time. On the north side of the
altar several iron rings were fixed to fasten the victims.
Lastly, a red line was drawn round the middle of the altar
Ifc- distinguish between the blood that was to bo sprinkled
above and below it.
Tho second altar belonging to the Jewish worship was
the altar of incense, the golden altar (Ex. xxx. 1 ). It was
placed in the holy place, between the table of show-bread
and the golden candlestick. Tliis altar, in the tabernacle,
was made of shittim-wood overlaid witli gold plates, 1 cubit
in length and breadth, and 2 cubits in height. It had
horns of the same materials ; and round the flat surface
was a border of wrought gold, underneath which were the
rings to receive " the staves, made of aJiittim-wood overlaid
with gold, to bear it withal;" (Exod. xxx. 1-5; Joseph.
AnCiq. iii. 6, 8). The altar in Solomon's temple was similar
in form, but made o' cedar overlaid with gold (1 Kings
vi. 20). It is a question whetho it was hollow or filled
up with stones, tho construction of the Hebrew being doubt-
ful, but the former supposition appears the more probable.
The altar in the second temple was taken away by Antiochus
Epiphanes (1 Mace. i. 21), and restored by Judas Maccabseus
(1 Mace. iv. 49). The archangel Gabriel stood at the right
side of this altar when he annouijced the birth of John
the Baptist to Zacharias, who was burning incense upon it
(Luke i. 11); and it is alluded to bs. the vision shown to
St John (Rev. viii. 3), where it is immediately " before the
throne," the veil, which under the Mosaic dispensation
had separated it from the holy of holies, having been rent
asunder at the criicifixion.
On this altar incense was offered twice every day, and
this was the only use of incense under theLevitical ritual;
for though the word "censer" is repeatedly used in our
common translation of the Old Testament, neither in tte
Hebrew nor the Greek has the word any connection with
incense, but denotes- the fire-pan in which the IjErning
charcoal was carried from the brazen altar to be emptied
out upon that of incense. The true equivalent for censer
is only used of sinful or heathen worship (2 Ohron. xxvi. 1 i ;
Ezek. vui. 11, and perhaps 2 Chron. xxx. 14). The. fire-
pans used as censers in the story of Korah, and of the
atonement subsequently made tiy Aaron burning incense
among the people, do not belong to the Levitical ritual,
but were to prove whether it was to be observed or
not.
The single exception to the exclusive use of the golden
altar for incense was on the great day of atonement, when
the high priest went into the holy of holies, carrying a
fire-pan containing lighted charcoal from the great altar,
and having set it down, threw incense upon it, and left it
• or some time before the ark while he went and came
back once and again to sprinkle it with the blood of the
sacrifices. This firepan is accordingly called a golden
censer by the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews (ix. 4);
but even this is no precedent for the smnging censers
which have been used for so many centuries in tho Latin
churches. Incense, indeed, was put on the loaves of shew-
bread ; but it does not appear tliat it was burned upon
that table, which is nowhere called an altar. More pro-
bably, ;j'hen the loaves were taken away, the incense was
burnt* oili the proper altar. But the shew-bread was so
complctuly special an appointment of the Mosaic ritual
that it is impossible to class it among sacrifices.
Among the early Christians, alike in the East and West, Chrirtmi
that on which the bread and wine were put in the celebra- ttltars.
tion of the Eucharist appears to have been regarded aa an
altar, and accordingly sacrificial words were used in connec-
tion with it, such as "offering," "unbloody sacrifice." It
should be observed, however, that the Greek fathers
scarcely ever apply the word /3ui//os to Christian altars,
confining themselves to dviruurn^ptov ; while in the West
there seems to have been a preference for altare rather
than ara, though the latter term is often found. Aa the
Christians generally shrunk from disclosing to the. heathen
the details of their worship, their enemies used t-a taunt
tkem with having neither temples nor altars, and some of
tho apologists admit this ; but all they meant by this was
that they had no such altars as the heathen had, altars for
slain beasts and for the burning of their bodies.
From the privacy with which the early believers had to
meet, their altars at first would naturally be simple aiid
unobtrusive. We have seen that the Levitical altars were
four-square, but Christian altars seem to have been always
longer than they were broad, and to have been placed
"athwart" the length of the basilica or church, so as to
present one of the broad sides and bo.th the sacred vessels
to the eyes of the great body of the worshippers.
There does not seem to have been any rule as to the
material of which altars might be made. At first they
appear to have been mostly of wood, as being easily pro-
cured and fashioned. But. when the persecutions ceased,
and the Cliristians began to erect churches for worship,
there seems to have sprung up some diversity V>1 usage,
each province following its own traditional custom, which
perhaps was affected in some degree by the nature of the
building-stone found there, and the use commonly made
of it. It seems that in Egypt and the region afterwards
called Barbary the altars were of wood ; and there is a
tradition that this was also the case originally at Home.
On the other band, in the latter half of the 4th century,
they were made of stone in Asia Minor. Early in the 6th
century a council, held at Epaone in Burgundy, ordered
that only altars made of stone should be consecrated with
the chrism, which shows that wooden altars also were still
made in that province. In England the change from wood
to stone seems to have taken place about the time of the
Norman Conquest, WuUstan, bishop of Worcester, being
mentioned as having introduced it in liis diocese. No
doctrinal significance can be ascribed to the change, which
was simply in keeping with the greater costliness of the
whole structure, when the cessation of the inroads of the
Scandinavian sea-kings allowed the nations of Western
Europe to accumulate wealth, of which a portion was
dedicated to religion. A few exceptional instances are
Cientioned o' altars of silver, and they were sometimes
even covered in part with plates of gold ; but the current
set in steadily in favour of stone as the most suitable
material, and by degrees the legislation of the Latin church
on this point grew more definite. The altar could only be
of stone ; not that it was necessary tiat the whole struc-
ture should be so, for it was enough if there was a slab of
ALTAR
641
stone on the top large enough for the sacred vessels to
stand upon ; the upper face of the altar must have five
crosses incised in the stone ; before being used, it must
have been consecrated by the bishop with the chrism,
according to the ritual prescribed in the pontificals, which
by degrees grew more elaborate; and at first a plain cross,
and afterwards a crucifix, was placed erect upon it.
At the Reformation the altars in churches were looked
npon as symbols of the old Catholic doctrine, in those
countries where the stniggle lay between the Catholics and
the " Reformed " or Calvinists, who on this point went
much further than the Lutherans. In England the name
" altar" was retained in the Communion Office in English,
printed in 1548, and in the complete English Prayer-book
of the followins year, known to students as the First Book
of Edward. But orders were given soon after that the
altars should be destroyed, and replaced by movable
wooden tables; while from the revised Prayer-book of
1552 the word "altar" was carefidly expunged. The short
reign of Mary reversed all this, but the work was resumed
on the accession of EUzabeth, and has been carried out so
thoroughly that the industry of recent antiquaries has only
been able to find about thirty cases in all England where
the old stone altar-slabs still exist, and of these that at
Arundel is almost the only one which is stiU used.
The name " altar" has been all along retained in the
Coronation Office of the kings of England, where it Occurs
fi"equently. It was also recognised in the canons of 1C40,
and an important change was then made in the posi-
tion of the communion tables, which has become universal
throughout the Church of England. In primitive times
the position of the Christian altar seems to have been such
that, like the Jewish and patriarchal altars, they could be
surrounded on all sides by the worshippers. The chair of
the bishop or celebrant was on their west side, and the
assistant clergy were ranged on each side of him. But in
the Middle Ages the altars were placed against the east wall
of the churches, or else a screen, called a reredos (generally
much decorated with carving), was erected close to the east
of the altar, so as to cut off' any one on that side from
joining in the worship, and the celebrant was brought
round to the west side, to stand between the people and
the alCir ; while there were often curtains on the north
and south sides. When tables were substituted for altars
in the English churches, these were not merely movable,
but at the administration of the Lord's Supper were actually
moved into the body of the church, and placed table-wise
as it was called — that is, with the long sides turned to the
north and south, and the narrow ends to the east and
west — the officiating clergyman standing at the north side.
In the time of Archbishop Laud, however, the present
practice of the Church of England was introduced. The
communion table, though still of wood and movable, is, as
a matter of fact, never moved; it is placed altar-wise —
that is, with its longer axis running north and south, and
close against the east wall, with for the most part a reredos
behind it ; it is also fenced in by rails, within which the
laity do not enter.
When, under the superintendence and partly at the
charge of the Camden Society, the church of Saint Sepul-
chre at Cambridge, founded 1101, was restored, a stone
altar, consisting of a flat slab resting upon three other
upright slabs, was presented to the parish, and set up in
the church at the east wall of the chancel This circum-
stance was brought before the Court of Arches in 1845,
and Sir H. Jenner Fust {Faulkner v. Lichfield and Stearnf
ordered it to be removed, on the ground that a stone struc-
ture so weighty that it could not bo moved, and Seemilig
to b(J a mass of solid masonry, was not a communion-table
rithin the meaning of the Church of England. No attempt
1—22
has been made to obtain a reversal of this judgment-; but
from other decisions some infer that only such altars aa
.cannot also be considered as tables are forbidden.
Few particulars have come down to us regarding the
construction of the wooden altars used by the Christian
Church in eariy times, except that several circumstances
indicate that they were hollow. Gregory of Tours applies
the word "area" or "chest" to them; and in other cases
they must have been simply like ordinary tables supported
by legs, since we read of persons taking refuge beneath
them. There is nothing, therefore, either in the matter
or the form of the' ordinary EngUsh communion-t;ibles, to
prevent them- serving as altars. The stone altars at first
were probably only one or more blocks of rough hewn
stone; but by degrees they were ornamented, and this
produced two different types. Either the altar remained
a solid mass of masonry, but had its front richly panelled
(in later times it had figures in bas-relief), or the upper
slab was supported by from one to five columns, often of
highly-polished stone. It was in the 16th century that a
new fashion was introduced in France, according to which
the altar was regarded as b'ing itself a tomb or sarcophagus,
and to which are due thp unsightly altars which now dis-
figure the wonderfully beautiful mediaeval churches of that
country. So complete was the change, that now, perhaps,
there are not more ancient altars in France than there are
in Engjand.
In early times, before the altars were placed close to the
east wail or to a large reredos, they were often surmounted
by a canopy or baldacchino, supported by four pillars rising
from the ground just beyond the corners of the altar.
At first there was but one altar in a church; but for
many centuries this nile has been disregarded in the Latin
churches, and almost every large church contains several
altars dedicated in honour of diiferent saints, and sometimes
appropriated to the use of particular guilds, or endowed for
a series of masses for the repose of the founder. These,
however, must not be confounded with the principal altar,
called the high altar or maitre autel, situated towards the
east end of the choir or chanceL A few cases occur where
there are two high altars, the second being placed near the
west end of the church.
Altars are "vested" during service; that is, covered
with cloths of various*kinds. There is often a frontal,
richly embroidered, whose colour depends upon the ecclesi-
astical season or the particular festival ; but in all cases
the uppermost cloth on the top is of Unen, to r^resent
that in which the body of the Lord was wrapped in the
sepulchre.
Since the age of Bede, portable altars have been used in
the Latin Church ; but the East has never adopted them,
and they quite put out of sight the symbolism of the form
of an altar. They consist simply of a small slab of stone,
large enough to support the chalice and paten. This must
bear the incised crosses and must have been consecrated
by the bishop. They may be carried about on a journey
by a bishop or priest in a heathen or heretical country, as
now it is not allowed to say, mass except on a duly conse-
crated altar, and they are also used in oratories attached
to private houses.
Those who wish to investigate the matter further may
be referred to the standard works on church ritual and
ecclesiastical architecture. For the altars of the Israelites,
much information will be found in Lightfoot's two treatises
on the Temple Service, and in Carpzov's notes to his trans-
lation of Godwin's Moses and Aaron. Christian altars are
described by Bona, Martene, and Bingham ; but the stand,
ard work on the subject is probably that by the Lutheran
Voigt, published after his death by J. A. Fabricius. Nearly
twenty years ago an Essay on Christian Altars, by Laib
G42
A L T — A L T
and Schwartz, appeared at Rottenburg ; while for rrancc,
the Abb(5 Thiers' Dissertation on the subject is full of"
curious information, like all his works. Drawings of
mediceval altars which have been preserved will be found
in many works on architecture. Parker's Glossary gives
the most noticeable preserved in England ; but the Die-
tionnairc de I' Architecture of Viullet le Due is much
superior, and, with its beautiful illustrations and careful
descriptions, has nearly exhausted the subject so far as
regards French examples, to which it is almost exclusively
confined. (o. n. f.)
ALTDOEF, or Altoef, a town in Switzerland, capital
of the canton of Uri, situated at the northern end of
the pass of St Gotthard, near the lake of Lucerne. It
contains the oldest Capuchin monastery in Switzerland,
but is otherwise of little interest, except as the place pointed
out by tradition where William Tell shot the apple from
Iks sou's head. The lime tree, undci which it is alleged
the boy stood, has disappeared, but a fountain still marks
the spot. There is also an old tower, with rude frescoes
commemorating the feat Biirglen, a village in the neigh-
bourhood, is Tell's reputed birthplace. Pojiulation, 272-1.
ALTDORFER, AlbbeCht, a painter and engraver of
the early German school, was born at Regensburg, not
later than 1480, and died in 1538. Ilis paintings are
remarkable for minute and careful finish, and for close
study of nature. The most important of them are to be
found in the Pinakothek at Munich. A representation of
the battle of Arbela, included in that collection, is usually
considered his chief work. His engravings on wood and
copper are very numerous, and rank next to those of
Albert Diirer.
ALTENBURG, a town in Germany, capital of the
duchy of Saxc-AJtenburg, situated near the river Pleisse,
about 2'i miles south of Leipsic. The town, from its hilly
position, is irregularly built ; but many of its streets are
wide, and contain a number of largo and beautiful build-
ings. Its ancient castle is picturesquely situated on a lofty
rock, and is memorable as the place from which, in 1455,
Kunz von Kaufungen carried off the young princes Albert
and Ernest, the founders of the present royal and ducal
families- of Saxony. Altenburg is the seat of the higher
court.s of the duchy, and possesses a cathedral and several
churches, a gymnasium, a library, a gaUery of pictures and
a school of art, several elementary schools, an infirmary,
and various learned societies. There is considerable traffic
in grain and cattle brought from the surrounding district ;
twice a year there are large horse fairs ; and the book
trade is extensive. Cigars, woollen goods, gloves, hats,
and porcelain are among the chief manufactures. Popula-
tion (1871), 19,9G6.
ALTEN GETTING, or Axtoetting, a small market
town in Upper Bavaria, situajed on the Miirn, not far from
its junction ivith the Inn. It has long been famous as a
place of pilgrimage to which Roman Catholics resort in
very large numbers, especially from Austria, Bavaria, and
Swabia, on account of a celebrated image of the Virgin
Mary in one of the churches. Another church contains the
tomb of Tilly. Population, 1500.
ALTENSTELN, a castle upon a rocky mountain in
Saxe-Meiningen, on ♦?!« south-western slope of the Thiir-
inger Wald, not iai irom Eisenach. It is the summer
residence of the dukes of Meiningen, and is surrounded
by a noble ra'k, which contains, among otlier objects of
interest, a r«narkable underground cavern, 500 feet long,
through which flows a large and rapid stream. Boniface,
the apostle of the Germans, lived and preached at Alten-
stein in 724 ; and near the castle is the place from which,
in 1521, Luther was seized, to be carried off to the Wart-
burg. There used to be an old beech called " Luther's
tree," which association connected with the Reformer, but
it was blown down in 1841, and a small monument now
stands in its place.
ALTIN, a lake of Siberia, which gives rise to the Bija,
one of the head streams of the Obi, iB situated among the
Altai mountains, 320 miles south of the city of Tomsk.
It is about 80 miles long, and its greatest breadth is about
50 miJc-s; but the large quantities of melted snow which
flow down from the surrounding mountains make it larger
in summer than in winter. It is remarkable that in
winter the northern part is frozen so hard as to be passable
on sledges, while the southern is never covered with ice.
ALTING, Heineich, a German divine, was born at
Embdcn in 1583. His father, Menso Alting, was minister
of Embden, and early destined his son to the same pro-
fession. He studied with great assiduity and success at
the universities of Herbom and Groningen. In 1C08, he
was appointed tutorof Frederick, afterwards elector-palatine,
at Heidelberg, and in 1612 accompanied him to England.
Returning in 1613 to Heidelberg after the marriage of the
elector with the Princess Elizabeth of England, he was
appointed professor of theology, and in 1616, director of
the Collegium Sapientice. In 1618, along with Scultetus,
he represented the university in the synod of Dort. When
Coimt Tilly took the city of Heidelberg, and handed it
over to plunder, Altingi found great difficulty in escaping
the fury of the soldiers. He first retired to Schomdorf;
but in 1623 he removed with his family to Embdcn, and
afterwards followed to the Hague his late pupil, the Elector
Frederick, who had been compelled to flee from his new
kingdom of Bohemia. Sucl>i^as the regard this prince
had for Alting that he made him preceptor to his eldest
son, and prevented him from accepting the charge of
the church at Embden, and likewise a professorship in
the university of Franeker. In 1627, Alting, with some
difficulty, obtained leave from his patron to remove to
Groningen, where he was appointed to the chair of divinity;
and there he continued to lecture, with increasing reputa-
tion, until his death, which took place in 1644. Alting was
a man of great ability and extensive learning. Among
the productions of his pen are: — Notae in Decadem Pro-
blematum Jacobi Behm, Heidelberg, 1618; Scripta Theolo-
gica Heidelbergensia, Amst 1662; Exegesis Augustance
Confessionis, Amst 1647.
ALTING, Jacob, son of the preceding, was bom at
Heidelberg in 1618. He studied theology and the Oriental
languages at Groningen, and in 1638 he put himself under
the tuition of a Jewish rabbi at Embden. In 1640 he
went to England, and was admitted to clerical orders by Dr
Prideaux, bishop of Worcester'; but an offer of the Hebrew
professorship in the imiversity of Groningen induced him
to return to Holland in 1643. In 1667 he was appointed
professor of theology in the university. In this office he
gave great offence to his colleague, Samuel Desmarets, by
his disuse of the scholastic method of teaching. Desmereta
preferred a charge of heresy against him; but the divines
at Leyden pronounced that Alting was not guilty of any-
thing more serious than imprudent fondness for innovation.
Alting died of a fever in 1679. The fondness which he
showed for rabbinical learning gave birth to the general re-
port that he was inclined to become a Jew. His opinions,
which seem to have excited more general attention than
they deserve, may be seen in his writings, which were
collected a few years after his deatji, and published in
five volumes folio, bv Ms pupU, the well-known Balihasar
Bekker.
ALTON, a town of Hampshire, on the Wey, 17 miles
E. of Winchester, and 47 S.^V■. of London by road; by the
London and South- Western Railway it is 60 mOes Irom
London. Large markets and fairs are held for com, hops,
A L T — A L L
G43
cattle, and sleep; and the tovm contains some highly
reputed ale breweries, besides paper manufactories and an
iron foundry. The church, a fine old building, was the
scene of a fierce conflict between the royalist and parlia-
menta'ry troops in IQJrS. Population in 1871, 4092.
ALTON, a town in Madison county, Illinois, United
States, stands on a high bluff on the left bank of the
Mississippi, 21 miles above St Louis, and 3 above the
mouth of the Jlissouri. It is a place of considerable
importance, and carries on a thriving export trade in the
produce of the surrounding country — grain, hay, fniit,
coal, and hme. It has an excellent wharf, and good means
of communication by railway, the two great lines from
Chicago and Indianopohs having their junction at Alton.
The town contains a Roman Catholic cathedral, about ten
other churches belonging to various sects, and several
schools. It has also a printing trade, with daUy and
■weekly newspapers. Population in 1870, 8665.
ALTONA, the richest and most populous city of the
Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, is situated on the
north bank of the Elbe, so close to Hamburg that the two
cities are virtually one. The rise of Altona to its present
position has been rapid, at least for a continental city, and
b mainly due to the fostering care of the Danish govern-
ment, who established it as a rival to Hamburg. In 1640,
when it became the property of Denmark, it was a sruall
fishing village; in 1871 it contained 74,131 inhabitants.
After the war of 1864 it ceased to belong to Denmark,
and eventually became part of Prussia, although, with
Hamburg, it is not included in the ZoUverein. It carries
on a large trade with Britain, France, the "West Indies,
and other countries; but it has by no means succeeded in
depriving Hamburg of its commercial pre-eminence — great
part of the business of Altona being, indeed, transacted
on the Hamburg exchange. Tobacco is probably the chief
manufacture, but there are also breweries, tanneries, oil-
Works, soap-works, and linen factories. Altona is a well-
built modem town, really dating from 1713 (when the
Swedes burnt it to the ground), with a higher situation
than that of Hamburg, and consequently a purer and
healthier atmosphere. It contains an observatory of some
celebrity, several churches, two synagogues, a gymnasium,
and an infirmary. It is the terminus of the Altona-Kiel
Railway, which places it in coimection with the principal
towns of Schleswig-Holstein.
ALTOONA, a town of the United States, in Blair county,
Pennsylvania, on the Central Railway, 244 tniles west of
Philadelphia, situated near the eastern base of the Alle-
ghany Mountain, where the railroad begins to ascend it.
It contains extensive locomotive and railway carriage manu-
factories belonging to the Pennsylvania Central Railway
Company. Near Altoona is the famous " Horse Shoe
Bend," where trains of but ordinary length are seen to be
moving in opposite directions at the same time. The line
of railway, in its ascent between Altoona and Cresson,
winds round the side of the mountain, affording some of
the finest mountain scenery on the continent. Population
in 1870, 10,610.
ALTO-RILIEVO (kiffh relief) is the term appUed to
sculpture that projects from the plane to which it is attached
to the extent of more than one-half the, outline of the
principal figures. It is thus distinguished f.-om hasso-rilievo,
in which there is a greater or less approximation to the
pictorial method, the figures being made to appear as pro-
jecting more than half their outline without actually doing
so. See Rf.likf and Scitlpti/RE.
ALTRINOHAM, or Altrincham, a market town in
the north of Cheshire, .8 miles south of Manchester, with
which it is connected by railway. It is a neat, clean place,
surrounded by villas of Manchester manufacturers, who
are attracted by its healthy climate and pleasant situation.
It has no parish church, but there is a chapel of ease
belonging to the parish of Bowdon, in which it is situated,
and also a Roman Catholic and several dissenting places
of worship. Yam, worsted, and cotton are the chief
manufactures; and large quantities of fruit and vegetables
are sent to the Manchester market. Population in 1871,
8478.
ALUM, a compound salt employed in dyeing and
various other industrial processes. It is soluble in water,
has an astringent, acid, and sweetish taste ; reddens vege-
table blues, and crystallises in regular octahedrons. When
heated, it liquefies ; and if the heat be continued, the
water of crystallisation is driven off, the salt frctbes and
swells, and at last a white matter remains, known by the
name of burnt alum.
Its constituents are sulphuric acid, alununa, an alkali,
and water. The alkali may be either jxitash, soda, or
ammonia. Hence there are three distinct species of altim,
depending upon the nature of the alkali wiiich each con-
tains. Potash alum (in which the alkali is potash) is the
common alum of this country, although both soda alum
and ammoniacal alum are manufactured. The term alum
is now used in chemistry as a generic Qne, and is applied
to the class of double salts formed by the union of the
sulphates of alumina, chromium, or iron with the sulphates
of the alkalies. The composition of the ordinary potash
alum is represented by the formula AlK(SOj).- 12HjO.
The progress made by chemists in the discovery of the
constitution of alum was very slow. The species first
investigated was potash alum. That it contained sulphuric
acid as a constituent was known even to the alchemists.
Pott and Marggraff demonstrated that alumina was another
constituent. Pott, in his Lithojeognosia, showed that
the earth of alum, or the precipitate obtained when an
alkah is poured into a solution of alum, is quite different
from lime and chalk, with which it had been confounded
by Stahl. Marggraff went much farther. He not only
showed that alumina is one of the constituents of alum,
but that this earth possesses peculiar properties, is different
from every other substance, and is one of the ingredients
in common clay (" Experiences faites sur la Terre d'Alun,"
Marggraff's Opiisc. iL 111). Marggraff sho-s^ed likewise,'
by many experiments, that crystals of alum cannot be
obtained by dissolving alumina in sulphuric acid, and
evaporating the solutions. The crystals formed are always
soft, and quite different in their appearance from alum
crj'stals. But when a solution of potash or ammonia is
dropt into this liquid, it immediately deposits perfect
cr}'stal3 of alum ("Sur la Ri^generation de I'Alun," Marg-
graff's Opusc. ii. 86). He mentions likewise that manu-
facturers of alum in general were unable to procure the
salt without a similar addition, that at first it had been
customary to add a quantity of putrid urine, and that
afterwards a solution of carbonate of potash was sub-
stituted in its place. But subsequent chemists dp not
seem to have paid much attention to these important
observations of Marggraff: they still continued, without
any rigid examination, to consider alum Ss a sulphate of
alumina.
Bergmann indeed had observed that the addition of
potash or ammonia made the alum crjstallise; but that the
same effect was not produced by the addition of soda or of
lime ("De Corifcctione Alumini3,"Bergmann'sO/)MS(;. i. 225).'
Ho had observed likewise that sulphate of potash is' fre-
quently found in alum. He decomposed the solution 'of
alum by means of anamonia, evaporated the Altered liquid
to drjTiess, and exposed the residue to a red heat »<-A
quantity of sulphate of potash often remained behind iu
the crucible (ibicU, p. 326). ' From these facts he drew
644
ALUM
the conclusion that sulphate of potaah readily combines
with sulphate of alumina.
After KJaproth had discove'ed the existence of potash
as an ingredient in leuciie and lepidolite, it occurred to
Vauquelin that it was probably an ingredient likewLse in
many other minerals. He recollected that alum crystals
often make their appearance during the analysis of stony
bodies ; and, considering that alum cannot bo obtaiiied
in crystals without the addition of potash, ho began to
suspect that this alkali constituted an essential ingredient
in the salt. A set of experijuents, undertaken on purpose
to elucidate this important point, soon satisBed Imn that
his conjecture was well-founded. Accordingly, in the
year 1797 he published a dissertation demonstrating that
alum is a double salt, composed of sulphuric acid, alumina,
and potash {Annates de Chimie, xxiL 258). Soon after,
Chaptal published the analysis of four different kind.s of
alum, namely, Roman alum, Levant alum, British alum,
and alum manufactured by himself. This analysis led
to the same result as that of Vauquelin I Ann. de Chim.
iiii. 260).
Since that time alum has been admitted by chemists to
be a triple salt, and various analyses of it have been made
to determine its constituents. Vauquelin (Ann. de Chim.
L 167), Thenard and Roard [ibid., torn. lix. 72), Curaudau
(Journal de Physique, Ixvii. 1), and Berzclius (Ann. de
Chim. Itttii 258), successively published the results of
their experiments. These analyses gradually led '"- an
accurate knowledge of the composition of tlus salt.
One of the most remarkable differences between tne
three species of alum is the solubility of each in water.
At the temperature of 60°, 100 parts of water dissolvo—
il'37 parts of ammoniacal alom,
1479 parts of potaah alum,
327'6 parts of soda alum.
This great solubility of soda alum renders the manufacture
of it very difficult. It does not easily crystallise ; indeed,
when the weather is hot, crystals of it can hardly be
obtained. Its great solubility would render it more con-
venient and more economical for dyers and calico-printers,
provided it could be furnished at the same rate with
common alum. But the greater difficulty attending the
making of it would probably prevent it from being sale-
able at a price sufficiently low to make it available as a
mordant
Soda alum was first mentioned by Mr Winter in 1810,
in his account of the Whitby alum processes (Nicholson's
Jour. ixv. pp. 25-1, 255); but before that time it had
been made by Mr Charles Macintosh of Crossbasket. Mr
Wuliam Wilson, at Hurlet, near Glasgow, afterwards made
it in considerable quantities. Specimens of it have been
sent by Dr Gillies from the neighbourhood of Mendoza,
in South America, where it occurs native in considerable
quantity.
These three different species of alum differ also some-
what from each other in their specific gravities, which are
as follows; —
Ammoniacal alun^ 1"56
Potash alum 1'75
Boda akun 1-88'
The word alumen, which we translate alum, occurs in
Pliny's Natural History. In the 15th chapter of his 35th
book he gives us a detailed description of it. By com-
paring this with the account of oivi,\ ijpia given by Diosco-
rides in the 123d chapter of his 5th book, it is obvious
that the two are identical Pliny informs us that alumen
* Tbe-soda alum whose specific gravity is here given was the native,
from the province of St Juan, on the north of Mendoza. It contains
■603 water, and therefore Is probably heavier thjiA common soda alum. ,
was found naturally in the earth. lie calls it tahugo
terrcB. Different substances, he informs us, were dis-
tinguished by the name of alumen ; but they were all
characterised by a certain degree of astringency, and were
all erajiloyed in dyeing and medicine. The light-coloured
alumen was useful in brilliant dyes, the daik coloured only
in dyeing black or very dark colours. One species was a
liquid, which was apt to be adulterated ; but when pure
it had the property of strikicig a black with the juice of
the pomegranate. This property seems to characterise a
solution of sulphate of iron in water. It is quite obvious
that a solution of our alnm would possess no such property.
Pliny says that there is another kind of alum which the
Greeks call echislos. It forms in white threads upon the
surface of certain stones. From the name schistos, and
the mode of formation, there can be little doubt that thi«
species was the salt jvhich forms spontaneously on certain
slaty minerals, as alum slate and bituminous shale, and
which consists chiefly of sulphate of iron and sulphate of
aluuiirta. Possibly in certain places the sulphate of iron
may have been nearly wanting, and then the salt would
be white, and would answer, as Pliny says it did, for dye-
ing bright colours. Several other specjps. of alumen are
described by Pliny, but we are unable to make out to what
minerals ho alludes.
The alumen of the ancients, then, was not tlie same
with the alum of the modems. It was most commonly a
sulphate of iron, sometimes probably a sulphate of alumina,
and usually a mixture of the two. But the ancients were
unacquainted with our alum. They were acquainted with
sulphate of iron in a crystallised state, and distinguished
it by the names of misy, sory, chalcanthum (Pliny, xxxiv.
12). As alum and green vitriol were applied to a variety
of purposes in common, and as both are distinguished by
a sweetish and astringent taste, writers, even after th»
discovery of alum, do not seem to have discriminated the
two salts accurately from each other. In the writings of
the alchemists we iind the words misy, sory, chalcanthum,
applied to alum as well as to sulphate of iron; and the
name atramentum suiorium, which ought to belong, one
would suppose, exclusively to green vitriol, applied in-
differently to both.
When our alum was discovered is entirely unknown.
Beckmann devoted a good deal of attention to the history of
this salt, and published a curious dissertation on the sub-
ject; but his attempts to trace its origin were unsuccessful
The manufacture of it was discovered in the East, but at
what time or place is totally unknown. It would appear
that, about four or five hundred years ago, there was a
manufactory of it at Edessa in Syria, at that time caUei
Rocca, — hence, it is supposed, the origin of the term rock
alum, commonly employed in Europe; though others allege
that the term originated at Civita Vecchia, where afum is
made from a yellow mineral which occurs in the state of a
hard rock.
Different alum works existed m the neighbourhood of
Constantinople. About the time of the fall of the Grecian
empire the art of making alum was transported into Italy,
at that period the richest and most manufacturing country
in Europe. Bartholomew Pemix, a Genoese merchant,
discovered alum ore in the island of Ischia, about the
year 1459. Nearly at the same time John di Castro,
who was well acquainted with the alum works in the
neighbourhood of Constantinople, suspected that a mine-
ral fit for yielding alum existed at Tolfa, because it was
covered with the same trees that grew on the alum mine-
ral near Constantinople. His conjecture was verified by
trials, and the celebrated manufactory at Tolfa established.
Another was begun in the neighbourhood of Genoa ; and
the maaufacture flourished in different parts of ^taly, iTo
ALUM
645
this country it was confined for the greater part of a
century. Various manufactories of it were established in
Germany by the year 1544.
England possessed no alum worka tdl the reign of
Charles I. Thomas Chaloner, eon of Dr Chaloner, who
had been tutor to Charles, while hunting on a common
in Yorkshire took notice of tha soil and herbage, and
tasted the water. He found them similar to what he had
Been in Germany where alum works were established. In
consequence of this he got a patent from Charles for an
alum work. Since that time various alum works have
been established in different parts of Great Britain, —
the most important now in operation being the Whitby
works, originally established by Mr Chaloner ; and the
works at Pendleton, near Manchester, and Qoole, York-
shire, and at Hurlet and Campsie, both in the neighbour-
hood of Glasgow.
Several alum works exist in Sweden, particularly in
West Gothland There is one, for example, at H^nsaeter,
near the borders of the Wener Lake. But for a descrip-
tion of the Swedish works we refer to Bergmann's Opus-
cula, L 284, or English translation, i 342.
Various minerals are employed in the manufacture of
alum, but by far the most important of them are the fol-
lowing three : alum-stone, alum-slate, hituminovs shale.
Alum-stone or Alunite was first observed at ToLfa, near
Rome, in the 15th century, and afterwards in Hungary
and several other places, chiefly in trachyte or other vol-
canic rocks. It appears to be produced by the action of
sulpliureous vapours on the felspars they contain, and gene-
rally occurs in compact, granular, or earthy masses, mixed
with quartz or felspar. Small crystals are found in cavities,
and are either rhombohedrons with angles of 89° 10', and
thus nearly cubes, or these with the polar angles replaced
by the basal plane. The specific gravity ranges from 2-58
to 2-752, the compact varieties being the Lighter. Its
hardness is 3 5 to 4, or rather softer than fluor spar It
has a distinct cleavage perpendicular to the axis of the
rhombohedron, and conclioidal fracture in other directions.
The pure varieties are white and colourless, but it is often
coloured greyish, yellowish, or reddish. The crystals de-
crepitate before the blowpipe, but are infusible, as well as
the compact alunite. The alum is extracted from this
mineral by repeated toasting and treating with water.
The absence of iron accounts for the superior purity for
which the Roman alum was long celebrated.
Alum-slate is a far more abundant substance, occurring
in beds in difi'erent formations. Thus it is common in
the older Palasozoic or Silurian strata of Scandinavia and
Scotland. Generally it is distinctly slaty, but sometimes
forms rounded balls or concretions. It contains much
carbonaceous matter, and hence its colour is greyish or
bluish-black. It has a dull lustre, is soft and sectile. It
contains "touch disseminated iron pyrites, and on decom-
posiliAn in the air yields sulphate of iron, and alum as an
efilorescence on the surface.
Many of the shales or slate clays in the coal formation
also contain much iron pyrites, and thus also produce
alum when acted on by the atmosphere. Such are those
used for manufacturing alum at Campsie and other places
near Glasgow. Where they contain much bituminous
natter thoy show a shining resinous streak and greyish-
black colour, and are named bituminous shales. These
burn when heated, with a pale flame and sulphureous
odour.
The alum slates at Whitby in Yorkshire belong to
the Lias, and are used in the alum worka in that neigh-
bourhood. In other places, as in many parts of Germany,
similar beds are found in Tertiary formations, particularly
'a eQon«»Jion with the brown coal doiKisita. When fresh
dug they often show no trace of alum, which only appears
after exposure to the air, or when the decomposition of
■the iron pyrites is assisted by the action of heat.
Several native varieties of sulphate of alumina and soda
alum occur in South America, some of the most remarkable
of which it may be proper to specify.
1. Sulphate of alumina, or Alunogeue, was first found
at Rio Saldanha, but is now obtained from several place!
in Europe and America. The colour is white, here ana
there tinged yellow, obviously from external impurities.
It occurs in fine crystalline needles ; lustre silky; taste that
of alum, but stronger; specific gravity, 1-6 to 1-7; soft;
before the blowpipe behaves Like alum.
2. Soda-alum. It occurs native in the province of St
Juan, situated to the north of Mendoza, on the east side
of the Chilian Andes, at about 30' S. lat. The alum is
white, and composed of fibres adhering longitudinally, and
having a certain breadth, but very thin. It bears some
resemblance to fibrous gypsum, but it is harder, not being
scratched by the nail, though the knife scratches it with
great ease. It is sectile. The outer fibres are white and
only shghtly translucent, as if they had lost a portion of
their water ; but the internal fibres are transparent, and
have a silky aspect. It tastes precisely like alum, and is
very soluble, water at the temperature of 62° dissolving
3-773 parts of it, and boiling water dis-solving any quantity
whatever. When exposed to heat, it behaves very nearly
as common alum.
3. There is a mineral called aluminiie, which was ob-
served in the environs of Halle many years ago, and which
was afterwards detected by Mr Webster in clay resting on
chalk at Newhaven in Sussex. This, if it were sufficiently
abundant, would constitute an excellent material for the
manufacture of alum. Its colour b snow-white. It occurs
in reniform pieces of greater or smaller size ; fracture fine
earthy ; dull ; streak glistening ; opaque ; adheres feebly to
the tongue ; soils very slightly ; very soft ; feeb fine, but
meagre; specific gravity, 1-7054. It consbts of alumina,
sulphuric acid, and water.
Four different processes are employed in the manufac-
ture of aliun, according to the nature of the mineral from
v/hich the alum is to be extracted.
The process employed at ToLfa is the simplest of alL
If the ToLfa stone be kept constantly mobtened with
water for about two months, it falb to powder of itself,
and yields alum by Uxiviation. But thb b not the pro-
cess employed by the manufacturers. The alum-stone b
broken into smaU pieces, and piled on the top of a per-
forated dome, in which a wood fire b kindled. The smoke
and flame of the wood penetrate through the pieces of
alum-stone, and a sulphureous odour b dbengaged, owing
to the decomposition of a portion of the sulphuric acid in
the stone. This roasting b twice performed ; the pieces of
ore which the first time were at the edge of the dome,
being the second time put in the middle. The process
of roasting thb stone requires considerable attention. If
the heat be too great, the quality of yielding alum b
destroyed : if the heat be too small, the stone does not
readily fall to powder. There can be little doubt that the
unroasted stone would yield more alum than the roasted ;
but probably the additional labour rcqubite in the latter
case would more than swallow up the increase of product.
The roasted stone, which has now acquired a rcddbh
colour, b placed in rows between trenches filled with
water. Thb Liquid b so frequently sprinkled on it that
the stone b always mobt. In two or three days it falls
to powder, like slacked quicklime ; but the daily watering
b continued for a month. The success of thb part of the
operation b said to depend very much on the weather.
When the weather b rainy, the alum b all washed
646
ALUM
out, and little ' or nothing left for the maniuactuier to
extract.
■When tne stone nas by this process been reduced to a
sufficiently fine powder, it is thrown into a leaden boiler
filled two-thirds with water. During the boiling the
powder is frequently stirred up, and the water that eva-
porates is replaced. AVhon the boiling has been continued
for a sufficient time, the fire is withdrawn, and time
allowed for the earthy matter to subside to the bottom.
A cock is then opened, which allows the clear liquor to
flow out into deep wooden square vessels, so made that
they can be easily taken to pieces. Here the alum gradu-
ally crystallises, and attaches itself to tlie sides and bottom
of the vessel. The mother liquid is then drawn oflf into
sliallower wooden troughs, where more alum crystals are
deposited. The liquid has now a rod colour, and is
muddy ; and the last alum crystals are mixed with this
red matter. They are washed clean in the mother liquor,
which is finally pumped into a trough, and used in subse-
quent processes.
The alum obtained at Tolfa is known by the name of
Homan alum, and is in very high estimation. It is always
mixed with a little reddish powdery matter which is easily
separated from it.
Alum-alate, being very different in its composition, re-
quires a different treatment to fit it for yielding alum. If
the alum-slate contain « notable quantity of lime or mag-
nesia, it does not answer the purposes of the manufacturer
so well. The essential ingredients in alum-slate for the
alum-makers, are alumina and iron pyrites.
The first process is to roast the ore. In Sweden, where
the fuel is wood, and consequently expensive, it is cus-
tomary to use the alum-slate itself as fuel for roasting the
ore. For this purpose a small layer of brushwood is
covered with pieces of alum-slate, and set on fire ; and, as
the combustion proceeds, new layers of alum-slate are
added. It is usual to place alternate layers of roasted and
unroasted alum-slate. The combustion continues for a
month or six weeks. At Whitby, coal is employed for
roasting the alum-slate. Indeed the alum-slate of Whitby
is lighter coloui-ed than that of Sweden, and probably
would not bum of itself. So great is the quantity of com-
bustible matter in the Swedish alum-slate that it is em-
ployed as fuel for burning limestone. Great quantities of
limestone are burnt in this maaner at Hunneberg, near
the south side of the lake Wener. The roasted ore has
usually a brown colour. When it is red the quantity of
alum which it yields is considerably diminished.
By this roasting the pyrites is oxidised into sulphate of
iron and sulphuric acid, thus : —
FeS, -1- O, -f H,0 = FeSO.-f-H,SO,
The sulphuric acid as it is produced is, however, at once
neutralised by the large excess of alumina producing sul-
phate, so that the result of the action is to produce a
mixture of the sulphates of iron and alumina.
The roasted ore has an astringent taste, owing to the
sulphate of iron and sulphate of alumina which it con-
tains. The next process is to lixiviate it with water, in
order to dissolve these salts. For this purpose it is put
into reservoirs made of wood or masonry, with a stop-
cock at the bottom to draw off the water. The usual
method is to keep the water for twelve Boure in contact
with pre that has been twice Uxiviated ; then to draw
it off, and aUow it to remain for an equal period on ore
that has been once lixiviated. Lastly, it is run upon
fresh ore, and aUowed to remain on it for twelve hours
longer. If the specific gravity of the liquid thus treated
be 1'25 at the temperature of 55°, it may be considered as
saturated with sulphate of alumina and sulphate of iron ;
but probably tnis specific gravity is not often obtained.
The bquid, thus impregnated with salt, is now boiled
down in leaden vessels to the proper consistency for crjs-
tallj"p*ion. In Sweden the fuel employed for this pur-
pG:« is alum-slate. By this means a double effect is
produced — the liquid is evaporated, and the alum-slate
is roasted. During the boiling abundance of oxide of
iron falls, mixed with selenite, if lime be one of the con-
stituents of the alum-slate. When the liquid is suffi-
ciently concentrated it is let into a square reservoir, in
order to crystallise. Great quantities of sulphate of iron
crystsds are usually deposited in this vessel. These are
collected by drawing the liquid off into another reservoir.
When all the sulphate of iron that can be obtained has
been separated, a quantity of sulphate of potash or am-
monia, muriate of potash, or putrid urine, is mixed with
the liquid. The sulphate of potash is procured from the
sulphuric acid makers, and the muriate of potash from the
soap-makers. By this addition alum is formed in the
liquid, and it gradually deposits itself in crystals on the
sides of the vesseL These crystals are collected, and dis-
solved in the smallest quantity of boiling water that will
take them up. This solution is poured into large wooden
casks. In a fortnight or three weeks the alum crystal-
lises, and covers the sides and bottom of the ca^k. The
hoops are now taken off, and the staves of the cask
removed. A mass of alum crystals, having the shape of
the cask, remains. This mass is pierced, the mother liquor
allowed to run out, and preserved for a subsequent process.
The alum, being now broken in pieces, is fit for sale. '
The manufacture of alum from bituminous shale and
slate-clay bears a considerable resemblance to the manu-
facture from alum-slate, but differs in several pajticu-
lars. We shall give a sketch of the processes folio~ed in
two works of this kind that are in operation in the neigh-
bourhood of Glasgow. The bituminous shale and elate-
clay employed are obtained from old coal-pits, which are
very extensive near Glasgow. The air in these coai-pita
is moist, and its average temperature about 62°. The
shale having been exposed fo^ many years, has gradually
opened in the direction of its slaty fracture, so as to re-
semble in some respects a half -shut fan ; and all the chinks
in it Eire filled with a saline efflorescence in threads. This
salt is white, with a shade of green, has a sweetish as-
tringent taste, and consists of a mixture of sulphate of
iron and sulphate of alumina. In order to obtain these
salts in a state of solution, nothing more is requisite than
to lixiviate this shale with water. The lixiviated ore
being left exposed to the weather,. forms more salt, which
is gradually washed out of it by the rain-water, and this
water is collected and preserved for use.
The next step in the process is to boil down the liquid
to a sufficient state of concentration. At Campsie all
the boilers are composed of stone, and the heat is applied
to the surface. This is a great saving, as leaden vessels
are not only much more expensive, but require more fre-
quent renewal When the liquid is raised to a sufficiently
high temperature in the stone reservoir, pounded sulphate
of potash, or muriate of potash, as they can be procured,
b mixed with it ; and there is an agitator in the vessel, by
which it is continually stirred about. This addition con-
verts the sulphate of alumina into alum. The liquid is
now let into another trough, and allowed to remain till it
crystallises In this liquid there are two salts contained
in solution — viz., sulphate of iron and alum ; and it is an
object of great consequence to separate them completely
from each other. The principal secret consists in drawing
off the mother liquor at the proper time ; for the alum i»
much less soluble in water than the sulphate of iron, and
therefore crystallises first. The first crj-stals of alpra
formed are very impure. They have a yellow colour, and
A L U — A L V
647
r
eeem to be partly impregnated with sulphate of iron.
They are dissolved in hot water, and the solution poured
into troughs, a,nd allowed to crystallise a second time.
These second crystals, though much purer, are not quite
free from sulphate of iron ; but the separation is accom-
plished by washing them repeatedly with cold water ; for
sulphate of iron is much more soluble in that liquid than
alum. These second crystals are now dissolved in as small
a quantity of hot water as possible, and the concentrated
liquid poured while hot into large casks, the surface of
which is covered with two cross beams. As the liquor
cools, a, vast number of alum crystals form on the sides
and surface. • The casks are allowed to remain till the
liquid within is supposed to be nearly of the temperature
of the atmosphere. This, in winter, requires eleven days ;
in summer, fourteen or more. The liquid, after standing
eleven days in summer, has been observed to be still above
blood heat The hoops are then removed, precisely as in
the manufacture of alum from alum-slate.
There always remains in the boilers a yellowish sub-
stance, consisting chiefly of peroxide of iron. This is
e.xposed to a strong heat in a reverberatory furnace, and it
becomes red. In this state it is washed, and yields more
alum. The red residue is ground to a fine powder, and
dried. It then answers all the purposes of Venetian red
as a pigment. By altering the temperature to which this
matter is exposed, a yellow ochre is obtained instead of
a red.
In France, where alum ores are by no means abundant,
alum is manufactured from clay. This method of making
the salt was first put in practice by Chaptal when pro-
fessor of chemistr)' at Montpellier. His methods have
been since gradually improved, and brought to a state of
considerable perfection. The first process tried was this :
The clay was reduced to a fine powder in a mUl, and then
mixed with sulphuric acid. After remaining some days,
it was exposed for twenty-four hours to a temperature of
about 130°. It was then lixiviated, and the liquid mixed
with urine or potasL Thb method being found incon-
venient, was abandoned for the following: — The clay being
well ground, was mixed with half its weight of the saline
residue from a mixture of sulphur and nitre. This residue
i3=5little else than sidphate of potash. The mixture was
formed into balls about 5 inches in diameter, which were
calcined in a potter's furnace. They were then placed on
the floor of a chamber in which sulphuric acid was made.
The acid vapour caused them to swell, and to open on all
sides. In about a month they were sufficiently penetrated
with the acid. Th>.y were then exposed to the air, under
shades, that the saturation might become more complete.
Finally, they were lixiviated, and the liquid being evapo-
rated, yielded pure alum.
This process was considerably improved by Berard, of
the Montpellier alum work. Instead of exposing the
calcined balls to the fumes of sulphuric acid, he sprinkled
them with a quantity of sulphuric acid of the specific
gravity 1"367, equal to the weight of the clay employed;
but it is obvious that the proportion must vary with the
nature of the clay. The solution takes place with the
greatest facility, and crystals of alum lare obtained by
evaporating the liquid.
Another process was put in practice by Chaptal, in the
neighbourhood of Paris. A mixture is made of 100 parts
of clay, 60 parts of nitre, and 50 parts of sulphuric acid
of the specific gravity 1'367 ; and this mixture is put into
a retort and distilled. Aqjafortis comes over, and the
residue in the retort being lixiviated with water, yields
abundance of excellent alum.
For chemical constitution and relations of the alum
tee Cbemisthit.
ALUMBAGH, the name of a large park or waUci
enclosure, containing a palace, a mosque, and other build-
ings, as well as a beautiful garden, situated about 4 miles
from Lucknow, near the Cawnpore road. It was converted
into a fort by the mutineers in 1857; and after its capture
by the British was of importance in connection with, the
military operj-tions around Lucknow. See Lucknow.
ALUMINIUM, a metallic substance, first separated from
the chloride by Wohler in 1828. It remained a laboratory
product untQ Deville, about 1858, succeeded in improving
the mode of production, so as to render the operations
capable of management on the manufacturing scale. The
process consists in heating to a red heat a mixture of the
double chloride of aluminium and sodium, or the double
fluoride of aluminium and sodium (cryoHte), with the metal
sodium. A vigorous action takes place, chloride of sodivmi
being formed and the metal aluminium separated. On the
large scale the reduction is efl'ected by throwing a mixture
of 10 parts of the double chloride, 5 parts of crj'olite, and
2 parts of sodium on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace.
Immediately after the action, the fused metal and slag,
consisting of common salt and fluoride of aluminium, are
run out, and a new quantity of the previous mixture intro-
duced. The various patents that have been secured with
reference to this manufacture have all regard to the saving
of the metal sodium. The metal aluminium may be
separated from the double chloride by electrolysis. For
this purpose the fused salt has the electric current from
ten cells of a battery passed through it, carbon poles being
used. The metal appears at the negative pole in large
globules, which may be collected and melted together
under a layer of fused salt.
Aluminium is a white metal resembling silver in appear-
ance. It is very malleable and ductile, and may be beaten
and rolled into thin sheets, or drawn into fine wire. By
hammering in the cold it becomes as hard as soft, iron, but
may be softened again by fusion. Being highly sonorous,
it has been used for making bells. It is very light, being
only 2J times heavier than water, and is thus four times
lighter than silver. After fusion it has a specific gravity
of 256; by hammering this may be increased to 2'67.
It melts at a red heat, and is non-volatile at very high
temperatures. The metal conducts heat and electricity as
well as silver. Aluminium does not oxidise in air, even
at a red heat, has no action on water at ordinary tempera-
tures, and is not acted upon by sulphuretted hydrogen or
sulphide of ammonium, and thus preserves its lustre where
silver would be tarnished and blackened.^ It is not at-
tacked by nitric acid, even when concentrated, and is not
soluble in dilute sulphuric acid, but is readily soluble in
dilute or concentrated hydrochloric acid with evolution of
hydrogen. Solutions of caustic potash or soda dissolvft
the metal with great ease, forming aluminate of potash or
soda, and giving off' hydrogen. Aluminium forms alloys
with most metals. The copper alloy called alumiuium-
bronze is the most important because of its colour, hard-
ness, and maUeability, and is largely used for articles of
jewellery, for mounting sextants and other astronomical
instruments, and for making balance beams.
ALUTA, an aSluent of the Danube. See Alt.
ALVA, a village in Stirlingshire, Scotland, situated at
the foot of Craigleith, one of the Ochil range, 7 miles N.E.
of Stirling, with which it is connected by railway. Besides
the parish church, there are places of worship belonging to
the Free and United Presbyterian churches. Yarn 6pir
ning and the manufacture of shawls and tweeds are carried
on to a considerable extent Population in 1871, 4096.
ALVA, or Alba, Fernakdo Alvarez de Toledo,
Duke of, bom in 1508, was descended from one of the most
illustrious families in Spain. His grandfather, FerdiiianJ
648
A L V — A L Y
of Toledo, euucaied him in military science and pDlitics ;
nnd ho was engaged with distinction at the battle of Pavia
while still a youth. Selected for a military command by
Charles V., he took part in the siege of Tunis (1535), and
juccessfuUy defended Pcrpignan against the Dauphin of
France. Ue was present at the battle of Miijilbcrg (1547),
and the victory gained there over John of Saxony was due
mainly' to his exertions. He took part in the subsequent
siege of Wittenberg, and presided at the court-martial
which tried the Elector and condemned him to death. In
1552 Alva was intrusted with the command of the army
intended to invade France, and was engaged for several
months in an unsuccessful siege of Motz. In consequence
of the success of the French arras in Piedmont, he was
made commander-in-chief of all the emperor's forces in
Italy, and at the same time invested with unlimited power.
Success did not, however, attend his first attempts, and
after several unfortunate attacks he was obliged to retire
into winter quarters. After the abdication of Chrrles he
was continued in the command by Philip II., who, how-
over, restrained him from extreme measures. Alva had
subdued the whole Campagna, and was at the gates of
Rome, when he "was compelled by Philip's orders to nego-
tiate a peace. One of its terms was, that the Duke of
tAlva should in person ask forgiveness of the haughty
pontiff whom he had conquered. Proud as the duke was
by nature, and accustomed to treat with persons of the
highest dignity, yet such was the superstitious veneration
then entertained for the papal character that he confessed
his voice failed him at the interview, and his presence of
m'ind forsook him. Not long after this (1559) he was sent
at the head of a splendid embassy to Paris, to espouse, in
the name of his master, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry,
king of France. In 1567, Philip, who was a bigoted
Catholic, sent Alva into the Netherlands at the head of an
army of -10,000 men, with unlimited powers for the extir-
pation of heretics. When he arrived he soon showed how
much he merited the confidence which his master reposed
in him, and iustantly erected a tribunal which soon became
known to its victims as the " Court of Blood," to try all
persons who had been engaged in the late commotions
which the civil and religious tyranny of Philip had excited.
He imprisoned the counts D'Egmont and Horn, the two
popular leaders of the Protestants, brought them to an
unjust trial, and condemned them to death. In a short
time ho totally annihilated every privilege of the people,
and, with imrelenting cruelty, put multitudes of them to
death. The executioner was employed in removing all
those friends of freedom whom the sword had spared. In
most of the considerable towns Alva built citadels. In the
city of Antwei'p he erected a statue of himself, which was
a monument no less of his vanity than of his tyranny: he
was figured trampling on the necks of two smaller statues,
representing the two e3tate3_ of the Low Countries. By
his unusual and arbitrary demand of new supplies from
the states he greatly aggravated this insult. The exiles
from the Low Countries, roused to action by his oppression,
fitted out a fleet of privateei-s, and after strengthening
themselves by successful depredations, ventured upon the
bold exploit of seizing the town of BreiL Thus Alva, by
his cruelty, became the unwitting instrument of the future
independence of the seven Dutch provinces. The fleet of
the exiles having met the Spanish fleet, totally defeated
it, and reduced North Holland and Mons. Many cities
hastened to throw off the yoke; while the States-General,
assembling at Dordrecht, openly declared against Alva's
govermnent, and marshalled under the banners of the
Prince of Orange. Alva's preparations to oppose the
gathering storm were made with his usual vigour, and he
Bucceeded in recovering Mons, Mechlin, and Zutphen,
under tne conduct of his son Frederick. With the excep-
tion of Zealand and Holland, he regained all the provinces;
and at last his son stormed Waerdan, and massacring its
inhabitants, proceeded to invest the city of Haarlem,
which, after standing an obstinate siege, was taken and
pilkged. Their next attack was upon Alkmaar ; but the
spirit of desperate resistance was raised to such a height in
the breasts of the Hollanders that the Spanish veterans
were repulsed with great loss, and Frederick constrained
reluctantly to retire. Alva's feeble state of health and con-
tinued disasters induced him to solicit His recall from the
government of the Low Countries; a measure jvhich, in
all probability, was not displea.sing to Philip, who was
now resolved to make trial of a milder administration. In
December 1573 the much oppressed country was relieved
froi](>the presence of the Duke of Alva, who, returning home
accompanied by his son, made the infamous boast that during
the course of six years, besides the multitudes destroyed
in battle and n^ssacred after victory, he had consigned
18,000 persons to the executioner. (For further details of
his administration in the Netherlands, see Holland.)
On his return he was treated for some time with great
distinction by Philip. A tardy and imperfect justice, how-
ever, overtook him, when he was banished from court and
confined in the castle of Uzeda for complicity in certain
disgraceful conduct of his son. Here he had remained
two years, when the success of Don Antonio in assuming
the crown of Portugal determined PhUip to turn his eyes
towards Alva as the person in whose fideUty and abilities he
could most confide. A secretary was instantly despatched
to Alva to ascertain whether his health was suihciently
vigorous to enable him to undertake the command of an
army. The aged chief returned an answer full of loyal
zeal, and was immediately appointed to the supreme com-
mand in Portugal. It is a striking fact, however, that the
Liberation and elevation of Alva were not followed by
forgiveness. In 1581 Alva entered Portugal, defeated
Antonio, drove him from the kingdom, and soon reduced
the whole under the subjection of Philip. Entering Lisbon,
he seized an immense treasure, and suffered his soldiers,
with their accustomed violence and rapacity, to sack the
suburbs and vicinity. It is reported that Alva, being
requested to give an account of the moiiey expended ob
that occasion, sternly replied, " If the king asks mo for an
account, I will make bim a statement of kingdoms pre-
served or conquered, of signal victories, of successful sieges,
and of sixty years' service." Philip deemed it proper to
make no further inquiries. Alva, however, did not enjoy
the honours and rewards of his last expedition, for he died
in January 1583, at the age of 74.
ALVARADO, -Pedko de, one of the Spanish leaders in
the discovery and conquest of America, was bom at Badajoz
about 1495. He held a command in the expedi'.ion sent
from Cuba against Yucatan in the spring of 1518, and
returned in a few months, bearing reports of the wealth
and splendour of Montezuma's empire. In February 1519
he accompanied Hernando Cortez in the expedition for the
conquest of Mexico, being appointed to the command of
one of the eleven vessels of the fleet (For the details of
this expedition and of Hernando's share in it, see Coktez
and Mexico.) He was engaged (1523-4) in the conquest
of Guatemala, of which he was subsequently appointed
governor' by Charles V. In 1534 he attempted to bring
the province of Quito under his power, but had to content
himself with the exaction of a pecuniary indemnity for the
expenses of the expedition. During a visit to Spain, three
years later, he had the governorsliip of Honduras conferred
upon- him in addition to that of Guatemala. He died ip
Guatemala in 1541.
ALVAREZ, FaANCTSCO, born at Coimbra alter 14C0, a
A L V — A L Y
649
prest and almoner to Dom Manuel, king of Portugal, was
Bent in 1515 aa secretary to Duarte Galvao, on an embassy
to David, king of Abyssinia. The expedition having been
delayed by the way, it was not until 1520 that he reached
Abysaiiiia, where he remained six years, returning to Lisbon
in 1527. In 1533 he- was sent to Rome on an embassy
to Pope Clement VII The precise date of his death, like
that of his birth, is unknown; but it must have been later
than 1540, in which year he published at Lisbon, under
the king's patronage, an account of his travels, in one
volume folio, entitled Verdadeira Informaiam do Preste
Joas das Indias. This curious work was translated in
Latin, under the title of. De Fide, Regione, et Moribua
jEthiopum, by Damien Qoez, a Portuguese gentleman ; and
has often been reprinted and translated into other lan-
guages. The information it contains must, however, be
received with caution, as the author is prone to exaggerate,
and does not confine himself to what came within his own
observation.
ALVAKEZ, Don Jo.s6, the foremost Spanish sculptor of
modem times, was born at Priego, in the province of
Cordova, in 1768, and died at Madrid in 1827. Bred to
his father's trade of a stone-mason, he devoted all his
spare time to drawing and modelling. In his twentieth
year he became a pupil of the Academy of Granada. A
work he executed soon afterwards for a fountain in his
native town attracted the notice of the Bishop of Cordova;
who took the young artist into his house and maintained
him for several years. In 1799 he obtained from Charles
rV. a pension of 1 2,000 reals, to enable hiin to visit Paris
and Eome. In the former city he executed, in 1804, a
statue of Ganymede, which placed him at once in the front
rank of sculptors. Shortly afterwards his pen«ion was
more than doubled, and he left Paris for Rome, where he
remained till within a year of his death. The most im-
portant of his numerous works, executed during this period,
was a group representing AntUochus and Memnon, which
was commissioned in marble (1818) by Ferdinand VIL,
and secured for the artist the appointment of court sculptor.
It is now in the Museum of Madrid. Alvarez modelled a
few portrait busts (Ferdinand VII., Rossini, the Duchess
of Alba), which are remarkable for their vigour and fidelity.
ALVAREZ, Don Manttel, a Spanish sculptor, was bom
at Salamanca in 1727, and died in 1797. He followed
classical models so closely that ho was styled by his
countrymen JSl Griego, " 'The Greek." His works, which
are very numerous, are chiefly to be found at Madrid.
ALWAR, a semi-independent state of EAjput^ni, and
under the control of the Govemor-General's agent for
lUjputinA, Ues between 28° 13' 25" and 27° 14' 34" N.
lat, and between 77° 15' 35" and 76° 14' 10" E long.
It is bounded on the E. by the state of Bhartpur and
the British district of GurgAon, on the N. by Gurgdon
district and the states of PatiAU and NibhA, on the W.
by the states of NdbhA and Jaipur, and on the S. by
the states of Jaipur and Bhartpur. Its configuration is
irregiilar, the greatest length from north to south being
about 80 miles, and breadth from east to west about 60
miles, with a total area of about 3000 square milea The
total population of the state, aa ascertained by a census
taken in 1872, was 778,596, consisting of 598,333 Hindus,
180,225 Mahometans, and 38 Christians. The number
of males was returned at 418,723, and females at 359,873,
the proportion of males to the total population being 5 3 "7 6
per cent. The eastern portion of the state is open and
highly cultivated ; the western is. diversified by hills and
peaks, which form a continuation of the Aravalll range,
from 12 to 20 miles in breadi-h. These lulls run in rocky
and precipitous parallel ridges, in somo places upwards of
2200 feet in height. The Sabhl river flows through the
north-western part of the state, the only other stream oi
importance being the Euparel, which rises in the Alwar
hills, and flows through the state into the Bhartpur terri-
tory.
The one attempt at road-making in the state is a line which con*
necta the chief town, Alwar, with RAjghar on the one side and with
TijarA on the other. The greater portion of this road was metalled
during the minority of the present rija, but it has been neglected
since he took the management of the state into his own hands, and
ia now said to be almost impassable, and worse than the ordinary
cart tracks. The earthwork for a road from Alwar to the Bhartpur
border was thrown up, but it has never been metalled, and the tine
is not used for' traffic. The Alwar hills are rich in minerals. Iron
ore is found in large quantities close to the s'rfrface. Thirty smelting
furnaces are kept at work, and are capable of turning out 390 tons
a-year. They give employment to a Urge number of people. Two
copper mines have been in operation for a number of years, but with
doubtful advantage to the state. Silver, lead, and siulphur are also
found in sraaU quantities, and attempts have been made to work
them, but without success. The principal agricultural products are
wheat and barley during the cold weather, with grain to a less
ejrtent. Joar, bajri, and Indian com are raised during the rains.
Cotton is extensively cultivated, and exported on a, considerable
scale. A ten years' land settlement, whjch was formed by a late
f)olitical resident, is now expiring, and a fresh settlement for a
onger term is being made. The revenue of the etate has for some
time been in an unsatisfactory state. When the rAjA attained bis
majority, and was invested with the full administration of his terri-
tory in 1863, the treasury contained a sui-plus of £205,000. Within
seven years this surplus had dwindled away, and debts to the extent
of £160,000 accumtilated. Under these circumstances, the govern-
ment found it necessary to place the administration of the state in
the hands of the political resident, assisted by a council of manage-
ment consisting of five of the principal chiefs abd native gentlemen
of the state. In 1870-71, the first year under the nev management,
the revenue of the state amounted to £213,085, and the expenditure
to £135,201, leaving a surplus of £77,884, part of which was devoted
to the liquidation of thc-state debt, the remainder being kept as a
working balance. An allowance of £18,000 a-year is made for the
household expenses of the rajA, besides an establishment of horses,
carriages, and elephants maintained for his use. The educational
institutions consist of a high school, attended in 1871-72 by 382
students ; a ThAkur school, for the education of the sons of chiefs
and native gentlemen, and attended by 6 1 pupils ; and sixty other
schools, containing a total of 2785 pupils. Seven towns in the
state are returned as containing a population of upwards of 6000
Bouls— namely, Alwar, 62,367; RAjghar, 12,070; TijarA, 7382;
Govindgarh, 6720 ; Ramgarh, 6581 ; RAmpur, 5381 ; and Bahror,
6213. l"he only municipality is the town of Alwar. It derives its
municipal revenue from a tax of 1 per cent, on the supposed income
of the owners of houses. This tax yields about £800 per annum,
out of which, with some assistance from the state', the city poHce^
conservancy establishment, &c, are paid.
ALYPIUS, one of the seven Greek writers on music
whose works are collected and published, with a com-
mentary and explanatory notes, by Meibomius (Antvj^uce
Musicce Audores Septem, AmsteL, 165-2). The time in
which he flourished cannot be precisely ascertained. He
is said to have written before Euclid and Ptolemy; and
Cassiodorus arranges his work, entitled Intr'^duction to
Music, between those of Nicomachus and Gaudentius.
The work consists solely of a list of symbols of the various
scales and modes, and is therefore probably only a fragment
ALYPIUS OP Antioch, a geographer of the 4th century,
who was sent by the Emperor Julian into Britain as prefect,
and was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the temple of
Jerusalem. Amo;,g the letters of Julian are two (29 and
30) addressed to Alypius; one inviting him to Eome, the
other thanking him for a geographical treatise, which uo
longer exists.
ALYTH, a town on the eastern borders of Perth.shire,
in a parish of the same name, situated in the valley of
Strathmore, 1 3 miles west of Forfar. It is tolerably well
built, and contains a handsome parish church, and also
Free, United Presbyterian, and Scottish Episcopal churches.
The chief industrial employments are linen manufacturing
and wool spinning, and there is a fair nearly every month.
Alyth was created a burgh of barony by Jamea IH
Population in 1871, 2134.
650
A M A - A M A
AMADEUS v., sumamed tie Grtat, Count of Savoy,
was bom at Bourget in 1249, and succeeded liia undo
Philip in 1285. Tho cautious prudence of Amadous
enabled him greatly to increase his territory by means of
marriage, purchase, and donations. He gradually rose to
Buch eminence among the European powers, that ho was
constituted their umpire to settle their differences — an
office which he performed with much reputation to himself
and advantage to them. In 1310 he was created a prince
of tho empire by Henry VII. When tho Turks attempted
to retake Rhodes from the knights of St John of Jerusalem,
he acquired great renown by tho valour with which he led an
expedition to tho relief of the island. A Maltese cross with
tho letters F.E.R.T. {Forlitudo ytu Ehodum tenuit), it is
said, became the anna of Amadous and his successors, in
memory of this victory. Amadous undertook a journey to
Avignon to persuade Pope John XXII. to preach a crusade
in favour of Andronicus. He died there in the year 1323.
AifADEUS VIII., Count and first Duke of Savoy, and
latterly pope or anti-pope, under the name of Felix V., was
born at Chambery in 1383, and succeeded his fatber,
Amadeus Yll., in 1391. Having, by purchase or othor-
wiso, added large territories to his patrimonial possessions,
ho became so powerful that tho Emperor Sigismund erected
Savoy into a duchy in 1416; and after his elevation
Amadeus added Piedmont and other provinces to his
dominions. After this increase of rank and of territory
he suddenly, in 1434, retired to a monastery at EipaUle.
He does not appear, however, to have resigned his duchy,
but continued to administer it through his son Louis. It
is said, too, although some historians have cast doubts
■upon tho story, that, instead of leading a life of asceticism,
he spent much of the ducal revenues in furthering his own
luxni-y and enjoyment. In 1439, when the pope, Eugenius
IV., was deposed by the courrcil at Basle, Amadeus, although
not in orders, was elected, through bribery some say, his
successor; and after resigning his duchy, was crowned in
the following year as Felix V. In the stormy conflict that
followed, the Emperor Frederick sided with Eugenius, and
the nations of Europe, except Germany, which remained
neutral, declared for tho one pope or the other. In 1449
Amadeus thought it prudent to renounce his claim to the
pontificate in favour of Nicholas V., who had been elected
on the death of Eugenius. He, however, induced Nicholas
to annul all the acts of Eugenius; to confirm the determi-
nation of the council of Basle to appoint him perpetual
apostoUcar legate in Savoy, Piedmont, and the other places
of his own dominions; and even to confer on him the
bishoprics of Basle, Lausanne, Strasbnrg, and Constance.
It was also conceded to Amadeus that he should continue to
wear tho pontifical dress, except in a very few particulars;
that ho should not be obliged to go to Rome to attend any
general council; and that he, instead of kissing the pope's
toe, shoiild be permitted to kiss his cheek. Amadeus died
at Geneva in 1451.
AJIADIS OF GAUL. The best edition for English
readers of this famous woik is to be found in the abridged
translation of Southey, and the best account of it is to be
found in his preface, which, however, is not void of error.
Here, for example, is its final sentence : — " Amadis of Gaul
is among prose what Orlando Furioso is among metrical
romances — not the oldest of its kind, but the best." We,
of course, in England would place the Morte d'Arthur
above all romances of the kind; and the praise that we
allow to Amadis of Gaul is precisely that which Cervantes
bestows upon it — of being tho earliest and best of the
Spanish romances. When the licentiate and the barber
burnt the library of Don .Quixote, they spared from the
flames only three romances — Amadis of Gaul, Palmerin of
England, and Tirante the White. "I have heard," said
the licentiate, " that Amadis of Gaul was the first book of
chivalry printed in Spain, and that all the rest sprung
from it ; I think, therefore, as head of so pernicious a sect,
we ought to condemn him to the fire without mercy."
" Not so, sir," said the barber, " for I have heard also that
it is the best of all the books of this kind ; and therefore —
as being unequalled in its way — it ought to be spared."
" You are right," said the priest, " and for that reason its
life is granted." Although Cervantes speaks of tho romance
as a Spanish one, and although Southey translated it froia
the oldest extant edition, which is also Spanish, it is cur-
rently supposed to have been originally written in Portu-
guese by Vasco Lobcira, himself a good knight, who re-
ceived his spurs on the field of battle from King Joam, and
who died in 1 403. The work, however, has been claimed
as of French origin by the Comte do Tressan. Southey
ridicules this theory, and insists upon the claims of tho
Portuguese author. It is quite certain that the Comte dc
Tressan attempted to prove too much; but, on the other
hand, Southey has not allowed weight enough to the fact
that tho Amadis of Gaul is but the first work of romance
which appeared in the Portuguese and Castilian languages ;
that it w;is preceded for more than a century by other
romances of Anglo-Norman origin; and that, if not in iu
names and personages, yet in its idea — in the character of
its incidents and in much of its geography — it belongs to
the world of Anglo-Norman romance. VThut though we
cannot lay our hands on the French original from which
Lobeira translated, any more than we can lay our hands on
Lobeira's own work from which tho Castilian version has
been made, we still know that all the ideas and materials,
all the design, all the machinery of Amadis of Gaul, belong
to the Anglo-Norman cycle of romance wiich was in vogue
before Lobcira was born. And in this creed we cheat him
of nothing when we say that we know not to what extent
he is entitled to the praise of originality. Knowing what
we do of these romances, it is not enough to say, for the
establishment of Lobeira's claims, that we cannot trace the
Amadis of Gaul to any one before him. Expressions of
his own throughout his work show that if he was not a
literal translator, he was at least a borrower. Thus, towards
the end of his third chapter he writes — " The author
ceaseth to speak of this, and retumcth to the child whom
Gandales brought up." The Spanish translator, Montalus,
confesses to have taken liberties with the Portuguese version
from which ho worked, altering, adding, and abridging.
The Comte de Tressan maintains that the original French
work must have ended with the third book and the rescue
of Oriana; and that from this point we can distinctly traoe
the work of Spanish hands. Southey, again, thinks that
tho work, as it left the hands of Lobeira, ended in the
fourth book with the marriage of Amadis and Oriana, and
that aU which follows is due to the tasteless accretions of
Montalus. Although this is mere conjecture, still it is
natural that we should attach no little force to the correct
leeling of Southey. For the story itself, it is impossible
to give a summary of it — the plot being too discon-
nectecf; but he who has read one such tale, or even a
few chapters of one, may have a general impression of all —
hacking and hewing in every page, knights always at war
and seeking adventures, giants in the path, lions in the
forest, damsels in durance, castles to be attacked, wizards
and witches with hate in their hearts, kings everywhere
plentiful as blackberries, and lovely ladies abounding in
tenderness. The sentiment of the work is very noble, and
some of the descriptions are full of fire; but the reader
owes more than he is aware to the curtailments of Southey.
AJMADOU (Polt/porus fomfniarius), a fungus that grows
upon old trees, especially the oak, ash, fir, and cherry. When
beaten soft it is used as a styptic for slight hjemorrhage
A M A — A M A
651
and as material for surgical pads. After being boiled in a
solution of nitre it is employed as tinder.
AilAGEE, or Ajjak, a small island belonging to Den-
mark, Ijing in tlie Sound, close to the east coast of See-
land. The channel which separates its northern extremity
from Seeland forms the harbour of Copenhagen ; , and
nearly the third pant of that city, the suburb of Christians-
hafen, is situated in Amager. The island is about 9 miles
long and i broad, with a fertile soil, ■H'hich produces large
quantities of vegetables for the Copenhagen market. It is
pcoijled chiefly by the descendants of a Dutch colony
which Christian II. brought there in 1516, who still
retain many of the old peculiarities of dress, language, and
manners. Population about 9000, exclusive of the inhabitr
ants of Christianshafen. The other towns are Dragoe and
Castmp.
AMALASONTHA, or Amala-sttentha, daughter of
Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, was bom about 498
A.D. In 515 she married Eutharic, the last representative
of the Amali family, who died (52-4-5), leaving an only
son, Athalaric. The latter was designated by his grand-
father Theodoric as the heir to the throne, and Amala-
Eontha was appointed his guardian. On the death of
Theodoric in 526, Amalasontha became regent, and en-
deavoured by a wise and vigorous administration to carry
on the work of civilisation and enlightenment which her
fftther had commenced. She devoted herself with special
Eclicitude to the education of Athalaric, but her efforts
Wire frustrated by the opposition of the Gothic nobles.
Encouraged by them, the young heir to the throne threw
off the restraints imposed by his mother, plunged into
debauchery, and died at the age of sixteen (534). In the
sajae year Amalasontha married her cousin Theodahadus,
and made him co-regent with herself. A few months later
(April^35) s6e was assassinated by order of her husband
in an island on Lake Bolsena.
AlIALEKITES, an ancient people, widely spread
throughout the country lying on the south and east of
Palestine, often mentioned in the Jewish Scriptures, and
celebrated also in Arabian tradition. In Scripture they
occur first in Gen. xiv. 7, occupying the territory around
Kadesh, and suffering from the invasion of Chedorlaomer
and his confederates. They appear next assaulting the
Israelites, shortly after the exodus from Egypt, at Rephidim,
in the neighbourhood of Mount Sinai (Ex xviL 8; cf.
Deut. XXV. 17). They again occur falling upon a paity
of the Israelites on the southern verge of the promised
land (Num. xiv. 45 ; cf. xiii. 29). In the time of the
judges they are found associated with the Moabites, the
Ammonites, the Midianites, and " the children of the
east," in repeated attacks upon the Israelites, invading
their territory from the eastern side of Jordan (Judges ui
13; vi. 3). Saul, by divine command, led an expedition
into the country of Amalek, waging against them an
exterminating war, " smiting them from HavUah until
thou comest to Shur, that is over against Eg)'pt " (1 Sam.
rv. 1).' David also "invaded the Geshurites, and the
Gezrites, and the Amalekites ; for these nations were of
old the inhabitants of the land as thou goest to Shur,
even unto the land of Egypt" (1 Sam. xxvii. 8). The
last notice occurs in 1 Chron. iv. 43, from which wo
learn that in the days of Hezekiah a body of Simeonites
"went to mount Seir" and "smote the rest of the Ama-
lekites. that were escaped ;" a notice showing the accom-
plishment of the doom of extermination which had been
denounced against them (Ex. xviL 14-16 ; Num. xxv. 20),
and finding an echo in the words of an Arabian poet, "The
race of Amlak has disappeared, and there is left of it
neither mean man nor ipighty" (Maooudi, Les Prairies
d'Or, par Meynard ct Courteille, vol iii. 104). We twice
hear of Agag as the name of the king of the nation (Num.
xiiv. 7; 1 Sam. xv. 8); and it is reasonably supposed
that this, like Pharaoh in Egypt, was a name common to
all their kings. It has been generally supposed that the
Haman of the book of Esther, called "the Agagite," be-
longed to the royal line of the Amalekites ; but it is now
f oimd, from Assyrian records, that Agagi was the name of a
country east of Assyria, from which it may be assumed that
the title was derived. See Lenormant, Lettres Ass. L 45.
Josephus agrees with Scripture in assigning to the Ama-
lekites the territory immediately to the south of Palestine.
Thus he speaks of them as inhabiting " GoboUtis and
Petra" (Gobolitis = Gebal, in Ps. IxxxiiL 7; cf. Eeland,
Palcestina, p. 71); and as reaching " from Pelusium to the
Red Sea" {Ant. Jud. iii 2, 1 ; vi. 7, 3 j cf. ii. 1, 2).
The country which they are thus represented as occupying
is suited only to a nomadic population ; and accordingly
the indications of the Scripture narrative point to thia aa
the general character of the Amalekite people. They
appear as the Bedouins of ancient times, rapid and de-
vastating in their movements (1 Sam. xxx. 1); and m
their expeditions " coming up with their cattle and their
tents " (Jud. vi. 6). At the same time, in the more
fertile portions of their territory they doubtless had settled
abodes. We read in 1 Sam. xv. 5 of "a city of Amalek;"
and Josephus speaks, apparently in an exaggerated way,
of their ciries being captured by means of elaborate siege
operations {Ant. Jud. vi. 7, 2).
The ethnical character and relation of this people, and their com-
plete national history, it is impossible satisfactorily to make out
from the fragmentary materials m our hands. They are not men-
tioned in the table of nations in Gen. i., while in Gen. xx nvi. 12,
16, their ancestry seems to be referred to Esan. At the same time,
the existence of the nation is noticed in Gen xiv., long before Esau ;
and it seems unnatural to understand this, with Hengatenberg and
others, in a proleptic sense, especially as there are other independent
f rounds for referring the beginning of their history to an earlier
ate. It is certain that the genealogical tables of Scripture, like
those of Arabia, include cases of adoption or aihliation as well as
of direct descent, and probably it is in this sense thst the notice
referring Amalek to Esau should be understood. In Balaam's pro-
phecy Amalek is called "the first of nations " (°''" '^'P*!!, prasian'
tissima gentiuTn, Gesenius), Num. xxiv. 20, an expression scarcely
reconcilable in the circumstances with descent from Jacob's brother.
Again, though found in Jewish scripture located in the immediate
south and east of the Israelitish territory, yet there are indications
in Scripture itself that at one time they had had a wider extension.
"The mount of the Amalekites" is mentioned as situated in " the
land of Ephraim" (Jud. xii. 15), apparently warranting the infer-
ence that they once held possessions on the west of the Jordan (see
Stanley, Sin. and Pal., p. 237, n.) " Amalek " Slso is found in
some cojrtfes of the LXX., as the ^anslation of Maacah, in 2 Sam. x.
6, 8, giving some ground for the belief, that a section of the same
race had once been settled on the north-east of Palestine (see
Ewald, Gcsch. IsratFs, Bd. I. 335). There is little in the Bible to
illustrate their linguistic affinity ; but so far as appears their
language was Shemitic, identical with or very closely allied to the
Hebrew. Samuel and the captive Agag (1 Sam. xv. 35), and David
and the Amalekite youth (2 Sam. i 13) converse together; and it
has been attempted also to explain the names Amalek and Aga^
by Shemitic analogies (lleier, ZcUschrift d. morg. Oes., Bd. xviu
p. 577). By Philo ( Fita Mosis, § 39) the Amalekites of the Sinaitio
peninsula arc called Phcenicians.
The traditions of the Arabians regarding this race are confused
and conflicting, yet certainly are not to be summarily rejected aa
destitute of any claim to 'historic credibihty ; and with all their
entanglement they apeak strongly for the ancient and far-extended
power of the people in qu€.3tion, aid also more doubtfully for their
Shemitic affinities. In these tradition.^ Amlak or Amlik, the father
of the Amalekites, is represented sometimes as the son of Laud (a.e.,
Lud), the son of Shem ; sometimes as the son of Aram, the son cj
I.jiud ; while sometimes also he is sx>okcn of 03 a son of Ham.
They belong, with the Adites, Thamudites, and others, to the
primitive races of Arabia. They are said to have been expelled
Irom Babylonia by the Assyrian conquerors, and driven westward
into Arabia and Syria, to have built and reigned in Aleppo, to have
conquort-d and for some centuries retained possession of Ecypt, and to
be the anc»stors of the Berbers in North Afiica (see Abuucda, Siat.
A:Ue-Isl, pp. 16, 173 : llafondi. on. cit., vol. Ui., p. 106 ; C. dt
652
A M A — A ]M A
PCTCcval, nist. dea Arala, vol. i., p. 18) ; Knobol, VolkerUife],
p. 1»8 ; Movore, PhSnxkcr, 2ter Th., Bd. ii., p. 422). With
these Arollan accounU it in natura^ to bring into connection tho
facta narrated by Manotho, and now in substance ascortaiaed from
old Egyptian records, regarding the conq uost of the Kilo valley by
an Arabian race, called ilyoaos by the former, and itenli, or shep-
herds, in tho latter (sou liuusen, EgypCi Place, vol. iii., p. 206 ;
Brugsch, nht. iEgypte, vol. L, p. 76; Chabaji, Z« rasleurs en
Egypte, p. 9) Now, from tho tune of tho eighteenth dynasty,
northern Arabia is found in Egyjitian monuraeuU to bo in iiosacs-
sion of a people called Shasu, a name which Egyptologers generally
comjiare with the second syllable of Ilycsos, and which also, i<cr-
haps, corresponds with Zuzim of Gen. xiv. D. These Sho-su may
with confidence be identified with tho Amalelcitcs of Scrii)ture ;
their locale and their habits are the same ; and of tliom we learn
that " they wore spread over a vast territory, quite like the wander-
ing Arabs of our day. Thev aro found near Djor, on the north-
oast frontier of Egypt, as well as in tho defiles of I^banon, where
their depredations made themselves felt fourteen centuries bcforo
our era (Chabas, Etudes sur I'AntiquiU Uidoiique, p. 114; cf.
his Voyage tfun Kgyptien, p. 111). "They wear short tunics, a
turban-like head-dress, and aro armed with spears and axes. A
characteristic feature is tho long beard, as among tho Canaanitish
nations" (Brug^c^h, Otog. Insehriflen, Bd. ii. 53).
The notices occurring in Arabian writers, which speak of Amalek-
ites as spread over various more southern portions of Arabia, may
probably bo referred to the period. subacquent to then- expulsion
Irom their northern seats by the Israelites and other enemies. Tho
lienu-Kerker, who dwell around Mecca, aro by some referred to this
stock ; the same is true of tho Benu-Amila, who, before migrating
northwards into Syria, dwelt in Yemen. We hear of Amalckitcs
also in "Choilmr, Jatrib, and other parts of iledjaz" (Abulfeda,
op. cil., p. 17D) ; in regard to which notice a certain degree of
confirmation is afforded by tho mention by Pliny of an Arabian
town, the name of which reads ilarippa Palmalacum, but which
probably should bo read Jatrippa Alamalacum, that is, Jatrib the
Amalekite (see Pliny, Sht. Xal. vi. 32 ; Blau, ZcUschrifl d. m.
Oa., Bd. xxii. CCS ; cf Noldcke, Uhtr d . Amalckiter, 37). Accord-
ing to some (Tuch, Blau, and others), tho famous Sinaitic inscrip-
tions, ascertained to be written in a Shemitic dialect, aro to be ascribed
to tho Amalekite race. Doubtless their authors dwelt in the countiy
once inhabited by this people, but that they belonged to them,
and not'to some succeeding race, has not yet been demonstrated.
From the cuneiform records we have gained as yet no illustration
of this subject, unless the people ilalikhu, or Malaku, mentioned in
the inscriptions of Sonnachenb among certain Aramaean tribes in-
habiting the valley of the Euphrates, may be identiiied with
Amalok (see Ilecorus of the Past, vol. i., pp. 28, 67).
AMALFI, a town of Italy, in the Principato Citeriore,
situated at tho entrance of a deep ravine on the north side
of the Gulf of Salerno. It was founded, according to the
Qommon account, under Constautine the Great, and was
one of the first cities to recover from the irruption of the
barbarians into Italy. During tho 10th and 1 1th centuries
it was an independent republic of groat commercial im-
portance, with a trade which extended to Egj'pt and the
east, and a population of 50,000. Its code of maritime
laws {Tabula Amalfilana) is said to have regulated com-
merce at one lime throughout the v,-hole of Italy, but the
truth of this statement appears to be extremely questiou-
able." In 11 35 Amalfi was plundered by the Pisans, who are
said to have then discovered and carried off the far-famed
manuscript of the Pandects of Justinian, which is now in the
Laurentian library at Florence. Soon after this the town
passed under tho dominion of Naples, and from that time
rapidly declined. In 1343 a terrible storm buried a large
part of the town under the sea, and at the present day it
is a mere wreck of its former greatness. It has only about
C500 inhabitants, whose chief employments are fishing
and the manufacture of macaroni, silk, and paper. It is
still the seat of an archbishop, and contains an ancient
cathedral dedicated to St Andrew. Flavio Gioja, to whom
the invention of the mariner's compass has been ascribed,
and Masaniello were born at Amal£.
AilALGAM, the name given to an aUoy of mercury and
another metah The amalgams are a very numerous class
of compounds, and many of them are used largely in the
arts. Many amalgams are produced by direct contact of
the metals, with evolution of heat. Others are obtained
by the action of mercury on a salt of the metal, or the
action of the metal on a salt of mercury, assisted by the
passage of a weak electric current in some cases. Some
amalgams aro solid, others liquid. They aro, generally
speaking, weak compounds, many of them being decom-
posed by pressure, and all are decomposed at a white heat.
Tin amalgam is used for " silvering " mirrors, gold and
silver amalgam in gilding and silvering, cadmium and
copper amalgam in dentistry, and an amalgam of zinc and
tin for the rubbers of electrical machines. • See JlEitcuJiV
and CnEMisTiiY.
AMALIA, Anna, Duchess of Saie-Weimar, was bom
at Wolfenbiittel on the 24th October 1739, and married
Duke Ernest of Saxe-Weimar in 1750. Her husband died
in 1758, leaving her regent for their infant son, Karl
August. During the protracted minority she administered
the affairs of the duchy with tho greatest prudence,
strengthening its resources and improving its position in
spite of tho troubles of the Seven Years' War. She was a
warm patroness of art and literature, and attracted to
Weimar many of the most eminent men in Germany.
Wieland was appointed tutor to her son ; and the names
of Herder, Goethe, Knebel, BcJttiger, llusaus, and Schiller
shed an undying lustre on her court. In 1775 she retired
into private life, her son having attained his majority.
In 1788 she set out on a lengthened tour through Italy,
being accompanied by Goethe. She died on the 10th
April 1807. A memorial of the duchess is included ia
Goethe's works under tho title Zum Andenken der Fiirttin
Anna-Amalia.
AMALRIC or Am.\uiii op Bena, so called from hia
birthplace, a small village in the diocese of Chartres, was
the founder of a school of pantheists known by his name.
He lectured at Paris about the year 1200, and attracted a
large circle of hearers. In 1204 his doctrines were con-
demned by the university; and on a personal appeal to
Pope Innocent III. the sentence was ratified, Amalric
being ordered to return to Paris and recant his errors.
This he did in 1207. His death, two- years later, was
caused, it is said, by grief at the humiliation to which he
had been subjected. In tho same year (1209) ton of hia
followers were burnt before the gates of Paris, and
Amalric's own body was exhumed and burnt, and the
ashes given to tho winds. The doctrines of tho Amal-
ricians were formaDy condemned by the fourth Lateran
Council in 1215.
AMALTEO, the name of a family belonging to Oderzo,
Treviso, several members of which were distinguished in
literature. The best known are three brothers, Geronimo
(1507-74), Giambattista (1525-73), and Cornelio (1530-
1603), whose Latin poems were published in one cctllection
under the title Trium FrcUrum Amaltheorum Carmina
(Venice, 1627; Amst. 1689). The eldest brother, Geronimo,
was a celebrated , physician ; the second, Giambattista,
accompanied a Venetian embassy to England in 1554, and
was secretary to Pius IV. at the Council of Trent; the
third, Cornelio, was a physician and secretary to the re-
public of Ragusa.
AMALTEO, PoMTONio, a painter of the Venetian
school, was born at San Vito in Friuli in 1505, and died
in 1584. He was a pupU of Pordenone, whose style he
closely imitated. His worl..s consist chiefly of frescoes and
altar-pieces, and many <jf them have suffered greatly from
the ravages of time.
AMARA SINHA, a Sanscrit grannnarian and poet, of
whose personal history hardly anything is known. He ia
said to have been " one d tho nine gems that adorned the
throne of Vikramaditya," and accordingly to have flourished
about 56 B.C. This eaems on the whole the most pro-
bable date, though tho fifth century of the Christian era,
A M A — A M A
658
wid even the eleventh, have also been assigned, on the sup-
position that the Vikramaditya spoken of was not the first
but a later monarch of the name. Amara seems to hqvo
been a Buddhist; and an early tradition asserts that his
works, with one exception, were destroyed during the per-
secution carried on by the orthodox Brahmins in the fifth
century. The exception is the celebrated Amara-Kosha
(Treasury of Amara), a vocabulary of Sanscrit roots, in
three books, and hence sometimes called Trikanda, or the
"Tripartite." It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged,
Gke other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory.
The first chapter of the Kosha was printed at Rome in
Tamil character, in 1798. An edition of the entire work,
with English notes and an index by Colebrooke, appeared
at Serampore in 1808. The Sanscrit text was printed at
Calcutta in 1831. A French translation by Loiseleur-
Deslongchamps was published at Paris in 1839.
AMARANTH, or Amaeant (from the Greek ajxapavrm,
unwithering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and applied
to certain plants which, from not soon fading, typified
immortality. Thus Milton {Paradise Lost, iii. 353) : — •
•* Immortal amarant, a flower which once
In paradise, fast by the tree of life,
Began to bloom; but soon for man's offence
To neaven removed, where first it grew, there grows.
And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life.
And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven
Kolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream;
With these that never fade the spirits elect
Bind their resplendent locks."
The famous flowers, however, still live upon earth, and
are known in our gardens as love-lies-bleeding, prince's
feather, cockscomb, and the globe amaranth. As we
wreathe our churches in winter with hoUy and ivy, the
churches in Portugal and other southern countries are
adorned with the purple tints of the globe amaranth,
which is said to retain its colour for years. It should be
noted that the proper spelling of the word is amarant;
the mora common spelling seems to have come from a
hazy notion that the final syllable is the Greek word for
flower, which enters into a vast number of botanical names.
AMARAPURA, literaUy " the City of the Gods," a town
of independent Burmah, situated on the east bank of the
Irawadl river, in 21° 57' N. lat., and 73° 4' E. long. The
town was founded in 1783, and made the capital of the
Burmese kingdom. It increased rapidly in size and popu-
lation, and in 1810 was estimated to contain 170,000
inhabitants; but in that year the town was destroyed by
fire, and this disaster, together with the removal of the
native court in 1819, caused a decline in the prosperity of
the place. In 1827 its population was estimated at only
30,000. Since then it has suffered another severe calamity
from an earthquake, which in 1839 destroyed the greater
part of the city. It is regularly laid out, but, with the
exception of some temples, is built only of bamboos,
although several of the buildings, being richly gilt, have a
showy appearance. The most remarkable edifice is a cele-
brated tcmjile, adorned with 250 lofty pUlars of gilt wood,
and containing a colossal bronze statue of Buddha. The
remains of the ancient palace of the Burmese monarchs
btill survive in the centre of the town. During the time
of its prosperity Amarapura was defended by a rampart
and a large square citadel, with a broad flioat, the walls
being 7000 feet long and 20 feet high, with a bastion at
each corner.
AMASIA, or Amasiayah, a town in Anatolia, Turkey,
mtuated on both sides of the Yeshil-Irmak, or Iris, in a
narrow gorge about 80 miles from the mouth of the river.
The houses being ill-built and the streets narrow, the town
would have a mean appearance but for its situation and
the splendid remains of antiquity La its neighbourhood.
The most remarkable of these are the Acropolis, which h
built on a lofty rock overhanging the town; the tombs of
the kings of Pontus, described by Strabo the geographer,
a native of Amasia; and a handsoms mosque, erected in
1490 by the Sultan Bajazet IL The chief productions of
Amasia and the surrounding districts are silk, salt, wheat,
wine, and cotton. Population of the town, 25,000.
AMASIS, King of Egypt, ascended the throne 569 ac.
From the rank of a ccmmon soldier he gradually rose to be
one of the principal officers in the court of Apries, the last
king of the line of Psammetichus. Being commissioned by
Apries to quell an insurrection, he went over to the rebels,
who proclaimed him king. Apries, whose tyranny had
caused nearly all his subjects to desert him, took the field
with an army of mercenaries, and meeting Amasis near
Memphis, was defeated and taken prisoner. The usurper
treated the captive prince with great lenity; but so violent
was the popular hatred, that he was compelled to deliver
him into the hands of his enraged countrymen, who inr
stantly put him to death by strangling. Under the pru-
dent administration of Amasis, Egypt enjoyed the greatest
prosperity. He adorned it with numerous and splendid
buildings, among which were a portico to the temple of
Minerva at Sais, and the great temple of IsLs at Mem-
phis. He also erected a colossus before the temple of
Vulcan, 75 feet in length, resting on its back; and 'on the
basis stood two statues, each 20 feet high, cut out of the
same stone. To gain the alliance of the Groaks, he allotted
settlements for them on the sea-coast, permitting them to
build temples, and to observe all the rites of their religion
unmolested; and when the temple of the. Delphians was
burnt he presented thera with IGOO talents' to assist them
in rebuilding it. He also married a Grecian lady, named
Ladice, the daughter of Battus of Cyrene, and had a
bodyguard of Greeks in his pay. Solon, the celebrated
lawgiver, is reported to have visited Amasis. The close
of his reign was disturbed by the threatened invasion of
Cambyses, king of Persia, and by the rupture of the
alliance between Amasis and Polycrates of Samos. (See
PoLYCRATEs.) Amasis, however, did not live to see the
conquest of Egypt, for he died in 525, beffere the Persians
had entered the country.
AMAT, Felix, a Spanish ecclesiastical historian, was
born at Sabadell, in the diocese of Barcelona, 10th August
1750. He entered the church in 17G7, and after taking his
doctor's degree at Grenada in 1770, was made professor
of philosophy and librarian in the episcopal seminary at
Barcelona. In these ofiSces, and in that of director of
the seminary, which he subsequently held, his talents and
energy did much to advance the efficiency of the institu-
tion. In 1803 he was made archbishop of Palmyra by the
pope, and in the same year the king, Charles IV., created
him abbot of St Udefonso. When the war with Franca
broke out in 1794, Amat was at first looked upon as an
undoubted patriot, but latterly he was suspected, and with
some reason, of favouring the French cause. He was
compelled to leave Madrid on the entry of the British in
1812; and was subsequeptly, in 1814, banishe^d to Cata-
lonia. He died in a Franciscan convent near Salent on
28th September 1824. Amat's chief work is \iia £ccUsias-
ileal History, from the birth of Christ to the end of the
18th century, originally published in twelve volumes
(1793-1803). It was condemned by the Inquisition," but
rather on poUtical than on religious grounds. His other
works are numerous, the most important being hia
Observational on Ecclesiasticnl Power and his Six Letters to
Irenicus, in which he attacked the theory that consent of
the subjects is the necessary foundation of sovereignty.
.\niat was a man of gigantic stature, being, it is said, at
the age of seventeen, 7 feet 2 inches in height
354
A M A — A M A
AMATI, the name of a £amily of violin-makora who
flourubed at Cremona from about 1550 to 1693. Accord-
ing to Fttifl, Andrea and Nicolo Amati, two brothers, were
the first Italians who made violins. They wore succeeded
by Antonio and Ooronimo, sons of Nicolo. Another
Nicolo, son of Geronimo, was alive in 1G92. The violins
made by this family are distinguished by their small size,
exquisite finish, and the mathematical proportion of the
parts. Their tone is soft and sweet, but deficient in inten-
sity, owing to the flatness of their model. Stradivari was
a pupil of the Amatis.
AMATITLAN, the name of a lake and town in Guate-
mala, Central America. The lake is 18 miles from the
city of Guatemala, and is about 9 miles long and 3 broad.
The to^vn, which is sometimes called St Juan d'Amatitlan,
ja situated on the shores of the lake. The houses are all
of one storey, and are mostly built of mud. The Jesuits
formerly had extensive sugar plantations at Amatitlan, but
the cliicf industry now is the raising of the cochineal. The
wells of tlie town are strongly impregnated with salt and
alum, and in the vicinity there are several hot springs.
Population about 10,000, chiefly mulattoes and samboes.
AJIAUROSIS (d^av'pucru), a deprivation of sight. The
term is now limited chiefly to those forms of defect or loss
of vision which are caused by diseases not directly involv-
ing the eye, although sooner or later the optic nerve
undergoes changes recognisable by the ophthalmoscope.
Sometimes the amaurosis is temporary, disappearing with
the removal of the disease with which it is associated ; but
in many cases, more especially where the brain and spinal
cord are affected, the amaurosis remains permanent.
AMAXICHI, a seaport town on the N. of the Ionian
island of Santa Maurx It is the capital of the island, and
the residence of a Greek archbishop. The frequent occur-
rence of earthquakes compels the inhabitants to construct
their houses of wood ; hence the town is of mean appear-
:'ice. Its harbour admits small craft only. Population,
7000.
AMAZON, Makanost, Okellana, or Solimoens, a
liver of South America, the largest in the world. Its
head stream is either the Ucayale or Apurimac, which
j'ises in Peru about 16° S. lat., and 72° W. long. ; or the
more northerly llaranon, also called Tunguragua, which
flows from Lake Lauricocha, 10° 30 S. lat, and 76° 10'
\V. long. The former is the longer river, but the latter
has perhaps the weight of authority in its favour. The
Marafion flows in a north-westerly direction, parallel to
the Ucayale, as far as 6° S. lat., when it bends to the
north-east, and, on reaching the frontiers of Equador,
turns almost due east. It thence forms the boundary
between Equador and ' Peru, with an easterly direction,
UDtU it joins the Ucayale. The united river continues to
separate Equador and Peru as long as these countries are
conterminous, and thereafter strikes through Brazil, the
general direction being north-north-eaSt. It finally dis-
charges itself into the Atlantic under the equator. From
the source of the Apurimac to the ^cean this mighty river
has a length, including windings, of nearly 4000 miles.
It receives enormous tributaries — from the north, the
Napo and the Putumayo, each about 700 miles long ; the
Yapura, 1000 miles; the Negro, 1400; as well as others
of less importance : from the south, besides the Yavari, the
Yutai, the Yuma, Tefe, the Puruo, and others, there are the
Madeira, of nearly 2000 miles ; the Topayos, of 1200 ; the
Xingu, of 1300 ; and the Tocantins, of 1200. In addition
to these, the Huallaga, of 500 miles, joins the Marauon,
from the south, above its union with the Ucayale. The
area drained by the Amazon and its tributaries is pro-
bably not less than 2,500,000 square miles, or more than
B third part of -South Alnerica. The brocdtb of the river,
of course, i^rics at different points. At some distant*
below Jaen, on the Maraiion, it was found to be 860 feet
wide ; at a pass called the Pongo de Mauscriche its bed
is suddenly contracted from 250 to 25 fathoms, being
enclosed on either side by rocks, which rise like perpen-
dicular walls to a great height ; at the junction with the
Napo its breadth has increased to 900 fathoms.. Between
the Negro and the Madeira it has the breadth of a league,
which extends to two leagues at those parts where islands
abound ; but during the annual rise of the water it covers
a great part of the adjacent country, and has then no
determinate limits. The main mouth is about 50 miles
wide above the i^and of Caviana, but the whole delta,
including the Para mouth and the island of Joannes, ia
nearly 200 miles from shore to shore. The depth of the
Amazon in some parts exceeds 50 fathoms, and the river
is navigable for vessels of the Largest si^e up to the con-
fluence of the Maranon and the Ucayale. Beyond this
point vessels of a smaller size can proceed as far as San
Borja, on the Maraiion, and a considerable distance up the
Ucayale and the Huallaga. The velocity of the water
above San Borja so greatly exceeds the average (which ia
about 2J miles an hour), that navigation becomes difficult,
and among the rapids is impossible, even to canoes.
Nearly all the branches of the Amazon are navigable to a
great distance from their junction with the main stream ;
and collectively the whole presents an extent of water
communication unparalleled in any other part of the
globe. It may bo mentioned, too, that as the wind and
current are usually, at least from July to December,
opposed to each other, a vessel can make her way either
up or down with great facility by availing herself of her
sails in the one case, and committing herself to the force
of the current in the other. Since the introduction of
steamers, however, this circumstance is of less importance.
The influence of the tides is felt 400 miles above the
mouth of the Amazon, while on the othei hand the river
current is distinctly perceptible in the ocean for more
than 200 miles from the shore. The curious tidal pheno-
menon called the lore, or proroca, is thus destAibed by La
Condamine : —
" During three days before the new and full moons, the period ot
the highest tides, the sea, instead of occupying eii hours to reach
its flood, swells to its highest limit in one or two minutes. The
noise of this terrible flood is heard five or six miles off, and increases
as it approaches. Presently you see a liquid promontory 12 or 15
feet hfgh, followed by another, and another, ^nd eometimea by &
fourth. These watery mountains spread across the whole channel,
and advance with a prodigious rapidity, rending and cnishinff
everything in their way. Immense trees are sometimes uprooted
by it, and sometimes whole tracts of land are swept away."
The Amazon traverses a region thickly covered with lofty
forests, which are the haunts of the jaguar, bear, panther,
and other wild animals, and are inhabited by numerous
small tribes of savages, among whom the Spaniards, land
Portuguese have established missionaries. . The iiver
abounds with fish, many of which are delicious eating;
and turtles of an excellent quality are numerous. Large
aUigators may be frequently seen stretched motionless in
the mud like trunks of trees. The name Amazon (which
is also written Amazons and Amazonas) Ls derived from the
Indian word Amassona, or " boat-destrOyer," the reference
being to the destructive proroca. According to native
usage, the name Amazon oughf to be restricted to the
lower part of the river, below the inoutTi of the Rio
Negro, the portion above that point, as far at least as the
junction of the Maranon and the Ucayale, being termed
by the natives Solimoens. The other two designations by
which the river is sometimes known owe their origin
respectively to Francis Orellana, v/hp in 1540 sailed from
the mouth Of the Bio Napo to the ocean, and Marauon.
1
A M A ~ A M B
655
who Tisited the upper waters in 1513. Yanez Pinzoa,
however, visited the river before either, having discovered
the mouth in 1500. (Seo the works of Bates, Wallace,
and Vf. H. Edwards, and the article Beazil.)
AMAZONS ('Afid^ovc^), a race of women represented
in Greek legend as having lived in the north-east of Asia
Minor, near the shore of the Black Sea, and as having
there formed an independent sfate, with a queen at its
head, and with the mythical town of Themiscyra, on the
river Thermodon, as its capital. From this centre they
made warlike e.xcursions, sometimes northward, but chiefly
against the people on the coast of Asia Jlinor. From the
traditions that to repel and conquer them was assigned^ as
a task to BeUerophon by the King of Lycia, and again to
Hercules by Eurystheus, it may be inferred that they
were regarded by the Greeks at least as a permanent
source of danger. But equally, if the task of conquering
them is to be strictly compared with the other tasks in
which these heroes were generally opposed to monsters
and beings impossible in themselves, but possible as illus-
trations of permanent danger and damage, it would follow
that the Amazons were Inythical illustrations of the
dangers which beset the Greeks on the coast of Asia
Minor. Their impossibility as actual beings is further
recognised in works of art, in which combats between
them and Greeks are placed on the same level as, and
often associated with, combats of Greeks and centaurs.
The belief in the existence of the Amazons, however,
having been once accepted and introduced into the national
poetry and art, it became necessary to surround them as
far as possible with the appearance of not unnatural
beings. Their occupation was hunting and war ; their
arms the bow, spear, axe, a half shield, nearly in the
shape of a crescent, called 7;e/to, and in early art a helmet,
the m«del before the Greek mind having apparently been
the goddess Athene (Minerva). In later art they approach
the model of Artemis (Diana), wearing a thin dress, girt
high for speed ; while on the later painted vases their
dress is often peculiarly Persian — that is, close-fitting
trousers, and a high cap called the kidaris. They fought
partly on foot, partly on horseback, and always without
quarter; so that the epithet of avSpoKTovot, or oiorpata,
which is the Scythian equivalent (Herod, iv. 110), was
applied to them. To maintain their stock, annual visits
were paid to the neighbouring peoples ; and when, in con-
sequence of this, children were born, the males were either
sent over the borders or retained and brought up crippled,
and in the condition of slaves, while the female children
were assiduously trained to hunting and war. Sq as to
have freedom in the use of the bow, the right breast was
either removed by burning and other processes, or was
checked in its growth ; hence the ancient derivation of the
name Amazon from a-/xafos, " breastless." But instead of
■there being any indication of this in works of art, it is
noticeable that in the case of wounded Amazons the wound
is in the breast, as if the artist conceived them as truly
womanly in that region. The other derivations are — (1)
from a-/iaJo?, in the sense of " strong-breasted," so as to
compare 'mth their deity Artemis Polymazos ; (2) from
tt-nda-a-o), " not touching (men) ; " (3) from the Scythian
amazzen, a " vir&go." The deities of the Amazons were
Ares (Mars) and Artemis, the former being consistently
assigned to them as a god of war, and as a god of Thracian
and generally northern origin. In the case of Artemis, it
was not Lero the usual Greek goddess of that name, but an
Asiatic deity in some respects her equivalent, but different,
amon"g other points, in this, that troops of women {hiero-
diilce) VI aie assocaated with her worship, especially as it
■CDStod at Ephesus in historical times. That it may have
'^ 'lo alfM> in tho v-rij myth-making age, and tbat
accordingly the idea of the Amazons as a race may have
originated in the ecstatic lawless life of these women, has
been conjectured. With regard to Ephesus, it was said
that a body of Amazons, under a princess named Lampedo,
had founded that town, and established the worship of
Artemis ; though in another account they 'appear as
enemies of this religion, and as having burnt the temple
of Artemis at Ephesus. Several other towns of Asia
Iilinor claimed to have been founded by Amazons ; tut
according to Diodorus (ii. 52, 55), the .Amazons in this
case were a race of women who inhabited the west of
Libvr,, and who once, led by their queen Myrina, advanced
through Asia Minor and on to Thrace, where they were
defeated by Mopsus, and compelled to return. Other
memorials of the expeditions and battle-fields of the Ama-
zons were recognised in the tumuli in the Troad and
elsewhere in Asia Minor. These ancient local traditions
derived a strong coloiu' of reality afterwards, when inroads •
of barbarians, under a female leader, occurred, as in the
time of Cyrus, or when Thalestris appeared before Alex-
ander the Great, announcing herself as the queen of the
Amazons ; but chiefly when it was observed that certain
characteristics of the Amazons actually existed among the
women of Sarmatia. The effect of this mixture of fact
and legend may be seen in the account given by Herodotus
(iv. 110) of the collapse of the Amazonian state, or in the
origin of it as related by Justin (iL 4). On the other
hand, the Persian war seems to have freshened, as if to
supply a mythical prototype, the national legends of
combats between Greeks and Amazons. These legends
recounted the defeat of the Amazons, first, by BeUerophon,
and secondly by Hercules, who had been ordered by
Eurystheus to bring him the girdle of their queen Hippo-
Ij-te, or, in other words, since the girdle of their queen
would in Greek eyes be the most sacred object, to conquer
the whole race of Amazons. It is supposed that ho was
accompanied by his friend Theseus, and that this was the
occasion on which the latter became possessed of the
Amazon princess Antiope. From his possession of her
originated a third legend, which described an invasion of
Attica by a body of Amazons, with the view of carrying
off Antiope. Their utter defeat by Theseus must have
seemed, in the light of Marathon and Salamis, as a fore-
cast of the glory then won by Athens. The fourth legend,
which deals with the appearance of an amiy of Amazons,
led by their queen Penthesilea on the side of the Trojans
in the Trojan war, was developed by Arctinus of Miletus
in his poem the jElkiopis. Achilles and the queen meet
in battle, and she falls by his hand ; but the hero is
smitten with grief, and lifts her gently before she dies. It
is this feeling of regret on the part of a hero who is com-
pelled to kill a woman in his own defence, that gives the
principal tone to the existing works of Greek art, in which
combats with Amazons are represented, and especially to
works of sculpture. Of this class there exist (besides a
number of reliefs, among which those from^the temple of
Apollo at Phigalia, now in the British Musenm, are con-
spicuous for many touching motives of this kind), several
statues of wounded Amazons, the sad expression of which,
combined with the nobility of form and power of limb,
shows what was the highest conception of them in tho best
days of Greek art. (a. s. m.)
AMBALA, a division, district, and city of British India,
under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the
Panjib. The AmbAU division comprises tho districts of
Ambald and Ludhiand in the plains, and the district of
SimU in tho llimAlayas. The last-named district consists
of a few detached patches of tcrritor}', scattered among
the territories of the petty chieftains by whom tho neigh-
booiing hills are held. SimlA district is. however, the
G56
A M B — A M B
eeat of the supreme government of India during the hot
•feather, and its chief town, of the same name, is the largest
hill station in India. The other two districta of the divi-
sion lie upon the plains at the foot of the Himilayas.
They are bounded on the N.E. by those mountains, on the
N.W. by the river Satlej, on the S.W. by the district of
Firozpur, the independent native state of PatiAli, and the
district of KarnAl, and on the S.E. by the river JamnA.
AmbAl'X District stretches N.W. and S.E. along the
lower face of the Himilayas, and lies between 29° 55' and
31° ir N. lat., and between 7<f 37' and 77° 38' E. long.
It is bounded on the N.E. by the IlimAlayas, on the N.W.
by the river Satlej, on the S.E. by the river JamnA, and
on the S.W. by the district of Ludhidni, the. state of
PatiAl.'i, and the district of Karnil. The total area of the
district is 2628 square miles, or 1,681,930, acres, of which
945,526 acres are cultivated, 283,989 acres are cultivable,
bttt not actually under tillage, and 452,415 acres are
uncultivable and waste. The total population of the
di.strict, according to the census of 1868, amounts to
1,035,488 souls, divided into the following classes : —
Hindus, 689,333; Mahometans, 285,874; Sikhs, 56,440;
others, 2841. The males numbered 567,930, and the
females 467,558; the proportion of males to the total
population being 5484 per cent The principal tribes and
castes in point of numbers are — (1.) Jits, viz., Hindus and
Sikhs, 161,967; Mahometans, 13,368: total, 175,335. (2.)
ChimArs (Hindus), 125,638. (3.) EAjputs— viz., Hindus
and Sikhs, 20,121; Mahometans, 62,866: total, 82,987.
(4.) Brihmans, 63,744. (5.) Gujjars — viz., Hindus and
Sikhs, 24,500; Mahometans, 24,195 : total, 48,695. (6.)
Baniis (Hindus), 39,093. The total agricultural popula-
tion was 501,056. Taking the population as compared
with the area, the result gives 1'62 acres per head of the
population, or 3-35 acres per head of the agricultural
population. Putting aside the uncultivable and waste land,
there are 1"18 acres of cultivated or cultivable land per
head of the population, or 2-45 acres per head of the agri-
cultural population. 'Taking only the area under actual
cultivation, there are '91 acres per head of population, or
1-88 acres per head of the agricultural population. With
one small exception, the whole district consists of a level
alluvial plain, sloping away gradually from the foot of the
HimAlayas, and l)-ing between the rivers Jamni and Satlej.
These rivers do not materially afifect the district, which
has a drainage system of its own, consisting of the numerous
torrents and water-courses which pour down upon it from
the hills. In the southern portion of the district these
torrents run in broad sandy beds scarcely below the sur-
face of the country, and vary from 200 yards to a mile in
width, until, at a distance of 20 or 30 miles from the hills,
the^ assume the form of comparatively docile streams,
with well-defined clay banks. Towards the northern por-
tion of the district the torrents run in deep beds irota the
point where they debouch from the hiUs; they also differ
from the streams of the southern tract in being free from
sand. The principal of these northern streams is the
Ghaggar, into which all the other minor streams sooner or
later enfpty themselves, some within and some beyond
the limits of the district. Whatever surplus water of
this river is nol swallowed up by irrigation passes on
through Patiili state and SirsA, and is finally lost in the
sands of RAjputini. The Ghaggar is the only perennial
atream within the district, and even it dwindles down to a
tiny rivulet in the dry weather, and disappears altogjether
beyond the border of the district.
The Sind, Panjab, and Dehli railway passps throngh the centre of
the district from south-east to north-we3t. The other principal land
rontes are two main lines of road, one ]iassing through the district
parallel to the line of railway, and the other coming from Dehli and
Earaal, entering it on the lonth, and mnning northward ti'.l the two
roads meet at AmbaU city. A less important road runs northward
from this town to the foot of the Himalayas, and forms the route to
the hill station of Simla. The principal agricultural products of
Ambiil& district are wheat, grain, and barley for the spring harvest,
and rice, joir (spiked millet), and Indian com in the autumn. The
total area under cultivation in 1871-72 was, for the spring harvest
437.377 acres, and for the autumn crop 496,542 acres. 'The land
Bcttlcment of the southern portion of the district was completed in
1853, and that of the northern part in 1855. Both will expire in
1850. The following eight towns are returned as containing a
population of upwaios of 5000 souls, the first-named seven being
also municipaliUea ; AmbAU, population, 50,062 soula; 8h&hdbdd,
11,678; Jagddhri, 11,678; Sadhauri, 11,198; Riipar, 8700; Buna,
8351; Thincswar, 7929; Manl Majrd, 5989. A municipal in-
come is also raised from the following seven towns; — Kharar,
Siawin, Morindall, Pihewah, Radaur, Ladwah, and Khizirdbid. All
the municipalities derive their revenue from a system of octroi
duties. The total revenue of Ambali district for 1871 was £101,362,
of which 74 per cent, or £74,446, was derived from the land. Th«
other principal items of revenue were as follows: — Distilleries,
£3594, 14s. ; drugs and opium, £3181, 4s. ; income-tax, £2709, 148.J
stamps, £9308, 14s.; local rates levied under Act xx. of 1871,
£7653, ISs. AmbiU ia one of the territories previously held by
a Sikh Sardir which lapsed to the East India Company in default
of rightful heirs. The district was seized by Ranjit Singh daring
one of his marauding expeditions. This aggression caused the
movement of British troops in 1809 which resulted in the treaty
with Ranjit Singh by which he was required to withdraw his army
from the loft bank of the Satlej, and to relinquish hia recent con-
quests in Sirhind.
AiiBlxi City, the capital of the district of the same
name, is situated in 30° 24' N. lat, and 76° 49' E. long.
It forms a large and important station on the Sind, Pan-
jAb, and DehU railway. The military station and can-
tonments lie a few miles south-east of the town. AmbAli
is a large walled town, situated in a level and highly-cnlti-
vated country, well supplied with wat€r, and capable of
furnishing abundant supplies. The houses are built of
burnt brick, and the streets are very narrow. The town
population is returned at 50,662 souls, but this probably
includes the English station. The population within muni-
cipal limits numbers 24,040, divided as follows: — Agricul-
turists, 3226; non-agriculturists, 20,814. The town has
been constituted a second-class municipality, the affifirs of
which are conducted by a committee consisting of six
official and five non-official members. The municipal in-
come is derived from an octroi duty, and the revenue has
increased from £836, 16s. in 1867-68, to £1520 in
1871-72. The average incidence of municipal taxation in
the latter year was Is. 3Jd. per head of the population
within municipal limits.
AilB.^RVALI-A., or Ambasvale Sacritm (ambio and
arvum, to go round the field), an annual festival celebrated in
ancient Rome on three days during the month of May.
The private ambari'cilia is to be distinguished from the
sacri_fi£tum dfoe dice celebrated by the twelve fralrea
arvales, though the two festivals were coincident in point
of time and had a common object, namely, to obtain from
the gods a favourable harvest. The sacrijicium was offered
up on behalf of the entire state ; the amharvalia was cele-
brated by each proprietor for himself. The victims were
a sow, a sheep, and a bull, and were called by the combined
name suovetaurilia. Previous to the sacrifice these were
led round the fields, while the peasants sang hymns to
Ceres. The form of prayer used (carmen amharvale) is
preserved in an inscription of the date of the Emperor
Elagabalus (218 A.D.), which was discovered in 177".
The same inscription gives an interesting account of the
entire ceremony. (See Marini's Gli Atti e ifomtmenti de
Fratelli Arvali, Rome, 1792.) The Christian festival that
seems to have taken the place of the amharvalia is the
Rogation or Gang Week of the Roman Catholic Church,
for which the petambularion of the parish boundaries wa*
substituted at the Reformation.
A.MBASSADOR
657
AMBASSADOR, a word introdnced into the English
language from the Fr. ambassadeur, the ItaL ambasciatore,
or the Span, emhaxador, which Wicquefort deriyes, perhaps
nrithout sufficient authority, from the Span, embiar, to send.
The word denotes a public minister of the highest rank,
accredited and sent by the head of a sovereign state to a
foreign court- or country, with power to represent the
person of the sovereign by whom he is sent, to negotiate
with a foreign government, and to watch over the interests
of his own nation abroad. The power thus conferred is
contained in the. credentials or letters of credence of which
the ambassador is the bearer, and in the instructions
under the sign-manual delivered to himself. The creden-
tials consist in a sealed letter addressed by the sovereign'
in person whose representative he is, to the sovereign to
"whom he is sent, and they contain a general assurance that
the sovereign by whom he is despatched wiU approve and
confirm whatever is done by the ambassador in his name.
In England these letters of credence are under the sign-
manud of the Queen, anS are not countersigned by the
Secretary of State. On special occasions, as for the nego-
tiation of treaties, additional an express powers are given
to an ambassador under the great seal, and sometimes
(but very rarely) full general powers to treat on all subjects.
LoroT Clarendon held such powers at the congress of Paris
in 1856
Diplomatic envoys are of three ranks, as was finally
determined by a common agreement of all the powers
which was annexed to the final act of the treaty M Vienna
in 1815: — 1. Ambassadors; the ambassador of the pope
being called a nuncio, and the ambassador of the Emperor
of Austria to the Sublime Porte being called his inter-nuncio.
These ouly have representative rank. 2. Envoys extraordi-
nary or ministers plenipotentiary, accredited to sovereigns
iauprh des souverains). 3. Charges d'affaires, who are only
entitled to transact business with the Minister of Foreign
Affairs. We shall confine ourselves in this article to the
diplomatic officers of the first rank. The relative number of
ambassadors, as distinguished from ministers, has of late
years been considerably increased. The Emperor Nicholas
refused for many years to send an ambassador to the court
of France, and he therefore suppressed the grade for a time
altogether. His example was imitated by other powers.
But the old practice has now been reverted to. The Queen
of England has embassies at Paris, Constantinople, Vienna,
St Petersburg, arid Berlin. The number of British ministers
plenipotentiary is twenty -three, and three charges d'afi'aires;
but these numbers vary.
From the 15th century, when the practice of sending
resident embassies may be said to have commenced in
Europe, down to the close of the 18th century, these
missions were surrounded with a prodigiouj amount of
splendour, ceremonial, and contentious dignity. British
ambassadors were commonly sent • out till withir the last
thirty years in ships of war. The ambassador represented
a monarch, and was to play the part of one. The memoirs
of those ages are fulLof the magnificence and profuse
display which marked their progress — lacqueys, liveries,
state coaches, led horses, and all the pageantry of state.
Fierce disputes frequently arose between rival ambassadors
for precedence ; sometimes these disputes even extended to
the co'irts and ministers to whom these envoys 'were
despatched as messengers of peace, and a vast deal of time
was lost (especially at the Congress of Miinster) in
pdjusting them. On the part of the sovereign to whom
they were to present their credentials the same display was
made. The new ambassador was fetched by the master of
the ceremonies in the king's coaches and feasted at the
king's expense. The solenm entry and the public audience,
as they were tcnned, were an essential part of the mission.
The ambassador had the right to stand covered in the
presence of royalty. At Venice the doge placed Sir
Harry Vane, covered and seated, on his right hand in the
Council of Ten. A speech was then delivered, in which
the ambassador declared the friendly sentiments of his own
sovereign, and his own humble desire to give effect to them.
Modern simplicity and the facility of intercourse has swept
away many of these formalities. Traces of them survive
at the courts of Berlin and Vienna, but elsewhere an. am-
bassador is presented with little more than the customary
ceremony of a court. It has long been held that every
state is at liberty to receive ambassadors with or without
ceremony, just as it pleases, provided they are all treated
alike. Formalities of this kind are, however, EtOl of
moment in dealing with Oriental states, where ceremony is
the language of power. Perhaps it is nowhere carried to
higher perfection than at the court of Japan. The knotty
question of precedence was also settled at the Congress of
Vienna by an agreement that precedency should be regu-
lated by seniority, dating from the. notification of the
arrival of the envoy. In foreign countries the senior am-
bassador is known as the dean or doyen of the diplomatic
body; but in England the diplomatic body has no general
mouthpiece or representative.
Every state or sovereign has the right, if it thinks fit, to
refuse to receive a particular person as an ambassador, or
even to receive any ambassador at all. It is therefore
customary to ascertain beforehand whether the person desig-
nated for an embassy is favourably regarded, and wiU be weU
received. There have been instances, not very remote, of
unfavourable answers or refusals to receive given individuals.
The rank of an ambassador, as regards the society of the
nation to which he is accredited, places him immediately
after the princes of the blood royal, because he represents
a sovereign power, and this rank is' universally conceded to
him. The rank of a minister plenipotentiary is rather
more dubious, but by a rule laid down by Her Majesty for
the court of St James they follow dukes and precede
marquises. An ambassador or minister not actually
accredited to this court has of course no official rank at
all, and must take his' personal rank. No distinction ia
made between the ambassadors of monarchies and of
republics. The Venetian ambassadors held in their time
a very prominent rank in Europe ; so in our day do the
ministers of the United .States ; but the United States have
never sent any ambassadcSr to Europe— their representatives .
therefore rank in the second class of public ministers.
'We shall now proceed briefly to enumerate that which
constitutes the essential dignity and utility of an ambassador
— on the one hand his ""hts and privileges, on the other
his duties.
A. The first right of an ambassador is that of personal
audience of the sovereign. His credentials must invariably
be presented to the sovereign in person, and he may ask
for an audience on any fitting occasion. In England,
however' the sovereign does not officially receive an
ambassador except in the presence of one or more- -of the
ministers of the crown. ilr Canning complained bitterly
of the influence of Prince Lieven and Prince Esterhazy
over George IV., who lived on intimate tenns with these
ambassadors, and used to say " his father would never
have done so." In England the right of audience is now
generally limited to the presentation of some congratulatory
letter ; but at Continental courts it is not without con-
siderable utility and importance, as was shown by the
memorablfe conversation of Sir Hamilton Seymeur with the
Emperor Nicholas, and the personal interviews of Lord
Cowley and Lord Clarendon with the Emperor Napoleon IIL
In all ages the perfect personal security of persons in,
vested with high diplomatic functions; as the representa-
r. - 8.J
658
AMBASSADOR
tives of a foreign power, lias bcca an essential and fanda-
tnental principle of the law of natioua. Indeed it uoi the
law of nations when there was no other. Alexander the
Great destroyed Tyro for an insult offered to his ambaa-
eador; and it stands recorded in the Roman law, "Si quia
legatum hostium pulsasset, contra jua gentium id commis-
8um esse exist iinatuj', quia sancli habmtitr leyaXi" (Dig. L.
Tit. viL § 17). In moments of excessive excitement or
revolutionary frenzy even this principle has been vio-
lated, as in the murder of Dr Dorislaus at the Hague
(1C49), and of the French envoys at Eastadt (1799);
but such acts leave an indeUble disgrace on those
wlio have committed them. For it is the interest of
all mankind that ambassadors and envoys should have
absolute security to perform their missions with freedom
of speech and the liberty "cundi et redeundi" undis-
turbed, insomuch that to intercept or refuse passage to an
ambassador, even through the territory of a third party, is
justly regarded as a base action, though probably the leave
of the third party to grant the passage ought to be asked.
It was the barbarous custom of Turkey to send an ambas-
sador to the Seven Towers on a declaration of war, and
detain him there as long as the war lasted; but the Porte
formally relinquished and abandoned this practice on the
breaking out of war with Russia in 1827. To secure this
immunity from all interference, an accredited ambassador
or envoy is wholly free from the jurisdiction of the courts
of law, or of any other authority in the country in which
be is sent to reside. This constitutes the doctrine of extra-
ttrritorialitt/. His house is as sacred as his person. It is
supposed, like a ship at sea, to form part of the territory
represented by the flag which he may hoist over it. AU
the members of the embassy, and even the servants of the
ambassador, share the same inviolability. They cannot even
be arrested and prosecuted for offences without his consent.
Hence, as the courts of justice have no jurisdiction over
them, and indeed would have no means of enforcing an
adverse decision either by distress or imprisonment, these
diplomatic agents cannot be impleaded or sued. The only
means of obtaining redress for an injury or breach of con-
tract is an appeal to the head of the mission, or a further
appeal to the government which he represeiita, which, it
must be presumed, will not allow a wrong to be commiited
with impunity under the shelter of privilege. In England,
by the statute 7 Anne, c. 12, it is expressly enacted that
any process against foreign ambassadors or ministers, or
their goods and chattels, shall be altogether void. This
Acf was passed in consequence of an attempt, made in
1708, to arrest an ambassador of Peter the Great in London
for a debt of £50, and it is BtUl law; but in fact it is only
declaratory, and in confirmation of the common law and the
law of nations.
An ambassador or envoy pays no taxes or contributions
to the public revenue of the country in which he resides,
and on this principle he is entitled to rgceive commodities
from abroad free of customs duties. But he is not
exempted from the payment of local rates, — though, indeed,
if he were to decline to pay them, no process could issue
against him for the purpose of levying them. He also
pays the ordinary rates of postage, but he has the privi-
lege of sending his own couriers carrj-ing sealed despatches,
which exempts him from the monopoly of the post office.
These couriers, and their despatches or maib, are also
regarded by common consent as inviolable messengers,
unless they chance in time of war to fall into the bands of
a hostile beUigerent. In some countries ambassadors and
their couriers have been allowed to have a prior claim for
post horses over private travellers.
Another of the important privileges of an ambassador or
eiTvoy is the free exereisa of the religion or foi-m of \roraliip
to which he adheres; but it is laid down by the test writers
on the subject that a foreign minister has not the right of
maintaining a chapel or chapkin withiu his hot«l, ujider
the law of nations; hence the liberty of religious worship
fur the ambassador and his suite was made a matter of
treaty engagement between Catholics and Protestants, and
between Christians and Mussulmans. By courtesy, though
not of strict right, the usage of ambassadors' chapels lus,
however, become general; and it had a real importance in
countries where the free exercise of different foims of belief
was not tolerated by law. Thus, at the time when the
rites of the Church of Rome were forbidden in England,
the Spanish and Bavarian chapels in London were free;
and they have remained in existence till our own days,
although the enlarged tolerance of the present ago has
removed in every civilised country those barriers. In
China and Japan the free exercise of the Christian religion
by the Christian embassies is formally secured by treaty.
B. We now pass to the duties of an ambassador, and we
place at the head of them that of keeping his own sove-
reign well informed of all that may concern his interest:;
in foreign countries. He is the eye of the government ho
serves, specially directed to a particular spot, and he ough''
to be thoroughly acquainted with the course of policy, tho
movements of parties, the character and disposition cf
individual statesmen, and the material and commercial
resources of the counti-y in which he resides. Hia public
despatches, and his private correspondence with the Minister
of Foreign Affairs under whom he serves, ought to be a
record of all that can interest or concern the state which,
he represents. , In this sense the diplomatic reports of the
ambassadors of former times are invaluable materials for
history. His next duty is to protect and defend, if neces-
sary, the persons and interests of his fellow-countrymen
abroad; and this is of especial moment in the case of a.
British ambassador, whose countrymen are to be met with
as travellers, navigators, or merchants in all parts of the
globe. To them the presence and influence of the diplo-
matic representatives of their country is of incalculable
value, and nothing can be more ill-judged than the pro-
posals that have been made to cut down and contract
our foreign embassies and missions. A third, but not less
important, duty of an ambassador is to maintain the most
amicable relations with the sovereign to whom ha is
accredited, and with his ministers, and to observe towards
them the strictest respect, veracity, and good-wiQ. It has
been said in joke that the first duty of an ambassador is to
keep a good cook; but if this implies that he is to exercise
a liberal hospitality and to make his house agreeable, those
no doubt are means which may powerfully assist bim in
the objects of his mission. In former times it was con-
sidered to be essential to good diplomacy to act as a spy
upon the motives and conduct of foreign statesmen, to
cheat without being cheated, to use clandestine means to
obtai . information, to endeavour to form a party in foreign
states" favourable to the ambassador's own national interests,
to observe and resist with the utmost jealousy the demeanour
of other foreign envoys, and to carry on a species of
warfare under the mask cf courtesy and good-breeding.
These practices have given diplomacy and the functions
of ambassadors a bad name, but it must be said that
they are repudiated by the principles and practice of
the present time, and more especially by the foreign
policy of this country. Down to a recent period,
these struggles for ascendancy in foreign countries were
carried on with great eagerness, and they led to unfor-
tunate results. In Spain, for example, the untoward
marriage of Queen Isabella was notoriously brought about
by the violent and ar'oiti-ary interference of the French
ambassador; and in IH&, when Lord Falmerston instructed
A M 'B ^ A M B
659
I
Sir Henry Bulwer to represent to tlio Spanish^ minister
that they would do well to adopt a more liberal and con-
Btitutional system of government, Geneial Naivaez imme-
diately sent the British envoy out of the country. • This
was the exerfiise of an extreme right, for which the British
government could claim no rediess. So, again, when in
the course of the Russian war (1855) it appeared to the
American government that the British envoy in Wash-
ington had infringed the neutrality laws of the United
States by endeavouring to eulist recruits for the service
of Her Majesty, he was compelled to leave the country,
and Great Britain had no just cause of complaint. These
modem cases are important, because they prove that no
stite which respects itself will tolerate, on the part of a
foreign envoy, a direct interference in the internal affairs
of government or an infraction of its own laws. Hence
arises the great principle on which our modem practice is
foiinded, namely, that it is the duty of an ambassador -^
observe a strict neutrality between contending parties in
the state to which he is accredited; to accept the govern-
ment de facto with which he communicates as the govern-
ment and sovereign of the nation; to pay implicit obedience
to the laws of that state, whatever they be; and to abstain
as much as possible from all intervention in its internal
affairs. These doctrine's are comparatively new, but the/
are sound, and they may be said to have received the
assent and the approval of the most' enlightened govern-
ments of Europe. Great changes have occurred within
the last few years in France, (Jermany, Austria, Italy, and
Spain; but they have all the distinguishing mark that
they are wholly independent of foreign diplomatic influ-
ence. The first, perhaps we ought to say the sole duty, of
an ambassador is to protect his own national interests and
to promote the most friendly relations with the sovereign
to whom he is accredited; and experience has proved that
these objects are best secured by confining himself to the
principal objects of his mission, apd by relying on no arts
but those of sincerity, forbearance, and truth. (h. e.)
•' AMBATO, or Asiekto d'Ambaio, a town of Ecuador,
on the northern slope of Chimborazo, about 65 miles south
of Quinto, 8859 feet above the sea. It W-as destroyed by
an eraption of Cotopaxi in 1698, but was soon reb\iilt,
and now carries on a flourishing trade in grain, sugar, and
cochineal. Population, 12,000.
AlIBER (Or. "HXt/crpor; Lat. Succinum, Eledrum,;
Ft. Succin, Arnhre ; Ger. Bernstein) is a hard, brittle
substance with a resinous lustre, sometimes found perfectly
transparent, but more usually of varying degrees of trans-
lucency, and possessing a prevailing yellow colour, passing
from a pale straw tint- to a deep orange. It occurs in
irregular masses, and has neither taste nor, at ordinary
temperatures, odour. It develops electrical phenomena
by friction, a property which doubtless early drew atten-
tion to amber, and invested it with the romantic interest
which attached to it in ancient times. The popular regard
for the substance among the nations of antiquity was
further maintained by the fabulous tales of the manner in
which amber was formed and the mystery connected with
its occurrence.
The earliest notice of amber ■we find occurs in the
Odyssey of Homer, where in the list of jewels offered by
Phoenician traders to the Queen of Syra occurs " the gold
necklace hung with bits of ^ber"(Orf. xv. 460). Thales
of Miletus, 600 B.C., noticed that ambet when rjibbed
attracted ligjit bodies, and that remote and simple observa-
tion is the foundation of the modem science of eiectricity,
80 named from the Greek rjXtKrpov. Among the Greek
fables purporting to accoimt for the origin of amber, it is
narrated that the Heliadse, on seeing their brother Phajthon
hurled by the lightning of Jove into the Eridanus, were
by the pitying gods transformed into poplar trees, and the
tfiars they shed were dropped as amber on the shores of
the river. Hence arose the Greek term for amber,'
'HAeKTojp being one of the names of the sun god. A less
poetical theory of its origin states that it was formed from
the condensed urine of the lynx inhabiting northern Italy,
the pale varieties being produced by the females, while the
deeper tints were attributed to males. In such repute waa
amber in Rome in the time of PUny that he sarcastically
remarks,-< " the price of a small figure in it, however
diminuti're, exceeds that of a living healthy slave."
Besides its application to jewellery and carved ornaments,
and its use, partly decorative and partly prophylactic, as
necklaces, peculiar virtues were attributed to it. Pliny
observes — " True it is that a collar of amber beads worn
about the necks of young infants is a singular preservative
to them against secret poison, and a counter-charm for
witchcraft and sorceries." As an article of personal orna-
mentation, the same authority states that amber was used
to produce imitations of precious stones by artificial
staining, a use to which it was peculiarly adapted owing
to its brilliant lustre combined with the ease vrith which it
could be worked and poHshed.
The great source of supply of amber in all ages appears
to have been the Baltic coasts, from which the supplies of
commerce still continue to be drawn. During the reign
of Nero an expedition was sent from Rome to explore the
amber-producing country, and so successful was the party
that a present of 13,000 ft of amber was brought back
to the emperor, including a piece weighing 13 ft. It
occurs in regular veins along the Baltic coast, but in
greatest abundance between Pillau and Grosz Hubenicken,
on the Prussian coast. Professor Phillips thus describes
the mines : —
" Kear the sea-coast in Prussia there are regular mines for the
worldug of amber : imder a stratiun of sand and clay, about 20 feet
thick, a stratum of bituminous wood occurs, from 40 to 50 feet
thick, of a blackish brown. colour, and impregnated with pyrites.
Parts of these trees are. impregnated with amber, which sometimes
is found in stalactites dependmg from them. Under the stratum
of trees were found pyrites, sulphate of iron, and coarse sand, in
which were rounded masses of amber. The mine is worked to the
depth of 100 feet ; and from the circumstances under which the
amber is found it seems plain that it originates from vegetable
juices."
After heavy storms large quantities are usually found
thrown up on the coast at the localities where it Ls
regularly excavated, and the assumption is, that amberifer-
ous deposits crop up in the shallow waters near the shorej,
from which pieces become detached during the violent com-
motion of the water. It is further sparingly cast on the
Swedish and Danish coasts, and occasionally pieces aro
picked up along the shores of Norfolk, Essex, and Susse:;
in Eilgland, It occurs at numerous localities inland
throughout Europe, among whieh may be noted th3
neighbourhood of Basle in Switzerland, the departments
of Aisne, Loire, Gard, and Bas Rhin in France, and in tho
Paris clay it is associated with -bituminous deposit -. Li
England it has been found in the sandy deposit, of the
London clay at Kensington. The coasts of Sicfly and tho
4.driatic Hkewiso afford amber. The most beautiful
specimens jre perhaps those which are found at Catania,
Hhey often possess a beautiful play of colour, approaching
to purple, not to be observed in the product of other places.
Professor Dana gives the following note on its occurrence
in America : —
"It has been found in various parts of the greensand fonnatioMf
the United States, either loosely embedded in the soil or engaged in
marl or lignite, as at Gay Head dr Mather's Vineyard, near Trenton,,
and also at CamdciK in New Jersey, and at Capo Sable, iieuf
Ma^jothv river, in Mafvlaad."
660
A M B - A M B
It 13 said to be taken in large quantities from tlio nortn of
Burmah to tho markets of China, where it ia highly prized.
The appearance of enclosed foreign bodies, such as
insects, leaves, twigs, ic, whichamber Very often prescats,
and the markings on its surface, very early led to correct
inferences as to its origin. Pliny states that " amber is
an exudation from trees of the pine family, like gum from
tho cherry and resin from tho ordinary pine ; and in
accordance with this opinion is its Latin name mccinum,
tho gum-stone. The opinion expressed by Pliny ia that
which at the present day may be fairly held as established ;
but of course amber diiTera from other resins owing to
changes induced by its fossilised condition. Sir David
Brewster has pointed out that in optical properties it
agrees with other resinous exudations. The insects found
enclosed in amber are for tho most part of extinct species,
and so also are tho remains of plants. A species of conifer
has been established provisionally as tho amber-yielding tree,
Pintles tuccini/er, but Giippert has shown that many trees
may have yielded tho exudation, and these not all neces-
sanly belonging to the pine order.
The close relation of amber to ordinary resins is further
brought out by its chemical properties and composition.
According to Berzelius, it consists mainly of a resin,
succinite, insoluble in alcohol, in combination with small
proportions of two others, isomeric with the first, but soluble
in alcohol and other. By dry distillation it gives off at a
low temperature water, succinic acid, and oil of amber,
which last substance was formerly used in medicine in
combination with alcohol and ammonia under the name of
eau de luce; but now amber and all its products have
disappeared from the standard pharmacopceias. Its com-
position is, according to SchriJtter —
Carbon V894
Hydrogen 10-53
Oxygon 10-53
jnd mineralogically it belongs to Dana's class of oxygenated
hydrocarbons. It burns with a pale yellow flame, with a
good deal of black smoke, evolving an agreeable odour, and
leaving a shining black carbonaceous residue.
It is said that by exposing amber covered with-sand in
in-iron pot to the influence of heat for forty hours', or
bfllling it for twenty hours in rape oil, it will become
transparent, and pieces will cement and mould together.
The great size of vessels of amber which have come
down from, ancient times suggests the probability of some
such art being practised in remote periods. It is now
ipplied to few useful purposes among western nations
beyond forming tho mouthpieces for tobacco-pipes and
cigar-holders. Fine pieces are in some demand for public
collections and for the purposes of the carver. In the East,
besides its being highly prized for ornamental purposes, a
feeling of veneration for its mystic properties still en-
hances its v^lue. . The Turks esteem it highly as a mouth-
piece for tobacco pipes, and believe that it resists the
transmission of infection. The principal demand for the
amber of commerce is among the Armenians, through
whom it is conveyed to Egypt, Persia, China, and Japan ;
and a great quantity is purchased to be consumed at the
shrine of Mahomet by the pilgrims bound to Mecca. The
value of amber depends upon its colour, its lustre, and its
size. In 1576 a mass weighing 11 Bi was found in
Prussia, and deemed worthy of being presented to the
tmperor; later, a mass of 13 lb was found, for which it is
said 5000 dollars were refused. In the royal cabinet at
Berlin a piece is shown weighing t8 lb; but such masses
are of very grfeat rarity.
AMBERQ, a -walled town of Bavaria, formerly the
caX)ital of tho Upper Palatinate, and at present the scat of
the appeal court for the district, is situated on both sides
o: the Vils, 3a tniles east of Nuremberg. It is a well-
Luilt town, and has a library, a gymnasium, a lyceum,
elementary schools, an atsenal, and several churches, tho
finest of which is St Martin's, with many fine paintings,
and a tower 300 feet high. The principal manufactures are
fire-arms, ironmongery, earthenware, woollen cloth, b^er,
and salt; in th£ neighbourhood are iron and coal minci.
The French under Jourdan were defeated by the Austrian:!
near Ambcrg in 1796. Population in 1871, 11,688.
AMBERGKIS (Amlira gritea, Amhre gris, or Groy
Amber) ia a solid, fatty, inflammable substance of a d-ol!
grey or blackish colour, tho shades being variegated li^-
marble, possessing a peculiar sweet earthy odour. It •;,
now known to be a morbid secretion formed in tho ints.')-
tines of the spermaceti whale {Physeter macroceplialtu), -n'i
is found floating upon the sea, on the sea-coast, or in »ho
sand near the sea-coast. It is met with in the Atlaniic
Ocean, on the coasts of Brazil and Madagascar; also o.-.
the coast of Africa, of tho East Indies, China, Japan, zr.6.
tho Sfolucca Islands; but most of the ambergris which 'Ji
brought to England comes from tho Bahama Island;,
Providence, <kc. It is also sometimes found in tho cb-
domen of whales, always in lumps in various shapes and
sizes, weighing from \ oz. to 100 or more lb. A piece wbica
the Dutch East India Company bought from the King
of Tydoro weighed 182 lb. An American fisherman from
Antigua found, inside a whale, about 52 leagues south-east
from the Windward Islands, a piece of ambergris which
weighed about 130 lb, and sold for £500 sterling. Lite
many other substances regarding the origin of which tL:re
existed some obscurity or mystery, ambergris in former
times possessed a value, and had properties attributed to it,
more on account of tho source from which it was drawn
than from its inherent qualities. Many ridiculous hypo-
theses were started to account for its origin, and among
others it was conjectured to be the solidified foam of the
sea, a fungoid growth in the ocean similar to the fui?gi
which form on trees, the excreta of sea-birds, ic Tlio
true source and character of ambergris was first sati:ifac-
torily established by Dr Swediaur in a communicatio.n to
the Royal Society (Philosophical Transactions, voL bixiii.)
It was found by Dr Swediaur that ambergris very fre-
quently contained the horny mandibles or beaks of tho
squid (Sepia moschata), on -which sperm whales are known
to feed. That observation, in connection with the fact of
ambergris being frequently taken from the intestines of
the sperm w-hale, sufficiently proved that it was formed
within that creature, and not an extraneous substanca
Swallowed by tho whale. It was further observed that the
■«'hales in which ambergris was found were either dead
or much -n-asted and eridently in a sickly condition.
From this it was inferred that ambergris was in some way
connected with a morbid condition of the sperm whale.
Ambergris, when taken from tho intestinal canal of the
sperin whale, is of a, deep grey colour, soft consistence, and
a disagreeable smelL On exposure to the air it gradually
hardens, becomes pale, and develops its peculiar sweet
earthy odour. In that condition its specific gravity ranges
from 0-780 to 0-926. It melts at a temperature of about
145° Fahr. ilito a fatty yellow resinous-like liquid; and at
212° it is volatilised into a white vapour. It is soluble in
ether, volatile and, fijced oils, .but only feebly acted on by
acids. By digesting in hot alcohol, a peculiar substancj
termed ambrein is obtained, which deposits in brilliant
white crystals as the solution cools. ;^In chemical constitu-
tion ambrein very closely resembles cholesterin, a principle
found abundantly in biliafy calculi ' It is'therefore more
than probable that ambergi;JB, from the f)Osition in which it
is found and its chemical constitution, is a biliary concre-
tion onalpgous to what is formed in other mammals.' The
A M B — A M B
661
056 of aaabsTgris in Europe is now entirely confined to
perfumery, though it formerly occupied no inconsiderable
place in medicine. As a material of perfumery its price
varies from ISs. to 25s. per ounce; and in minute quantities
its alcoholic solution is much used for giving a " floral"
fragrance to bouquets, washes, and other preparations of
the perfumer. It occupies a very important place in the
perfumery of the East, and there it is aiso used in phar-
macy, and as a flavouring material in cookery. The high
price it commands makes it peculiarly liable to adultera-
tion, but its genuineness is casUy tested by its solubility
in hot alcohol, its fragrant odour, and its uniform fatty
consistence on being penetrated by a hot wire.
AilBERT, chief town of an arr'ondissement of the same
name in the department of Puy de Dome, France, situated
on the Dore, 35 miles from Clermont. Its chief manu-
factures are paper, linen, lace, ribands, and pins; it has
also an extensive trade in che'jse of a very fine quality.
Population in 1872, 7625.
AMBLESIDE, a small market town in Westmoreland,
situated about a mile frour the head of Lake Wiudermere,
and 14 miles from Kendal. During the summer it is much
frequented by tourists on eccount of its beautiful situation.
In its vicinity is Rydal Mount, for many years the resi-
dence of the poet Wordsworth. Some indistinct remains
of Roman fortifications, in which coins, urns, and other
relics have been frequently discovered, exist in the neigh-
bourhood. Coarse woollen cloths are manufactured at
Ambleside. Population in 1871, 1988.
AMBLETEUSE, a seaport town of France, in the
department of the Pas de Calais, on the English Channel,
6 miles north of Boulogne. From the accumulation of
sand in its harbour it has lost its importance as a seaport,
and the town is now almost deserted. It possesses an
historical interest as the landing-place of-James II. after
his abdication in 1688; and Napoleon I. in 1804 attempted
to improve the harbour for the flat-bottomed boats by
means of which he was to invade England. Near Amble-
teuse is the column which he erected to the grand army in
1805. Population, about 700.
AMBO, or Ambon (Gr. afiflwv, from dva/iaivu), a read-
ing-desk or pulpit in early Christian churches which was
placed in the middle of the nave. It was ascended by a
flight of steps on both the east and west sides, and was in
some cases so large as to accommodate fifty persons. From
it the lessons were read, and hence it was sometimes
called sruggestus lectorum and fitjixa tuiv avayvuytrrCiy. It
Was also occasionally used by the preacher. Two movable
«mbo3 may be seen in the church of St John Laterau at
Rome. The purposes of the ambo were served in media;val
churches by the rood-loft, a gaUery across the chancel-arch,
and in modern churches it has given place to the lectern
and the pulpit.
AMBOISE, a town situated in a rich wine-producing
district in the department of Indre-et-Loire, France, on
the left bank of the Loire, 14 miles east of Toura. Its
chief manufactures are cloth and files. At Amboise the
French Protestants were first called Huguenots, and 1200
of them were massacred there in 1560 on the discovery of
their con.spiracy against the Guises. The ancient castle,
which is situated on a height above the town, was a seat
of the French kings, and it was set apart as a residence
for the Arab chief Abdel-Kader during his captivity in
France. Population, 4670.
AMBOYNA, one of the Moluccas or Spice Islands, be-
longing to the Dutch, lying south-west of Ceram, in 3°
41' S. lat. and 128° 10' E. long. It is 32 miles in length,
with an area of about 280 square miles, and is of very
irregular figure, being almost divided into two. The south-
Msteru and smaller portion ^called Leitimor) is united to
the northern (known as Hitoe) by a neck of land about
a mile broad. The island is mountainous, but is for the
most part fertile and well-watered. Large tracts are
covered witt rich tropical forests, which embrace a great
variety of trees, although ordinary building timber is
scarce. The climate is comparatively pleasant and healthy;
the average temperature is 80° Fahr., rarely sinking below
72°. The rainfall, however, after the eastern monsoons,
is very heavy, and the island is liable to violent hurricanes
and earthquakes. Amboyna produces most of the-common
tropical fruits and vegetables, including the sago-palm,
bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, sugar-cane, maize, coffee, pepper,
and cotton. Cloves, however, form its chief product,
and the only one that is of any real commercial import-
ance. The Dutch have done much to foster the cultiva-
tion of this article in the island, and at one time prohibited
the rearing of the clove-tree in all the other islands subject
to their rule, in order to secure the monopoly to Amboyna.
Each tree yields annually from 2 to 5 lb of cloves, and
sometimes even more; while the total annual quantity
produced probably averages about 500,000 h. The animal
kingdom is poorly represented. Indigenous mammals are
feeble in species as well as few in number; birds are more
abundant, but of no greater variety. The entomology of the
island is, however, very rich, particolarly among the Lepi-
duptera. The aborigines of Amboyna are a race called
Horaforas, but Malays constitute the main body of the
population; there are also Chinese, Dutch, and a few Por-
tuguese. The Malays in most points resemble those of
Java. They are naturally lazy and effeminate, but when
properly trained make good soldiers. The inhabitants
are mostly Christians or Mahometans. Amboyna is the
chief island of the Dutch residence of the Moluccas, which
comprises, in addition, the islands of Boeroe, Amblauw,
Ceram, Manipa, Kilang, Bonoe, Haroekoe, Honimoa or
Saparoa, Noesa-laut, and Hila. The Portuguese were the
first Europeftu nation to visit Amboyna (1512). They esta-
blished a factory there in 1521, but did not obtain peace-
able possession of it tiU 1580, and were dispossessed by
the Dutch in 1605. About the year 1615 the British
formed a settlement in the island, at CambeUo, which they
retained until 1623, when it was destroyed by the Dutch,
and frightful tortures inflicted on the unfortunate persons
connected with it. In 1654, after many fruitless nego-
tiations, Cromwell compelled the United Provinces to
give the sum of £300,000, together with a' small island,
as compensation to the descendants of those who suffered
in the "Amboyna massacre." In 1796 the British, under
Admiral Rainier, captured Amboyna, but restored it to
the Dutch at the peace of Amiens in 1802. It was
recaptured by the British in 1810, but once more restored
to the Dutch in 1814. Population, about 50,000. See
Moluccas.
AhlBOYNA, the chief town of the above island,' and also
of the Dutch Moluccas, b situated towarda the north-west
of the peninsula of Leitimor. The streets are broad and
unpaved, running at right angles to one another, and inter-
sected by numerous rivulets. The houses are of wood,
roofed with palm leaves, and mostly of one storey, on
account of the frequent earthquakes. An esplanade of
250 yards reaches from Fort Victoria to the town, and is
terminated by a handsome range of houses. The town-
house is a neat structure of two storeys; and among the
other buildings are two Protestant churches and a hospital
The government offices are in Fort Victoria, The road-
stead of Amboyna is safe and comnjodioiu. Population,
about 13,000.
AMBRACIA, or Ampracia, an important city of ancient
Epirus, situated on the eastern bank of the river Arach-
thus, about seven miles from the Ambracian Quli.
662
A M B — A M B
According to tradition, it was originally a TLesprotian
town, founded by Ambrax, son of Thesprotus, or by
Ambracia, daughter of Augcas. About 635 b.c. it was
colonised by Corinthians, and so became a Greek city.
Its power increased rapidly until the time of the Pelopon-
ntsian war, when it commanded the whole of Amphilochia,'
including the town of Argos, from which the original
inhabitants were expelled. In 432 B.C. the expelled
citizens, ■n-ith the assistance of the Athenians under
Phormion, retook Argos. . In 430 the Ambracians made
an unsuccessful attempt to recover the town, and a second
attack in 42G resulted in a still more disastrous failure.
The power of Ambracia now declined as rapidly as it had
grown. I In 3-38-7 it was compelled to submit to Philip of
Macedonia, and it renjained subject to that kingdom until
it was ceded by Alcxaiider V. to PjTrhus of Epirus about
295. ■ The latter made it his capital, aud enriched it with
numerous works of art. It subsequently came under the
power of the ^lEtolian League (239), and sustained a
memorable siege in the war between tlie latter and Rome
(189). In the end the city opened its gates *o the
enemy, who removed many of its most valuable works of
art to Rome. In 31 b.c. the inhabitants of Ambracia
wore removed by Augustus to Nicopolis, the town he had
founded in commemoratidn of the \'ictory of Actium. " The
site of Ambracia is occupied by the fnodern Arta, near
which remains of the ancient fortifications may be seen.
AMBROSE OF Alexandria lived in the beginning of
the third century. Jerome and Eusebius differ in the
account they give of him, the one calling him a Marcionite,
the other a Yalentinian ; but they agree in alleging that
he was converted to the orthodox faith by the preaching
of Origen. Origen dedicated many of his works, among
others his book On Martyrdom, to Ambrose, at whose
d;sire and expense they were publi.shed, and the two lived
on terms of the most intimate friendship. According to
some, Ambrose died a martyr in the persecution under
Maximin, about the year 236 ; but the dedication of
Origen's Eight Boohs against Celsus proves that he lived
to the year 250, or near that period. -Origen speaks of
him as a man of sincere piety, and much devoted to the
study of the Scriptures.
AJIBROSE, Saint, Bishop of Milan, was one of the
niosi eminent fathers of the church in the fourth century.
Ee iras a citizen of Rome, born in Gaul, — according to
some historians, in the year 334, but according to others
iu 340. At the period of his birth his father was prae-
torian prefect of Gallia Narboneiisis ; and upon his death
the widow repaired to Rome with her faniily. Ambrose
received a religious education, and was reared in habits of
virtue by his mother, an accomplished woman, and eminent
for her piety. The names of his instructors in the rudi-
ments of Greek and Roman literature have not been trans-
mitted to posterity ; but in these branches he made early
proficiency, and having directed his attention to the law,
he employed his eloquence with such reputation in the prie-
torian court of Anicius Probus, that he was soon deemed
worthy of a place in the council. After he had continued
in this station for some time, Probus appointed him con-
sular prefect of Liguria and yEmilia, comprehending the
territories of Lilian, Liguria, Turin, Genoa, and Bologna.
Milan was chosen as the place of his residence ; and, by
tlie prud&nt and gentle use of his power, he conducted the
affairs of the pro^^nce with general approbation and grow-
ing popularity.
The death of Auxentius, bishop of Milan, in the year 374,
made a sudden change in the fortune and literary pursuits
of Ambrose. At that period the tide of religions conten-
tion ran Lis^h between the orthodox and the Arians, and a
■violent contest arose concerning the choice of a successor
to Auxentius." 'When the people were assembled in the
church to elect the new bishop, Ambrose, in the character
of governor of the place, presented himself to the assembly,
and in a grave, eloquent, and. pathetic address, admonished
the multitude to lay aside their contentions, and proceed to
the election in the spirit of religious meekness. It ia
reported that when Ambrose had finished his address,
a child cried out, "Ambrose is bishop," and that the
agitated multitude, regarding this as a miraculous inti-
mation, unanimously elected Ambrose bishop of Milan.
Some suppose that this was entirely a device of Ambrose
or. his friends ; others ascribe it to mere accident Am-
brose professed strong reluctance, and even fled, or pre-
tended to fly, from the city in order to avoid the intended
honour. The place of his concealment, however, was soon
discovered ; the emperor's confirmation of his election was
made" known to him ; and after being baptized, ho was
ordained bishop of Milan, about the end of the year 374.
Whatever we may think of the singular conduct of Ambrose
in accepting an office for wjiich he was certainly unqualified
in respect of previous studies, habits, and employments,
it must be admitted that he immediately betook himself
to the necessary studies, and acquitted himself in his new .
elevation with ability, boldness, and integrity. Having
apportioned his money among the poor, and settled his lands
upon the church, with the exception of making his sister
tenant during life, and having committed the care of his
family to his brother, he entered upon a regular course
of theological study, under the care of Simplician, a pres-
bj'ter of Rome, and devoted himself to the labours of the
church.
The irruption of the Goths and the northern barbarians,
who rushed down upon the Roman empire at this time,
spreading terror and desolation all around, compelled
jVmbrose, along with several others, to retire to Illyricum ,
but his exile was of short duration, for the northern in-
vaders were quickly defeated by the forces of the emperor,
and driven back with considerable loss into their own
territories.
The eloquence of Ambrose soon found ample scope in
the dispute between the Arians and the orthodox. About
this era the doctrine of Arius concerning the person of
Christ had been extensively received, and had many power-
ful defenders both among the clergy and the common
people. Ambrose espoused the cause of the Catholics.
Gratian, the son of the elder Valentinian, took the same
side; but the younger Valentinian, whohadnow become his
colleague in the empire, adopted the opinions of the Arians;
and all the arguments and eloquence of Ambrose were in-
sufficient to reclaim the young prince to the orthodox faith.
Theodosius, the emperor of the East, also professed the
orthodox belief ; but there were many adherents of Arius
scattered throughout his dominions. In this distracted
state of religious opinion, two leaders of the Arians, Pa!-
ladius and Secundianus, confident of numbers, prevailed
upon Gratian to call a general council from all parts of
that empire. This request appeared so equitable that he
complied without hesitation ; but Ambrose, foreseeing the
consequence, prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter
determined by a council of the Western bishops. A synod,
composed of thirty-two bishops, was accordingly held at
Aquileia in the year 381. Ambrose was elected president;
and Palladius being called upon to defend his opinions,
declined, insisting that the meeting was a partial one, and
that the whole bishops of the empire not being present,
the sense of the Christian church concerning the question
in dispute could not be obtained. .A vote was then taken,
when PaUadius and his associate Secundianus were de-
posed from the episcopal office.
Ambrose was ecually zealous in combating the }ieat]>?i>
AMBROSE
663
■superstitions Upon the accession of Yaltntiuian 11., many
of the senators who remained attached to the pagan idolatry
made a Tigoroua effort to restore the worship of the heathen
deities. Symmachus, a very opulent man and a great orator,
who was at that time prefect of the city, was intru-sted with
the management of the pagan cause, and drew up a forcible
petition, praying for the restoration of the altar of Victory
to its ancient station in the hall of the senate, the proper
support of seven vestal virgins, and the regular observance
of the other pagan ceremonie::. In the petition he argued
that this form of religion had long been profitable to the
Roman state, and reminded the emperor how much Rome had
been indebted to Victory, and that it had been the uniform
custom of the senators to swear fidelity to the government
upon that altar. He likewise adduced many facts to prove
the advantages accruing to the state from its ancient religious
institutions, and pleaded that, as it was one divinity that
all men worshipped under different forms, ancient practice
should not be rashly laid aside. He even proceeded so
far as to assert the justice of increasing the public revenue
by robbing the church, and attributed the late famine which
had overtaken the empire to the neglect of the ancient
v.-orship. To this petition Ambrose replied in a letter to
Valentinian, arguing that the devoted worshippers of idols
had often been forsaken by their deities ; that the native
valour of the Roman soldiers had gained their victories,
and not the pretended influence of pagan priests ; that
these idolatrous worshippers requested for themselves what
-they refused to Christians ; that voluntary was more
honourable than constrained virginity ; that as the Christian
ministers declined to receive temporal emoluments, they
should also be denied to pagan priests ; that it was absurd
to suppose that God would inflict a famine upon the
empire for neglecting to support a religious system con-
trary to His will as revealed in the Scriptures ; that the
whole process of nature encouraged innovations, and that
all nations had permitted them, even in religion ; that
heathen sacrifices were offensive to Christians; and that it
was the duty of a Christian prince to suppress pagan
ceremonies. In the epistles of Symmachus and of Ambrose
both the petition and the reply are preserved, in which
sophistry, superstition, sound sense, and solid argument
are strangely blended. It is scarcely necessary to add that
the petition was unsuccessful.
The increasing strength of the Arians proved ioo
formidable for Ambrose. In 384 the young emperor and
his mother Justina, along with a considerable number of
clergy and laity professing the Arian faith, requested from
the bishop the use of two churches, one in the city, the
other in the suburbs of Milan. The prelate believing the
"bishops to be the guardians both of the temporal and
spiritual interests of the church, and regarding the religious
edifices as the unquestionable property of the church,
posiiively refused to deliver up the temples of the Lord
into the impious hands of heretics. Filled with indig-
nation, Justina resolved to employ the imperial authority
of her son in procuring by force what she could not obtain
by persuasion. Ambrose was required to answer for his
conduct before the council. He went, attended by a
numerous crowd of people, whose impetuous zeal so over-
awed the ministers of Valentinian that he was permitted
to retire without makijig the surrender of the churches.
The day foUowing, when he was performing divine service
in the Basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade
him to give up at least the Portian church in the suburbs.
As he still continued obstinate, the court proceeded to
violent measures : the ofHcors of the household were com-
manded to prepare the Basilica and the Portian chiu-ches
to celebrate divine service upon the arrival of the emperor
.and his mother at the ensuing festival of Easter. Penceiving
the growing strength of the prelate's interest, the court
deemed it prudent to restrict its demand to the use of one
of the churches. But aU entreaties proved in vain, and
drew forth the following characteristic declaration from
the bishop : — " If you demand my person, I am ready to
submit : carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist;
but I will never betray the church of Christ. I will not
call upon the people to succour me ; I wiU die at the foot
of the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people
I will not encourage ; but God alone can appease it."
Many circumstances in the history of Ambrose are
strongly characteristic of the general spirit of the times.
The chief causes of his victory over his opponents were
his great popularity and the superstitious reverence paid
to the episcopal character at that period. But it must also
be noted that he used several indu-ect means to obtain and
support his authority with the people. He was Liberal to
the poor ; it was his custom to comment severely in his
preaching on the public characters of his times ; and he
introduced popular reforms in the order and manner of
public worship. It is alleged, too, that at a time when
the influence of Ambrose required vigorous support, he was
admonished in a dream to search for, and found under the
pavement of the church, the remains of two martyrs,
Gervasius and Protasius. The vulgar crowded to behold
these venerable relics, and, according to -report, a number
of sick persons were healed by touching the bones.
Ambrose exulted in these miracles, and appealed to them
in his eloquent sermons ; while the court derided and
called in question their existence. It is remarkable that
these and many other miracles obtained current credit
among the Christian historians of the second, third, and
fourth centuries ; and Dr Cave, in speaking of them,
says — " I make no doubt but God suffered them to be
wrought at this time on purpose to confront the Arian
impieties."
Although the court was displeased with the religious
principles and conduct of Ambrose, it respected his great
political talents ; and when necessity required, his aid was
solicited and generously granted. \Vhen Maximus usurped
the supreme power in Gaul, and was meditating a descent
upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him from
the undertaking ; and the embassy was successful On a
second attempt of the same kind Ambrose was again
employed ; and although he was unsuccessful, it cannot be
doubted that, if his advice had been followed, the schemes
of the usurper woidd have proved abortive ; but the enemy
was permitted to enter Italy, and Milan was taken.
Justina and her son fled ; but Ambrose remained at his
post, and did good service to many of the sufferers by
causing the plate of the church to be melted for- their
relief. Theodosius, the emperor of the East, espoused
the cause of Justina, and regained the kingdom.
In the year 390 a tumult happened at Thessalonica, in
which Botheric, one of the imperial officers, was slain.
Theodosius was so enraged at this that he issued a royal
mandate for the promiscuous massacre of the inhabitants
of the place, and about 7000 persons were butchered
without distinction or mercy. The deed called forth a
severe rebuke from Ambrose, who charged the emperor not
to approach the holy communion with his hands stained
■n-ith innocent blood. The emperor reminded him that
David had been guilty of murder and of adultery. The
bishop replied, " You have imitated Uavid in his guilt ;
go and imitate him in his repentance." The prince obeyed,
and after a course of eight months' penance he was
absolved, on condition that in future an interval of thirty
days should intervene before any sentence of death or con-
fiscation was executed.
The generosity of iVmbrose was favourably exhibited is
664
AMBROSE
the year 392, after the assassination cf Valentinian and
the usurpation of Eugenius. Rather than join the standard
of the usurper, he Bed from Milan ; but when Theudoaius
was eventually victorious, he supplicated the emperor for
the pardon of those who had supported Eugenius. Soon
after acquiring the undisputed possession of the Roman
empire, Theodosius died at Milan (395). Bishop Ambrose
did not long survive hira, having died in the year 397.
On many accounts the character of the bLshop of Milan
standi high among the fathers of the ancient church.
With unvarying steadiness he delivered his religious senti-
ments on all occasions; with unwearied assiduity he dis-
charged the duties of his office; ■with unabated zeal and
boldness he defended the orthodox cause in opposition to
the Arians; with a liberal hand he fed the numerous poor
who flocked to his dwelling; with uncommon generosity he
manifested kindness to his adversaries; and with Christian
affection he sought the happiness of all men. His general
disposition and habits were amiable and virtuous, and his
powers of mind vigorous and persevering. Ambition and
bigotry were the chief blemishes in his character.
The writings of Ambrose are voluminous, but many of
them are little more than reproductions of the works of
Origen and other Greek fathers. The great design of them
was to defend and propagate the Catholic faith. His
expositions of Scripture contain many extreme examples
of allegorical and mystical interpretation. Jlodern readers
will regard much in the writings of Ambrose as trivial,
and even as ludicrous; but his style iS vigorous, and the
sentiment is often weighty. Gibbon's judgment appears
to be too severe : " Ambrose could act better than he could
write ; his compositions are destitute of taste or genius,
without the spirit of TcrtuUian, the copious elegance of
Lactantius, the lively wit of Jerome, or the gr.ive energy
of Augustin." His exegetical writings include an exposi-
tion of the Gospel of St Lvike, and commentaries on certain
Psalms. His Hexa'emeron is a homiletical treatise on the
history of the creation. " The Hymns of St Ambrose
have exercised a powerful iiifluence on Christendom. They
were designed by him to be a preventive against the errors
of Arianism, and to confirm the professors of the true faith
in the doctrines of the Trinity and the divinity of Christ.
Very many of them have found a place in the liturgies
of the western Church. On account of the celebrity of St
Ambrose, many hymns have been attributed to him which
are not his ; and, on the other hand, some critics have
gone into the opposite extreme, and have deprived him of
his property. In the Benedictine edition of his works
only twelve hymns are admitted ; and Dom. Biraghi [of
the Ambrosian Library, who has endeavoured, in his
/nnt Sinceri di Sant' Amhrogio, to restore the hymns to
their primitive form] shows reason for believing that only
seven of these are gemiine" (Jottrnal of a Tour in Italy,
by Chr. Wordsucn-th, D.D., 1863.) The most accurate
and complete edition of his works is that published by the
Benedictines, printed at Paris in 1686 and 1690. in two
volumes folio.
A liturgical form, the Ambrosian Ritual, which is still
in use in the arch-diocese of Milan, has been tradition-
ally ascribed to Saint Ambrose. Several attempts were
made, in particular by the Emperor Charlemagne and Pope
Nicolas II., to secure uniformity by enforcing the adoption
of the Roman breviary throughout the Western Church, but
the clergy of Milan refused to yield. The ritual of Ambrose
is included in the Lilurgia Latinorum of Pamelius (Cologne,
1571-6). "Full information concerning its history will be
found in the Ceremoniale Ambrostano, by Dom. Giovanni
Dozio, published at MOan, 1853" (Wordsworti'a Tour,
1863).
For a description of the famous church of St Ambrose^
founded by him at Milan 387 A.D., see Milan. For the
Ambroeian Library, see T.rriRABiES. Notices of his
LiTiraoT and Hrnifs will be found under these headings.
AMBROSE, Isaac, a Puritan divine. Formerly the
practical and devotional writings of this eminent Noncon-
formist rivalled John Bunyan's in popularity; and his
Looking to Jaua holds its own even now. Prominent
name as his was in his generation, very scanty are the
personal memorials of him. His own " Media," under the
head of " Experiences," yields a few incidents of his life.
According to Anthony h, Wood, he was a minister's son,
descending from those of the name Lving at Lo^nck, and
they from the Ambroses of Ambrose Hail in Lapcashire.
It is probable that his father was RicLird Ambrose, vicar
of Ormskirk, who was succeeded by another son, Henry.
It seems improbable that any of his line could descend of
the Lowick Ambroses, inasmuch as they were the most
" persistent Catholics of Lancashire;" and there is the
additional consideration that, while in our worthy's writ-
ings there are many references to the Papists, he makes
not the slightest allusion to his conversion from Popery,
or to any Catholic relatives or associations. He entered
Brazenose college, Oxford, in 1621, in the seventeenth year
of his age, and must therefore have been bom iu 1603-4.
Having proceeded M.A. and been ordained, he received
at the oiltset a little cure in Derbyshire, which was at
that time and onward to Puritanism what Goshen was to
Eg)-pt and Israel By the influence of the Earl of Bed-
ford, he was appointed one of the king's itinerant preachers
in Lancashire. Having later served for a time a curacy
in Garstang, he was selected by the Lady Margaret
Hoghton as vicar of Preston. He was on the celebrated
committee for the ejection of " scandalous and ignorant
ministers and schoolmasters" during the Commonwealth.
So long as Ambrose continued at Preston he was favoured
with the warm 'friendship of the Hoghton famUy, as was
John Howe, — their ancestral woods and the tower near
to Blackburn aS'ording him sequestered places for those
devout meditations and " experiences " that give such a
charm to his diary. The immense auditory of his sermon
at the funeral of Lady Hoghton is a living tradition still
all over the county. For some reason which is unknown,
perhaps failing strength for so onerous a charge, Ambrose
left his great church of Preston, and became minister of
Garstang, where before he had been curate. He was
vicar of Garstang when the Act of Uniformity was passed.
He could have conscientiously complied with many of its
requirements, for he was willing to use the Prayer-book,
and did not stickle at things whereat other tender con-
sciences did ; but the enforcement was so absolute, not to
say brutal, that he found himself constrained to form
one of the Two Thousand. His after years were passed
among old friends at Preston. He spent a great part of
his time every summer in Widdicre wood, where, seldom
seen by any except on the Sabbath, he communed with
his own heart and his God. The last time he was seen
alive was by some friends from Garstang, of whom he is
said to have taken leave with unusual afl'ection and gravity.
Immediately after they left him he retired to his W'onted
place of meditation, where he was found by an attendant
ire articulis mortit. He died in 1664 at the age of sixty-one.
Calamy says he was seventy-two, but his college entry shows
he was mistaken. As a religious writer, Ambrose has a
vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely
any of the Puritan Nonconformists. He is plaintive as
Flavel and as intense as Baxter. Many who have no love
for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan expe-
rience, have appreciated the pathos and beauty of his writ-
ings, which have never been out of print from their original
issue until now. fA. B. o.^
A M B — A M B
665
AMBROSTUS, Aueeliantjs, a leader of the Bntona
during the 5th century. He is said, on somewhat doubt-
ful authority, to have been a son of Constantino, who was
elected emperor by the Roman £vrmy in Britain in 407.
The usually received account of his life, based chiefly
upon the history of Geoffrey of Monmouth, contains much
that is evidently fabulous. It seems probable that he was
educated .at the court of Aldroen, king of Armorica, who
sent b'Tn over with a strong force to assist his countrymen
against the Saxons, whom Vortigern had invited to Britain.
There is also little doubt that, having defeated Vortigern,
he. was chosen to succeed him as king of Britain. Geoffrey
also states that he built Stonehenge (see Stonehenge),
that he defeated Hengist, and that he compelled the
Saxons to surrender at York; but these stories are inhe-
rently improbable. . The circumstances of his death are in-
volved in equal obscurity. According to Geoffrey's account,
he died of poison at Winchester; but others state that he
was killed in a battle with Cerdic the, Saxon in 508.
A3IBULANCE, the French ambulance, kopilal ambulant,
derived from the Latin ambulare, to move from place to
place.
.iOnbulances, m military phraseology, are nospital esta-
blishments moving with armies in the field, and organised
for providing early surgical assistance to the wounded
after battles. They are only prepared for affording help
of a more or less- temporary kind, and they are thus
distinguished from the stationary or fixed hospitals, in
which sick and wounded soldiers receive care and treat-
ment of a permanent character. The term is not an-
frequently misapplied in common speech in England to the
ambulance waggons, or other conveyances by which the
wounded are carried from the field to the ambulances and
fixed hospitals. Such vehicles form part of the ambulance
equipment, and wiU be noticed presently.
The constitution of an ambulance includes (1) a certain
staff of oiScers and subordinates, and (2) a certain equip-
ment. The equipment naturally divides itself into (a) the
medical and surgical equipment, and (i) the equipment
forming the means of transport for the wounded. But the
constitution would hardly be understood without a general
•comprehension of the system on which the functions of
ambulances are discharged, or, in other words, the plan of
administering surgical assistance in the field to the wounded
of armies. Ambulance administration will therefore be
first noticed, keeping in view the circumstances of armies
operating in Europe, and the ambulance staff and equipment
subsequently.
Ambul.ujce Administration. — The origin of the ambu-
lance system which now prevails in all civilised armies,
though variously modified among them in particular details,
only dates from the last decade of the last century. Be-
fore that time no ambulance establishments had been
organised for effecting the removal of the wounded, or for
giving the requisite surgical attention to them, while
battles were in progress. Soldiers wounded in the ranks
were either carried to the rear by comrades, or were left
to lie exposed to all risks, and unheeded, until after the
fighting had ceased. The means of surgical assist-
ance did not reach the battle-field tiU the day after the
engagement, or often later, and to a large proportion of
the wounded it was then of no avail In 1792 Larrey
introduced his system of ambulances volantes, or flying
field hospitals, establishments capable of moving from
place to place with speed, like the flying artillery of the
time. They were adapted both for giving the necessary
primary surgical help, and also for removing the wounded
quickly out of the sphere of fighting. The first Napoleon
warmly supported Larrey in hi.i endeavours to introduce
Emd perfect the new system of surgical aid to the wounded
in battle ; and, being received witti mncli favour by the
troops, the plan obtained a firm footing, and was subse-
quently brought to a high state of perfection. About the
same time another distinguished surgeon of high position
in the French army, Baron Percy, introduced and developed
a corps of brancardiers, or stretcher-bearers. These con-
sisted of soldiers trained and regularly equipped for the
duty of collecting the wounded while a battle was in pro-
gress, and carrying them on stretchers to places where
means of surgical aid were provided.
From the period when these improvements were intro-
duced most civilised armies have had ambulance establish-
ments formed for giving surgical help near to the com-
batants. It is ordy, however, during the last twenty years
that ambulances have acquired the completeness of organisa-
tion which they have now attained in some armies, espe-
cially in those of Germany. In the armies of the United
States of America, daring the late great civil war, the
ambulance system attained a very complete organisation,
particularly from March 1864, when an Act was passed by
Congress, entitled " An Act to establish a uniform system
of Ambulances in the United States." Thid law fixed a
definite and single system of ambulance arrangements for all
the armies of the United States at that time in the field.
The ambulance arrangements of the British army have
never reached the degree of completeness which they have
reached in Continental armies. During the Peninsular waf
the want of a trained ambulance corps, and of properly-
constructed sick-transport carriages, formed a theme of
constant complaint. For the former, soldiers from the
ranks were substituted — a double evil, as they were un-
suited for the work, while their employment lessened the
fighting strength; for the latter, commissariat waggons,
or the agricultural carts of the country in which the troops
were operating. It was not from want of attention being
caUed to the subject, as the writings of Sir J. M'Grigor,
Hennen, MiUingen, and other Peninsular surgeons suf-
ficiently testify. The last-named military surgeon published
a very complete scheme of an ambulance establishment
shortly after the war was concluded, approaching closely
in its principles to those put into practice of late years in
the armies of Germany. There is reason for believing that
had the operations of the British troops on the Continent
not been discontinued, some plan of the kind would have
been introduced. As it was, subsequently to 1815, so far
as army hospitals were concerned, administrative atten-
tion was chiefly given to improving those for the accoln-
•modation of the sick in peace time. The wars that
British troops wfere engaged in in India, China^-the south
of Africa, and elsewhere, did not lead to improvements
like those which have been made in Continental armies; for
either the habits of the natives of the respective countries*
or the nature of the climate, or the state of the country,
necessitated special arrangements for the care of the sick
and wounded unsuited for meeting the circumstances of
European warfare. Thus, when the Crimean war broke
out the English army was stiU without an ambulance
corps, or an ambulance estabbshment of materiel. An
ambulance corps of military pensioners was hastily raised,
but failed from the habits and enfeebled constitutions of
the men. They were succeeded by a corps formed of
civilians, unused to the discipline and habits of mOitary
life, which likewise failed. Several forms of sick-transport
vehicles were tried, but only indifferently answered their
intended purposes. Fortunately, as the troops were for
the most part stationary during the war, the want of
thoroughly organised ambulances was not felt to the same
extent as it would have been had the operations been
extended far into the interior of the country. The et-
ptrience of the Crimean war led to efl"orts to repair the
L — 8j
GOR
AMBULANCE
defects which were then made manifest Since that time
a trained army hospital corps has been constituted, and
much of the ambulance equipment has been revised.
One serious impediment to perfecting an ambulance
Bystera is the costliness of maintaining, in time of peace,
establishments which will only be required for use in time
of war. All that can be done is to form a nucleus which
can be expanded according to need when war breaks out.
But even in Continental armie.", with frequent wars pressing
upon them, the urgency of giving close attention to the
subject, and in countries where the existence of conscrip-
tion furnishes a greater supply of men at less cost than in
England, the deficiencies of the ambulance establishments
have hitherto been so great in respect to the numbers and
necessities of the wounded on occasions of great battle*,
that an extensive volunteer organisation, with national
societies in every country of Europe, has sprung up for
giving additional assistance. This is not the place to dis-
cuss the advantages of such volunteer aid ; biit, if accepted,
all who have considered the subject well have admitted the
n ;cessity for its being placed under military authority, and
■ i.ider distinct regulations, in order to secure maintenance
of order and discipline. It is also generally admitted that
volunteer aid to wounded soldiers is out of place in the
ambulances, and can best be employed in tlie fixed hospitals,
by which means some of the regular military personnel
may be set free for work in the field.
One important step, taken a few years since, towards
the amelioration of the condition of the wounded of armies
in the field must be just mentioned. This was the Euro-
pean Convention signed at Geneva in 180'1, by the terms,
of which, subject to certain regulations, not only the
wounded themselves, but the official staff of ambulances
and their equipment have been rendered neutral; the
former, therefore, not being liable to be retained as
prisoners of war, nor the latter to be taken as prize of
war. This convention has greatly favoured the develop-
ment of ambulance establishments.
The conditions of modern warfare have led to the need
of army ambulances being arranged on printiples different
from what were applicable only a few years ago. The
immensely increased range of rifles and artOlory in the
present day, the consequent extension of the area over
which fire is maintained, the suddenness with which
armies can be brought into the field from increased
facilities of locomotion, the rapidity of their movements,
the shortened duration of campaigns,- the large numbers of
wounded which have to be dealt with, not merely from
the destructive qualities of the fire-arms, but from the
vast forces collected on occasions of important battles, the
increased proportion of severe wounds, — are all circum-
stances which have entailed need for revision of am-
bulances and their administration. The ambulances must
be so organised as to be able tc keep up with the Lroops,
and so disposed as in no way to interfere with their
movements. They must be capable of meeting the wants
of a partial or general engagement at any morneat, and if
the troops advance, must be prepared to accompany them,
so as to be ready to meet future wants.
Whatever the details of organisation may be when an
important battle is fought, the ambulance system must
admit of three help stations at least being established in
rear of the combatants. There must be a station of limited
character immediately in rear of the troops for attention
to such wounds as entail speedy loss of life if no assistance
be rendered ; a second station, more remote, where tem-
porary assistance of a more general nature can be afforded ;
a third, where more thorough attention can be given, and
where the wounded can receive food and protection until
there are means of sending them away. Recently, in some
armies, the ambulance arrangements hare been calculated
for furnishing aid at four stations ; and, indeed, owing to
the increased range of fire, and the consequent distance
between the help stations when only three are formed, the
fatigue thrown on the bearers is so great, and the time the
wounded are left without help so long, that the division
of the ambulanbes into four stations has become alsuwt
essential. If this arrangement be followed, there trfU b«
— 1st, the field ttation, for help of prime urgency ; 2d, the
transfer station, where the wounded will be transferred
from the hand conveyances to wheeled vehicles ; 3d, the
dressing station, where the provisional dressings will be
applied ; and 4th, the field liospiial ttalian, where defini-
tive treatment will bo adopted.
The disposition and distances of these four ambulance
sections must vary according to the nature of the battle,
the configuration of the terrain, and other circumstances,
but in a general way will be as follows : — 1st, the field
station, in the immediate rear of the troops, moving with
them, and therefore under fire ; 2d, the transfer station,
clear of the enemy's rifle fire, but not too far for the
bearers, and at a place practicable for waggons, from 800
to 900 yards behind the troops engaged ; 3d, the dressing
station, beyond range of artillery fire, at a spot easily
reached by the ambulance waggons, and on the way to
the fourth station, with a running stream or well at hand if
possible, from 800 to 1000 yards in rear of No. 2 ; and
4th, the field hospital station, at a place free from risk of
being brought within the sphere of fighting, from 2 to 4
miles in rear of the combatants. This last station may be
at a farm or country house, or in a village, bat should not
be in a place of strategical importance, or in one likely to
be blocked by the general transport of the army. AVheu
the four stations are in working order, as men fall badly
wounded, those within reach will be placed on stretchers by
the men told off for duty as bearers, and, after hasty inspec-
tion by the field surgeon, and, as far as practicable, receiv-
ing such help as is of vital importance, they will be borne
to the second or transfer station, and placed in ambulance
waggons, or on wheeled stretchera if they are in use. Tha
bearers, then taking vacant stretchorrj, will return to the
field station for more wounded. The wounded who have~
been transferred to the wheeled conveyances will be driven
by the men of the ambulance train to the third or dressing
station, and there receive whatever provisional dressing
may be necessary before being sent on to the fourth or field
hospital station, where definitive treatment will be adopted,
and- any surgical operations performed that may be re-
quired.
It is obvious that such a system of help can only b&
carried out, with any approach to regularity and requisite
spoed, with ambulance establishments proportionate to the
number of troops in the field, each ambulance being well
organised, provided with a sufficient staff and complete
equipment, and acting under the general supervision of
an experienced director, whose duty it is to watch the
varying events of the contest while it is in progress, and
to order changes in the ambulance arrangements according
as the troops advance, retire, or otherwise change positioiu
Even with these advantages, the difficulties of adequately
meeting the wants of the wounded must always be very
great, owing to the rapid manoeuvres of the troops, the
varying features of the ground over which battles are
extended, and the rapidity with which the wounded fall ;
but without a proper organisation arranged beforehand,
the difficulties are insuperable, and no help of much value
can be afforded until all fighting has ceased.
Ambulance arrangements have to be modified to suit par-
ticular military operations, such as when troops disembark
on a hostile shore, on occasiDn of sieges, dse.
AMBULANCE
667
AmbOTiANCB Sli-Fi"! — The scheme of ambulance adminis-
tration and action jiiat described involves the necessity of
a staff comprising the following personnel, viz.: — 1.
Bearers of wounded ; 2. Surgeons and attendants ; 3.
Ambulance train personnel ; 4. Ambulance police ; 5.
Servants to officers.
Bearers of Wounded. • — These are soldiers specially
trained and told off for the duty of picking up and carry-
ing the badly "wounded on stretchers. In Continental
armies special provision is made to meet this particular
■want, but under different systems in different armies. In
the Prussian ai-my companies of bearers, distinguished by
a particular uniform, and denominated " sanitiits-detache-
mcnts," have the duty assigned to them of gathering the
wounded during battles, and carrying them to the dressing
and field hospital stations. Each of these bearer columns
consists of a military staff of officers for discipline and
direction, non-commissioned officers, buglers, and a large
number of bearers ; a special medical staff, with assistants
and dressers ; a transport staff of non-commissioned officers
and drivers, with a certain number of stretchers, wheeled
stretcher supports, sick transport waggons, and store
waggons for the carriage of instruments, dressings, and
other necessary materials. Separate establishments exist
for the field hospitals. In addition to these sanitary
detachments, auxiliary sick-bearers {Hilfs-hrankcntrdger)
are provided for service on occasions of great battles. To
form these auxiliaries, four men in each company of every
battalion of the army are practised at regular periods with
the sanitary detachments in time of peace in the modes
of picking up, temporarily attending to, and candying
wounded. These auxiliary bearers wear the uniform of
their regiments, of which they perform the ordinary duties,
but have a distinguishing badge on the left arm when
serving as bearers. When a battle is imminent, the auxi-
liary bearers fall out, are pro?ided with stretchers and
other needful appliances from the ambu'ance waggons,
and act under the orders of the officers of the divisional
sanitary detachments. The system in the Austrian army
is very Uke that in the Prussian. In the British army no
corresponding establishment exists. The hospital attend-
ants belonging to the Army Hospital Corps are trained
in all that refers to the care of wounded men, but in time
of war they will be t«o urgently needed for their duties in
the field and fixed hospitals to be spared for duty as
bearers of the wounded from the field to the dressing
stations. The regimental bandsmen are generally regarded
as available for these duties in the British service ; but
though the army regulations order that bandsmen are
Lable to serve in the ranks on an emergency, they nowhere
constitute them bearers of wounded, nor do bandsmen
receive the necessary training to fit them for the duties.
As it is understood that the ambulance arrangements of
the British army are at present under consideration, this,
with other details, will probably be shortly placed on a
settled basis.
Surgical Staff: — This section embraces the medical
officers (administrative and e.xecutive), the dispensers of
medicine, and the officers, non-commissioned officers, and
men of the Army Hospital Corps. The last-named corps
includes the dressers, nurses, cooks, and all the hospital
subordinates who are required for the care, dieting, watch-
ing, and protection of the patients, for the hospital ■ cor-
respondence, &c. The men act professionally under the
directions of the surgeons ; in respect of other matters,
under their own officers. The constitution and duties of
the several divisions and grades of the army medical
department are shov/n in a special code of ineti'uctions
known as the " Army Medical Regulations."
Amhulf.nat Train. — On the officers and men of the
ambulance train devolve the duties of conducting the
wheeled transport, and the mule litters and cacolets when
such conveyances are used. In the British service these
duties are entrusted to the ordinary transport branch of
the Control department. It has been recommended that
the officers and men to whom these duties are entrusted
should be specially selected and trained, as well as fami-
liarised, to co-operate with the bearers and ambulance
corps. They would thus form an ambulance train some-
what Uke that which exists in the sanitary detachments
of the Prussian army.
Military Servants. — Orderlies are required as servants
to the ambulance surgeons and other officers, in order that
they may give their time fully to the concerns of the sick
and wounded. When special orderlies are not provided,
men of the Army Hospital Corps usually act as servants to
officers, — a bad system, for the whole time and services of
these trained men should be devoted to their legitimate
functions.
Ambulance Police. — Many irregularities are Kable to
occur in the rear of troops engaged in a general action ;
not so much from acts of the troops themselves as from
camp followers, hired drivers, and others. The officers
charged with the military discipline of the bearer, train,
and hospital coi-ps have other pressing duties to engage
them on such oi'casions. In the British army it devolves
on the provo.it^marshal to arrange for this service.
Ambulance Equipment. — As before mentioned, ambu-
lance equipment divides itself into two categories: — 1.
The medical and surgical equipment; 2. The equipment
for the transport of wounded. These divisions will
therefore be noticed separately, and the description will
be confined to the equipment supplied in the British
army for service in Europe. In India and in tropical
countries special ambulance equipments are rendered
necessary.
Medical and Surgical Equipment,- — This portion of am-
bulance equipment consists of the articles necessary for the
service of the wounded in the field itself, at the di-essing
stations, and in the field hospitals. It has to be distributed
in forms such that it may be readily conveyed to the places
where it is required, and such also as will admit of its
being hastily packed up and removed should the circum-
stances of the field operations require it. At the same
time, these forms must be adapted for use at all seasons of
the year, for passage over aU descriptions of ground that
troops can march over, and must be protected against the
effects of exposure to aU varieties of weather.
It would occupy too much space to name the articles
comprising this equipment. The special forms under which
it is issued will be mentioned, and a brief explanation of
them and the nature of their contents be added.
The equipment is distributed as follows: — Supplies of
instruments, dressings, medicines, and restoratives, oF
first necessity, in small cases named "medical field com-
panions," and in large cases named " field panniers ;" of
cooking utensils and other articles for field hospital service
in "canteens;" of erticles of light nourishment, stimu-
lants, &c., in "medical comfort boxes;" of hospital tents,
bedding, and the bulkier articles of surgical equipment, in
ambulance equiiiment carts or store waggons. In addi-
tion, every soldier on taking the field is suppUcJ with a
" field dressing ;" each surgeon carries a pouch-bolt, ar-
ranged both for distinguishing his functions and at the
same time carrying his " pocket case " of instruments ;
and each Army . Hospiial Corps man has his " orderly's
dressing-case." Every wounded man has therefore on his
person the means of a first dressing for his wound, every
surgeon has at hand instruments for affording surgical
aid, and every ambulance and field hospital attendant Uio
668
A. M B — A M £
means of asaiahng tbe surgeon in his duties. Moreover,
wherever the soldier can go, there the first two forma of
the surgical equipment — the medical field companion and
the field piinnicrs^an also bo taken. The articles for
use in the field hospitals, being carried in wheeled vehicles,
can only move where the other transport of the army can
be taken.
Medical Field Companions. — These are small cases car*
ried by men of the Army Hospital Corps selected to accom-
pany surgeons. They consist of two pouches and a wallet,
worn nearly in the same way as the pouches and belt-bag
in which ammunition is carried by combatant troops. The
two pouches, carried on the waist-belt, contain small sui)-
plies of essential medicines and styptics; the surgical
wallet, also carried on the waist-belt, and supported by
valise straps, contains materials for surgical dressings and
other articles. As those attendants are not armed with
rifles, they can carry their valises and the jnedical field
companions at the same time without inconvenience. With-
each medical field companion is carried, by a shoulder-strap,
a water-bottle and a drinking-cup.
Field Fanniera. —Ihcae are tough wicker baskets covered
with hide, each being 2 feet 2 inches in length, by 1 foot
2 J inches in breadth, and 1 foot 4i inches in depth. They
are supplied in pairs, and are arranged for being attached
to a pack-saddle and carried on a bdt-pony or mule. They
are capable of being opened while on the animal in such a
way that all the contents can be readily got at. The field
panniers contain instruments for important surgical opera-
tions, chloroform, surgical materials ^3uch as splints, ban-
dages, plaisters, (tc), a lamp, supplies of wax candles,
restoratives, and medical comforts in concentrated forms,
and other articles necessary for urgent cases at the dreasiiig
stations and field hospitals. Each pannier has a double
lid, and the four lids of the two panniers, when they are
laid on the ground, can be connected so as to form a substi-
tute for an operating table.
Field. Hospital Canteens. — These are also supplied in
pairs, and are distinguished as Ajand B canteens. They
are wooden boxes nearly similar in size to the field panniers,
so that, although usually carried in the equipment vehicles,
they can, in case of need, be carried on the backs of bit-
animals. Their contents consist of camp-kettles and other
utensils for cooking puq)03es; tin plates, drinking-cups,
and other such requisites; sets cf measures and weights;
a lantern of coloured glass for indicating the field hospital
at night; together with various articles required for the
service of patients in a tent or other field hospital.
• , Medical Comfort Boxes. — These also are supplied in
pairs, and resemble the canteens in shape and dimensions.
The contents of the two are different, and they are there-
fore marked No. 1 and No. 2 respectively. Each box is
partitioned and fitted with cases or bottles with labels in-
dicating their contents. These principally consist of
essence of beef, groceries, arrowroot, preserved vegetables,
brandy, wine, and sundry accessory articles. The woimded
are supplied with the same rations as the healthy troops,
and they a;e turned to the best account available for their
nutriment, supplemented by such medical comf ort-s as are
named above.
Ambvlance Equipment Waggons. — In these vehicles are
carried the tents for forming the field hospital in case of no
building being available, with a supply of blankets, water-
proof covers, and other articles of bedding for the patients.
The canteens and medical comfort boxes are also carried
in these vehicles. Certain implements, as reaping-hooks,
spades, pickaxes, saws, which are constantly required when
men are thrown so much on their own resources as they
must be in campaigning, are also carried in the equipment
HAirg-onS.
Ambulance Equipment Jot the Trantport of Wowided
Troops. — The ambulance conveyances authorised for use
in the British army are of four kinds. They are the fol-
lowing:— 1. Conveyances carried by the hancU of bearers,
called stretchers; 2. Conveyances wheeled by men, wheeled
stretchers; 3. Conveyances borne by mules, viule litters
and mule cacolels; and 4. Wheeled conveyances drawn
by horses, ambulance waggons. The forms of all these
conveyances have been lately revised by a committee which
was appointed in 18C8 by Sir J. Pakington, then Secretary
of State for War, to inquire into the general question of
ambulance and hospital conveyances for the army, and
the new pattern vehicles have now been authorised for
use. (t. l.)
AMELOT DE LA HOUSSATE, Abeaham Nicolas,
historian and publicist, was bom at Orleans in February
1634, and died at Paris 8th December 170G. Little is
known of his personal history beyond the fact that he was
secretary to an embassy from the French court to the
republic of Venice. At a later period ho was imprisoned
in the Bastile by order of Louis XIV. In 167G he pub-
lished at Amsterdam his Hisloire du Gouvernement de Venise,
in three volumes. Under the assiuncd name of Do la
Mothe Josseval, he published in 1C83 a transition of Fra
Paolo Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent. This work,
and especially certain notes added by the translator, gave
great offence to the advocates of the unlimited authority
of the pope, and three separate memorials were presented
to have it repressed. Amelot abo published translations
of Machi'avel's Prince, and of the Annals of Tacitus, besides
several other works.
AMELOTTE, Denis, a French ecclesiastic and anther,
was bom at Saintes in Saintonge in ICOG, and died October
7, 1678. Soon after receiving priest's orders he became a
member of the congregation of the oratory of St Philip
Neri. In 1643 he published a Life of Charles de Goudren,
second superior of the congregation,' which by some of its
remarks on the famous abbot of St Cyran, gave great
offence to the Port Royalists. Another work, containing
a vehement attack on the doctrines of the Jansenisth. still
further embittered the feelings of the party towaB^J him-,
and elicited from Nicole a se- <''~~^
verely satirical reply entitled ^ "^"^^^I^V »' V^^
Id^e GSnirale de F Esprit et du g^p^^>-^
Livre du P. Amelotte. Amelotte '~-' '
\a revenge availed himself of his
influence with the chancellor to
prevent the publication of the
newly - completed Port Royalist
translation of the New Testament,
which had therefore to be issued
at Mons in Flanders. He thus
secured a free field for a transla-
tion of his owu with annotations,
which appeared in 4 vols, octavo
in lGGG-8. The dedication to the
archbishop of Paris contained an-
other abusive denunciation of the b^uIh oisa (th« common birch),
JansenistS. 5° amcntlfcrou. tret, the m^o
, AMENTIFERyE, or Amen- cutk.r^ mi bo jtc the fem>ia
tacej:. Under this name are "'""'"■ *•
included apetalous unisexual plants bearing tneir flowers
in catkins (amenta). This group of plants includes
trees and shrubs chiefly of temperate climates. It is
divided into the following orders : — Salicacece, willows and
poplars ; Corylacece or Cupuliferce, hazel, oak, beech, chest-
nut, hornbeam, <tc. ; Betulacece, birch, alder; Casuarinacece,
Casuarina (beefwood); Altingiaeece or Balscmijlwx, liquid-
ambar ; Platanaceae, the plane ; Juglandacece, walnut ;
Gurri/ctccce Garrya; J/yricacciE, bog myrtle.
669
AME KI C A
OUR object in this article is to' take a comprehensive
survey of the American continent in its physical.
moral, and political relations. In attempting this, we shall
dwell at some length upon those great features and peculiar-
ities which belong to it as a whole, Or facts which can be most
advantageously considered in connection with one another.
The new continent may be styled emphatically " a land of
promise." The present there derives its greatest impor-.
tance from the germs it contains of a mighty future. It is
this prospective greatness which lends an interest to the
Western continent similar to that which the Eastern derives
from its historical associations. But the Western continent
also has its past, which abounds in points of interest relating
to both the historic and prehistoric periods. Facts show
that although America may be called the New World in
consequence of its having been the last to come under the
general knowledge of geographers, it is from most other
points of view an old world. It abounds in the oldest
known strata; it has yielded some of the oldest known
remains of man, indicating that he has long been a denizen
there ; and it has afforded evidences of a civilised era,
which may even have preceded that of Western Europe.
The new continent, when compared with the old, enjoys
three important advantages. First, it is free from such vast
deserts as cover a large part of the surface of Asia and
Africa, and which not ordy withdraw a great proportion of
the soil from the use of man, but are obstacles to communi-
cation between the settled districts, and generate that ex-
cessive heat which is often injurious to health, and always
destructive to industry. Secondly, no part of its soil is so
far from thg^ ocean as the central regions of Asia and Africa.
Thirdly, the interior of America is penetrated by majestic
rivers, the Mississippi, Amazon, and Plata, greatly surpass-
ing those of the old continent in magnitude, and stiU more
in the facilities they present for enabling the remotest
inland districts to communicate with the sea.
In the physical formation of North and South America
there is a remarkable resemblance. Both are very broad
in the north, and gradually contract towards the south till
they end, the one in a narrow isthmus, and the other in
a narrow promontory. Each has a lofty chain of moun-
tains near its western coast, abounding in volcanoes, with
a lower ridge on the opposite side, destitute of any recent
trace of internal fire ; and each has one great central plain
declining to the south and the north, and watered by two
gigantic streams, the Mississippi, corresponding to the
Plata, and the St Lawrence to the Amazon. In their
climate, vegetable productiors, and animal tribes, the two
regions are very dissimilar.
The extent of the American continent and the islands
connected with it is as follows : —
SquAre Eog. miles.
North America 7,400,000
South America 6,500,000
Islands 150,000
Greenland, and the islands connected with it lying ) qq^ „„*
north of Hudson's Straits, may be estimuted at J '
14,960,000
The American continent, therefore, with its dependent
islands, is four times as large as Europe, and about one-
third larger than Africa, but somewhat less than Asia, while
it is nearly five times the size of the Australian continent.
It constitutes about three-tenths of the dry land on the stir-
face of the globe. It is characterised by having a greater
length from N. to S. than any other continent ; and by
the northern and southern portions being connected by a
comparatively narrow strip of land. South America has
a more regular form, and as a mass is situated much
farther east than North America. In South America the
most central point lies in about 58° W. ; but in North
America the most central point would be in about 1 00° W.
Sketch Map of America. •
As regards continuity of land, America comprises soma
islands at the southern end ; a main continental portion,
including South America, Central America, and North
America; some islands off the north shore, and' many other
islands along the east and west coasts, those on the east
being the most important. The most northern point of tho
mainland is that of Boothia FeUx, in Bellot Strait, 71° 55'
N., 92° 25' W. The islands to the north extend beyond
82° 16' N., 65° W., which point was reached by the "Polaris"
in August 1871. The southernmost point of the mainland
is Cape Froward, which lies close to 54° S., 71° W. ; while
Cape Horn, the most southern pointof the islands, is in 56°S.,
67° 20' W. The extreme points traced are consequently 138°
apart; and the continental part stretches over about 126
degrees of latitude. This corresponds to lengths of 8280
and 7560 geographical mOes respectively. The extreme east
points of the continent are Cape St Eoque, in 6° 28' S. , 35° 40'
W, in South America, and Cape St Charles, in 62° 17' N.,
56° 36' W , in North America. The most western point of
South America is Point Parina, in 4° 40' S., 81° 10' W.;
and of North America, Prince of Wales Cape, in 65° 30'
N., 167° W. The greatest breadth of North Amunca ij
670
AMERICA
[s. AMEEICA^
oetwttcn Cape Llsburne and Mel\'iUe Peninsnla ; and of
South America, between Pernambuco and Point Aguja.
The narrowest part is 28 laiJes, at the isthmus of
Panama. The nearest approach to the Old World is at
Behring Strait, which is 48 miles across, and shallow.
On the east side the nearest point to the Old World is
Cape St Roque, which is opposite the projecting part of
the African coast at Sierra Leone. Greenland is separated
from the archipelago of Arctic America by a deep and for
the most part broad sea, and seems naturally to belong to
the European rather than the American area.
Physical North America, with the general form of a triangle, natu-
regions. rally divides itself into five physical regions: l.Thetable-land
of llexico, with the strip of low country on its ea.stem and
western shores; 2. The plateau lying between the Eocky
Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, a country with a mild
and humid atmosphere as far north as the 55th parallel,
but inhospitable and barren beyond this boundary ; 3. The
great central valley of the Mississippi, rich and well wooded
on the east side ; bare but not unfertile in the middle ; dry,
Bandy, and almost a desert on the west; 4. The eastern
declivities of the Alleghany Mountains, a region of natural
forests, and of mixed but rather poor soil; 5. The great
northern plain beyond the 50th parallel, four-fifths of which
is a bleak and bare waste, overspread with innumerable
lakes, and resembling Siberia both in the physical char-
acter of its surface and the rigour of its climate.
South America is a peninsula likewise of triangular form.
Its greatest length from north to south is 4550 mOes; its
greatest breadth 3200 ; and it covers an area, as already men-
tioned, of 6,50O,O00square English mDes, about three-fourths
cf which lie between the tropics, and the other fourth in the
temperate zone. From the configuration of its surface, this
peninsula also may be divided into five physical regions —
1. The low country skirting the shores of the Pacific Ocean,
from 50 to 150 miles in breadth, and 4000 in length. The
two extremities of this territory are fertile, the middle a
sandy desert. 2. The basin of the Orinoco, a country con-
Bistingiof extensive plains or steppes, called Llanos, either
destitute of wood or merely dotted with trees, but covered
with a very tall herbage during a part of the year.
During thfl dry season the heat is intense here, and the
parched soil opens into long fissures, in which lizards and
serpents lie in a state of torpor. 3. The basin of the Amazon,
a vast plain, embracing a surface of more than two millions
of square mUes, possessing a rich soil and a humid cUmateT
It is covered almost everywhere with dense forests, which
harboilr innumerable tribes of wild animals, and are thinly
inhabited- by savages, who live by hunting and fishing.
4. The great southern plain, watered by the Plata and the
numerous streams descending from the eastern summits of
the Cordilleras. Open steppes, which are here called Pampas,
occupy the greater proportion of this region, which is dry,
and in some parts barren, but in general is covered with a
strong groTvth of weeds and tall grass, which feeds prodigious
herds of horses and cattle, and affords shelter to a few wild
animals. 5. The country of Brazil, eastward of the Parana
and Unigiay,presentingalternate ridges and valleys, thickly
covered with wood on the side next the Atlantic, and open-
ing into steppes or pastures in the interior
In our more particular description of the physical con-
formation, the geological structure, the mountains, rivers,
and forests, and the climates of America, we shall first
deal with the southern peninsula, as iaving the more
strongly marked conditions,
s, Araenca The mountain areas of South America are, as a general
Mounuxins rule, those which- have received the thickest accumidations
of sedimentary matter, and this thickness is nearly pro-
portional to their height. During the periods of the
lormation of such'deoosits. these areas were to a great
extent areas of subsidence, and since those beds whicl-
once formed the sea bottoms dow constitute the highes-.
peaks, these areas must have been subjected to subsequent
upheaval. Vertical movements of this kind have occurred
again and again, indicating that these areas are specially
liable to disturbance, either from comparative weaknest.
or from the greater comparative power of the moving
forces. The history of the mountain chains is almost co-
extensive with that of the continent itself. In the sea the
beds were deposited horizontally, or nearly so ; and at certain
intervals the deposition was arrested, in consequence of the
beds being uplifted above the sea. Each successive sub-
mergence and emergence occupied a long period of time,
during which the rocks were at one time faulted, folded,
and metamorphosed, and at other times denuded both by
the sea and by meteoric agents. As a general rule, the strike
or line of direction of the strata ran approximately parallel to
the trend of the shore line on the large scale, and the dip was
at right angles to their direction. During each elevation
the land was uplifted in a broad band, the axis of which
ran parallel to the shore of the sea in which the beds
were formed. The axes of the principal folds and faults
usually run paraUel to the stratigraphical axis or strike.
The principal ridges formed during the same period usually
coincide in direction with the stratigraphical strike of the
bed forming them. In the mountains of South America,
and especially in the Andes, several of these groups of
ridges, formed at different periods, combine to make up a
single system of mountains. The high range of moun-
tains which extends from the most southern parts of South
America, and runs approximately on the same meridian
of 72° to the isthmus of Panama, forms the Andes, These
consist of a vast rampart, having an average height of somei
11,000 or 12,000 feet, and a width varying from 20 to 300
or 400 mOes. In most places the chain rises to heighta
of several thousand feet, and upon this chain rest two or.
three principal ridges of mountains, enclosing lofty plains,
or valleys, separated one from another bymountain knots,'
which mark the spots where ridges belonging to different
systems intersect. In one sense, the lofty plains of 'the
Desaguadero, Quito, and others, are valleys, since they are
encompassed by mountains; but in a certain sense they
are plateaus, since they form the broad simimit of the
-range or platform on which the bounding ridges them-'
selves stand. Further details respecting the Andes are
given under Andes, and in the geological remarks of this
article.
Three branches or transverse chains proceed from the Transva
Aiides, nearly at right angles to the direction of the prin- c'.iaini
cipal chain, and pass eastward across the continent, about
the parallels of 1S° of S. and 4° and 9° of N. latitude j
thus forming the three natural ai'cas of the Orinoco,
Amazon, and La Plata river basins. The most northern
of th£se is " the Cordillera of the coast," which parts from
the main trunk near the south extremity of the lake
Maracaybo, reaches the sea at Puerto Cabello, and then
passes eastward through Caraccas to the Gulf of Paris.
Its length is about 700 miles, and its medium height from
4000 to 5000 feet; but the SiUa de Caraccas, one of its
summits, has an elevation of about 8632 feet ; and its
western part, which is at some distance from the sea,
contains the Sierra of Merida, 15,000 feet in height. • The
second trsHisverse chain is connected with the Andes at
the paraUeb of 3° and 4° north^ and passing eastward,
terminates in French Guiana, at no great distance from
the mouth of the Amazon. It consists properly of a suc-
cession of chains nearly parallel to'.the icoast, and is some-,
times called the Cordillera of Parim^, but is named by
Humboldt the " Cordillera of the Cataracts of the Orinoco,"
because this river, which flows amidst its ridges in the
t
-MOUNTMNS.l
AMERICA
671
Geology
upper parts of its course, forms the cataracts of Maypure
at the point where it descends into the plains. Its mean
height is estimated at 4000 feet above the level of the sea;
but at about 70' and 75" W. longitude, it sinks to less than
1000 feet, and at other points rises to 10,000. This cham
divides the waters of the Orinoco and the rivers of Guiana
from th« basin of the Amazon, and is covered with naag-.
nificent forests. Its breadth is supposed to be from 200
to 400 miles, and it encloses amidst its ridges the great
lake Parime, in longitude- 60°, and several of smaller size.
At the Caratal gold-field, which Ues south of Angostura,
the range is about 60 miles across, and the watershed
about 1100 feet above the sea. On a table-land forming
part of it, about the 67th degree of longitude, the CasSi-
quiari forms an intermediate channel which connects the
rivers Orinoco and Negro, so that, during the annual
floods, a part of the waters of the former flows into the
latter. This singular phenomenon was made known long
ago by the Spanish missionaries, but was thought to be a
fable till the truth was ascertained by Humboldt. The
length of this chain is about 1500 miles. The third
tralisvefse chain leaves the main trunk near 17° 25' S.,
and extends almost as far as Santa Cruz, near the river
Mamore. Some of the mountains in the western part are
of considerable height. South of this range are a number
of ridges having an east and west direction, an average_
height of about 10,000 feet, and terminating in the plains
near the Paraguay. This country, which divides the waters
of the Amazon from those of the Plata,' is a broad plateau
of elevated land, rather than a distinct mountainous ridge,
and consists of low hiUs or uneven plains, with very little
wood, presenting in some places extensive pastures, and in
others tracts of a poor sandy soil. Its average height
probably does not exceed 2000 or 3000 feet above the
level of the sea.
The mountains of Brazil, which are of moderate height,
and occupy a great breadth of country, form an irregular
plateau, bristled with sharp ridges running in a direction
approximately parallel to the eastern coast, connected by
ofi'sets running in a more or less east and west direction.
They extend from 5° to 25° of south latitude, and their ex-
treme breadth may be about 1000 miles. Between Victoria
on the north and Morro de St Martha on the south, a range
with numerous curves Ues a little way back from the coast,
and is, for the greater part of its length, knoivn as the
Sierra-'do Mar; somewhat farther inland is a higher range,
the dlS'erent parts of which have difl'erent names, but
it is best known as the Sierra de Mantiqueira. It con-
tains the highest peaks in Brazil, amongst which may
be mentioned Mount Itacolumi, famous for the gold and
diamond yielding strata in its vicinity; the Pico dos
Orgaos, which is 7700 feet high; and Itambe, 8426 feet.
Some of the peaks are believed to be even higher. West
of this the uplands of Brazil stretch far into the interior,
and at length sink into the great central plain through
which flows the Paraguay and its tributaries.
Although large areas of South America remain as yet
unexplored by geologists, the researches of D'Orbigny,
Humboldt, BdMssingault, Darwin, Porbes, Agassiz, and _
many other travellers, suffice to give an approximately cor-
rect "general view. This is mainly owing to the simplicity
of the stratigraphy of the country. The same groups of
rocks spread over such extensive areas, that, from what is
seen in the areas which have been examined, we can safely
infer the general condition of those which have not been
explored. The general disposition of the rocks is as fol-
lows:—The oldest rocks, which are Pre-Silurian, possibly
Laurentian, form the outermost rim of the continent, of
which the N.E. and S.E. corners have probably been Swept
away. These corners now correspond with the mouths
of the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata rivers.
Within this basin, and following close upon these old
rocks, are schists and quartzites, which are in all groba-
bUity of Silurian age. These enter largely into the transverse
ranges by which the central hoUow is subdivided into three
basins. Within this again are sandstones and limestones,
usuaDy referred to the Carboniferous period, which also form
part of the transverse ridges. A band of rocks of secondary
age follow, some of which are believed to be Triassic, while
others are identified as Cretaceous. ■ Tertiary beds, some of
Miocene date, together with Post-Tertiary beds, cover the
largest part of tie areas of the great river basins and the
hollows in the mountain range, and also occur on the sea-
ward flanks of the principal chains.
By following the development of these beds, we shall be
able to give a brief account of the growth of the present
continent. In the Argentine Confederation a few bosses of
gneiss protrude through the more recent beds constituting
the Pampas. Granite, supporting gneiss and quartzite,
occurs along the coast of Chili. In Bolivia we find a
range of granitic mountains which have a general direction
som° what to the E. of N., and which are flanked on either
side by zones of gneiss and quart^ite. The gneiss also
prevaOs along the shores of Peru, Ecuador,, and New
Granada, or, to call it by the name which it received in 1861,
Columbia. The gneiss is again seen at the eastern base
of the Andes, in the last-menticned State, associated with
quartzites, and both these can be traced along the Vene-
zuelaa coast. Gneiss is largely developed near Angostura,
and has a strike approaching E. and W. At Limones,
which is near the Caratal gold-field, the country consists
largely of granite and gneiss, which latter lies here a little
to the E. or to the W. of N. In Brazil the gneiss forms a
long band from Bahia to the southern portion of the pro-
vince of Santa Catharina. Near the coast it rests upon
and apparently passes into granite; but towards the west,
as far as the Mantiqueira chain, it giadually becomes more
and more schistoid. Gneiss, again, is met within the
mountains which stretch through the Bolivian provinces of
Moxos and Chiquitos. It has not been ascertained if these
older rocks appeared above the waters before the deposi-
tion of those which follow, and which will next be noticed.
In Chili the succeeding rocks are slaty schists. In
Bolivia the mountainous district. crossing the country is
largely composed of talcose schists, which, where exposed
to the weather, have formed by their decomposition a
layer of clay ; in advancing from the east towards the west
the schists become more and more crystalline, and are at
last replaced by gneiss. This, as has already been stated,
rests against granite, on the west side of which gneiss is
again Brought in by an anticlinal arrangement of the beds,
and dips beneath a thick mass of schists, which constitute
the great bulk of the Andes in this district. In this
mountain range the lower portion of the formation is
mainly sUiccous schist, alternating vrith beds of compact
quartz; above this come talc-bearing quartzites, alternating
with slaty schists, which latter become more and more
prevalent as we ascend in the strata, and at last constitute
the predominating rock. They form, indeed, the crest of
the range ; the thickness of the formation may be roughly
estimated at 10,000 feet. These rocks are much dis-
turbed and faulted against other and probably newer
rocks, which with them constitute the great biflk of the
lofty eminences in the range of which Mount Illimani
forms so conspicuous a feature. The lower argillaceous
schist, which is associated with gneiss all along the Pacific
coast from lower Peru to Panama, possibly belongs to this
group of rocks. In the high valleys of Ecuador the oldest
rocks visible are gramtc, gneiss, and schists, which are frs-
Quently in a vertical position. The schistose group appears
672
AMERICA
[s. AMTSEICA.
to be absent on the east eido of the Andes in Columbia, as
also along the coast of Venezuela. In the mountain range
south of the Orinoco, hornblende, talcoee, and mica schiiits
again appear on a large scale, more especially in the Caratal
district, whore auriferous veins occur. In Brazil the mi-
caceous and talcoso schists enter into the compositioa of
the Mantiqueira chain and of the uplands to the west;
they probably pass beneath the valley of the Panama, since
they occur to the west of it, and extend through the pro-
vinces of Goyaz and Matte Gros.so, so aa to approach within
a moderate distance of the similar strata in Bolivia. They
are associated with talc-bearing quartzitcs, which ore famous
for the diamonds and auriferous particles they have yielded
in the district around Mount Itacol\}mi. The soil is
tisually a clay, such as would result from the decomposition
of talcose schist; but we shall have occasion to refgr to the
sou of South America subsequently. Some of these rocks in
various parts of the continent have yielded Silurian fos.iils.
Facts are not sufiicicnt yet to warrant the correlation of
these strata with those of other countries, or to settle how
far they belong to distinct geological periods. The pre-
valent strike of the rocks is about east and west, but some-
times the strike approaches to a north and south direction.
At any rate, the rocks which overlie them do so uncon-
formably, indicating that, prior to the deposition of these
newer rocks, land had appeared at least onco on areas now
constituting part of South AiSBrica. At this early date
the continent was represented by a few islands only; one
corresponded with part. of Brazil, another with parts of
Venezuela and Columbia; perhaps a third more or less
with Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and CMli; while a few small
islands appeared where now we have the Pampas. These
were the nuclei around which the present land has accumu-
lated, and already we see faint indications of the existing
outline and broad geographic features of the future con-
tinent
The next group of rocks are always in Btratigraphical
discordance with those beneath them; and, in consequence
of the highly metamorphosed condition of those on the
west side of the continent, it is difficult to coiTelate them
with the rocks of Brazil In the Andes of Chili they are
represented by enormous stratified masses of quartzose
porphyries, which there is good reason to believe are
metamorphosed argillaceous schists and felspathic sand-
Btones, into which rocks they have been seen gradually to
pass. These porphyries not only form the great bulk of
the . principal chain of the Andes, but also the smaller
chain on the west, the interval between them being formed
by the longitudinal valley of ChilL Further west they
rest on syenitic rocks, beyond which come the older rocks
already noticed. On passing into Bolivia, we find that to
the west of the great fault developed there, the beds con-
sist oi* micaceous sandstones and dark bituminous schists,
which are believed to be the equivalents of the porphyries
of ChilL Such formations constitute the west slope of the
Andes from Sorata to Illimani, and also form two bands,
one stretcliing from Illimani to Cochabamba, the other
between Calamarca and Chayanta. Towards the west they
dipbencath black bituminous and siliceous limestones, which
are well developed near Tiahuanaco. Jarbonif erous strata
with seams of coal occur near Pisco and Arequipa in Peru.
In Brazil the beds which succeed those previously men-
tioned are quartzites, rich in mica and magnetic oxide of
iron; talcoso Schists; and crystalline limestones, containing
a great deal of talc. These rocks form the highest regions
and loftiest peaks in BrazH XJnconformably upon these
test micaceous sandstones and argillaceous schists, which
occupy the western part of St Paul province between Ttu
and the banks of the Parana. In Mount Aiasoyaba and
lome other places, a carboniferous limestone succeeds and
is overlain by a thick white or yellowish sandstone, siliceona
limestones, and bituminous schists. The Umostones occupy
most of the area between the Uruguay and the Parana. In
the Diamantina district the carboniferous limestone is over-
lain by rod sandstone, which belongs to the succeeding
group of beds. The beds in Brazil appear to be fuller than
those on the west side of the continent, and represent pro-
bably Ixjth the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. Rocks
of this ago are also exposed in a narrow band round por-
tions of the basin of the river Amazon, The strata next
in succession are of secondary age. The lowest formation
is a rod sandstone, which is spread over a very extensive
area. It is remarkably well developed in Chili, where,
together with more iccent beds, it is a marked feature ill
the crest of the Andes. In the small chain to the west it
is as.sociatod with conglomerates. In the small chain of
Colorado, near Tiahuanaco, a thick conglomerate rests on
the older limestones, and supports red sandstones and con-
glomerates dipping west beneath marls. The red sand-
stone extends across the province of Carangas, and unin-
terruptedly over both slopes of the western Cordillera. In
the desert of Atacama the red sandstone, with the over-
lying marls, forms a number of parallel chains directed north
and south. Red sandstones and conglomerates form tha
base of the Cordilleras of Quito; they stretch north into the
basins of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers, and east over
"the basin of the Orinoco. In the province of Bahia, and far
away to the north, there is a great development of red
sandstone. The age of these sandstones has been variously
stated ; their Btratigraphical position would indicate a
secondary age, and possibly they may be Triassic. Aiter
their deposition, and prior to tiat of the marls, syenitic
rocks were introduced amongst the strata in the Andes,
causing the red sandstones, as also the older sandstones
and schists, to be converted into porphyries. This erup-
tion was also accompanied by, and probably connected
with, the formation of auriferous veins, the elevation of the
strata, and the faulting of the rocks. The strike of the
strata, as also of the faults, was about 8° to the °E. of N.,
but subsequent movements have modified the direction in
places. The red sandstone has a similar strike from
Venezuela in the noijh to Magalhaens Strait on the south,
and this favours the idea that all are of the same age.
Several of the ranges in the Andes have a corresponding
direction. As the sandstone is believed to underlie the-
basins of the great rivers, it appears that during its deposi-
tion South America was still represented by a few large
islands only. Its elevation gave rise to north and south
trending mountains, whereby these scattered portiqns wero^
connected, and the Andes received their first development.
The great features of the continent were then first dis-
tinctly marked out, and only a few gtps remained to be
filled up. The next succeeding period, represented by
strata, is characterised by saliferous and gypseous marls,
which rest unconformably on the r^cks beneath. In Chili
they occur in the lower plains, or abut against the western
spurs of the Andes; but they have been largely denuded,
BO that they now occur in isolated plateaux or basins, and
there is a patch capping the lofty Aconcagua. It is stated-
that in Chili the marls, or at least some of them, are Liassic
In Bolivia, also, they form plateaux between San Andres
and the mountains of Tarija. Here they consist of alter-
nations of greenish marls and wine-coloured beds support-
ing limestones, with interstratified beds of gypsum and
saliferous clay. There are beds of gypsum and Limestone
in the Orinoco plains. Marls are associated with marly
sandstones in the Gulf of Bahia and in the plains of
Reconcavoi These beds are arranged along strikes which
are approximately east and west, and their elevation is
apparently connected with the formation of '•.baina running.
■OEoioov.]
AMERICA
G73
in tho same direction, as, for instance, most of tho lateral
spurs from the Andes. Some geulogists think it ia also
connected with the east and west faults, through which, in
the Andes, labradorite and hypersthenite rocks have been
erupted. This eruption, it is said, has caused the metamor-
phism of the calcareous rocks into crystalline limestones,
marls into jaspers, and red sandstones into porphyries ; and
has also given rise to the copper-bearing veins. Calcare-
ous beds occupy large areaa in Venezuela, Columbia, and
other parts of the continent. Miocene strata occur in
Venezuela, and probably in other districts. Finally, there
are deposits of Post-Miocene date, which chiefly belong
to the Post-Pliocene and recent periods, and which cover
most of the lower lands along the coasts and in the interior
of the continent. In ChiH they occur in the valleys, and
fill up the gulfs in tho old granite range near the coast.
Here the succession is a calcareous sandstone abounding in
marine shells and beds of lignite; above this is a pumiceous
conglomerate, which passes in places into a pebbly con-
glomerate, and then follow the marine sands which stretch
from Coquimbo across the desert of Atacama. The most
recent formation -is drift, which occurs lq patches and sheets.
In the valley plains of the Desaguadero there are clays iind
sandy marls overlain by pumiceous conglomerates, which
near La Paz are surmounted by drift. Near this place the
drift is many hundred feet thick, and formed of large
blocks; but, on receding from tho mountains, it passes
into a sand which encircles the plains of the Desaguadero,
which are chiefly formed by limestone deposits, such as
concretionary limestone, which abounds in the fossil remains
of plants and fresh water shells. The lacustrine beds ap-
proximate in age to the marine tertiary beds near the
coast. In Peru the pumiceous conglomerate is overlain by
drift. Tertiary beds occur at Guayaquil in Ecuador, while
in the valley of Qiuto there are enormous layers of pumice,
scoriae, and drift, which last has yielded the remains of
various Post-PUocene mammals and terrestrial shells. Drift
withsimilarremains occurs in the lowergroundsof Columbia.
In the Gulf of Bahia there are recent beds; and near St
Paul, as also in many other parts of Brazil, there are
patches of lacustrine deposits. On ■ the west side of the
continent the pumiceous conglomerate is intirnately con-
nected with trachytes, and indeed is formed from them.
It is intermediate in age between the lacustrine beds,
the marine deposits near the shore, and the drift, which
is in its turn covered by the more recent lava overflows ;
and it is in this intermediate age that the upheaval of the
principal chain of the Andes occurred. The ranges
and faults which are assigned to this period,, probably
Pliocene or Post-Pliocene, run very nearly north and south.
This elevation did not materially alter the extent of land
west of the Andes, its general effect being to add a strip
about thirty miles in width. * On the east the change was
gieat, since the larger proportion of the great central plain
then emerged, and thus connected tho high lands on the
east, west, and north into one great continent. The erup-
tion of the trachytes, which form so marked a feature in
the Andes, was accompanied by a metamorphism distinct
in character from thoso of , earlier ages. The rocks were
then subjected not only to heat and water, but also to acid
Yapours, which changed the felspar into sulphates of
alumina and iron, salt into anhydrous sidphate of soda;
and, probably, by freeing the chlorine and iodine, originated
the chlorides and iodides which are so abundant in the
argentiferous veins. Since the drift there has been a slight
elevation along a meridional axis.
Such is a brief account of tho grovth of South .America.
We must, however, mention that Professor Agasaiz and his
coadjutors beUevo that the red soil a.id ii-nmediately under-
lying beds, seen near Eio Jauo'Jo and in the valley of
1—2.3
tho Amazon, are true glacial formations, and inter thai
the similar beds which are spread over such an enormous
area in South America have been formed under similar
conditions. Professor Agassiz has found moraines and
ice-transported boulders in various places in the mountains
of Brazil, as also indications of valley glaciers. Professor
Orton has found marine shells in these beds at Pebas in
Ecuador.
The foregoing sketch indicates that there have been, sevc- ".cloanoes
ral periods of volcanic activity ; and that, so far as our present
knowledge goes, such activity has only been manifested
along the Une of the Andes. Volcanic rocks have rarely
been observed on the east side of the continent, but some
of the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary beds of the plains contain
matter which has been showered upon them during erup-:
tions, and which now forms a portion of the Pampeau de-
posits. ' At one period or other the whole system of tha
Andes has been subjected to volcanic disturbance, but at.
the present time the active volcanoes occur iu groups more
or less widely separated. The most southern active volcano
is Corcovado, in 43° 10' S. There are, besides, some twenty
or more volcanic 'bones, of which about a dozen are knowa
to be active. Bolivia has .one or two active vents, and
Peru several; but it is in Ecuador, with its dozen igni-
vomous vents, that have occuiTed the grandest and mott
frequent displays. Columbia has four or five volcanoes.
With the exception of the Moluccas, no country in the-
world has had so many and so destructive earthquake shock: ' unh-
as South America. But these are concentrated, both a& ' "''"*
regards frequency and strength, along the Andes, and more
particularly their western slope. Comparatively few are felt
in the plains to the east of them; but occasionally il
happens that shocks are felt at points on the opposite slopes
of this great range without being perceived in the inter-
mediate higher regions. Peru seems to be the principal
focus of action ; and next to it in importance as a seismic
area comes Chili; but although some earthquake shocks
spread over both these areas, there does not seem to be
the community of action which we should expect between
the two areas. In Peru the maxima of seismic intensitj
were in the decades ending 1590, 1610, 1660, 1690, 1710,
1720, 1730, 1750, 1770, 1790, 1840, 1870. In Chili they
occurred in the decades ending 1580, 1640, 1650, 1660,
1690, 1730, 1780, 1800, 1820, 1840, 1850. Nearly every
other portion of the continent is subject to earthquakes.
Bolivia, which lies between Peru and ChiU, is comparar
tiveiy free from them, as also are Brazil, Patagonia, and tho
Argentine Confederation, but they are more frequent in
Ecuador, Columbia, Venezuela, and the three Guianas.
The mountains of North and Central America wiU no'. K. Asit.
detain' us long. The ranges of Central America have no ''ic"- '■
relation to the Andes, differing from them both as regards: ^- '■^'^^'^'^
age and direction, which is generally N. 55° W., and being
separated from them by gaps only a few hundred feet above
the sea, and upwards of 100 miles wide. During the
Tertiary period the mountains of N. and S. America had
stiU less connection than at present, lor where the isthmua
now forms a bridge of land there was a broad strait,
which lasted up to the end of the Pliocene, or beginning
of the Post-Pliocene period. Volcanoes are frequent ia
Central America; and basalt and other volcanic products
cover a large portion of the country. The large develop-
ment of trachytes (indicates an earlier period of volcanic
activity, during which most of the Tertiary strata were
metamorphosed into porphyries. At any rate these rest
upon cretaceous limestones. In many places tho clays and
sandstones of the Cretaceous age have been metamorphosed
into granite rocks. From Puebla to Durango the Jlexican.
mountains nc longer i)resent the appearance of a chain,
but spread nut to a table-land or elevated plain, from 500(>
G74
AMERICA
[n. and 8. AMEBICA.
to 9000 feet in tclglit, and from 100 to 300 miles in
breadth. Across this plain, close to the 19th parallel, £,b: vol-
s'. 1 jiiioti. canoes are distributed in a lino running east and west, as
if a vast rent, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
had opened a l)ns=age for the internal fires of the globe at
this spot. T«o of those on the east side of the continent,
wth a group of four or five other cones lying between
Jalapa and Cordoba, have an elevation exceeding 17,000
fcot, and are the only mountains in New Spain that rise
to the region of perpetual snow, -which con'mences hero at
15,000 feet abovo the level of the sea. Jorullo, the lowest
of the six volcanoes, rose suddenly in the middle of a
plain, in September 1759, after fearful concussions of the
ground, which continued for fifty or sixty days. Near the
tropic the Mexican Cordillera divides into three parts. One
runs parallel to the eastern coast at the distance of thirty
or forty leagues, and terminates in New- Leon. Another
proceeds in a north-v,-estcrn direction, and sinks gradually
as it appro;iches the Caliicrnian Gulf in Souora. The third
or central CordUlera traverses Durango and New Mexico,
di\-ides the sources of tho Rio Gila from the Rio Bravo del
Norte, and dies out before reaching the Rocky Mountains.
In a recent snientific survey of the Rocky Mountains,
conducted by Professor Hayden of Yale College, a higher
peak has been discovered than was formerly known. Holy
Cross mountain was computed to reach 1 7,000 feet above
the sea, or 2000 fsot higher than Big Horn (15,000), which
has hitlicrto been supposed to be the highest of the chain.
■The greatest altitudes on the North .iVmerican continent are
now said to be the following — St Elias (17,850^ in Alaska,
Popocatepetl (17,884) in Mexico, Orizaba (17,337) in
Jlexico, Holy Cross (17,000), Rocky Mountains, Big Horn
(15,000), and Mount Lincoln (14,300), both in the same
chain. The Great Salt Lake of Utah is in 41° N. and 112°
"W., and has intensely salt v.-aters. It is nearly 300 miles in
circumference, and its shores, for a breadth of several miles,
arc covered with an incrustation of vei-y jiure salt. It lies
an a basin, which measures about 500 miles each way, and
contains much fertile soil.
If we i-un a line westward across the continent of North
America at the latitude of Delaware Bay (38°), the geolo-
gical formations present themselves in the following order:
• — 1. Tertiary and Cretaceous strata on the shores of the
Atlantic;. 2. Gneiss underlying these strata, and present-
ing itself on the eastern slope of the Alleghany or Appala-
chian mountains, but covered in parts by Now Red Sand-
stone; 3. Pala;ozoic rocks, consisting of Silurian, Devonian,
and Carboniferous strata, curiously bent into parallel fold-
ings, with synclinal and anticlinal axes, the crests of the
latter forming the ridges of the Alleghany Mountains, which
in this region rise to the height of 2500 feet. Upon these
I'ah-Eozoic rocks rest three great coal-fields — the Appala-
chian, that of Illinois, and that of Michigan, covering a
large portion of the space between the Alleghanies and the
Mississippi, and embracing collectively an area e^ual to
the surface of Great Britain. From the Jlississippi west-
f.-ard to Utah the Palaeozoic rocks occur in great folds, be-
t-ween -n-hich are extensive areas of Triassic, Oolitic, Creta-
ceous, and Tertiary beds. In California the rocks are
chiefly metamorphosed secondary strata on which lie patches
■of Tertiar)- sediments. In British America there is an
enormous development of the Laurentian and Huronian
locks, which are the oldest yet discovered, and occupy
most of the country immediately north of the large lakes.
3S'"ewfoundland and the neighbouring British territories con-
sist of Pre-Silurian, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous (which
includes coal-fields of considerable extent), and Triassic
rocks. The area north of about 40° N. is also covered and
£t5ewcd with glacial drift and boulders.
The O.'-iik Mountains resemble the Alleghanies in their
mmeral structure, containing the same rocks from the
granite to the carboniferous, and probably upwards to tho
chalk.
lu no single circumstance is the supcnority of America S. and a,
over tho old world so couspicuous, as in tho number and -America;
mag.iitude of its navigable rivers. Tho Amazon alone dis- '^"'*'^
charges a greater quantity of water than tho eight prin-
cipal rivers of Asia, the Yenesei, Indus, Ganges, Oby, Lena,
Amoor, and the Hoang-ho and Yang-ts« of China. The
Mississippi, -with its branches, affords a greater amount
of inland navigation than all tho streams, great and small,
which irrigate Europe; and tho Plata, in tliis respect, may
probably claim a superiority over the collective -n-ater of
Africa. But the American rivers not only surpass those
of tho Old World in length and volume of water, — they
are so placed as to penetrate everywhere to the heart of
the continent. By the Amazon, a person living at th»
eastern foot of the Andes, 2000 miles of direct distam 3
from the Atlantic, may convey himrelf or his property to
the shores of that sea in forty-five days, almost without
effort, by confiding his bark to the gliding current. If he
wish to return, he has but to spread his sails to the
eastern breeze, ivhich blows perennially against the stream.
The navigation is not interrupted by a single cataract or
rapid, from the Atlantic to Jaen, in west longitude 78°
where the surface of tho stream .is only 1240 feet above
tho level of its estuary at Para. Tho part of North
America most remote from the sea is tho great interior
plain extending from the Rocky Mountains to the Alle-
ghanies and tlie lakes, between the parallels of 40° and
50°; but the Mississippi, Missouri, and St La-wrenco,
with their branches, are wonderfully ramified over this
region, and tho Missouri is in some degree navigable •
to the centre of tho continent. It is only necessary
to cast the eye over a map of South America, to see.
that all the most sequestered parts of the interior ire
-visited by branches of th<3 Plata and the Amazon. These
streams, having their courses in general remarkably
level, and seldom interrupted by cataracts, may be con-
sidered without a figure of speech, as a vast system of
natural canals, terminating in two main trunks, which
communicate -with the ocean at the equator and the 35th
degree of south latitude. Since the invention of steam
na-vigation, rivers are, in the truest sense of the term.
Nature's highways, especially for infant commuruties,
where the people are too poor, and live too widely dis-
persed, to bear the expense of constructing roads. There
is little risk in predicting, that in two or three centuries
the Mississippi, the Amazon, and the Plata, -n-iU bo the
scenes of an active inland commerce, far suqiassing in
magnitude anj-thing at present known on the surface ot
the globe. The Mississippi is navigable for boats from
the sea to the falls of its principal branch the Jlissouri,
1700 miles from the Mexican Gulf in a direct line, or
3900 by the stream ; and the whole amount of boat
na-vigation afforded by the system ot rivers, of which the
Mississippi is the main trunk, has been ' estimated as
equal to 40,000 miles in length, spread over a surface of
1,350,000 square miles. This, however, is perhaps an
exaggeration; a na-vigable length of 35,000 miles may be
nearer the truth.
The Amazon contains many islands, is broad, and in tho
upper part so deep, that on one occasion Condamine foun-i
no bottom with a line 620 feet long. At its mouth, two
days before and after the full moon, the phenomenon called
a Bore occurs in a very formidable shape. It is a high
upright wave of water rushing from the sea, which no
small vessel can encounter -without certain destruction.
The estuaries of all these great American rivers open to
the eastward ; and thus Providence seems to have pliialy
CLIMATE.]
AMERICA
&75
indicated that the most intimats commercial relations of
the inhabitants of America shotJd be -with the western
shores of the Old World. It should at the same time be
observed, that this position of the great rivers of America
is but one example of a physical arrangement which is
common to the whole globe; for it is remarkable that,
in the. Old World as well as in the New, no river of the
first class flows to the westward. Some, as the NUe, the
Lena, and the Oby, flow to the north ; others, as the Indus
ind-the rivers of Ava, to the south; but the largest, as
the Volga, the Ganges, the Yang-tse, the Hoang-ho, the
Euphrates, and the Amoor, have their courses to the east
or south-east. This arrangement is not accidental, but
depends most probably on the inclination of the primary
rocks, which, in aU cases where their direction approaches
io the south and north, seem to have their steepest sides to
the west and the longest declivities to the east. We have
examples in the Scandinavian Alps, the mountains of Bri-
tain, the Ghauts of India, the Andes, and the Eocky
Mountains.
The following table exhibits the lengths, size of the
basins, and probable extent of the navigable waters of the
greater rivers of America.
Table of Principal American Rivers.
Jlisaissipfi to source of
Missouri
St Lawrence through the
lakes
Orinoco
Amazon, not including Ara-
g«!i.y....v
Plata, including Uruguay...
Length,
miles.
4300
2200
1800
4000
2400
Area of
basin,
cq. miles.
1,350,000
600,000
400,000
2,100,000
1,200,000
Navigable
waters,
mllea.
85,000
4,000
8,000
60,000
20,000
The latitude and elevation of the land in each country,
its position in reference to the sea, and the direction of the
prevailing winds, are the chief circumstances which deter-
mine the nature of the climate. We have already men-
tioned that three-fourths of South America lie within the
tropics, and the remaining fourth in the temperate zone;
but, in both divisions, it might be naturally inferred that a
huge wall like the Andes, rising into the atmosphere to the
height of two or three miles, and running across the course
of the tropical and extra-tropical winds, would exert a
powerful influence on the temperature, the humidity, arid
the distribution of the seasons. This is actually the case ;
and it is this vast chain of mountains, with its prolonga-
tion in North America, which affords a key to the most
remarkable peculiarities in the climate of the whole con-
tinent. The subject, which has been frequently mis-
understood, admits of being explained in a very simple
manner.
The trade-winds blowing from the east occupy a zone 60
degrees in breadth, extending from 30° of N. to 30° of
S. latitude. Beyond these limits are variable winds;
but the prevailing direction in the open sea, where no acci-
dental causes operate, is well known by navigators to be
from the west. Now these winds are the agents which
transport the equable temperature of the ocean, and the
moisture exhaled from its surface, to the interior of the
great continents, where it is precipitated in the shape
of r?in, dew, or snow. Mountain>i receive the moisture
which floats in the atmosphere ; they obstruct and lift the
aerial cuwents, and by causing a reduction of temperature,
favour precipitation. Rain, accordingly, in all countries
falls most abundantly on the elevated land. Let us con-
fider, then, what will be the effect of a mural ridge like
the Andes in the situation which it occupies. In the
fegica ^thin the 30th parallel, the moisture swept up by
the trade-wind from the Atlantic will be precipitated in
part upon the mountains of Brazil, which are but low, and
so distributed as to extend far into the interior. The por-
tion which remains will be borne westward, and, losing a
little as it proceeds, wiU be aixested by the Andes, and fall
down in showers on their slopes. The aerial current
will now be deprived of all the humidity which it can part
with, and arrive in a state of complete exsiccation at Peru,
where no rain will consequently fall. That even a much
lower ridge than the Andes may intercept the whole mois-
tui'e of the atmosphere, is proved by a well-known pheno-
menon in India, where the Ghauts, a chain only 3000 oi
4000 feet high, divide summer from winter, as it is called j
that is, they have copious rains on their windward side,
while on the other the weather remains clear and dry ; and
the rains regularly change from the west side to the east,
and vice versa, with the monsoons. In the region beyond
the 30th parallel this effect will be reversed. The Andes
will in this case serve as a screen to intercept the mois-
ture brought by the prevailing west -winds from the Pacific
Ocean ; rains will be copious on their slopes, and in
nhili on their western declivities, but none will fall on the
plains to the eastward, except occasionally, when the winds
blow from the Atlantic. The phenomena of the weather .
correspond in a remarkable manner -ndth this hypothesis.
On the shore of the Pacific, from Coquimbo, at the 30th
parallel, to Amatapu, at the 5th of south latitude, no rain
falls; and the whole of this tract is a sandy desert, except
the narrow strips of land skirting the streams that descend
from the Andes, where the soil is rendered productive by
irrigation. From the 30th parallel southward the scene
changes. Kains are frequent; vegetation appears on the
surface, and grows more vigorous as we advance south-
ward. " At Conception," says Captain Hall, " the eye was
delighted with the richest and most luxuriant foliage; at
Valparaiso the luUs were poorly clad with a stunted bnislT-
wood and a poor attempt at grass, the ground looking
starved and naked; at Coquimbo the brjshwood was gone,
with nothing in its place but a vile sort of prickly pear
bush, and a thin sprinkling of gray wiry grass ; at Huasco
(latitude 264°) there was not a trace of vegetation, and the
lulls were covered with bare sand."* It follows from the
principle we have laid down, that in this southera part of
the continent the dry tract should be found on the east
side of the mountains, and such is the fact. At Mendoza,
Lu latitude 32°, rain scarcely ever falls, and the district
along the east foot of the Andes is known to consist chiefly
of parched sands, on which a few stunted shrubs grow,
and in which many of the streams that descend from the
mountains are absorbed before they reach the sea. The
whole country, indeed, south of the Plata, suffers from
drought ; but on the eastern side this is remedied to soma
extent by winds from the east or south-east, which biing
occasional rains to refresh the BoU. From Amatapu north-
ward, on the other hand, the west coast is well watered
and fruitful; and this is easily accounted for. The line of
the coast here changes its direction, and trends to tha
north-east as far as the isthmus of Panama, whore the
mountains sink to a few hundred feet in height, and leave
a free passage to the trade-wind, which here often assumes
a direction from the north-east, or even the north. Tho
exhalations of the Atlantic are thus brought in abundance
to the coast of Quito, which is in consequence well watered;
while the neighbouring district of Peru suffers from per-
petual aridity.
Our principle applies equally to the explanation of some
peculiar facts connected with the climate of Nortli Ame-
rica. The western coast of Mexico, as far as St Blw or
Hall's ExtTacU/romJiJouTml, vol ibf, 12,
G76
AMERICA
[N. and 8. AMRRICA.
JFazatlan, in latitude 23° N., is well watered, heca.use, frsl,
the continent hero is narrow; secondly, the table-land of
Mexico, which is much lower than the Andea of Chili, is
uot so effectual a screen to intercept the moisture; and,
thirdly, there ia reason to believe that a branch of the
trade-wind, which crosses the low part of the continent at
I'anama and Nicaragua, sweeps along the west coast during
part of the year, and transports humidity with it. But
beyond the jwint we have mentioned drought prevails.
JSonora, though vLsitod occasionally by rains, consists of
eandy plains without herbage, where the streams lose them-
selves in the parched soil without reaching the sea ; and
even Old California, which has the ocean on one side, and
a broad gulf on the other, and ought apparently to be ex-
cessively humid, is covered with sterile rocks and sandy
hills, where the vegetation is scanty, and no timber is seen
except brushwood. This dry region extends as far as 33"
or 3i° N. ; but immeiliately beyond this we have another
change of scene. New California is in all respects a
contrast to the Old. It is rich, fertile, and humid,
abounding in luxuriant forests and iino pastures; and the
other American possessions to the northward pre-serve the
same character. How can wo account for this singular
diversity of climate, except upon the principle which has
been ex[)lainod, namely, that in all regions where ranges
il mountains intersect the course of the constant or pre-
lominant winds, the country on the windward side of the
»nountains will be moist, and that on the leeward dry; and
'\once parched deserts will generally be found on the west
ide of countries within the tropics, and on the east side
•i those beyond them ? Our hypothesis applies equally to
he country east of the Rocky Mountains. For the sj)ace
I about 3000 miles along the foot of this chain the surface
consists of dry sands or gravel, sometimes covered ^vith
jaline incrustations, almost destitute of trees and herbage,
and watered by streams flowing from the mountains, which
are sometimes entirely absorbed by the arid soil. The
central and eastern part of the basin of the Mississippi
would in all probability liave been equally barren had the
configuration of the land been a little different in the
south, A tract of country extremely low and levgl extends
Jong both sides of this river; and a portion of the trade-
raid blowing from the Mexican Gulf, finding its motion
westward obstracted by the high table-land of the CordO-
era, is deflected to the right, and ascends the vaUey of the
lilississippi and Ohio. This wind, whose course was first
traced by Volney, bears with it tho humidity of the torrid
zone, and scatters fertility -over a wide region that woidd
otherwise Be a barren waste.
fireets. The views on the subject of climate we have been un-
folding will enable us to throw some light on an interest-
ing point — the distribution of forests. We are induced to
think, that in all countries having a summer heat exceed-
ing 70°, the presence or absence of natural woods, and
their greater or less luxuriance, may be taken as a measure
of tho amount of humidity, and of the fertility of the soil.
Short and heavy rains in a warm country will produce
grass, which, having its roots near the surface, springs up
in a few days, and withers when the moisture is exhausted;
but transitory rains, however heavy, will not nourish trees,
because after the surface is saturated with water, the rest
nins off, and the moisture lodged in the soil neither sinks
deep enough, nor is in sufficient quantity to furnish the
giants of the forest with the necessary sustenance. It may
be assumed that 20 inches of rain falling moderately, or at
intervals, will leave a greater permanent supply in the soil
than 40 inches falling, as it sometimes does in the torrid
zone, in as many hours. It is only necessary to qualify
this conclusion by stating, that something depends on the
BubaoiL If that is gravel, or a reck full of fisstyes, the
T«J
"' Tfi'ani
Eketcb Map showing the Forest Regionii
of America.
water imbedded will soon drain o3 ; if it is clay or a com-
pact rock, the water will remain in the soil. It meat bo
remembered, also,
that both best and
moisture diii i i 1 1 ish as
we ascend in the at-
mosphere, while eva-
poration increases ;
and hence that trees
will not grow on
very high ground,
though its position
in reference to tho
sea and tho prevail-
ing winds should be
favourable in other
respects. In speak-
ing af tho region of
forests, wo neither
restrict the term to
those districts where
the natural woods
present an unbroken
continuity, nor ex-
tend it to every place
where a few trees
grow in open plains.
It ia not easy to give a definition that will be always
appropriate ; but in using the expression, we wish to be
understood as applying it to ground where the natural
woods cover more than one-fourth of the surface.
The small map of America prefixed will enable the reader
to follow our statements with ease. The long black
lines show the positions of the cliains of mountains ; the
shading represents the regions of forests ; tho dense forests
being marked by the double shading, and the thinner ones
by tho open lines. Tho white spaces represent the lands
on which little or no wood grows. The equator and the
paraUel of 30° on each side are indicated by the horizontal
lines marked 0 and 30. The arrows show the direction of
tho prevailing winds; but it must be remembered that,
though tho intertropical wind is assumed to have its course
right from the east, this is only true at the equator, its
direction inclining to north-east as we approach the northern
tropic, and to the south-east as we approach tho southern.
In North America A is the woody region on the west
coast, extending from latitude 35° to about 58°, and of
unknown breadth, B, tho region on the east side of the
Rocky Mountains, partly a bare desert, partly covered with
grass and dotted with trees. C, the forests of the Alleghany
chain, thick on . the east and south, and thin on tho west ;
bounded by a curved line passing from St Luis, in Mexico,
through Lake Huron, to the mouth of the St Lawrence, in
latitude 50° N. The arrow at M points out the direction
of tho wind, which ascends the valley of tho Mississippi,
and nourishes the western part cf these forests ; and the
arrow at R that which blows across the isthmus of Panama.
D is the table-land of Mexico, graduating on the north-
west into the dry plains of Sonora and California, all bare,
or nearly bare, of wood, E is the Llanos or bare plains of
Caraccas, nearly fenced round with mountains. F G ia
the long strip of bare dry sands on the west side of tho
Andes which constitutes Lower Peru and the north part of
Chili ; and N \a Amatapu, its northern boundary. H is
the great region of forests which constitutes the basin of
the Amazon, and occupies all the rest of Brazil Near the
equator the moisture is so excessive, that after 150 or 200
inches of rain have fallen on tho east coast, there is still
sufficient humidity in the atmosphere to afford copious
showers to all the country ud to the Andes, Here, there-
CLIMATE.]
A ]M E R I C A
677
fore, the woods reach from aide to side of the continent.
But as we recede from the equator the humidity diminishes
rapidly ; and though the continent becomes narrower to-
wards the south, the supply of rain falls off in a still
greater proportion, and the forests extend over a much
smaller space. At the foot of the Andes the forests ex-
tend to 16° or 18" of S. latitude: on the east coast to
25° or probably .30°. K L are the Pampas or open lands of
Buenos Ayres, extending on the east side of the Andes from
Cape Horn to the latitudes just mentioned. If we divide
this region into three parts, the most easterly, refreshed
by occasional rains from the Atlantic, is covered with a
strong nutritive herbage; the secotid, which is. drier, dis-
plays a thin coarse wiry grass ; and the third portion, which
extends to the Andes, receiving little or no rain, is nearly
a desert : all the three are destitute of timber, but the sur-
face of the third is dotted with dwarfish shrubs. I is the
southern part of Chili. Here the prevailing winds, which
are from the west, coming loaded with the moisture of the
Pacific Ocean, produce copious rains tc nourish the herbage
and the forests. This applies, however, chiefly to the
country south of the 35th parallel From that to Coquimbo,
in latitude 30°, the wood is scanty. Beyond 50° on the east
coast of North America, and 55° or 58° on the west, very
little wood grows, in consequence of the rigour of the climate.
Moderating Great misapprehensions have arisen with regard to the
tafiueDces. climate of America, from comparisons being drawn between
the east side of the new continent and the west side of the
old. We have already pointed out the influence of winds
blowing from the sea in modifying the state of the atmo-
sphere over the land, both as to heat and humidity. When
this circumstance is attended to, and when the east and west
sides of the old and the new continents are respectively com-
pared with one another, the difference is found to be small,
and easily accounted for. In the torrid zone, and on the
sea-shore, the temperature of both continents is found to be
the same, viz., 82°; but in the interior the difference is
rather in favour of America. There is no counterpart in
the New World to the burning heats felt in the plains of
Arabia and N. Africa. Even in the western and warmest
part of the parched steppes of Caraccas, the hottest known
region in America, the temperature of the air during the
day is only 98° in the shade, which rises to 112° in the
sandy deserts which surround the Bed Sea. At Calabozo,
farther east in the Llanos, the common temperature of the
day is only from 88° to 90°; and at sunrise the thermo-
meter sinks to 80°. The basin of the Amazon is shaded
with lofty woods ; and a cool breeze from the east, a minor
branch of the trade wind, ascends the channel of the stream,
foUomng all its windings, almost to the foot of the Andes.
Hence this region, though under the equator, and visited
with almost constant rains, is neither excessively hot nor
unhealthy. Brazil, and the vast country extending west-
ward from it between the Plata and the Amazon, is an
uneven table-land, blest with an equable climate. At Rio
Janeiro, which stands low, and is exposed to a heat
comparatively great, the temperature in summer varies
from 68° to 82° Fahr., and the mean is only about
74°. Farther north, and in the interior, the Indians find
it necessary to keep fires in their huts; and in the country
near the sources of the Paraguay, hoar-frost is seen on
the hills during the colder mouths, and the mean tem-
perature of the year falls below 65° or 07°. On the de-
clivities of the Andes, and on the high plains of Upper
Pern, the heats are so moderate that the plants of Italy,
Franco, and Germany come to maturity. Lower Peru,
though a sandy desert, enjoys a' wonderful degree of cool-
ness, owing to the fogs which intercept the solar rays.
At Lima, which is 540 feet above the sea, the temperature
varies from 03° to 82°, but the mean for the whole vear is
only 72°. In the plains of La Plata the mean temperature
of the year is very nearly the same as at the corresponding
north latitudes on the east side of the Atlantic. At Buenos
Ayres, for instance, the mean annual heat is 19°'7 of the
centigrade thermometer (68' Fahr.), while that of places on
the same parallel in the Old- World is 19°'8. The range of
temperature is probably greater in the basin of the Plata;
but as we advance southwards, the diminishing breadth of
the continent makes the climate approximate to that of an
island., and the extremes of course approach each other. In
ti;e Strait of Magalhaens the temperature of the warmest
month does not exceed 43° or 46°, and snow falls almost
daily in the middle of winter, though the latitude con'e-
spor.ds with that of England. But the inference drawn from
this, that the cUmate is unmatched for severity, is by no
means just, for the winter at Staten Island is milder than
in London. In point of fact, the climate of Patagonia is
absolutely colder than that of places in the same latitude
in Europe ; but the difference lies chiefly in the very low
temperature of the summer. This peculiarity no doubt
results chiefly from the greater coolness of the sea in the
southern hemisphere; for beyond the parallel of 48", the
difference of temperature in the North and South Atlantic
amounts, according to Humboldt, to 10° or 12° of Fahren-
heit's scale. If we push our researches a step farther, and
inquire what is the cause of the great warmth of the
Northern Sea, we shall be forced to admit that a very
satisfactoiy answer cannot be given. Something may be
due to the influence of the Gulf Streatn, a minute branch
of which is supposed to carry the waters of the toirid zono
to the shores of Shetland and Norway; but such an agent
seems too trifling to account for the phenomenon. The
sum, then, of the peculiar qualities which distinguish the
climate of South America may be briefly stated. Near
the equator the new continent is perhaps more humid than
the old; and within the tropics generally, owing to its vast;
forests, the absence of sandy deserts, and the elevation of
the soU, it is cooler. Beyond the tropics the beat is nearly
the same in the south temperate zone of America and
the northern one of the old continent, till we ascend to the
latitude of Capo Horn, where we have cold summers and
a very limited range of the thermometer.
The mountain ranges of North America form two widely E',5h.'.uid»
distant highland regions, separated from each other by the of N.
vast interior plain, which contains, in its southern slope, •^•■"^.nca.
the Mississippi with all its tributaries, and the other rivers
flowing into the Gulf of Mexico, while its northern part
contains the great fresh-water lakes, and many rivers
taking a northward course to Hudson's Bay or to the
Arctic seas. The watershed of this plain, dividing the
streams that run into the Missouri and Mississippi from
those communicating with the Saskatchewan, with Lake
Winnipeg, and with Lake Superior, is along a line from
west to east nearly coinciding with the 48th parallel of
latitude, and has a mean elevation of 1500 feet.
Along the whole of the western side, from near the
mouth of the Mackenzie in the Arctic Ocean, and from
Alaska on the Pacific shore, to the Isthmus of Nicaragua
and Panama, that is, across 60° of latitude from north ta
south, extends with a grand double curve the continuous
length of the Rocky Mountains, and others which prolong
the line, having a position in North America similar to
that of the Andes in South America, and shutting off, in
some parts, a comparatively narrow portion of the cou-
tincui, with the Pacific shore, from the great central plain.
But several minor ranges, branching off or confronting tha
principal mountain-ridge or backbone of North -America,
enclose largo spaces of a table-land, traversed by the
Coltunbia, the Fraser, and the Colorado rivers, with those
which join li.^u\, ar.d I dJl^^- .lia t.'rcit Salt Lake of
678
AMERICA
[n. ahebica.
Utah in its central basin. Tho Cascade Mountains of
Washington and Oregon, the Sierra Nevada of California,
and the Cojst Range prolonged through tho Califomian
peniusula, have a general direction from north to south;
whUe the Wahsatch, the Humboldt, the Blue Moun-
tains, the Salmon Eiver, and other ranges, stand rather
across tho table-land, or obliquely, from west to east. It
may be convenient to speak of tho former series, regarded
altogether, as the general Pacific Coast Eange, which we
also observe to be continued northward, with some intervals,
beyond latitude 60° N. to the peninsula of Alaska, pre-
Benting summits of increased height, that of Mount St
Ellias' being above 17,000. feet, and Mount Fairweather
nearly 15,000 feet. In the Cascade Range are Mount St
Helens, north of the Columbia . River, attaining an eleva-
tion of 15,750 feet; Mount Hood and ilount Jefferson,
ibont 15,500. feet. The Sierra Nevada, at its northern
sxtremity; where it forms an acute angle with the coast
range, displays the lofty terminal peak of Mount Shasta,
having an altitude of 14,400 feet. The minor, Califomian
Coast Eange nowhere rises to 4000 feet. ■ Tho main Cor-
dillera or spine of Western North "America, which in tho
British Dominion and in the United States' territory is
jailed tho Rocky Mountains, but which takes the name of
the Sierra Madre in Mexico, and in the isthmus, farther
south, is split into two lower groups of a volcanic character,
attains the height of 16,000 feet in Mount Brown, and
15,700 feet in Mount Hooker, both near the 54th degree
of latitude, above the Source of the Saskatchewan river;
but Fremont, in the Wind Rircr group, between Oregon
and Nebraska, is 13,560 feet high, and there are peaks of
10,000 feet or 12,000 feet in Utah and New Mexico.
The highest mountains, however, in North America, ex-
celling even' Mpunf St Elias, belong to a volcanic series
which crosses the table-land of southern Mexico from west
to east, and of which the culminating points are Popo-
catepetl, 17,884 feet, and Orizaba, 17,373 feet; while
Agua, in Guatemala, rises to 13,000 feet. Thus we may
remark, at each extremity of the CordiDera, at its north
end, towards Alaska, and at its south end, in Central
America, it is encountered by a cluster of volcanoes,
Mount St Elias being one of this description, which exceed
the height of the Rocky Mountains. The spaces enclosed
between the main trunk and branches of this immense
system of mountains are several hundred miles wide, and
their surface is elevated 5000 feet or 6000 feet above the
sea-level, as in the Utah lake-basin, the Nevada territory,
and the plateau of Anahuao; or southern Mexico, which
last has an elevation of 6000 feet to 8000 feet, and has
therefore a temperate climate within the tropics.
An outline merely has been given of the western high-
land region of North America. The eastern highlands of
this continent are mainly constituted by the Alleghanies
or Appalachian system of mountains, with theif dependen-
cies, which are of no great height, the Black Mountain, or '
Mount Guyot, in North Carolina, being the highest, at
6476 feet; but they extend nearly 2000 miles, from the
Gulf of St Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, having a gene-
ral direction from north-east to south-west. The strip of
land, one or two hundred miles wide, between these moun-
tains and the Atlantic coast, is of the greatest historical
interest, as it includes the seats of all the older English
settlements on this continent, which seems destined for
the grandest dweUing-place of our nation. North of the
Gulf of St Lawrence, through the peninsula that terminates
with Labrador between the Atlantic and Hudson's Bay,
the Appalachian system of mountains is continued, or
resumed, in a range called the Watchish, only 1500 feet
high, but in the severe climate of that region covej-ed with
perpetual snow. The Alleghanies. soutb of the"St Lav,--
rence, including the Green Mountains of Vermont and the
White Mountains ' of New Hampshire, are not so much a
chain of mountains as a long plateau, crested by several
dilTerent ridges, and intersected by wide valleys of con-
siderable elevation, but altogether on a much smaller scale
than the highlands of Western America. East of the
river Hudson the -mountains arc chiefly granitic, with
rounded summits, often covered vrith turf or moss to the
top; they assume a more regular ' formation in Penn-
sylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina, but again decline
and' break into detached groups in approaching their
southern extremity in Alabama. Next to the summit in
North Carolina, which is named above. Mount Washington
in New Hampshire stands pre-eminent, with an altitude of
M'2S feet The scenery of these " 'White Mountains" is
very striking, especially where the Saco river cleaves ita
way through the barrier of granite by .a cutting two nulea
long, in one place only 22 feet wide, between lofty pre-
cipitous walls. It is in the " Green Mountains," succeed-
ing theee to the west, and giving their name in French to
the neighbouring State, that the prevalent form becomes
that of round humps on a broad base, with firs or shrubs
growing on the slopes, and with scanty grass or lichens on
the summits. Both these two contrasted groups of New
England mountains enter the State of Massachusetts from
the north; tho Hoosac and Taconic extensions of the Green
Mountains rise on the west side, while the 'White Moun-
tains are continued by those of which Mount Holyoke and
Wachusett are the most conspicuous; and between their
parallel ranges is the Connecticut river, with the Housa-
tonic, Mount Tom, and Blue Hills to overlook its lower
course. These features of the country, though of far less
physical importance than the towering peaks of Colorado
and California, will always be associated with the genuine
traditions of English rural, domestic, and social life, trans-
planted to the New World in the 17th century, and
defended by a long struggle against stem nature and
savage men in the early age of the American colonies.
The natural boundary separating New England from the
great and more modem State of New York is that noble
river the Hudson, rising in the Adirondack Mountains,
near Lake Champlain and ^he waters of the St Lawrence,
but pouring its beautiful and useful stream directly south,
to the greatest of American commercial ports ^nd cities.
This river passes close by the Catskill and Shawangunk
Mountains, from which is continued the general distribu-
tion of the eastern American highlands along the Atlantic
states, but with a more westerly declination from the coast,
running through Pennsylvania, West Virginia, the borders
of Tennessee, and North Carolina, the upper parts of
Georgia and Alabama. It is in Virginia that the Alle-
ghanies have their greatest breadth, which is about 150
miles. They rise highest in North Carolina and Tennessee,
and subsequently keep up a distinct line of position, across
the cotton-growing States, between those of the Atlantic
seaboard and those of the Lower Mississippi This cir-
cumstance, it may be remarked, has had most important
effects on the political and military events of late years,
in the results of the attempted secession of the slavehold-
ing States from the Union. Another feature of physical
geography, which probably conditioned the earlier stages
of that momentous civil struggle, in the disputes relating
to the ^lissouri compromise and to the admission of Kansas
as a free-soil State, is the existence of the Ozark range of
mountains. These stand in the middle of the great Mis-
sissippi valley, stretching across from northern Texas to
Arkansas and the confluence of the Missouri with the
Mississippi By the elevation they give to the soil, in
latitudes between 30° and 40°, as well as by the raised
table-land of Npw Mexico and Arizona farther west, the
OEOLOGY.J
A M 55 H I C A
679
area of United States' territory suitable for cotton planta-
tions and for slave labour was so far limited, and confined
to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic sea-
board. At the same time, in the latitudes north of these,
between 40° and 50°, the whole vast pi-aiiie region from
the Ohio to the Eocky Mountains was adapted to the
growth of corn, while it had such continuity and unifor-
mity of surface, and was so pervaded by the grand river-
system of this middle plain of North America, that it
could not well undergo political division. The entire
West being thus secured to the Union, and the better
part of the South being thus rescued from the curse of
Negro slavery, by the moulding hand of nature in planning
the distribution of mountain ranges and the level ground
all over this continent, we may consider that the political
and social destinies of the great English Republic, vindi-
cated in the civil war from 1861 to 1865. were predeter-
mined in the formation of the land.
"Geology. The North American continent afiforas an mteresting
study of the geological changes and adjustments, by which
the mighty work of preparation ior what promises to be a
noble development of humanity was slowly effected in
the remote epochs of the past. The oldest sedimentary
rocks anywhere found on the globe are those which under-
lie the whole of Canada, New Brunsvv-ick, and Newfound-
land, the Labrador peninsula, and the country north of
Lake Superior, perhaps also the less explored regions of
the far north-west towards the Arctic Sea. This series,
named the Laurentian, from the St Lawrence river, is per-
ceived to exist in Europe only in a few scattered instances,
in the Hebrides, and in Norway or Sweden. In North
America it occupies the most extensive areas; the thick-
ness of its beds is estimated by Sir William Logan at
30,000 feet; it rises to hills or mountains 4000 feet high,
and in the deep gorge of the Saguenay river, forms per-
pendicular cliffs of 1500 feet. Only one fossU animal,
which has been called the Eozoon Canadense, has been dis-
covered to have left its trace in this most ancient bottom
of the primeval ocean ; it was one of the Foraminifera,
which covered its gelatinous body with a thin crust of
carbonate of lime, having numerous holes or pores for the
emission of its filament-members, with which to feel and
to feed outside. Next to the Laurentian, but with a vast
unknown interval of time, comes the Huronian or Lower
Cambrian series. It is suggested by geologists that, as
the vast level bed of the Laurentian sea was cracked by
internal changes of the earth's density, these cracks threw
up certain ridges along the surface of the present con-
tinent, which laid a foundation for the principal mountain
ranges we have described. At the borders and extremities
of these mountain ranges, it is evident that there were
intense volcanic eruptions, producing great quantities of
lava and coni;lomerate, basalt, greenstone, and other
formations resulting from igneous action. The northern
shores of Lakes Huron and Siijierior exhibit results of this
Icind; but it is in the table-lands between the Kocky
Mountains and the west coast ranges, as in tha singular
lava beds near the Klamath, on the frontier of Oregon
and North California, that volcanic forces have made their
strongest marks on the earth. On the eastern side also of
the grand Cordillera, between the sources of the Missouri
and of the Yellowstone rivers, is a wonderful region of
boiling springs or geysers, of sulphur beds and other
natural curiosities, which have recently been described by
Dr Hayden, of the United States' Government Survey.
To speak more generally of the local arrangement of dif-
ferent geological formations, it may bo remarked that
crystalline rocks are spread over the western parts of North
America, from j^laska to Nicaragua, and over the most
northern parts, also includii^ *^~^enland; but eome of
later date are found in the eastern or Appalachian range,
consisting of felspathic gneiss and quartz rocks, mingled
with talcose and chloritic schists. The Palseozoic forma-
tions opcupy that middle part of the continent which lies
between the Rocky Mountains and the great lakes, as well
as the shores of Hudson's Bay, and some portions of the
Atlantic coasts. With reference to the Lower Silurian or
SOuro-Cambrian period, it is abundantly illustrated by the
Trenton and associated limestones, which can be traced
over 40° of longitude, their beds consisting entirely of
debris of coral, shells, and crinoids, from the shallow
inland sea, teeming with animal life, that once filled the
whole level space between the ADeghanies and the Rocky
Mountains, separated by these ridges from the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans, and sheltered from the cold Arctic
currents by the northern Laurentian highlands. This
space, which is now the central plain of North America,
comprising the prairies and the ^Mississippi valley, was then
a coral sea with archipelagos of volcanic isles, resembling
that of Australasia in the South Pacific. The nest forma-
tion succeeding the Silurian presents immense deposits of
sandstone and shale from the muddy waters troubled by
subterranean motions ; this is the Devonian formation,
which in America has been called the Erian, on account of
the great development of such beds south of Lake Erie.
The deposits of this period in the western continent are
stated to be 15,000 feet in thickness. They include the
cliff limestones, studded with calcareous corals of great
size and beauty of shape, noticed by Sir Charles LyeU at;
the falls of the Oliio, near Louisville; these limestones are
estimated to extejid, as an ancient coral reef, over 500,000
square miles of the American middle plain. In the State
of New York and in Western Canada there is the corpi-
ferous limestone, in which the imbedded corals have been
replaced, in the cavities they once filled, by flinty horn-
stones which present the perfect coral forms, as though
cast in a mould. In the Carboniferous age the great
internal sea of the continent was slowly changed into
swampy fiats and shallow lakes or creeks, and gradually
fiUed with a rank vegetable growth, afterwards buried
under later marine deposits and pressed into the existing
coal-beds. Of this period there are very extensive de-
velopments throughout the eastern half of the great middle
plain to the Alleghanies. This portion of America seems
to have been land, covered with the forests of that period,
while the western half of the middle plain, a northward
extension of the Gulf of Jlexico, was stiU under water.
As the eastern half of North America, between the Mis-
sissippi and the Atlantic, was thus in the Carboniferous
era well raised out of the sea, it exhibits no traces of the
succeeding Permian age, such as we find in Europe. The
earliest periods also of Mesozoic time have failed to leave
any record here, but their formations appear towards the
western range of mountains in what was the bed of a
Mediterranean Sea. It is, however, the Cretaceous system,
with its characteristic greensand, its sands, clays, marls,
and soft grey limestones, that occupies most space in
AVestern America, between the meridians of 97° and 112°.
These strata, overlaid sometimes by those of the Tertiary
periods, extend through the country up tho Missouri, the
Platte, the Arkansas, and the Red River, to the Rocky
Mountains; they also form parts of the plains enclosed by
different mountain ranges beyond the Cordillera. Along
the eastern side of the Appalachians there is a broad belt
of the Cretaceous formation, stretching from the Delaware
across the upper parts of Virginia, Carolina, Georgia, and
Alabama. Among the fossil animal remains discovered in
this formation in North America, which are enumerated in
a separate list, one of the most remarkable is that of tb
Mosasaurus, a combination of the serpent with the lizai
680
AMERICA
[n. amebica.
form, sometimes 80 feet in length, and of aquatic habits.
The Tertiary deposits, including the boulder clay, prevail
chiefly along the seaward districts, from Long Island,
above Now York, to the peninsula of Florida, and around
the shores of the Mexican Gulf, and Ukewiso on the Pacific
shore from Lower California to Vancouver Island, also in
some detached instances, as in Nebraska, in the midst of
the interior plain. The newer Pliocene is met with in uio
southern part of Maine, and on the shores of Lake Chr;;n-
plain. The drift formation lies mostly north of 40° lati-
tude. AUuvial deposits are of groat amount from the
large rivers and lakes, especially in the delta of the Missis-
sippi, which has an area of 13,000 square miles, and must,
by Sir Charles Lyell's reckoning, have taken 67,000 years
for its composition, at the rate of the bringing do^vn of solid
matter by that mighty river.
Minerals. The mineral products of North America are of unequalled
richness and variety. Gold is abundant, to a proverb, in
California, and likewise in Nevada and Montana. It is
rJso found in British Columbia, Mexico, Central America,
and Canada, and sparingly in Virginia and South Caro-
lina. Silver is obtained from Mexico in larger quantities
than from any other countrj'; it is supplied also by Cali-
fornia and by Honduras, and a vein of this metal is worked
in Newfoundland. Great masses of almost pure copper
are found in the Huronian rock strata, the north and east
shores of Lake Superior being tlio richest of copper-mining
regions; while Ne\Y York State and Indiana possess a
share of the same metal, and it is found among the wes-
tern mountains in different countries from British Columbia
to the isthmus. The iron ores of Pennsylvania, and those
of Canada, including New Brunswick, are of the greatest
importance; the former are rendered more avaOable by
their occurring close to the beds of bituminous coal, giving
D'at^ials for the manufacturing industry of Pittsburg;
whileVauthracito coal is obtained from the eastern districts
of Pennsylvania. It is estimated that one-third of the
total area of this State is occupied by coal-fields, which
cm scarcely be exhausted. Lead is found in Wisconsin,
Illinois, and Missouri, in New York State, in Canada, in
C ilif ornia, and in Central America, as well as quicksilver ;
^^ hate zinc is got from Arkansas and New Jersey ; both
Canada and Mexico produce tin. Reverting to the subject
of coal, as having an intimate economic connection with all
metallic wealth, it should be observed that the united area
of all the coal-fields in the United States is estimated at
1 90,000 square miles, exceeding twentyf old those of Europe.
The chief of these coal-fields are, first, the Appalachian,
extending from the Susquehanna, in Pennsylvania, to the
Tuscaloosa, in Alabama, along the west side of the Alle-
ghany Mountains ; the area of this coal-field is 70,000
square miles, and its greatest thickness 2500 feet ; secondly,
the coal-field of Michigan, about the centre of that State;
thirdly, the extensive coal-field between the Ohio and the
Mississippi, across the States of Indiana and Illinois ;
lastly, the Iowa and Missouri coal-field, which occupies a
large space in the very centre of the continent. Coal is
found also in Nova Scotia, in British Columbia, and Van-
couver Island, and wherever the Upper Pateozoic strata
prevail in the geological structure. But in the vast extent
of British American territory north-west of Lake Superior,
around Lake Winnipeg and up the Saskatchewan river,
oven as far as the Peace river, in latitude 56° N., it may
be expected that manufacturing as well as agricultural
prosperity wiil result from the use of immense stores of
natural wealth existing in the soil of that long-neglected
land, which is now proved to have a climate not more
severe than the inhabited provinces of Canada. The iron
and copper, more especially of the Canadian Dominion,
will euiplov and enrich, in all probability, at some iutura
penod, a nation that may become greater in material
resources than the most powerful kingdoms of Euro]>e.
In view of these prospecta from the working of the 'iseful
metals, by the aid of that mosi tiscful product of the
earth which supplies heat and mechanical force to the
service of human industry, we ;nay regard the Califomian
gold-fields as a matter of secondary importance. They
have indeed been 6urpas;>ed by the productiveness of those
in Australia and New Zealand.
Nine-tenths of North America lying under the tempe-
rate zone, the climate foUows a different law from what is
observed in the southern peninsula, and presents more strik-
ing conti-asts with that of the best known parts of the Old
World. The long narrow region now denominated Central Central
America, which connects the two great divisions of the con- iml North
tinent, stretching from Panama to Tehuantepcc, has in i"'*')"'
general a. very humid atmosphere; but, for a tropical coun- ' '""' ''
try, it must be only moderately hot, as every part of it is
within a small distance of the sea.. At Vera Paz the raina
fall during nine months of the year. Mexico is hot, moist,
and uuhealthy on the low coasts; but' two-thirds of its area,
comprising all the populous districts, consist of table-land,
from 5000 to 9000 feet in height. In consequence of this
singular configuration of its surface, Mexico, though chiefly
within the torrid zone, enjoys a temperate and equable cli-
mate. The mean heat at the capital, which is 7400 feet
above the eca, is 621°, and the difference between the
warmest and coldest months, which exceeds 30° at London,
is hero only about 12°; but the atmosphere is deficient in
moisture, and the country suffers from drought. Beyond
the parallel of 24° N. the western shores are hot and arid.
In the extensive region Ijing between the parallels of
30° and 50° N., which comprehends three-fourths of the
useful soil of North America, we have three well-marked
varieties of climate, that of the east coast, the west coast,
and the ba.^in of the Mississippi On the east coast, from
Georgia to Lower Canada, the mean temperature of the
year is lower than in Europe by 9° at the latitude of 40°,
and by 12J° at the Latitude of 50°, according to Humboldt's
calculation. In the next place, the range of the thermo-
meter is much greater than in Europe, the summer being
much hotter and the winter much colder. At Quebec the
temperature of the warmest month exceeds that of the
coldest by no less than 60 J° of Fahr.; while at Paris, which
is nearly under the same latitude, the difference is only 31*.
In the third place, the climate undergoes a more rapid
change in America as we proceed from south to north, i
degree of latitude in the middle of the temperate zone pro-
ducing a decrease of annual temperature of 1°'13 Fahr.
in Europe, and of 1°'57 Fahr. in America. The comparison
is greatly to the disadvantage of America when made in
this form; but when the east coasts of the two continents
are compared, the case is altered ; the Old World is ioum
to have no superiority over the New, for Pekin has still
colder winters and warmer summers than Philadelphia,
which is under the same latitude. It is the west coast of
the ne'Wk continent which ought to exhibit the climate cf
Europe ; and from the observations made, we have reason to
believe that it is quite as mild and equable. At the moutli
of Columbia river, in latitude 46J° N., it appears that
the mean heat of the warmest month was about 62° Fahr., of
the coldest about 36°, and of the whole year 51°. Nov?
the place is under the sanje latitude with Quebec, where the
snow lies five months, and the mean temperature during
the three winter months is 18° below the freezing point.
This single circumstance marks emphatically the contrast
in the climate of the east and west coasts of North Amerios,
But the mouth of Columbia river is also under the same
parallel with Nantes at the mouth of the Loire ; and wo
have, therefore, good grounds to conclude that the Wust
OHM.'.
■:]
A I'l E R I C A
681
coast of America, in the miJdle latitudes, L:3 nc :!y as mild
end equable a climate as the west coast of Europe. The
, climate of the great central valley, or basin of the Mississippi,
has a' considerable affinity to that of the east coast. It v.-as
long a matter of dispute in what the difference between the
two consists, but this seems at last to have been clearly
settled by the meteorological registers kept at the military
posts of the United States. From a comparison of four of
these registers, from posts near the centre of this great val-
ley, Tfith others kept on the Atlantic coast in the same
latitudes, it appears that the extremes of heat and cold
in the basin of the Mississippi are from 5° to 5° higher
and lower than on the coasts of New England. The pro-
portion of fair weather to cloudy is as 5 to 1 in favour
of the east coast. The climate of the interior, therefore,
exhibits in stUl greater excess those extremes of tem-
perature which distinguifh the eastern coast of this con-
tinent from the western, and from the shores of Europe.
The fourth region of extra-tropical America includes
the parts beyond Mount St Elias on the west coast,
and, in the interior, the plains extending from the 50th
parallel to the Polar Seas. The intensity of the cold
in this tract of country is scarcely equalled by anything
that is known under the same parallels in Northern Asia.
The northernmost spot in America where grain is raised is
at Lord Selkirk's colony, on Bed River, in latitude 50°.
WTieat, and also maize, which requires a high summer
heat, are cultivated here. Barley would certainly grow
as far north as Fort Chippewyan, in latitude 58J°, where
the heat of th% four summer months was found by Captain
Franklin to be 4° higher than at Edinburgh. There is
even reason to believe, that both this species of grain and
potatoes tnight thrive as far north as Slave Lake, since the
spruce fir attains the height of 50 feet three degrees farther
north, at Fort Franklin, in latitude 65". These, however,
are low and sheltered spots; but in this dreary waste
generally, it will not be found practicable, we suspect, to
carry the arts of civilised life beyond the 60th parallel;
and the desirable country, capable of supporting a large
population, and meriting the . name of temperate, can
scarcely be said to extend beyond the 52d paraD&l. At
65° the snow covers the .ground in winter to the depth of
only two feet, but small lakes continue frozen for eight
months. The sea is open only for a few weeks, fogs darken
the surface, and the thermometer in February descended in
one instance to minus 58°, or 90° below the freezing point.
At Melville Island, under the 75th parallel, such is the
frightful rigour of the climate, that the temperature of the
year falls 1° or 2° below the zero of Fahrenheit's scale. It
is a peculiarity in the climate of America, that beyond the
parallel of 50° or 52°, it seems to become suddenly severe
at both extremities. At the one, summer disappears from
the circle of the seasons; at the other, winter is armed
with double terrors.
Zoology : The zoology of America is especially interesting, on
Mammal.-, account of the contrast which exists between the faunas of
the north and south portions of the continent — a contrast
which is especially exhibited in the case of the Mammalia.
The zoological province which naturaUsts mark off as con-
stituted by South America and part of Central America
has been termed the neotropical region, and the area
which has the nearest relationship to this Ls the Indian
region. As regards South America, the Andes have
the highest value as zoological boundaries; next to them
in importance are the rivers, and then the confines cf
-{uaclrc- the forest region. The Quadrumana are well represented,
mana. and are especially characteristic of the forest region
which principally prevails in the western half of the con-
tinent. None are known to occur on the west side of the
Andes bouth of Ouayaqiul The sub-order Platyrhina is
1—23*
I culiar to South America, and so far aa research has yet
citen.'-d, it is not knov,-n even to have existed on at/
other area. On the other hand, no catarhiue or lemurit 3
Quadrumana have yet been found in South America. Somj
of the lower forms of monkey appear to have some affinit,'
with the Lemurid;e, which occur in India, Africa, and
Madagascar. There are two families, viz., the Cebidje and
HapaHdae, all the members of which are strictly arboreal
in habits. Some of these monkeys are the most laghly
developed tree-climbers known, and in many cases they rare}/
if ever descend to the ground ; and since the monkeys of
South America have never been seen to swim, it might be
expected that the broad streams of the continent effectually
limit the distribution of certain monkeys. The large.,!;
species is Lagothrix Humboldtii, so that as a whole tha
American monkeys are smaller than those of Asia and Africa.
As they are the most powerful of arboreal Mammalia,
they rule the forests, and this may in part account for the
scarcity of squirrels in this region. The Cobidaj have a wide
range, extending from the south of Mexico to the Uruguay.
They include the highest forms of American monkey, and
its most specialised representatives are those which have the
best adaptation for hfe in trees, as may bo exemplified by
Ateles, with its long limbs and prehensile tail. This latter
organ serves all the purposes of a fifth hand; the undei"
surface is bare and provided with tactile papiUae, so that a
monkey not only holds by, but also feels with it. It is aa
mobile and flexible, and in its way as useful to this genus
of monkey as is the trunk to the elephant. The genus
includes numerous species, the estimate of diiferent natural-
ists varying from 8 to 40, but about 10 species have been
well established. Most of them occur in Brazil and the
Guianas ; but each species generally has circumscribed
limits. Thus A. paniscus occurs in the north-east corner
of the continent, between the Bio Negro and the Amazon.
On the south side of the Amazon its place is taken by
another species, A. marginatds. A. Barihltii occurs on
the Upper Amazon. Brachyteles is represented by a single
species in South-East Brazil. Several species of Lagothris
have been described, although perhaps all are but varie-
ties of but one species. L. Uumholdlu is confined to
the Upper Amazon, west of the Bio Negro, and in some of
the contiguous valleys of the Orinoco h^sin. Mycetes has
sis species, ranging from Guatemala to South EraziL M.
soiicuivs occurs on the north side of ihe Lower Amazon ;
M. caraya on the Upper An- azon ; and M. heUehuth is the
species vchich occurs near Para, and south cf the Lower
Amazon. AU the above genera have prehensile tails, with
bare under surfaces. Nyctipithecus.withthreeorfourspecies,
occurs in the upper portions of the Bio Negro, Amazon,
and Orinoco basins. Callithrix ranges over the same
ground, but also extends into South-East BrazU. Cnryspthrix
occurs throughout the northern part of the region. The
genus Pithecia (including Brachyurus) is represented by
about 12 species in the Amazon basin. P. irrorata is
confined to the south bank of the Upper Amazon ; another
species only occurs on the north side to the west of the Eio
Negro. F. satanas is the species east of the Kio Negro, and
there is a species limited to the South side of the Upper
Amazon. The family Hapalidoe, or marmosets, has about
30 species, belonging to the genera Hapale and Midas,
which range throughout the forests of South America.
One species, II. (sdipus, occurs in Costa Bica, but this is the
northcrnmo?t limit of the family. It seems that the
distribution of the monkeys is restricted to the areas clad'
with continuous forests, so that the absence of monkeys in
the Pampean, Andisian, and Peruvian sub-regions is mainly
due to the absence of continuous forest?. It is also uptice-
ablo that the sub-orders, families, and genera extend over the
greater portion of the Brazilian sub-region ; whereas ia
682
A M E li 1 U A
[zoology.
many instances this sub-region is parcelled out into districts
by the larger streams, which are characterised by distinct
species, lienco it is probable that the continuousness of
t^o forest area has lasted throughout the duration of those
species, but not so long as the genera have existed ; and
that those species which occur on both sides of the Amazon,
Kio Negro, and other largo rivers, originated i^t an earlier
period than those restricted to ono side. The want of
means of communication with North America would account
for the absence of monkeys in that region. Our space
•will not allow of our dwelling so fully on the other orders,
but wo may notice that the arboreal habit is strongly
marked in many, and that the strictly arboreal groups are
frequently represented in river-bounded areas by distinct
species. It often happens that genera, both of vertebrates
and invertebrates, wliich are elsewhere terrestrial, are
represented in the Amazonian forests by arboreal species.
Carnlvora. The Carni vora do not present so marked a feature as regards
distribution as the monkeys. The families Felidaj, Canida;,
Mustolid.'o, and Ursidas are represented ; but the UyKnidas
and Vivcrrida) are absent, unless Bassaris of Mexico be
referred to the latter family. The Felidaj comprise two
groups, one formed of species which are uniformly coloured,
the other of those which are striped or spotted. Felts onca,
the jaguar, is the largest feline animal of this region,
and ranges from La Plata to Louisiana, and on both sides of
the Peruvian Andes. The puma or F. concolor is known
everywhere from Patagonia to as far as 50° or 60° N., a
range from north to south of about 110°, which is probably
greater than that of any other mammal. F. payeros occurs
on all the pampas of the southern portion of South America.
F. milts and F. macrura belong to South-East Brazil ; F.
tigrina and celidogasUr to the Amazon basin ; while F.
partialis, F. eyra, and F. yagouaroundi range from Brazil
to Texas. The Canidae family is represented by the genera
Icticyon and Canis. The former comprises but ono species,
■which is confined to Brazil, viz., /. venaticus, which b an
aberrant form between dogs and badgers. The dogs com-
prise C. juhatns, C. cancrimrv^, C. vctulus, C. fulm'^audus,
C. a:arw, C. magellanicus, and one or two other opecies.
The MustelidsB are not abundant, there being only a few
species of each of the sub-families MusUlince, Lvtrince, and
MdiiuE ; and among others Mustela frenala ; two species of
Galictis, a genus only found in this region/ I/ulra chilensis
and brcuilicnsis ; and several species of Mephitis belonging
to the sub-genus Thiosmus. Of Ursidje there occur Urates
omalus in Peru, and perhaps Ursus frugilegus ; Procyon
cancrivorus, Jfasua, and Ccrcoleptes. The last- two genera
are characteristic of South America. In this order the
species, with the exception of a few \fhich range into North
America, are restricted to this area ; but only four of the
eleven genera are peculiar, the others ranging not only into
North America, but also into the Old World. The latter
genera do not form a prominent feature in the fauna, and
the species have probably migrated from North America in
comparatively recent times from a geological point of view.
In the order Artiodactyla the sub-order Euminantia is
represented by a few species only of Cej-vas, belonging to
the neotropical sub-genera Furcif er, Coassus, and Blastocerus,
and even these only occur sparingly in the open tracts.
There is nothing to represent the enomious herds of
Antelopes and Bovidas, which are so characteristic of North
America and portions of the Old World. Auchenia, how-
ever, is a characteristic genus frequenting the Andes, and
is interesting on account of its being the only genus of
Ruminants which is confined to South America. It is
isolated and far distant from the other members of the
family Camelidte, which are now special to Asia ; but, as
we shall presently find, the gap in distribution and structure
k tupplied by the extinct species of North America. The
characteristic genus Dicotyles is the sole representative in
South America of the sub-order Omni vora and of the family
Suidic, a family which is restricted (naturally) to the
Neotropical, ./Ethiopian, and Indian regions. Another
remarkable genus is Tapirus, which represents in this region
the elephants and rhinoceroses of the Old World. Until
recently, the tapirs of Sumatra and the Malay Archipelago
were considered to belong to the same genus, but Dr Gray
has proposed th.at the hitter be ranked in a distinct genus,
Rhinochocrus. There are several species of South American
tapirs, viz., T. americanvs, T. villoeus, T. Laurillardii, T.
Jioulinii, and perhaps ono or two others not determined.
An allied form exists in the isthmus of Panama, namely
Elasmognathus Bairdii, which is considered as the tyjio of
a distinct sub-family. There are no true Proboscideans in
this region. The order Sirenia is represented by the genua
Manatus, of which three or four species occur in the Amazon
and other large rivers. This genus is remarkable for its
distribution, since species belonging to it frequent the fresh-
water streams of the opposite coast of Africa. Several
species of dolphins and porpoises occur in the larger rivers ;
some of them range up almost to their sources, and are
strictly river species, being unknown in the adjoining seas.
The presence of these cetaceans, together with the distar.ce
of the shores (several miles) and the high waves, impart to
some portions of these rivers a more or less oceanic aspect.
The order Bruta is abundantly represented in this region, of
the fauna of which it constitutes the most marked peculiarity.
Marsupialism is not a prominent feature in this region, but
its presence is important, because it now occurs nowhere else
out of t "Tl ustralian region. It should be observed that the
conneotioii is stronger with the extinct marsupial fauna of
Paliearctio regions than with the living one of Australia.
The fo!!sil and living mammalia of this region seem to
indicate that at present our knowledge of the extinct faunas
is very fragmentary. This is shown in various ways.
None of the remains can be definitely assigned to an older
period than the Post-Pliocene. The region v/as essentially
the same as at present, zoologically, the same characteristio
groups of platyrhine apes, rodents, cats, dogs, edentates, and
opossums being represented ; while the catarhine apes,
insectivora, oxen, rhinoceroses, and other groups were ex-
cluded, or at any rate are not known to have existed in it,
so that its isolation from the other zoological regions must
have commenced before the Post-Pliocene period. The extra-
ordinary development of large forms allied to the sloths and
ant-caters ; the restriction of the Toxodontia amongst the
Post-Pliocene mammals, and of the subungulated Rodents
among the living mammals to this region, — these and other
facts would load the pateontologist to believe that the area
must have been inhabited by mammals during the periods
which preceded the Post-Pliocene, as far back, perhaps, as
the Miocene or Eocene. The Toxodontia include the forms
of Pachyderms most nearly allied to the Rodents, while the
subungulated Rodents are those of the order which approach
nearest to the Pachyderms. As both these groups occur
hsre, and here only, we may reasonably expect to find
genera partaking of the general features of both orders in
beds of an earlier geological age in South America. The
principal genera and species found fossil in this region are
the following. In the Argentine Confederation we have—
MacraQ«2iciua patachonica.
Ulyplodon SDinicaudus.
claripea.
tubcrculatos.
pumilio.
clavi Cauda tua.
clttvatus.
asper.
elongaras.
Uachairodus neogsux.
Fclis longifrons.
Canis protalopei.
arus.
Mephitis primieva.
Ursoa bonffirensis.
Myopotamos bona^rensia.
antiquus.
Ctenomys bonaercnsis.
Lagostomiis augustidt-nfi.
C'avia brcvipUcata.
ZOOLOGY.!
MpMtherinm ameriicanum-
MjIoJoa giganteus.
gracilis.
robuatus,
darwinii.
Scelldotherium leptocephalum.
AMERICA
(i83
Megalonyr meridionals.
jeffersoni,
Equus corvideiLs.
devilleL
Yosodou bormeiateri,
owenii.
Mastodon hmnboldtii.
Some of these also occur in Brazil, where species have
also been found belonging to the genera Callithrix, Cebus,
Protopithecus, Chlamydotherium, Coelogenys, Colodon,
Dasypus, Uquus neogceus^ Equus principalis^ Euryidon,
Heterodon, Hcplophorua, Myrmecophaga, Nesodon, Pachy-
therium, and Xenurus. Remains of many of these genera
have also been found on the banks of the Rio Negro in
Uruguay, and those of some, such as Mastodon, Equus,
Auchenia, &c., in Ecuador. As space forbids our dwelling
upon the points of interest which these fossil forms present,
we pass on to the lists of the extinct faunas of North
America.
The oldest species yet found in North Amenca belongs
to Dromatherium, and was found in the Triassic beds of
Virginia. Then nothing is known until we come to the
Tertiary deposits which were formed in lakes along the base
and in the midst of the Rocky Mountains and neighboiiring
ranges, and in the marine beds which lie nearer the pre-
sent sea margin. The following lists are given by Dr
Leidy,^ who considers the oldest beds in Nebraska, which
rest on the Cretaceous series, as of Miocene age. They
contain Titahotherium prouti, Lophiodons, and several ether
forms which would induce us to regard them as Eocene.
However, we follow his lists. The Miocene species are —
Camivora,
Can idee.
Ainphicyon vetus.
gracilis,
fly.'euoiiontidae.
Hyicnodon horridus.
cruentus,
crucians.
Felida.
Drcpanodon (Machairodus)
priraaevus.
(Machairodus)
occidentalis.
Diaictls felina,
CnmiDantia,
Oreodontidce.
OreodoQ culbertaoni.
gracilis,
major,
affinis.
hybrid as.
bullatus.
Merj'coclicenis propriua
Leptiiichenia major,
decora,
citida.
AsriochoeriJce.
A^iio cheer us jintiquus.
major.
latiii-0113.
Cimclidse.
Poebrotbcriura wilsoni
Protoraeryx hallL
Moachidx
Leptoraer\'s evansi.
Artiodactyla.
Suidre,
Elotherium mortoni.
Since this list was publisncd numerous genera and species
have been discovered in Wyoming and other districts in the
far west from what appear to be the older or Eocene group
of beds. Amongst these the most remarkable is the large
Dinaceras mirabilis^an animal which had three pairs of
horns, and which was intermediate in character between
the Proboscideans and the Pcrissodactylcs. There are also
^ J.i^rn Acad. Nat. Set. rhUadelphiti, vol vii 1369.
Vrtiodactyia.
Suidse.
Elothenum ingens
superbum.
leidyanum.
Perchcerus probus.
Leptochcerus spectabilis.
Nanohyus percinos
Anthracotheridx.
Hyopotamus amencanua.
Anoplotheridce,
Titanotherium ■^routi,
Peri39odactyla.
""hinocerotidna,
Rhiboceros,
Hyrocodon.
Taijirid.Te.
Lophiodon.
'^olidanOTla,
Vnchitheriid^,
Anchitherium.
Anchippus.
Hypohippus.
Parabippus.
Anchippodua
Uodentia
Leporidfe.
Pal:eolagus haydenL
Castoridie.
Palceocastor nebntscensis.
Muridse.
Eumys elcgana.
Insectivora.
Erinacidae.
Leptictis haydenL
Ictops dakotensis.
Omomys carteri.
several generalised forms in the foregoing lists, which present
a fauna with numerous remarkable features, which we can
only briefly allude to. It is quite distinct in character
from the present South American fauna, and yet, like it, it
Las a strong Asiatic facies ; at the same time it resembles
in many points the older Tertiary fauna of Europe. The
occurrence of rhinoceroses, camels, and musk-deer, is notied?
able ; but its great feature is the abundance of oreodouts
(which family is not known elsewhere) and of equine forms.
The Pliocene fauna consists of the following genera and
species :-
Camivora.
Canidae.
Cams Baevns. ^
temerarius.
vafer.
haydeni.
Fclidje.
Pseudseloms intrepiduii,
^lurodon ferox.
Ursidae,
Leptarctua pnmus.
Raminantia.
OreodontidBe.
ilerychyus degans.
medius.
major.
Camel idae.
Procamelua rooustua.
occidentalis.
gracilis.
Homocamclus caninus.
Megalomeryx niobrarensis.
Merycodus necatus.
Cervidae,
Cervus warrenL
Kuminaiitia,
Antilppidce.
Cosoryx furcatus.
Artiodactyla.
Suidce.
Dicotyles,
^erissodactyla.
Ehinocerotida)
Rhinoceros.
Proboscidese.
Mastodon,
Elepbas,
Solidvmgula.
Equidae.
Hippanon.
Protohippus.
Mcrychippus.
Equus.
Rodentia.
Castoridse,
Castor.
Hystricidse,
Hystrix.
The Post-Pliocene forms are^
Camivora.
Canidae.
Canis.
Felidae.
Felis.
''rsidae.
Procyon lotor.
priscus.
Ursus americanus
amplidens.
Arctodon pristinus,
Mustelidas.
Galera macrodon.
R uminantia.
Camelidre.
Camelops kansanus.
Cerridfe.
Cervus virginianus.
canadensu"
tarandos.
americanus.
Capri das.
Ovia mammillaris.
Ovibos moschatus,
bombifruus.
pavilions.
Dovidae.
Bison amencanus.
latifrons.
antiquus
priscus.
Artiodactyla.
Suidae.
Peris sodacty la,
Proboscideae,
Mastodon,
Elepbas.
Solidungul*"
Equidae.
Hippanon venubtum.
Equus major.
frateraua.
pacific us.
conversidep^
tau. *
^ossilis.
Rodentia.
Leporida;.
Lepus svlvatlca-
Sciurid^e.
Arctomys monax,
Sciurus.
Castorida?.
Castor canadensis.
Castoroidea ohioensia.
laridce.
Hydrochcerus aaopi
Cbiuchillidae.
Amblyrhiza inimdato
Muridre.
Ncotoma magister,
Mars u pi alia.
Didelphys virginiana.
Edentata.
Megatherium rairabila.
Megalonyx jefiersoni,
dissimilis.
Talidus.
Megaiocinus rodens.
Ereptodon prisons.
Mylodon harlani.
Dicotylea nasutus.
Platygonos comnressus.
Perissodactyla,
Tapiridae.
Tapirus americanus.
haysii.
Here it is observable that, while this fauna nas a general
resemblance to that of the preceding period, most of the
genera are distinct. Several existing genera make their
appearance, as also a number of forms which appear to have
migrated from South America, and after a temporary eatab-'
684
AMERICA
[ZOOLOQY.
lishmcnt to havo disappeared. One remarkable feature
13 the abundance of horses, which is such that N9rth
America may bo regarded as the land of horsoa during the
Pliocene and Post-Pliocdno period.
N, Amo- The existing mammals of North America must now be
ric.-. considered. Wo can only refer to a few of the more con-
Uammal . gpjgygyg Bpecies hero. South America has numorons
families peculiar to itself, but North America has none
which are not also represented in South America. There
are numerous representatives of the Canidai or dog family,
such as the prairie, Mexican, and mancd wolves, and
several fo.xes, of which the ^Vrctic, common American, cross,
and silver foxes are of high commercial value on account
of their furs. Amongst the cats are three or four species
of lynx, which afford valuable furs. The beaver, though
abundant in some places, is, like the bison, fast diminish-
ing before the encroaching steps of the colonists. The
grizzly, the black, and the polar bears are common in the
more mountainous and colder regions of the continent, and
are much hunted by the fur traders. Racoons and Vir-
ginian opossums are prevalent in the south portion of the
United States. The ilocky Mountain goat reigns supremo
amidst the rocks in inaccessible fastnesses of the Rocky
Mountain range; while the rein-deer, the elk, and the
wapiti give a character to the mammalian fauna of the more
level districts. I'Xirther details respecting the mammals of
North America will be found under the names of the
separate countries; and those who wish for still fuller
information may consult the works of Lord, Small, Miiller,
Harlan, and Allen on the mammals of various regions. The
Quadrupeds of Norih America by .Audubon and Eachman,
the articles by Gilpin in the publications of the Institute
of Natural Science at Halifax, Adams' Field and Forest
Jiamblea, The North-West Passage by Viscount Milton and
Dr Cheadle, Morgan's work on the Beaver, and the nume-
rous reports issued by exploration expeditions.
Birds. The birds of America are very numerous in almost every
great family. The researches of Wilson, Charles Lucien
Bonaparte, Audubon, Richardson, Dekay, Blakiston, Cassin,
Gundlach, Lord LawTence, Sclater, Salviii, and Baird, have
l>eautifuUy illustrated the ornithology of North America ;
while those of Azara, Humboldt, Swaiiison, Waterton,
Edmonstone, Darwin, Landbeck, Philippi, Ca.ssin, itc, have
thrown great light on that of South America. The North
American species of birds already described amount to
nearly 700 ; the species of South America are over 2300 ;
BO that we may fairly estimate the ornithology of America
to include upwards of 3000 species. The fossil remains
deserve particular notice. It is very probable that the
footprints on the older secondary rocks of North America
wo those of birds. A largo number of remarkable genera
found in the Cretaceous rocks have recently been described
by Professor JIarsh and others.
Ophidia The serpents of America are very numerous, and in-
clude amongst others, the following genera : — Tortrix,
Calaraaria, CoroncUa, Xenodon, Heterodon, Lycodon,
Coluber, Herpetodryas, Psanmiophis, Dendrophis, Drj-ophis,
Dipsas, Tropidonotus, Homalopsis, Boa, Elaps, Trigono-
cephalus, Crotalus.
Of these the genera Heterudon and Crotalus or rattle-
snake are entirely peculiar to America, and the latter are
by far the most deadly of serpents. The rejililia of North
America have be:n well described by Dekay and Hol-
brooke.
The North American saurians belong to the genera
Crocodile, Alligator, Anolis, Skink, Agama, Tropidolepis,
Ophisaunw, Leptophis. Of the Ranida; there are Rana,
Bufo, and Hyla.
The North American and Asiatic regions form a zoological
kingdom, according to Dr Straucb, which is characterised
by the prevalence of Emydca and by the presence oi
Trionychides. In the North American region there are 44
species distributed over four sub-regions — viz., the north-
west part, which lies west of the Rocky Mountains ; the
north-east part, which lies east of them ; the south-east part
and the south-west part, which embraces Central America.
South America and Australia together form another king-
dom, characterised by the prevalence of Chelydes, and the
total absence of Trionychides. There are about 35 species
in the South American region.
The multitude of fishes in South America is extraordinary, Fiihoi.
and still more so is the marvellous variety of form which
they exhibit. A large number of species have very circum-
scribed ranges, so that not only docs each river basin have
a distinct fauna, but a number of distinct, faunas occupy
different portions of the same river, as is well exemplified
in the Amazons, Tocantins, Rio Negro, and other rivers,
where most of the fishes at stations a few hundred milt 3
apart are for the most part specifically distinct. Proftsscr
Agassiz, in his scientific journey through Brazil, collected
aboilt 2000 species from the Amazon basin only^ la
fijihes, as in other classes, there is a remarkable differenca
between the faunas of North and South America, and in
this class also North America has much in common with
Europe and North Asia. The sturgeons abound in North
America, but are absent in South America, where the corre-
sponding group is theGoniodonts; theSiluroids areabundant
in both portions of the continent ; the perches are numerous
throughoutNorth America, but none occur in South America,
where, however, tliey are represented by the Chromids.
The Cyprinoids are abundant in North America, but absent
in South America, where we have the allied group of
Cyprinodonts. The Characines of South America represent
the Saliuonida; of North America, each group being confined
to its own portion of the continent. There are several
other small families present in South America, such as the
Erythriuoids, Gymnotines, and others.
In the meagre outline of American vegetation which it Botany.
is possible to attempt hero, wo shall more or less strictly
adhere to the principle laid down by Schouw, viz., that
in constituting a botanical region, at least one-half of the
species and one-fourth of the genera should be peculiar
to it. We shall therefore divide the horizontal range of
the vast continent into zones, commencing with the Arctic,
and proceeding towards the Antarctic Circle.
In the Arciic Region or Region of Saxifragacece, as near
to the Pole as man has yet penetrated, b found the red
snow plant (Protococciis nivalis), penetrating the snow
itself, sometimes to the depth of 12 feet, and covering
for miles with its crimson tints the cliffs and ice-floes of
the Polar Sea. Greenland is botanically distinguishable
from Arctic America proper, ^asmuch as it produces
heath {Calluna vidgaris), which, it is somewhat remark-
able, is nowhere to be found on the continent.
The most remarkable of the sub-arctic lichens is that
known as Tripe de Roche, which has often preserved the
lives of famished " trappers," who, but for its sustenance,
must have perished of hunger. The Saxifrages which dis-
tinguish this region vary in species, and sometimes in
genera, from those of Europe, but, generally speaking,
ihere is a strong resemblance, which amounts almost to
identity, as the Arctic shores are approached.
Emerging from the region of Saxifragacece, we find
ourselves in that of the Asters and Solidagos, extending to
the parallel of 36" N. This region not only produces
many species of aster and solidago, but also a great variety
of oaks and firs, and numerous species of Vaccinium.
Among the oaks of Canada and the United States are, the
lime oak (Quercus virens), the laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia),
the black oak (Quercus tinctoria). the white or iron oai
BOTANY .1
iQuercus alha and Quercus ohtusiloba), and ihe scarlet oak
Quercus coccinea). None of these, in regard to the quality
of their timber, can stand camparison with the British oak,
though some of them are very valuable.
The western or Californian and Oregon districts of this
region are in many respects distinct in character. Pole-
moniacece abound; also Esclischoltzia californica, species of
Plati/stemon, Nemophila, Gilia, Collinsia, Clarkia, Bar-
tonia, and Eutocha. Conifers also exist in abundance, some
of them possessing great botanical interest, such as Abies
Douglasii, Paitoniana, nobilis, amahilis, ffrandis, lasiocarpa,
Pinus LambeHiana, Sabiniana, insignis, Jeffreyi, pon-
derosa, monticola, californica, Fremontiana, Coulteri,jlexilis,
Thuja giganUa, Sesquoia gigantea, Juniperus dealbata and
occidentalis, and Castanea chrysophylla. Pinus ponderosa
predominates in the forests of Upper Oregon, and along
with it occur Abies balsamea, canadensis, Doiiglasii, nobilis,
ant! ■^'•'ba. Vi\'id colours mark the basaltic region of
Upper Oregon. Rhododendron macrophi/llum is found in
Vancouver Island. Barley, oats, rye, wheat, buckwheat,
and maize, along with the common fruit-trees and culinary
vegetables of the temperate regions, are cultivated.
Xhe region of Magnolias lies between parallels 30° and
36°, embracing the southern portion of North America.
Nearly seventy species are known to exist. Cycadacece,
AnonacecE, Sapindacece, Zingiberacece, Melaslomacece, Cac-
tacece, and numerous other tropical forms, show themselves.
The forest trees display either broad shining foliage like
the Liriodendron and JSsculus, or pinnated leaves like the
Acacia and Pobinia. They are, moreover, decked with
magnificent blossoms. Rice, sugar-cane, and cotton are
the special objects of culture in this region.
The region of Cactuses and Peppers includes Mexico,
Ouateraala, and South America to the Amazon (to an
elevation of 5000 feet above the sea-level), as also Guiana,
certain parts of Peru, and New Granada. The leaves of the
plants of the isthmus of Panama are covered with hair and
tomentura, while greenish and yellow flowers predomi-
nate. The Lacluded portion of South America produces
MauriUa flexuosa, the Murichi or Ita Palm, and Victoria
regia. The vegetable-ivory palm (Phytetephas*macrocarpa)
is a native of Colum&ia and Peru. Yams, plantains,
chocolate, Bugac, coffee, cocoa-nut, &c., are cultivated in
tuis region.
The Mexican highlands, rising over 5500 feet above the
sea-level, produce Pinus religiosa, Pinus apulcensis, Pinus
Ilartwegii, Pinus Montezumce, and Taxodium, distichum.
European grains are cultivated with success.
The region of medicinal bark trees {Cinchonas) em-
braces the Cordilleras between parallels 5 N. and 20° S.,
where the elevation ranges between 5000 and 9600 feet.
In the lower parts of this region coffee, maize, and potato
are cultivated.
The region of Calceolarias and Escallonias is, generally
speaking, coextensive with the preceding, but at an ele-
vation greater than 9C00.
The West Indian region is marked by the prevalence of
ferns and orchids, and has a vegetation intermediate be-
tween that of Mexico and the north of South America.
We next come to the region of Palms and Melaslomas,
which Lies to the east of the Andes, between the Equator
and the Tropic of Capricorn. Here the luxuriance of
vegetable life is almost startling to European eyes. The
forest trees of Brazil tower to an almost incredible height,
while the rery undcnvood is composed of Palms, Melasto-
maccK, Myrtacea;, Crotons, and Tree Jerns. In the tree-
less belts are found Heli ;onias, Dorstenias, and tall grasses.
Imnienso Composite, Vernonias, arborescent Solainims,
and species of Fuchsia, Solandra, Lasiandra, Laurus, Ficus,
and Cassia abound. The trees are covered, stem and branch.
AMERICA
G85
with Ferns, Arace^, TUlandrias, Orchids, Cactuses, Pepero-
mias, Gesneras,and innumerable other epiphytic plants.
The region of arborescent Compositce, extending from
tho Tropic of Capricorn to lat. 40° S., embraces Southern
Brazil, La Plata, and Chili. The distinctive features of the
Upper Cordilleras reappear here; Calceolarias and Escal-
lonias abound. Thuja tetragc/iia, Podocarpus chiliana, Thvja
chilensi^, and Chili pine [Araucaria imbricata), are native to
this region, the last-named being a hardy conifer, extend
ing along the Chilian Andes from 37° to 40° S. In the
neighbourhood of Eio Janeiro is found Araucaria brazi-
liana. Wheat, vine, peach, and many European plants
are cultivated to gteat perfection in this region.
The Antarctic region comprehends the Strait of Magal-
haens, Tien-a del Fuego, and the Falkland Islands, ilany
European, and more especially British, genera appear in
this region, and species of Saxifraga, Gentiana, Arbutus,
Primula, and other Arctic and North Temperate forms are
common. In Fuegia the evergreen beech {Fagus Forsteri),
the deciduous beech (Fagus antartica), and Drymis Win-
teri, correspond to the birch, oak, and mountain ash of
Scotland. The Fuchsia is a native of Fuegia. Among
shrubs maybe mentioned Chiliotricum amelloides, Veronica
elliptica and decussata, Ernpctrum ruhrum, and Perniitya
empetrifolia ; among ferns, Lomaria alpina and Magel
lanica; and among lichens, Usnea melaxanlha.
Northern America, though its vast forests have now Chief in •
been exposed for centuries to the axe of civilised man, is digenous
stUl one of the best wooded regions of the world. Among I ""ducts of
the principal forest-trees are the pine, oak, ash, hickory, ^.^^ ^^^_
red-beech, Canadian poplar, chestnut, black walnut, maple, 'jnent.
tulip-tree, and white cedar.
Central America produces extensively mahogany, pimento,
sarsaparUla, vanUla, Peruvian balsam, and many other
valuable woods and drugs.
Nearly two-tliirds of the surface of South America are
still covered with gigantic forests, which must ultimately
disappear, like many of those in the north, before the
combined efforts and necessities of commerce and agri-
culture. The most distinctive and valuable forest-trees of
South America are the greenheart and the mora. The
cow-tree, which yields a juice very like milk in its pro-
perties, is also a remarkable product of this region.
Maize is by far the most important farinaceous product
of the New World. It was the only grain which the
earliest European settlers found cidtivated, to some extent,
by the natives. For nutrition it is inferior to wheat, but
it is much more prolific, and is suited to a greater variety
of sods. Tobacco is also indigenous to America, whence
its use has extended over the whole world. Among roots
the potato, which we also owe to America, is without a
rival. Millet, tapioca, arrow-root, cocoa, cojiaiva, cinchona,
jalap, sassafras, nux-vomica, the cochineal plant, the agave
or American aloe, and the pine-apple are also indigenous
to the continent.
It is impossible here to do more than toucn on the vast
subject of the botany and the indigenous vegetable pro-
ducts of the New World. For fuller information, in addi-
tion to that contained in articles in the present work that
treat of the geographical distribution of plants, the reader
is referred to the numerous valuable American works of
such authors as Beck, Bigelow, Breckenridge, Brown,
Carson (Medical Botany), Darby, Darlington-(Agn'cultural
Botany), Asa Gray, Harvey (Algae), Eavenel, Sprague,
Strong, Torrey, itc. An extended description of the forest
trees of North America vrS\. be found in the great work of
Michaux and Nuttall, The Sorlh American Sylva.
The origin, history, languages, and condition of tho Ethnology
American nations present ample materials for speculation ;
but before touching on these subjects, the question presents
68G
A ]\I E R 1 C A
[ethnoloct.
itself, Uliat ia tho total of the indigenous population 1
Humboldt, in 1823, estimated tho number of Indians at
8,010,000. BoUaert estimated the number existing iu 1803
as followa : —
Mexico 4,000,000
Peru 1,000,000
Bolivia 1,400,000
Central America ; 1,000,000
Paraguay 700,000
Ecuador : 600,000
United States 600,000
Other countries 1,314,710
Total 11,014,710
It is probable that these numbers have been diminished :
the latest official relurns for the United Stales, in 1872,
estimate the Indian population at 300,000. (See Indians.)
Tho indigenous pojjulation of America presents man
under many aspects, and society in various stages, from
tho regular but limited civilisation of Mexico and Peru, to
savage life in its most brutal state of aba-sement. At one
extremity of tho country we find tho pigmy Esquimaux of
four feet and a half in height, and at the other the Pata-
gonian standing above six feet. In complexion tho variety is
great, and may bo said to embrace almost every hue known
elsewhere on tho face of tho earth, except the pitchy black
of tho Negro; About one-half of all the known languages
belong to America; and if wo consider every little wander-
ing hordo a distinct community, we have a greater ntimber
of nations hero than in all the rest of tho world. Amidst
all this diversity philosophers have thought they were able
to discover certain general characters, sufhciently marked
to distinguish tho American nations from those of tho old
continent. It is foreign to our purpose to inquire whether
the varieties of form, stature, and complexion, in tho
human species, are modifications produced by external
causes operating differently on distinct portions of tho
progeny of one primitive pair, or whether several races
were originally created, and have given birth, by their
mixture, to the amazing varieties we witness. We assume
the former opinion as true, because the probabilities seem
to be in its favour ; but the phenomena present themselves
to us in the same light in whichever way they originated.
ibori- Physiologists are not at one in their accounts of the
^ues : characteristics of the aborigines of the new world, nor are
Divisionsoi j^ijgy agreed as to whether they should bo considered one
race or several. Elumenbach places them ail under one
class, except tho Esquimaux. Bory St Vincent divides
them into four races, or five if we include the Esqui-
maux, under the following designations: — 1. The Colom-
bian, which comprehends the tribes formerly inhabiting
the Alleghany Mountains, Canada, Florida, the eastern
coasts of Mexico, and Central America ; and the Caribs,
who occupied the West India Islands and Guian.a. 2. The
American, embracing the tribes which occupy all the other
parts of South America east of the Andes, except Pata-
gonia. 3. Tho Patagonian race, inhabiting the southern
extremity of the continent. 4. Tho Neptunian, inhabiting
the western coasts of both divisions of the continent, from
California to Cape Horn, and which he considers as essen-
tia y the same with the race spread over the Malay Penin-
toI and the Indian Archipelago. With this race are classed
the Mexicans and Peruvians. By another writer the species
are reduced to two, the Colombian and the American;
the former including all the North American tribes, with
the Caribs, the Me.xicans, and Peruvians, and other in-
habitants of the Cordillera; and the latter the Brazilian
Indians and Patagonians. Neither of these systems, when
tested by facts, is very satisfactory. Dr Prichard tliinks
that the mutual resemblance among the American nations
has been exagsreratcd by some writers; yet it is certain
that there is more of a common famil; character in theii
organi.sation than in that nf the indigenous population
of Asia or Africa. " The Indians of New Spain," says
Humboldt, " bear a general resemblance to those who in-
habit Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. We have tho
same swarthy and copper colour, straight and smooth hair,
small beard, squat body, long eye, with the corner directed
upwards towards the temples, pronjinent cheek-bones, thick
lip.s, and expression of gentleness in tho mouth, strongly
contrasted with a gloomy and severe look. Over a million
and a half of square leagues, from Cape Horn to the river
St Lawrence and -Behnng's Straits, we are struck at the
first glance with the general resemblance in the features of
the inhabitants. Wo tliink wo perceive them all to bo
descended from tho same stock, notwithstanding the pro-
digious diversity of their languages. In the portrait drawn
by Volney of the Canadian Indians, we recognise the tribes
scattered over the savannahs of tho Apurc and the Carony.
The same style of features exists in both Americas."
On the authority of Dr Morton, the most natural "' "'sion
of tho Americans is into two families, tho Toltecan and
the American; the former of which bears evidence of
centuries of half -civilisation, while the latter embraces all the
barbarous nations of the New World, with the exception of
the Polar tribes, which are evidently of Mongolian origin. In
each of these, however, there are several subordinate groups,
which may be distinguished as the Appalachian, the
Brazilian, the Patagonian, and the Fuegian. The Appi
lachian branch includes all the nations of North America,
except the i'exicans, together with the tribes of South
America nortn of the river Amazon and cast of tho Andes-
In this race the head is rounded, the nose large, salient, and
aquiline ; tho eyes dark brown, with little or no obliquity of
position ; the mouth large and straight ; the teeth nearly
vertical ; and the whole face triangular. The neck is long,
the chest broad but rarely deep, the body and limbs mus-
cular, and seldom disposed to fatness. In character these
nations aro warlike, cruel, and unforgiving ; they turn with
aversion from the restraints of civilised hfe, and have made
but little progress in mental culture or the useful arts. The
Brazilian branch is spread over a great part of South Ame-
rica, cast of the Andes, including tho whole of Brazil and
Paraguay, between the River Amazon and 35° S. latitude.
Their phy.sical characteristics differ but little from those of
the Appalachiafl branch ; they possess, perhaps, a larger and
more expanded nose, with larger mouths and lips. The
eyes are small, more or less oblique, and far asunder ; the
neck short and thick , the body and limbs stout and fall,
even to clumsiness. In character, also, they differ little.
None of the Americans are less susceptible of cultivation ;
and what they are taught by compulsion seldom exceeds the
humblest elements of knowledge. The Patagonian branch
includes the nations to the south of the Plato, as far as tho
Strait of Magalhaens, including also the mountain tribes
of Chili. They are chiefly distinguished by their tall stature,
handsome forms, and indomitable courage. The Fuegians,
who call themselves Yacannaeunnee, rove over the stcrilo
wastes of Tierra del Fuego, which is computed to be half
the size of Ireland, and yet their whole number has been
computed as not exceeding 2000. The physical a.spect
of the Fuegians is altogether repulsive. They are of low
stature, with large heads, broad faces, and small eyes.
Their chests are large, their bodies clumsy, with large kuecs,
and ill-shapod legs. Their hair ia lank, black, and coarse,
and their complexion a decided brown, like that of the more
northern tribes. Their expression of face ia vacant, and
their mental opeiations are to the last degree clow aud
stupid ; they are almost destitute &f the usual curiosity of
savages, caring Utile for anything that dees not minister Ui
their present wants.
ETHNOLOGY.]
AMERICA
687
A.iiericfin The American race is distingulslieii by the form of the
form and skull, which, except in its greater length, resembles the
comp exion jjQjjgol type. The cheek-bones are prominent, but not so
angular, as in the Mongol head ; the occiput is rather flat,
the cavity for lodging the cerebellum small, the orbits large
and deep. The nose is generally aquiline, but in some
tribes flat, and the nasal cavities are large. Compared
with the head of the Negro, that of the American is
broader, and the teeth are less prominent : when placed by
the side of the Caucasian head, it is seen to be smaller in
size, less rounded and symmetrical, and less developed in the
part before the ear. The skull is generally thin and light.
There are, however, many deviations from this typical form.
The Carib skull and the Araucanian are large ; the Peru-
\'ian small, and singularly flattened behind, so as to present
a short line from the forehead to the occiput.
The colour of the jVmericans, though it includes a con-
siderable diversity of shade, is more uniform than that of
the inhabitants of Asia or iVfrica ; and, what is more re-
markable, its varieties do not bear any visible relation to the
temperature of the climate. A brownish yellow, or copper
colour, as it has been called, pervades nearly all the nume-
rous tribes from the Arctic Ocean to Cape Horn, but stiU
with many different degrees of intensity. The eastern na-
tions of Chili have but a slight tinge of the brown colour,
and the Boroanes are stdl whiter. On the north-west
coast, from latitude 43° to 60', there are tribes who,
though embrowned with soot and mud, were found, when
their skins were washed, to have the brilliant white and
red which is the characteristic of the Caucasian race.
But within the tropics, the Malapoques in Brazil, the
Ghiaranis in Paraguay, the Guiacas of Guiana, the Scheries
of La Plata, have tolerably fair complexions, sometimes
united with blue eyes and auburn hair ; and, in the
hot country watered by the Orinoco, Humboldt found
tribes of a dark, and others of a light hue, living almost in
juxtaposition. It is remarkable, too, that the nations whose
colour approaches nearest to biack are found in the tempe-
rate zone, namely, the Charruas of the Banda Oriental, in
latitude 33° S., and the Cochimies, Pericus, and Guay-
curus, spread over the peninsula of California. These people
have skins of a very deep hue, but are not absolutely black ;
and they have neither the woolly hair of the Negroes, nor
their social and good-humoured disposition. The Charruas,
especially, are distinguished by a high degree of that auste-
rity and stern fortitude which are common to the American
nations. The Caribs and some Brazilian tribes have the
yellowish hue of the Chinese, and the same cast of features.
Among the nations dwelling on the west side of the Alle-
ghanies, and near the northern lakes, there is also a con-
siderable variety of complexion ; but the brown or copper
shade is found more or less in them all. It may be said,
then, of the American nations, that, with the exception of
two or three tribes on the north-west coast, who probably
arrived from Asia at a lator period than the others, the two
extremes of complexion, the white of Northern Europe and
the black of Ethiopia, are unknown amongst them ; and
that, when compared with the Moors, Abyssinians, and other
swarthy nations of the Old World, their colour inclines less
to the yellow, ajid more to the reddish brown.
Long, black, lank hair is common to all the American
tribes, among which no traces of the frizzled locks of the
Polynesian.or the woolly texture of the African Negro have
ever been observed. The beard is very deficient, and the
little that nature gives them they assiduously root out. A
copper-coloured skin has been also assumed by most writers
aa a characteristic distinction of the Americans; but their real
colour is in general brown, of the hue most nearly resem-
bling that of cinnamon ; and Dr Morton coincides in opinion
with Dr .M'C"Uoch, that no epithet derivable from the colour
of the skin so correctly designates the Americans as that of
the brown race. There are, however, among them occa-
sioi---il and very remarkable deviations, including all the va-
rieties of tint from a decided white to an unequivocally black
skin. That climate has a very subordinate influence in
producing these difl'erent hues must be inferred from the
fact that the tribes which wander in the eciuinoctial region?
are not darker than the mountaineers of the temperate zone.
The Puelches, and other tribes of the Magellanic regions,
beyond 55° S. latitude, are darker than the Abipones,
Mocobies, and Tobas, who are many degrees nearer the
equator ; and the Botocudos are of a clear brown colour,
sometimes approaching nearly to white, at no great distance
from the tropic ; whUe the Guiacas under the line are cha-
racterised by a fair complexion ; the Charruas, who are almost
black, live at the 30th degree of S. latitude ; and the stiU
blacker Californians are 25° north of the equator. Every-
where, indeed, it is found that the colour of the American
depends very little on the local situation which he actually
occupies; and never, in the same individual, are those parts
of the body which are constantly covered of a fairer colour
than those which are exposed to a hot and moLst atmosphere.
Children are never white when they are born, as is the case
among even the darkest of the Caucasian races ; and the
Indian caciques, who enjoy a considerable degree of luxurj-,
and keep themselves constantly dressed, have all parts of
their body, except the palms of the hands and the soles of
the feet, of the same brownish-red or copper colour. These
diflferences of complexion are, however, extrem.ely partial,
forming mere exceptions to the general tint which charac-
terises all the Americans, from Cape Horn to Canada. The
cause of such anomalies is not easily ascertained ; that it is
not climate is sufliciently obvious ; but whether or not it
arises from partial immigrations from other countries re-
mains yet to be decided.
The Americans of indigenous races might also ba
divided into three great classes distinguished by the pur-
suits on which they depend for subsistence, namely, hunt
ing, fishing, and agriculture. The greater number of them
are devoted to hunting ; the fishing tribes are not numerous,
and are whoUy destitute of the spirit of maritime adven-
ture, and even of fondness for the sea. A few tribes were
strictly agricultural before the arrival of Europeans, but
a much greater number have become so since. Many
tribes regularly resort to aU these modes of subsistence,
according to the seasons ; employing the spring in fishing,
the summer in agriculture, and the autumn and winter ia
hunting.
The intellectual faculties of this great family appear to be Intellectiu
decidedly inferior, when compared with those of the Cauca- hcultie*
sian or Mongolian race. The Americans are not only averse
to the restraints of education, but are for the most part in-
capable of a continued process of reasoning on abstract sub-
jects. Their minds seize with avidity on simple truths, biit
reject whatever requires investigation and analysis. Their
proximity for more than two centuries to European in-
stitutions has made scarcely any perceptible change in
their mode of thinking or their manner of life ; and, as t»
their own social condition, they are probably in most respects
exactly as they were at the earliest period of their national
existence. They have made few or no improvements in
constructing their houses or their boats ; their inventive and
imitative faculties appear to be of very himible capacity,
nor have they the smallest taste for the arts and sciences.
One of the most remarkable of their intellectual defects is
the great difficulty they find in comprehending the relations
of numbers ; and Mr Schoolcraft, the United States Indian
agent, assured Dr Morton that this deficiency was on# causo
of most of the misunderstanding in respect to treaties en-
tered into between the United States Government and the
688
A JI E R I C A
[aMEBICA>' INDIANS.
Lmguar'
of Anicri
cin In-
dian.
native tribes. The natives sell their land for a sum of
money, without having any conception of the amount ; and
it is only when the proceeds come to be divided that each
man becomes acquainted with his own interest in the
transaction. Then dioappointment and murmurs inrarially
ensue.
Everyunwritten tongue is subject to continual fluctuations,
which will be numerous and rapid in proportion as the tribe
using it is exposed to frequent vicissitudes of fortune, and
the individuals composing it have little intercourse with one
anothei. When the population of one of these societies in-
creases, it splits into several brandies ; and if these have
little intercourse, the original language divides by degrees
into as many dialects. These smaller societies subdivide in
their turn with the same effects ; and, in such continual sub-
divisions, the dialects of the extreme branches deviate farther
and farther from one another, and from the parent tongue,
till time, aided by migrations and wars, producing mixtures
of different hordes, oblitertctcs aU distinct traces of a com-
mon origin. The cause of these changes becomes more ob-
vious when wo reflect on the principles which give stability
to a language. These are — 1. The abundant use of writing;
2. The teaching of a language as a branch of education ; 3.
Frequency of intercourse among all the people speaking
it ; 4. The existence of an order of m«n, such aa priests
or lawj'crs, who employ it for professional purposes ; 5.
Stability of condition in the people, or exemption from
vicissitudes and revolutions ; 6. A large stock of popular
poetry, which, if universally diffused, may almost become
a substitute for writing. All these conditions were wanting
(with some trifling exceptions) in the whole of the wan-
dering tribes of, America. The great multiplication of
Languages, therefore, proves two things — first, that the
people are in a low state of savage life ; and, secondly, that
they have been for many ages in this condition ; for time
is a necessary element in the process of splitting human
speech into so many varieties.
Among the seven or eight millions of American abori-
gines, it is estimated that^ there are as many languages
spoken as among the seven or eight hundred million
inhabitants of the Old World. Just as there is a marked
physiological resemblance attaching to all the New World
tribes, BO judged by the evidence of language, the native
American is sat generis, having no connection, except the
most remote, with the rest of the human family. The
fevr corresponding words in Old and New World lan-
guages, which are not of an imitative character, bear
the stamp of fortuitous coincidence rather than that
ol common origin. Vater, in his Linffuarum Totius Orbis
Index, estimated the number of American aboriginal
languages at about 500, and Ealbi at 423, of which 211
belonged to North, 44 to Central, and 158 to South
America. In the absence of certain data, it may be safe
■to set down the number of native American languages at
about 450.
Throughout the whole of these runs a thread of con-
T.ection. They are all characterised by polt/syniliesis, as
Duponceau calls it, or holophrasm, to adopt the phraseology
of Dr Lieber. Holophrasm is a process more or less com-
mon to every language at a particular stage of its devclop-
jnent. We have glimpses of it in most of the Turanian
f roup of languages, and it appears, in a faint degree, in the
Basque; but it belongs to a very large proportion of the
languages of Amciica, so extremely numerous, and many of
"which have nothing else in common. This diffusion of a
peculiar and common character over materials so dissimilar
las been plausibly accounted for by the supposition of
a community of origin in the tribes, whether few or
iJianv, which peopled the continent. Aa no person has
the full command of all the vocables in his native lan-
guage, indi\idual terms must be continually dropping out
of dialects preserved by oral communication; and new
ones will be introduced as new wants and new objecU
solicit attention. But during the gradual change which
thus takes JSlace, the new words will be combined and
modified according to the rules which belong to the
genius of the spoken dialect with which thc^ are incor-
porated; and thus it may happen that the grammatical forms
of an ancient language may live, while its materials
perisL The changes of structure which present them-
selves in the history of European languages, it must be
remembered, took place in pror/ressive communities.
Among nations like -tho American Indians, v,'hos6 bar-
barism, wo may suppose, re-nained almost stationary, the
forms of speech might be more permanent, though its sub-
stance was in a state of slow but constant mutation. But
even were this community of origin admitted, it cannot
be looked on as entire and absolute among the American
nations.
Analysis and generalisation are processes that distinguish
the languages of reflective and civilised races. " Nothing,''
says Schoolcraft, " could apparently be further removed from
the analytical class of languages than the various dialects
spoken by the Indians of America, who invariably express
their ideas of objects and actions precitely a» they are pre-
sented to their eyes and ears, i.e., in all their compound
associations." To " encapsulate " words, as Dr Lieber
expresses it, " is the striking feature of all these language:;,
and hence a word will consist sometimes of seven or eight
syllables, each one conveying one individual idea, like a set
of boxes each one contained in the other." This common
feature of American languages is both. psychologically and"
philologically of the greatest interest. Of all the groups of
American languages, tho various dialects of the Algonquin
stock furnish the most inviting field for the philologist.
It is from the Algonquin, therefore, that we draw the follow
Ing examples of the process of syllabical agglutination : — '
Thus, wauh is the root of the verb to see, and of the word
light. Wauhun is the east or sunlight, and inferentially
place of light. Aub is the eye-ball; hence, aiauh^ to see,
to eye. Waub itself appears to be a compound of aui
and the letter w, which is the sign of the third person.
Waubuno is a member of a society of men who continue
their orgies till daylight. The simplest concrete forms of
tho verb to see are as follow : —
Ne waub = I see.
Ke waub = Thou seest.
0 waub = He or she sees.
But all this is vague to the Indian mind until the .verb
is made transitive, and the class of objects acted on is
thereby shown. Tho Indian order of thought, moreover',
requires that the object should generally precede the
verb, e.g—
Inine ne vau bum aa = man, 1 see him. (FaA ku-gvn
ne ne wau l»in daun = house, I see it.
Such examples show the tendency of these languages
to accretion. The verb is made to include within itself,
a-s it were, the noun, pronoun, and adjective. " Declen-
sion, cases, articles, are deficient," says Bancroft, " but
everything is conjugated. The adjective assumes a verbal
termination, and is conjugated as a verb ; the idea
expressed by a noun is clothed in verbal forms, and
at once does the oflice of a vsrb Then, since the
Indian verb includes within itself the agent and the
object, it may pass through as many transitions as tlia
persons and numbers of the pronouns will admit of dif-
ferent combinations ; and each of these combinations may
be used positively or negatively, with a reflex or a causa-
tive signification. In this manner changes are so multi-
plied, that the number of possible forms of a Chip^w»
AMEEICAK INDIANS.]
AMERICA
689
verb is said to amount to five or six thousand ; iu other
words tie number of possible variations is indefinite."
The formidable array of syllables arises partly from the
fact, that there are som,6 si-xteen modes of forming the
plural of nouns represented in the verb by sixteen^ corre-
sponding modifications. Nouns are divided, as in the
Dravidian languages of South India, into animate and
inanimate.
The best account of those peculiarities, as well as the
best general distribution of the American languages, are
given by Professor Whitney of Yale College, in his work
on Language and tlte Slucfy of Language, pp. 3-16-351 : —
"Tlie conditions of the linguistic problem presented by the
American languages are exceedingly perplexing, for the same reason
as those presented by the Polynesian and African dialects, and in
a yet higher degree. The number, variety, and changeableness of
the different tongues is wonderful. Dialectic division is carried to
Its extreme among them ; the isolating and diversifying tendencies
have had full course, with little counteraction from the conserving
and assimilating forces. The continent seems ever to have been
peopled by a congeries of petty tribes, incessantly at warfare, or
standing olT from one another in jealous and suspicious seclusion.
Certain striking exceptions, it is true, are present to the mind of
every one. Mexico, Central Am.erica, and Peru, at the time of the
Spanish discovery and conquest, were the seat of empires possessing
an organised system of government, with national creeds and insti-
tutions, ivith modes of writing and styles of architecture, and other
appliances of a considerably developed culture, of indigenous orimn.
Such relics, too, as the great mounds which are scattered so widely
through our western country, and the ancient workings upon the
veins and ledges of native copper along the southern shore of Lake
Superior, show tliat other large portions of the northern continent
had not always been in the same savage condition as that in which
our ancestors found them. Yet these were exceptions only, not
changii g the general rule ; and there is reason to believe that, as
the civilisation of the Mississippi valley had been extinguished by
the incursion and conquest of more barbarous tribes, so a similar fate
was threatening that of the southern peoples ; that, in fact, American
culture was on its way to destruction even without Euiopean inter-
ference, as European culture for a time had seemed to be during
the Dark Ages which attended the downfall of the Roman empire.
If the differentiation of American language had been thus un-
checked by the influence of culture, it has been also favoured by
the influence of tlie variety of climate and mode of life. While the
other gi-eat families occupy, for the most part, one region or one
zone, the American tribes have been exposed to all the difference of
circumstances which can find place between the Arctic and the
Antarctic oceans, amid ice-fields, mouarjins, valleys, on dry table-
lands, and in reeking river-basins, along shores of every clime.
Moreover, these languages have shown themselves to possess a
peculiar mobility and changeablecess of material. There are groups
of kindred tribes whose separation is known to be of not very long
standing, but in whose speech the correspondences are almost over-
whelmed and hidden from sight by the discordances which have
sprung up. In more than one tongue it has been remarked that
books of instruction prepared by missionaries have become anti-
quated and almost unintelligible in three or four generations. Add
to all tills, that our knowledge of the family begins m the most
recent period, less than four hundred years ago ; that, though it
has been since penetrated and pressed on every side by cultivated
■ nations, the efforts made to collect and preserve information respect-
ing it have been only sp.asmodic -and- fragmentary ; that it is
alinost wholly destitute of literature, and even of traditions of any
authority and value; and that great numbers of its constituent
members have perished, in the wasting away of the tribes by
mutual warfare, by pestilence and famine, and by the encroach-
ments of more jjowerful races— and it will be clearly seen that the
comprehensive comparative study of American languages is beset
with very gi-eat difficulties.
" Yet it is tlie confident opinion of linguistic scholars that a fun-
damental unity lies at the base of all these infinitely varying forms
of sTieech ; that they may be, and probably are, all descended from
a single ]>arcnt language. For, whatever their differences of
luatcrTal, there is a single type or plan upcn which their forms are
developed and flieir constructions made, from the Arctic Ocean to
Cape Horn, and one sufficiently pcci'liar and distinctive to con-
stitute ft genuine indication of relationship. This tyjw is.called the
incorporativo or polysynthctio. It tends to the excessive and
abnormal agglomeration of dtstinct significant clcmcnU in its word.i;
whereby, on''tlio one hand, cumbrous compounds are formed as the
names of objects, and a character of tedious and time-wasting poly-
».\Uabisnii3 given to the language— see, for example, the three to
ten-syllabled numeral and' pronominal words of otir western Indian
tongues; or the Mexican name for 'goat,' Icu-a-Tcwaiih terJsong,
literally ' head-tree (horn) - lip - hair (tieard),' or 'the horned abd
bearded one' — and, on the other hand, and what is of yet more
importance, an unwieldy aggiegation, verbal or ^wo^i-verbal, ia
substituted for the phrase or sentence, with its distinct and balanced
members. Thus, the Mexican says, ' 1-flesh-eat,' as a single word,
compounded of three elements ; or if, for emphasis, the object is
left to stand separate, it is at least first represented by a pronoun
iu the verbal compound ; as, ' I-it-eat, the liesh ;' or, ' l-it-him-gives
tAie bread, my son,' for * I give my son the bread.'
"The incorporative type is not wholly peculiar to the languages
of our continent. A trace of it {in the insertion, among the verbal
forms, of an objective as well as a subjective pronominal ending) is
found even in one of the Ugrian dialects of the Scythian family,
the Hungarian ; and the Basque, of which we shall presently speak
more particularly, exhibits it in a very notable measure. It is
found, too, in considerably varj'ing degree and stjde of development
in the different branches of the American family. ' But its general
effect is still such that the linguist is able to claim that the lan-
guages to which it belongs a-.e, in virtue of their structure, akin
with one another, and distinguished from all other known tongues.
"Not only do the subjective and objective pronouns thus enter
into the substance of the verb, but also a great variety of modifiers
of the verbal action, adverbs, in the form of particles and frag-
ments of words ; thus, almost everything which helps to make ex-
pression forms a part of verbal conjugation, and the verbal paradigm
becomes well-nigh interminable. An extreme instance of excessive
synthesis is afforded in the Cherokee word-phraso wi-ni-taw-ti-ge-gi-
7ia-li-skaw-lung-ta-naw-ne-li-H-se-sti, 'they will by that time have
nearly finished granting [favours] from a distance to thee and mc.'
"Other common traits, which help to strengthen our conclusion
that these languages are ultimately rehateJ, are not wanting. Such
are, for example, the habit of combining words by fragments, by
one or two representative syllables ;* the direct conversion of nouns,
substantive and adjective, into verbs, and their conjugation as such ;
peculiarities of generic distinction — many languages dividing animate
from inanimate beings (somewhat as we do by the use of who and
who/}, with arbitrary and fanciful details of classification, like those
exhibited by the Indo-European languages in their separation of
masculine and feminine ; the possession of a very peculiar scheme
for denoting the degrees of family relationship ; and 80 on.
"As regards their material constitution, their assignment of cer-
tain sounds to represent certain ideas, our Indian dialects show, as
already remarked, a very great discordance. It has been claimed
that thero are not less than a hundred languages or groups upon the
continent, between whose words are discoverable no correspondences
which might not be sufficiently explained as the result of accident.
Doubtless a more thorough and sharpsighted investigation, a more
penetrating linguistic analysis and comparison — though, under exist-
ing circumstances, any even distant approximation to the actual
bef'inning may bo hopeless — would considerably reduce this number ;
yet there might still remain as many unconnected groups as arc to be
found in aU Europe and Asia. It is needless to undertake here an
enumeration of the divisions of Indian speech : we will but notico
a few of the most important groups occupj^ing our own portion of
the continent.
" In the extreme north, along the whole shore of tlie Arctic Ocean,
are the Eskimo dialects, with which is nearly allied the Greenlandish.
Below tltem is spread out, on the west, the great Athapaskan group.
On the east, and as far south aa the line of Tennessee and Korth
Carolina, stretches the immense region occupied by the numerous
dialects of the Algonquin or Delaware stock ; within it, however, is
enclosed the distinct branch of Iroquois languages. Our south-
eastern states were in possession of the Florida gioup, comprising
the Creek, Choctaw, and Cherokee. The great nation of the Sioux
01 Dakotas gives its name to the branch which occupied the Mis-
souri valley ar.d parts of the lower Jlississippi. Another wide-
spread sub-family, including the Shoshonee and Comanche, ranged
from the shores of Texas north-westward to the borders of California
and the territory of the Athapaskas; and the Pacific coast was
occupied hy a medley of tribes. Mexico and Central America,
finally, were the home of a great variety of tongues, that of the
cultivated Aztecs, with its kindred, having the widest range."
For further information regarding the aboriginal lan-
guages of America, the reader is referred to the researches
of Balbi, Gallatin, Vater, and Schoolcraft; to Lewis IT.
Morgan's Tables, with accompanying text and forms, vol.
xvii. of Ihe S7nWiso7uan Contributions to Knowledge (1871),
entitled " Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the
Human Family," and to an invaluable work. The Literature
of American Aboriginal Languages, by Dr Ludemg, edited
by Nicolas Triibner, 1858.
Though any attempt to reduce the American popula-
tion under a few general classes, either on physical or
f — 8--
690
A III E R 1 C A
[AJlERICAy INDIANS.
ethnograjiLical grounds, would be idle, vre may notice one
or two of the most remarkable nations or families.
E«qni- All the northern coast of the continent is tenanted by
maai. the Eiquimaux, a dwarfish race, rarely exceeding five feet
in height. TLeir territories commence near Mackenzie's
Biver, in C8° N. lat., and extend to the Arctic Ocean. They
occupy all the northern Archipelago, the shores of Hud-
son's and Baffin's Bays, of Labrador, and of Russian Ame-
rica round by Behring's Straits, to the peninsula of Al-
aska. They live entirely by fishing, the whale and the seal
being their most common food ; they inhabit skin tents
luring their short summer, and in winter caves or hou.-'.es
built with snow in the shape of domes, within which a
iingle rude lamp i^ kept perpetually burning. They arc
:rafty and dirty, but ai>peared to Captain Franklin more
intelligent and provident than the northern Indians. There
is a wide diversity in their dialects, which still display
iecided marks of identity in their roots.
The north-west coast of Alaska, from Cook's Inlet to the
tSth parallel, is inhabited by four tribes, of whom the
KaJuschi are the most remarkable. These people are
distinguished from all the native races of America by
having as fair a complexion when their skins are washed
08 the inhabitants of Europe; and this distinction, accom-
panied sometimes with auburn hair, has been considered
as indicating an origin different from that of the copper-
coloured tribes who people all the rest of the continent.
fndian The Indians of the east coast belong almost entirely to
Tribes. three stems; and, before the arrival of the English colo-
nists, occupied both sides of the Alleghany Mountains,
from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada and New Bruns^vick.
1. The Delaware or Algonquin Indians, comprehending
the Ottogamies, Shawnees, Narragansets, Chippeways,
Knisteneaux, Belawares, and other nations, to the number
of thirty or forty, were spread over the space between the
Mississippi and the Atlantic, as far north as Hudson's Bay,
and ail spoke dialects of one language. 2. The Iroquois,
often caUed the " Five Nations," and the " Six Nations,"
but comprehending 15 tribes or more, among whom were
the Mohawks, Oneidas, Hurons, and Senecas, all spoke
dialects of one language. They lived on the south side of
the great lakes, and finally obtained a complete ascend-
ency over the Algonquin race. 3. The Florida Indians,
including the Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, Chiekasawa,
Natchcs, and Mobiles. Tribes belonging to these three
families (with the Wocons and Catawbas) occupied nearly
all the region east of the Mississippi, from the Gulf of
Mexico to Hudson's Bay, comprising more than a million
of square miles. The Catawbas alone, however, are said to
have included 20 tribes, and nearly as many dialects. The
Powhattans were a confederacy of 33 tribes, comprehend-
ing 10,000 persons. It is probable that when the English
settlers landed in the country, the region mentioned was
inh;ib:ted by a quarter of a million "bi Lndians, divided into
many tribes, and speaking dialects" belonging to half, a
>dozen radically distinct languages.
These nations have the virtues of savage life — a high sense
of honour, according to their perceptions of duty, mutu.al
fidelity among individuals, a fortitude that mocks at the
most cruel torments, and a devotion to their tribe which
makes self-immolation in its defence easy. On the other
hand, they treat their wives cruelly, and their children
'with indifference. The apathy under the good and ill of
life which the Stoic affected, is the grand element of the
Indian's character. Gloomy, stem, and severe, he is a
stranger to mirth and laughter. All outward expression
of pleasure or pain he regards as a weakness; and the
only feeling to which he ever yields is the boisterous joy
which he manifests in the moment of victory, or under
the excitement of intoxication. Ue is capable of groat
exertions in war or the cha.'ie, but has an unconquerable'
aversion to regular labour. He is extremely impro\'ident;
eats enormously while he has abundance of food, without
thinking of the famine which may follow ; and, when
liquors are supplied to him, will continue drunk for days.
Most of the Indians of North America believe in
the existence of a supremo being, whom they call the
Great Spirit ; and of a subordinate one, whose nature is
evil and hostile to man. To the latter their worship is
piineipally addressed; the Good Spirit, in their opinion,
needing no prayers to induce him to aid and protect his
creatures. 'They generally beliwo in a future state, in
wliich the soub of brave warriors and chaste wives enjoy
a tranquil and happy existence -with their ancestors and
friends, spending their time in those enercLses in which
they delighted when on the earth. The Dakotas believe
that the road to these "villages of the dead" leads over
a rock with an edge as sharp as a knife, on which only the
good are able to keep their footing. The vricked fall off,
and descend to the region of the Evil Spirit, where they are
hard worked, and often flogged by their relentless master.
Polygamy is allowed; and a number of wives is con Custon»
sidered as adding to a man's consequence. Marriage cus-
toms differ in different tribes, but in every case the pre-
senting of gifts to the father of the intended wife is an
essential feature of the transaction, and shows that the
wife is considered as procured by purchase. Deformed
children, and lame or decrepit old persons, are destroyed
sometimes ; but the practice is uncommon. Incest and
unnatural vices are practised in some tribes, but they are
always viewed as matters of reproach. The Indian fune-
rals are conducted with much decorum. The deceased is
dressed in his best clothes, and laid in a grave, in a verti-
cal, horizontal, or inclined position, according to his own
previous directions, with his moccasins, knife, money, and
sOver ornaments beside him, and a small quantity of food
near his head. It is usual to mark the graves \vith a post,
on which figures are carved expressive of the nature of the
pursuits and achievements of the deceased.
Some nations of Indians wear little or no clothing ; hv' Clothes,
the general dress of the men in the temperate and coKI lioi-ses, an
parts of the country, previous to the arrival of the Euro- »"«"»«'''»'
peans, consisted of three articles : a cloak of buffalo-skin
hanging from the shoulders, a piece of skin used as an
apron, and a pair of moccasins or loose boots, made of un-
dressed skin also. The women wore a long robe of the
same material, which was fastened round the waist ; but
among the tribes lining near the whites, coarse woollens
are now frequently substituted for the hides of wild ani-
mals, except for the moccasins. The habitations of the
Indians are huts or cabins, generally of a circular form and
small size, but sometimes of 30 or 40 feet in diameter,
formed by stakes fixed in the ground, and covered with
the bark of trees. Sometimes the spaces between the
stakes are filled up with twigs, grass, and mud, and the
roof is covered nearly in the same way. A hole in the
top serves for the escape of the smoke, and the skins
of wild beasts form the beds and seats. When they go
to a distance to hunt, they erect for temporary use large
tents, which are covered with ckins. On the west side
of the Mississippi, where the ground is open, many of
the tribes make use of horses, which are seldom em-
ployed amidst the woods covering the territories east
of that river. The custom of painiing their bodies ia
nearly universal They introduce the colonis by making
pu'jcturpa on their skin ; and the extent of smface which
this c^omcnt covers is proportioned to the exploits they
have performed. Some paint only their arms, others
both their arms and legs, others again their thighs ;
while tho<p who have attained the nur.Liii cf warlike
AMERICAN INDIANS.]
AMERICA
691
rencTni liave tteir bodies painted from the waist upwards.
This is tlie heraldry of the Indians, the devices'of which
are probably more. exactly adjusted to the merits of the
persons who bear them than those of more civilised coun-
tries. Besides these ornaments, the warriors also carry
plumi 3 of feathers on their heads, their arms, or ancles.
Their arms were the tomahawk, the war-club, knife, the
bow a id arrow, bul, now they have -muskets.
Govet'j- Ead L tribe is governed by a chief and council, who are
ment £.:..l elective J but in matters of importance the whole warriors
warfare ^jg ^^^ suited ; and Jlr Keating informs us that questions
are noi decided by the votes of a majority, but the reso-
lution i dopted must have the consent of every individual
warrior. Their assemblies are conducted with much for-
mality ind decorum. The eldest chief commences the
debate, which is often carried on by set speeches, abound-
ing in l>old figures and metaphors, and bursts of a rude but
impassi jned eloquence. The young are permitted to be,
present and -to' express their approbation by cries, but
not to s oeak. In their wars the object commonly is, to
secure ( he right of hunting within particxdar _ Emits, to
maintai' i the liberty of passing thi-ough their accustomed
tracts, 9 id to guard from infringement those lands which
they coi sider as their own tenure. War is declared by
sending a slave, with a hatchet, the handle of which is
painted red, to the nation they intend to break with.
They g< leraUy take the field in small numbers. Each
warrior, besides his weapons, carries a mat, and supports
himself liU he is near the enemy by killing game. From
the time they enter the enemy's, country, no game is
killed, no fires lighted, or shouting heard, and their vigi-
lance anl caution are extreme. They are not even per-
mitted tD speak, but must communicate by signs and
motions. Having diccovered the objects of their hostility,
they first reconnoitre them, then hold a council ; and they
generally make their' attack just before daybreak, that
they may surprise their enemies while asleep. They vciR
lie the 'iVhole night flat on their faces without stirring,
and, at tue fit moment for action, will creep on their hands
and feet till they have got within a bow-shot of those
they have doomed to destruction. On a signal given by
the chief warrior, which is answered by the yeUs of the
whole party, they start up; and, "after discharging their
arrows, they rush upon their adversaries, without giring
them time to recover from their confusion, with their
war-clubs and tomahawks. If they succeed, the scene of
horror which follows baffles description. The savage fury
of the conquerors, the desperation of the conquered, the
horrid yells of both, and their grim figures besmeared
with paint and blood, form an assemblage of objects
worthy of pandemonium. When the victory is secured,
they select a certain number of their prisoners to carry
home : they kill the rest in cold blood, take their scalps,
and then march oS with the spoU.. The prisoners des-
tined to death are soon led to the place of execution,
where they are stripped, have their bodies blackened, and
are bound to a stake.- In this situation, while the burn-
ing faggots embrace his 'limbs, and the knives of his
revengeful enemies are inflicting a thousand tortures, it
is common for the warrior to recount his exploits, boast
of the cruelties he -has committed upon his enemies, an'd
to irritate and insult his tormenters in every way. Some-
times it happens that this has the efl'ect of provoking one
of the spectators to dispatch him ■with a club or toma-
hawk. Sometimes the male adult prisoners are given as
slaves to wom'en who have lost their husbands in the war,
and by whom they are often married. The women taken
are distributed among the warriors; the boys and girls
Boksist are considored as slaves,
ence. Nearly all the Indian trib;3 raise maize, beans, and
(sxico an
Peru.
pumpkins, by the lajiour ■ o^ their women, but only to a
small extent, and as a resource against famine, their chief
reliance being upon the chase. The buffaloes ■svhich
wander over, the prairies of the west, in herds of tens of
thousands, are th?ir great jupport ; but deer, bears, and
in time of need otters, bcAvers, foxes, squirrels, and even
reptiles, are devoured
The Toltecan family embraced the civilised nations of Toltecan
Meidco, Peru, and Bogota, extending from the Bio Gila in ;';'=«s —
33° N. latitude along the western shore of the conti-
nent to'the frontiers of Chili ; and on the eastern coast, along
"the Gulf of Mexico, in North America. In South America,
on the contrary, this iamily chiefly occupied a narrow strip
of land between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, bounded
on the south by the great desert of Atacama. Farther north,
however, in New Granada, were the Bogotese, a people
whose civilisation, lile their geographical position, was
intermediate between that of the Peruvians and the Mexi-
cans. But, even before the Spanish conquest, the Toltecaa
family were not the exclusive possessors of the regions which
we have assigned to them ; they were only the aominant
race or caste, while other tribes of the American race. always
constituted a largo mass of the population. The arrival cf
the Spaniards reduced both classes alike to vassalage : and
three centuries of slavery and oppression have left few traces
of Mexican and Peru^nan civilisation, except what may
be gleaned from their history and antiquities. These nations
can no longer be identified in existing communities; and
the mixed and motley races which now respectively bear the
name, are as imlike their predecessors in moral and inteUts-
tual character, as the degraded Copts are unlike the ancient
Egj'ptians. It is in the intellectual faculties that the great
difference between the Toltecan and the American faimli;s
consists. In the arts and sciences of thefcrmer we see the
evidences of an advanced civilisation ; their architectural
remains everywhere surprise the traveller and confound the
antiquary. Among these are pyramids, temples, grottoes,
bas-reliefs, and arabesques; while their roads, aqueducts,
and fortifications, and the traces of their mining operations,
sufiiciently attest their attainments in the Diactical arts of
life.
The origin of the populations of America is a problem Or.^.n ol
which has yet to be solved; It is known that in Europe -^-'-"-'''''^^
man was in existence at a very remote period ; and there P"!"^*'
are facts which lend some support to the view that man
has also been a denizen of America for ages. Thus there
have been found portions of the human skeleton and
fragments of human handiwork, associated with the bonss
of mammals which now have no existence, under circum-
stances which imply great antiquity. In most instances,
however, it is not certain that such relics are of the age ot
the deposit in which they have been found. Human
skeletons and bones in a fossilised state, or associated irith
bones of extinct mammals, have been found at Guadalou-je,
in Missouri, near Natchez, at New Orleans, in the coral
reef of Florida, near Charleston, in CaUfornia, in OrchiH;,
at Petit Anse, end in Kansas. Some of these are referred
to a very distant period. Thus the conglomerate in which
the remains occur in the Florida reef is estioiated by Agassis
to be 10,000 years old; but, what is still more amazing,
the skeleton found by Dr Dowler beneath four buried Antiquity
forests in the delta near New Orieans, is said to be 50,000 of man ui
years old, and the remains from California were fouiid in a •^™^'i*'
deposit beneath Table Mountain, which deposit was forme^l
in an old river of the Post-Pliocene, or Pliocene period.
At any rate, when this deposit was formed there was a river
valley here, down which an overflow of volcanic matter was
poured. Since that time denudation has been so great, and
the volcanic matter so hard, that the sides of the valley have
been swent away, leaving the valley bottom with its pro-
692
AMERICA
[antiquities.
Aatiqui-
'ties.
tecting cover standing up far above the level of the neigh-
bouring country. Articles made by man also occur under
tonditions indicating great antiquity. Thus along the coast
of Ecuador there are volcanic deposits which belong to the
period of volcanic activity preceding the present, which may
probably bo referred to the Post-Plioccno period. This
matter is arranged in terraces, and in one of these terraces,
now 24 miles from the coast and 150 feet above the sea,
Mr Wilson has found beneath the vegetable mould, beds of
clay with sand and gravel which contain fragments of pot-
tery. These beds, it is believed, were deposited beneath
the sea, implying an elevation of 1 50 feet since their forma-
tion. On the coast there is a pottery-containing stratum,
which has been followed for 80 miles, and patches of a
similar bed occur over a further distance of 200 miles.
These facts, taken in conjunction vdth what we learn from
the traditions and histories of numerous nations, as also the
characters of the present natives, render it highly probable
that man existed in America long before the origin or arrival
•of the civilised communities to which allusion will be pre-
sently made. The histories of thfese communities generally
agree that civilisation was introduced by persons who first
appeared as strangers amidst the people already in possession
of the country. Hence the question has a twofold aspect,
viz., the origin of the earliest uncivilised as well as that of
the earliest civilised tribes. It is possible, as the traditions
suggest, that people have arrived from various quarters and
at various times. As yet wo have little positive evidence
to rely upon, and caution is required iu drawing conclusions
from resemblances in customs or religion. For instance,
to take one remarkable case. Amongst tribes living high
up the Amazon basin there are customs which correspond
with those in Borneo. In both areas we find blow-pipes
for discharging arrows; large houses inhabited by several
families and similarly constructed; baskets and bamboo
boxes of almost identical form and construction; and the
smoke-dried heads of enemies hung up in the houses. In
one tribe on the Amazon the throwiiig-stick is used, and
not the blow-pipe, which is employed by all the surrounding
tribes ; the throwing-stick is also i^sed by the Esquimaux,
the Andaman Islanders, and the Australians. On the
Amazon an arrow or spear is used for catching turtle,
which has the barb loosely attached to the shaft, so that
when the turtle disappears the shaft floats ou the surface
and indicates its movements and position. The Australians
catch turtle in precisely the same way. Again, many
other customs are common to the Americans, and tribes
living iu areas far remote from them, with which they
have no apparent direct relatiouship. If these analogies
were always proofs of affinities, then -.ve might infer,
as has been done, that America was first peopled by
emigrants from the opposite shores of Africa, W. Europe,
E. Asia, and Polynesia.
In the great valley of the Mississippi and its mighty
tributaries, the Ohio and Missouri, are the remains of the
works of an extinct race of men, who seem' to have made
advances in civilisation far beyond the races of red men dis-
covered there by the first European adventurers. These
remains consist chiefly of tumuli and ramparts of earth,
enclosing areas of great extent and much regularity of form.
Some of them recall the barrows of Europe and of Asia, or
the huge mounds and ramparts of Mesopotamia, as displayed
at Bibylon and Nineveh ; while others remind ua of the
ruined hippodromes and amphitheatres of the Greeks and
Romans. In that part of North America the barrows are
usually truncated cone^ ; but in advancing farther south,
they often assume the figure of four-sided pyramids in suc-
cessive statres, -(rith flattened tops, like the Teocallis, or
temples of Mexico and Yucatan. They have been accurately
<lesciibej. and m-iny of them delineated in the Smit/uoniur.
Contributions to Knmiltdge, from the researches of Messrs
Squier and Davis.
The barrows and ramparts are constructed oi mingled
earth and stones ; and from their solidity and extent, must
have required the labour of a numerous population, with
leisure and skill sufficient to undertake combined and vast
operations. The barrows often contain human bones, and
the smaller tumuli appear fo have been tombs; but the
larger, especially the quadrangular mounds, vrtjuld seem to
have served as temples to the early inhabitants. These
barrows vary in size, from a few feet in circumference and
elevation, to structures with a basal circumference of 1000
or 2000 feet, and an altitude of from CO to 90 feet, resem-
bling, in dimensions, the vast tumulus of AJyattes neai
Sardis. One in Mississippi is said to cover a base of ea.
acres. The ramparts also vary in thickness, and in height
from 6 to 30 feet, and usually enclose areas varying from
100 to 200 acres. Some contain 400 ; and one on the Mis-
souri has an area of 600 acres. The enclosures generally
are veiy exact circles or squares, sometimes a union of both ;
occasionally they form parallelograms, or follow the sinuo-
sities of a hill ; and in one district, that of Wisconsin, they
assume the fanciful shape of men, quadrupeds, birds, or ser-
pents, delineated with some ingenuity, on the surface of
undulating plains or wide savannahs.
These ramparts are usually placed on elevations or hiiis,
or on the banks of streams, so as to show that they were
erected for defensive purposes, and their sites are judiciously
chosen for this end. The area enclosed, therefore, bears no
proportion to the relative labour bestowed on such ramparts :
thus, in Ohio, an area of not more than 40 acres is enclosed
by mounds of a mile and a half in circumference ; and on the
Little Miami, in the same state, is found an enclosure fully
four mUea round, that contains an area of about 100 acres.
These remains are not solitary and few, for in the state
of Ohio they amoun* to at least 10,000.
The enclosures in the form of animals are more rare than
those now noticed, and seem nearly confined to Wisconsin.
One of these represents a gigantic man with two heads, the
size of which may be estimated, by the body being 50 feet
long, and 25 feet across the breast. Another on a slope near
Brush Creek, represents a tolerably designed snake, with an
oval ball in its mouth ; the undulating folds of its body and
spiral of its tail extending to a length of 700 feet. The
forms of quadrupeds and birds are also characteristically
represented in these works. TChose that have been explored
rarely contain human bones; though the Indians deposit
their dead within them occasionally, they have no tradition
of their having belonged to their ancestors. The most pro-
bable supposition respecting them is that of Mr R. 0. Taylor,
that each was the sepulchral monument of a different tribe,
who have all disappeared from America.
The question immediately suggests itself, to what people
must we ascribe those vast works ! They can scarcely be
the works of the ancestors of the red men discovered by
Europeans in North America. Neither can we ascribe
them to "the early Greenland and Iceland colonists, who
seem never to have passed westward of the Alleghanies.
We can scarcely attribute them to the somewhat apocryphal
advent, of the Welsh Madoc. Can their authors be the
people obscurely mentioned in the Icelandic sagai, as the
inhabitants of New Iceland f
A curious tradition of the present Iroquois records, that
when the Lenni Lcnapi, the common ancestors of the Iro-
quois and other tribes, whose language is still widely spread
among the Indians, advanced from the north-west to the
Mississippi, they found on its eastern side a great nation
more civilised than themselves, who lived in fortified towns
and ctiltivatcd the ground. This people at first granted the
Lenni Lenapi leave to pass tlttough their territories to seei
ANTIQUITIES.
AMERICA
693
an eastward seUleraent, but treacherously attacked them
while crossing the river. This conduct gave rise to inve-
terate hoslUitios, that terminated in the extermination or
subjugation of their opponents, and the establishment of the
red men in those regions. This not improbable, though
imperfect, account of such rude communities, where neither
letters nor hieroglyijhics existed, is probably all that we
shall ever learn of the people who executed those works
that now excite our surprise.
Central As we advance soutliward we find proofs of stiU greater
American refinement on the table-land of Anahuac or Jlexico ; and
antiquities, yjj descending into the humid valleys of Central America,
the peninsula of Yucatan, and the shores of Honduras, we
find strilcing remains of the serai-civilisation of the races
that inhabited those countries before the Spanish invasion.
The barbarous policy of Cortez and other invaders was to
eradicate every trace of the former grandeur of the native
races, and thereby to inure them to a degrading servitude.
The systematic destruction of the native works of art and
gorgeous buildings in Mexico was relentlessly carried on for
ages, to the infinite regret of the modern ethnographical
inquirer. Little positive information on these subjects can
be gleaned from the early Spanish historians of the con-
quest ; and it was not until the publication of Humboldt's
Iti'searclics that Eurojie knew anything of the state of the
Great Mexican pyramid, or of the wonderfid remains of
Palenque and Papantla.
In the middle of the last century, however, some Spanish
adventurers penetrated with difficulty the dense forests of
the Mexican province of Chiapas, in which they discovered
the remains of an ancient city, of which all memory had
been lost, and to which they gave the name of Pat-enque,
from a poor adjacent village. Stimtdated by their report,
the Spanish Government some years afterwards despatched
two intelligent travellers to explore those wilds ; but the
report of Del Eio and Du Paix, from the commotions that
agitated Europe and con^idsed Spain, remained unpublished
until a few years ago. It has since appeared, with very in-
teresting designs of the .ruins they explored. Our know-
ledge of such remains, however, has been greatly enlarged
by the labours of an enterprising North American traveller,
Mr Stephens, given to the world in four volumes, entitled
Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and
Yucatan, 1838, and Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, 1842.
This gentleman discovered, in the almost impenetrable
forests of those regions, the remains of no less than 44
towns, some of them with extensive and highly decorated
Btructuros. These exhibit walls of hevm stone, admirably
put together with mortar, often enriched by sculptures
in bold relief, and hieroglyphical inscriptions, exactly
resembling the Aztec MSS. in the museums of Europe,
and in the publications of Humboldt ; weU executed
vaulted roofs, and obelisks covered with mytliio figures
and pictorial or hieroglyphical inscriptions. These curi-
ous remains have been concealed for ages by a luxu-
riant tropical vegetation, so dense that they seem to have
been unknov/n to jjeoulo living v.'ithin half a mile of their
Bite.
Tho most conspicuous ruins are those of temples and
palaces, which almost invariably have a pyramidal form, in
several stages, with wide intervening terraces, the ascent to
which is by grand flights of stops. The chambers in those
buildings have generally a length disproportioned to their
width, they have no windows, but receive their light from
tho doors, just as tho rooms do at this day in Barbary and
some other eastern countries. The apartments are in two
parallel rows, a narrow corridor or scries of chambers runs
along the front, and the apartments behind this receive their
light only from the front rooms into which they open. Yet
these intei-ior apartments aio often richly decorated with
sculptures, ornamented with stuccos, and gaily painted red,
yeUow, white, and black.
The ruins of Palenque, as may be seen in the researches
of Humboldt, have the characters just mentioned. They
are covered -jvith hieroglyphics, and sculptures in relief, with
ornamental cornices. The largest building stands on a
terrace, faced with stone, measuring 310 by 260 feet; the
building itself is 200 by 180 feet; its walls are 25 feet
high. The stone has been originally covered with painted
stucco ; fronts the east, and contains 14 doors, separated
by piers ornamented with stucco figures. In this budding
some of the figures are erect, while others sit cross-legged,
in what we term the oriental fashion ; one statue, lOf feet
high, was found at Palenque ; and two fragments of two
torsos and a head were also discovered that exhibited a
severe but fair style of sculpture, that recalls something of
the early style of Greek art.
The ruins at Copan, in Honduras, are of vast extent.
Here a pyramidal structure remains, with an elevation of
150 feet measured along its slope, and this appears to be a
principal temple, included with several smaller structures
within a sacred enclosure, in the manner of the temples of
ancient Egypt. On its walls are many skulls of a quadru-
manoug animal, well executed in high relief ; a largfe figure
of a baboon was discovered among the ruins, bearing no in-
considerable resemblance to the cynocephalus of the Egyji-
tians. Here also several sculptured obelisks occur, from
11 to 13 feet in height, and from 3 to 4 feet %vide, which,
as well as the walls of the temple, were highly ornamented
with sculptures in bold relief.
The similarity between the ruins at Copan and Palenque,
and the identity of the hieroglyjihic tablets in both, show
that the former inhabitants of Chiapas and Honduras had
the same mrilten language, though the present Indians of
those provinces do not understand each other.
At several places, but more especially at Uxmal, in
Yucatan, are very magruficent ruins of the same kind.
Here are found sculptured obelisks, bearing on their prin-
cipal face the figure, probably, of some deity, with a be-
nignant countenance represented in full, and the hands
applied to the breast. The other sides of the obelisks are
covered with hieroglyphical tablets, proving that the sama
race once inhabited the plains of Honduras and the table-
land of Anahuac. The principal building at Uxmal seems
to have been a very magnificent pyramid in three stages or
terraces, faced with hewn stone, and neatly rounded at the
angles. The first terrace is 575 f.:et long, 15 feet broad,
and 3 feet high, serving as a sort of plinth to the whole ;
the second terrace is 545 feet long, 250 feet wide, and 20
feet high ; the third terrace is 3G0 feet long, by 30 feet
wide, and 19 feet in height. From the centre of the second
terrace, the upper part is gained by a vast ibght of well-
constructed stci)s 130 feet wide. This leads to the temple,
the facade of which is no less than 322 feet long, but has
not had a greater elevation than 25 feet ; yet its grandeur
is enhanced by the rich sculpture that covers the upper part
above a fillet, or cornice, that surrounds the whole building
at about half its elevation. The interior consists of two
parallel ranges of chambers, 11 in each row. Tho front
apartments are entered by 11 doorways, enriched with
sculpture, which gives suflicicnt light to those rooms; but the
posterior row receives no light except what enters by their
doors from the exterior rooms. The roofs here, unlike those
of Palenque and Copan, are not stone arches, but are sup-
ported on bearers of a very hard wood, that must have been
brought from a distance of some hundred miles, and these
beams too are covered with hiorogly[)hic3. Tho flat roof
of this building has been externally covered with a hard
cement. In a building placed on a lower level is a rectati-
gular court, which has been once wholly paved with well-
694
AMERICA
[astiqdities.
carved fijjures ot tortoises in demi-relief. Tts:;3 ere ar-
ranged in groups of four, with their heads placed together ;
and from the dimensions of the court, this lala d^ tat Tor-
luga) must have required 43.GG0 of such carved stones for
its pavement.
The ruins of Chichen, also in Yucatan, extend over an
area of two miles in circumference. One of the beat pre-
served buildings with an ambit of 638 feet, is constructed in
three terraces, which gave it an apparent altitude of C5 feet.
The buildings here, on the second terrace, have the facades
highly sculptured, both above and below the horizontal fil-
let ; and the doorways are enriched with mouldings, and
truss-]jike ornaments supporting a drip-stone. The staircase
here is 56 feet wide. The front apartments are 47 feet
long and only 9 wide. There are three doors in the front, and
in the central apartment are nine niches. The roofs are
stone arches ; and all has been once painted of variou.s
colours. A curious adjoining structiire consists of two
parallel stone walls, 274 feet long, and 30 feet apart. The
walls are 30 feet thick. It has been conjectured to have
been connected with the celebration of some "ublic games,
like the palocstrce of the Greeks.
In several of the ruins now noticea are found buildings
to which there is no access. They have doorways, but these
seem to have been walled up when the buildings were erected.
Their use is unknown ; they are named casaa cerradas, or
" shut up houses." Their interior does not differ from the
other apartments above described.
It is worthy of notice, that the builders of those cities took
great pains to supply them with one of the prime essentials
. . of human comfort — abundance of good water, by means of
wells and cisterns of excellent construction.
The remains in all the 44 ancient towns visited by
Stephens have a similar character ; so that we can have no
hesitation to ascribe them to the same nation, or to kindred
races of men, who had certainly attained no inconsiderable,
civilisation, although unacquainted with the use of iron, or
even of bronze. Many of these towns are repeatedly referred
to in the native histories, and it is almost certain that a
largo proportion of them were founded an^ inhabited by
the Tutul-Xius, Nahoas, and other tribes speaking the
Nahuatl tongue. In not a few instances the dates and the
oames of the founders have been preserved.
Native It has been generally admitted by physiologists, that
Aineri:cn the temperate regions of the globe are best fitted to de-
civilusa. velope all the powers of our nature ; and it is a fact in
accordance with this opinion, that among the aborigines
of America, civilisation followed veryclostly the chain of
the Andes, and was found either upon their sides or the
table-land of their summits, where the elevation of the
ground moderates the heat of the tropical sun, and pro-
duces a climate analogous to that of Central and Southern
Europe. This civilisation did not exist merely at the two
distant and isolated points of Mexico and Peru, but pre-
sented itself at intermediate places, and may be said to have
formed a continuous line from lat. 35° N. to lat. 35° S, with
fsw interruptions, except at those parts where the moun-
tainous chain disappears, or sinks down to a trifling eleva-
tion. Some large buildings near the Rio Gila, in lat. 33° N.,
with fragments of porcelain, indicate the existence of a
people there who had some knowledge of the arts. These
were most probably a branch of the Aztecs or Toltecs,
who afterwards occupied Mexico, as the annals of that
country teO. Though some pursued theu' march south-
ward, it may be reasonably supposed that a part remained
in the district ; and the Indians liWng here, who culti-
vate corn, weave cloth, and live in villages consisting of
houses built of solid materials, sometimes two stories in
height, may either be their descendants, or have bor-
rowed from them the improvcaeula they possess. Nest
tion.
in order as we proceed southward, are the various nations
of Mexico, of whose condition we chall speak by and by.
In Chiapa were the Zapotecs, in Yncatan the Ma) as, in
Guatemala the Quiches and Kachiqucls, all nearly aM
much advanced in civilisation as the Mexicans, and pro-
bably of the same primitive stock. From this point, where
the Andes lose their elevation, or break into isolated cones,
no distinct traces of civilisation appear till we enter the
southern continent. Hero were found the Muyscas or
Moccas, on the table-land of Bogota, a nation consisting
of several tribes, who worshipped the sun and practised
some of the usoful arts. To these succeeded the nations of
Peru, living under the Incas, whose dominion extended
from the equator to the 35th degree of S. latitude.
Beyond this boundary were the Chilian tribes, who, though
inferior to the Peruvians, had made some advances beyond
the rudeness of the savage state. It is proper to mention
that some of the nations named were extinct before the
arrival of the Spaniards ; but the degree of civilisation they
had attained is attested by the monuments they have left
behind them. There were no other tribes in the new
continent which had made any progress in social improve-
ment. We would not except the Guaranis of Brazil, and a
few others, who derived their subsistence chiefly from
agriculture, but were iu other respects savages. We place
among the exceptions, however, the extinct race of tha
AUegewis, or whatever was the name of the people, who
erected the military works existing between the Ohio ani
the northern lakes ; but they also, it must be remembered,
inhabited a temperate climate, though not a mounlainouj
country. It may be affirmed, then, as a general proposi-
tion, that from 35° of N. to 35° of S. latitude, the sides
and summits of the Andes were the exclusive seats cf
American civilisation. We admit that some of the tribes
in Chiapa, Oaxaca, and Yucatan, inhabited low districts;
but they were still near the Cordillera, and may be fairly
considered as offsets from the nations dwelling upon it.
The fact is important, as marking the effect of climate on
the active energies of our species. There is no doubt
that, with the improved arts of modem times, civilisation
can subsist under th3 burning sky of the torrid zone, but not
in such vigour as in countries which enjoy a more moderate
temperature. Perhaps it will be found that the moral
and physical powers of man attain their highest perfection
in those regions where he is accompanied by whtat and
the vine. The zone occupied by the former extends
from the 30th to the 57th or 58th parallel ; and within tha
tropics the corresponding climate is found on the flanks
or summits cf mountain." ijuvax 4500 to 10,000 feet abov9
the level of the sea.
It is remarkable tnat tne Mexican annals reach to a.y_ nco,
very remote date, although they were preserved xuerely by
picture-writing. Wo do not pretend to enter into tho
question as to the authenticity of the records themselves,
and their correctness. It is enough that they have received
credit from Humboldt, Vater, and other men of learning
and judgment. From the annals thus preserved, of which
further details will be subsequently given, we learn that at
the earliest dawn of history the Quinames were in possession
of the country, that civilisation was introduced by strangers
coming from the east, and that several nations belongingto
one race migrated in succession from the north- west, and
settled in Anakuac or Mexico. The Toltecs, it is stated,
left their original seat, far to the west, in 544 of our era,
and after a long journey invaded Me-tico, then occupred
by wandering hordes, in 648. This people, who penetrated
to Nicaragua, if not to South America, were nearly
destroyed after the lapse of some centuries; but were
followed by the Chichimecs, a half savage tribe, about
1120, and these a few years afterwards by the Anahautlels
ANCIENT MEXICO.]
AMERICA
695
or seven tribes, including the Acolhuans, the Tlascaltecs, and
the Aztecs or proper Mexicans. All these people spoke
dialects of one language, and had similar arts, customs,
and institutions. The town of Mexico or Tenochtitlan
was founded in 1325, and the series of Mexican kings
which commenced in 1352 was continued through eight
monarchs to Montezuma. The monarchy was small at first,
and passed through many vicissitudes ; but it was gradually
enlarged, especially by the policy and entei-prise of the later
princes of the line. When Cortes arrived, it embraced
■what are now the provinces of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, Puebla,
Mexico, and part of Valladolid, a surface of 130,000 square
miles ; but within this were comprehended three small
Independent states, Tlascala, Cholullan, and Zapeaca. The
pastoral state, which fonns the intermediate stage between
savage and civUised life, had never existed in Mexico ; for
the native wild ox had not been tamed, and the use of milk
as food was unknown. The Mexican nations derived their
The arts m subsistence from agriculture, which, however, was conducted
Mexico. in the rudest manner, with very imperfect in.=itruments.
They cultivated maize, potatoes, plantains, and various
other esciilent vegetables. They raised cotton, and under-
stood the art of spinning and '.veaving it into cloth, of a
texture which excited the admiration of the Spaniards.
They had no iron, but showed considerable slaU in fashion-
ing the gold, sil^'er, and copper, found in a native state,
into domestic utensUs and ornamental articles. In some
of their buildings the stones were hevra iato regular forms,
and accurately joined ; and from the ruins of the palace of
Mitla, in Oaxaca, still existing, it appears that they had
the art of designing ornaments like arabesques, in paste,
with great neatness, and attaching them to the walls ; but
solid structures of masonry evincing any considerable skill
are extremely rare in the country. Their carvings in
wood were tolerably well executed, but the figures were
disproportioned and uncouth. The same remark applies
to their hieroglyphical drawings, which were far inferior
in taste and design to those of the Hindoos, Japanese,
and Thibetians. Tor paper they employed sometimes
the large leaves of the aloe, sometimes cotton cloth, or the
skins of deer dressed. Their books consisted of strips or
webs of such materials, composed of pieces neatly •joined,
one or two feet broad and twenty or thirty long, which
were divided mto pages by folding them in a zig-zag
manner ; and two pieces of thin deal attached to the outer-
most folds served as boards, and gave these manuscripts,
when closed, an appearance very much like our old folios
in wooden binding. The written language of Mexico con-
tained a few real hieroglyphics or symbols, purely conven-
tional, to designate such objects as water, earth, air, day,
night, speech, and also for numbers; but it was essentially a
system of pKlure-vrriting in which objects were represented
by coloured figures having a resemblance more or less
exact to themselves. With all its necessary imperfections,
this instrument was familiarly employed to a prodigious ex-
tent in deeds and instruments for efifecting the transmission
and sale of property. The government kept couriers for
convcTong intelligence from all parts of the empire ; and the
capital was watched and cleaned by a sort of police estab-
lishment. This is the bright side of Mexican civilisation.
On the other hand, it must be kept in view, that the Mexi-
cans had no tame animals, no made roads, no money to
serve as a universal medium of exchange in commercial
transactions. The government was originally a perfect
feudal monarchy, in which all power was monopolised by
a numerous nobility and the priesthood. The great mass
of the people were serfs, attached to the soil, and trans-
ferred with it from owner to owner by descent or purchase.
The peasants or slaves of a nobleman were allowed a ccr-
trun portion of land, which they cultivated in common
for their .subsisf ence : the rest of their labour belonged
to their lord. The country swarmed with beggars, and
thousands were swept off every few years by famine. As
among the ancient Egyptians and the Chinese, immutable
custom, regulating every act of civil and common life,
chained up the course of improvement, and spread a
languid monotony over society. The crown was elective,
and the powers of the monarch small, tiU the privileges of
the nobles were destroyed by the policy and ambition of
Jlontezuma. The religion of the Mexicans breathed
a savage spirit, which degraded them, in a moral point of
view, far below the hordes of wandering Indians. Their
deities, represented by mis-shapen images of serpents
and other hideous animals, were the creation of the
darkest passions of the human breast, of terror, hatred,
cruelty, and revenge. They delighted in blood, and thou-
sands of human sacrifices were annually offered at their
shrines. The places of worship, called Teocallis, ■r ere pyra-
mids composed of terraces placed one above another,
like the temple of Belus at Babylon. These were built of
clay, or of alternate layers of clay and unburnt bricks,
but in some cases faced with slabs of polished stone, on
which figures of animals are sculptured in relief.^ One or
two small chapels stood upon the summit, enclosing
images of the deity. The largest known, which is com-
posed of four stories or terraces, has a breadth of 480
yards at the base, and a height of 55. These structures
served as temples, tombs, and observatories ; and it is re-
markable that their sides are always placed exactly in the
direction of the meridian. This leads us to the most in- Calendat
teresting fact connected with Mexican civilisation, we
mean the perfection of their calendar. The civil year was
composed of 365 days, divided into 18 months of 20
days, and 5 supplementary days. The Mexicans had
besides a ritual or religious year for the regulation of their
festivals ; and, by means of a cycle of 52 years, and a very
complicated method of computation, the religious and civil
periods were connected with one another, and the civil year
was made to correspond vrA\x the natural by the inter-
calation of 13 days at the end of the cycle. The month
was divided into four weeks of five days, but each day of
the month had a distinct name ; and Humboldt has given
strong reasons for believing that these names were bor-
rowed from an ancient zodiac formed of 27 or 28 lunar
houses, which was made use of from the remotest anti
quity in Tartary, Thibet, and India. The calendar of the
Slexicans bespeaks a degree of scientific skill, and an
accuracy of observation, which are not easily reconcOed
with their semi-barbarous habits, their general ignorance
in other things, and the recent date of their civilisation
according to their own account. It is here, indeed, and
not in their language, that we find distinct traces of their
connection with Asiatic nations. The character of the
Mexicans is probably the same at this day as before the
conquest, which, we are disposed to think, made less
change in the situation of the people than is often sup-
posed, though it annihilated the rank and privileges of
the nobles. The Mexican Indian is grave, suspicious,
and taciturn ; quiet and placid in his external deportment,
but rancorous in his spirit ; submissive to his superiors,
harsh and cruel to those beneath him. His intellect is
limited, and chiefly developes itself in imitative labours
and mechanical arts. Slow, cautious, and persevering, he
loves, both in his acts and thoughts, to travel in a beaten
track. The people, though speaking many different lan-
guages, have nearly the same physical character. The
Mexicans have olive complexions, narrow foreheads, black
' Robertson was mistaken in believing th.it the Teocallis were in sll
cir.es mere ma'^'jea of eartli, v.ilbout masjnry. Sec Humboldt's
ResiarcJuSf vol. i. p. Ill, Knglish translation.
G9f5
AMERICA
[ancient PERU.
Peru.
eyes, coarse glo°3y black ha'r, aiid Uiin beards. They
are of the imddlo eizo, and ■well-propoilioncd in their
limbs. A person with any defect or deformity ia rarely
seen amongst them. They are healthy, end live to an
advanced age, when life is not shortened by drunken-
ness. The Toltec and Aztec races, when they established
themselves in the country, diffused their own language
partially from the Lake of Nicaragua to the 37th parallel.
They reclaimed, by degrees, many of the neighbouring
Bavf.ge tribes to a settled mode of life, and spread a feeble
degree of civilisation over a mixed mass of nations, speak-
ing, according to Clavigero, 35 languages, of which Hum-
boldt *';lls us that 20 still exist. The Aztec language is one
of the most copious and polished of the American tongues,
and abounds in words of the immoderate length of 12 or 15
syllables. It is uncertain wh;it was the number of sub-
jects over whom Montezuma ruled. The mins in the
valley of Tenochtitlan, on which the capital stands, show
that it must have been more populous before the conquest
than now ; but the population at present is diffused ovar
in incomparably wider space ; and, upon the whole, there
are no good grounds for believing that the number of
civilised Indians was much greater when Cortes landed,
than in 1803, when it amounted to 2,000,000
The ciWlisation of Mexico, as well as of Peru, owed its
existence to a single cause, — the patient, submissive, and
superstitious character of the people, which fitted them
to be beasts of burden, under an aristocracy of priests
and nobles, who were led, perhaps, partly by influences
from abroad, partly by the instinct of self-interest, to
devise means for holding the mass of the community
in subjection. Many of the nations which continued
savage, such as the Algonquins and Iroquois, were pro-
bably equal to the Mexicans in intellect ; but their
propensity to superstition was less, and their energy of
character was too great to permit of their being enslaved
by their chiefs. It is chietly in the , variety of their pri-
mitive character that we mu.>;t seek for the cause of the
diversity of manners and institutions we find among the
American nations.
The ancient empire cf Peru, more extensive than that
of Mexico, embraced the whole sea-coast from Pastes to
the river Maule, a lino of 2500 miles in length. Its
breadth is uncertain ; but as it included both declivities
of the Andes, it must have extended in some cases to
500 miles, and the entire surface of the empire probably
e.\ceeded 500,000 square mUes. It is plain, however,
from the imperfect history of the Incas which has been
preserved, that within this space there were many dis-
tricts where their authority was feeble, and others inhabited
by tribes which were entirely independent. One part
of the country, besides, consisted of a sandy desert, while
the most elevated tracts were uninhabitable from cold.
It must not therefore be supposed that the capacity of
the country to support population was commensurate
with the extent of its surface. Still the magnitude of the
Penivian empire,, in the midst of an immense multitude
of independent savage communities, so extremely minute,
that a hundred of them might have been planted with-
out crowding in one of its provinces, is an extraordinary
phenomenon. Tbe creating and maintaining of such an
empire is a proof that the Peruvians had made no trifling
progress in the usefid arts and in the science of government.
To keep in subjection so many remote provinces, there must
have been an efficient military force, rapid means of com-
munication, considerable revenues, and an organised magis-
tracy capable of understanding and executing the plans
of rulers, who had sufficient political skill and knowledge
of human nature to adapt their institutions anrl arrange-
ments to the wants. habit& and character of a great
variety of dissimilar nations, spread over a territory reach-
ing as far as from Lisbon to the banks of the Volga. It
is clear that the ruling tribe, wJiich was able to extend
its dominion, and to a considerable extent its language,
over a space of 2500 miles, must have possessed a marked
superiority of some kind over the hordes that surrounded
it. We must remember, besides, that the Peruvians lay
under the disadvantage of being destitute of even such aa
imperfect instrument of communication as the hieroglyphic
language of the Mexicans, and that they were extremely
deficient in military spirit. Indeed, it is one of the most
singular facts connected with the history of America, that
by far the largest empire it contained was formed by the
most unwarlike people in it. The dominion of the Inca»
was founded entirely on policy, superstition, and the aria.
It could Only be by the intelligence and skill which civi-
lisation developes, that the Peruvians • conquered tribes
superior to themselves in courage ; and it was by policy
and superstition that the Incas tamed the rudeness of
savage tribes, and held distant countries in subjection.
Robertson justly observes, that the Peruvians "had ad-
vanced far beyond the Mexicans, both in the necessary arts
of life, and in such as had some title to the name of
elegant." In two points only were they inferior; in their
calendar or mode of computing time, and in their want
of such a substitute for writing as the Aztecs possessed
in their hieroglyphics.
Agriculture was conducted with greater care and sue Arts,
cess in Peru than in Mexico. The lands capable of cul Pero-.
tivation were divided into three shares. One was conse-
crated ta the service cf religion, the erection of temples,
and the maintenance of priests ; the second was set apart
as a provision for the support of the government; and
the tliird and largest share, which was reserved for the
people, was parcelled out, not among individuals, but
among the hamlets and villages, according to the number
and rank of the inhabitants ; and a new division was made
every year to meet any change that might arise in the
circumstances of the parties. The members of each
little community went to the fields under overseers, and
cultivated the land by their joint labour. The produce
was distributed among the families and individuals accord-
ing to their wants, while the evils of famine were pro-
vided against by storing up the. com in granaries. Tho
Peruvians having no draught animals, and no ploughs,
turned up the earth with wooden mattocks ; but their
skill and care were exemplified in irrigation, which they
practised extensively, and in their employing as manure
guano, or the dung of sea birds, which abounds on
the islands near the coast. Their masonry was superior
to that of the Mexicans. Like the ancient Egyptians,
they understood mechanics sufficiently to move stones
of vast size, even of 30 feet in length, of which speci-
mens are still existing in the walls of the fortress of
Cuzco. They had the art of squaring and cutting blocks
for building with great accuracy ; and they did not effect
their purpose, as Eobertson supposes, merely by chip-
ping the stones, or rubbing them together so as to fit
the surface of the one to that of the other, ■nathout re-
gard to symmetry of fonn. It is now kno'ivn that they
had hard chisels, made of copper, with a mixture of 6
per cent, of tin, — a proof of considerable skill in the work-
ing of metals. With these they hewed the stones
into pa.'-allelopipeds, which were disposed in " conrses as BulldingS
regular," says Humboldt, ";is those of Roman workman-
ship." They are joined with such nicety, that the line
which divides the blocks can scarcely be perceived ; and
the outer surface is in some cases covered with carving.
The palaces or lodges of tho Incas, of which there are
many remains, had doors with slanting sides like the
ANOIKNT PERU.]
AMERICA
697
Egyptian ; aloping roofs, whicli, it is supposed, vere covered
with rushes or stone slabs ; no windows, but ■ niches
Bymmetrically distributed.' Ancient stone structures,
which are so rare in Mexico, are pretty abundant in
Peru, — a fact for which we can only account by the dif-
ficulty with which the Mexicans erected building.., in
consequence of their inferiority in the art of masonry.
The architecture of the Peruyians, like everything else
connected with their social state, displays a remarkab'e
■uniformity, not only of style, but of plan. " It is impos-
sible," says Humboldt, " to examine a single edifice of
the time of the Incas, without recognisltig the same type
in all the others which caver the ridge of the Andes,
along an extent of 450 leagues."
<o5-'.a The ancient public roads of Peru aie justly considered
S3 striking monuments of the political genius of the
government. One of these extended along the sides of the
Andes from Quito to Cuzco, a distance of 1500 miles. It
is about forty feet broad, and paved with the earth and
stones which were turned up from the soil ; but in some
marshy places it is formed, like the old Roman roads, of a
compact body of solid masonry. A tolerably level line is
preserved, by filling up hoUows, cutting down small emi-
nences, and winding round the sides of large ones. At
proper distances tambos or storehouses were erected, for
the accommodation of the Inca and his me;;sengers. A
similar road was made along the coast in the low country.
Fissures a few yards in breadth were passed by bridges
formed of beams laid horizontally ; and an invention, at
once bold and ingenious, afforded the means of crossing
deep ravines, or the channels of rivers, which hap-
pened to intersect the route. This consisted of a suspen-
sion bridge, perfectly analogous in its principle to those
with which we are familiar. It was formed of half a
dozen of cables of twisted osiers, passed over wooden
supports, and stretched from bank to bank; then bound
together with smaller ropes, and covered with bamboos.
Humboldt passed over one of these pendulous bridges, of
120 feet span ; and Mr Miers crossed one of 225 feet span,
over which loaded animals might travel. In low grounds
the rivers were crossed on rafts with a mast and sad, which,
by a particular contrivance, could be made to tack and
veer. In this respect the Peruvians were a stage in
advance of all the other American races, who had nothing
mperior to the canoe with paddles. The Peruvians manu-
fManafac- factured a rude species of pottery : they understood the
tMies. art of spinning, and, in an imperfect degree, that of weav-
ing. They procured native gold by washing the gravel of
rivers ; and silver, and perhaps copper, by working veins
downward from the outcrop. They knew how to smelt
and refine the silver ore ; and they possessed the secret of
giving great hardness and durability to copper by mixing
it with tin. Their utensils and trinkets of gold and silver
are said to have been fashioned with neatness and even
taste. On the other hand, they had no money, no know-
ledge of iron or glass ; and they were ignorant of the
mode of mortising or joining beams, and of casting arches.
They had no animals fitted for draught ; but the llama, a
small species, of camel, which they had tamed, was cm-
ployed to some extent as a beast of burden.
Laws and The political organisation of Peru, which was artificial
«o»toms. in a high degree, reminds one, in some of its features, of
the old system of the Saxona in England, but bears a
more general resemblance to that of the ancient Eg3'p-
tians. The mass of the people were in a state of servi-
tude, except a small number, who were free ; above these
in rank were the Curacas, or chiefs of districts, who formed
^ See Humboldt's account of the ancient buildingn of Collo and
Onnnar, vols. i. and ii. of his Rcsearchea. ^
a SDit of nobility; and above the whole, the family
of the Incas, the members of which, by intermarrying
only with themselves, formed a numerous and distinct
caste. Foi the purposes of police and civil jurisdiction,
the people were divided into parties of ten families, like
the tithings of Alfred, over each of which was an officer.
A second cla.=!S of officers had control over five or ten
tithings, a third class over fifty or a hundred. These
last rendered account to the Incas, who exercised a
vigilant superintendence over the whole, and employed
inspectors to visit the provinces as a check upon mal-
administration. Each of these officers, down to the lowest,
judged, without appeal, in all differences that arose within
his division, and enforced the laws of the empire,
among which were some for punishing idleness, and com-
pelling every one to labour. It is probable that the
tithings and hundreds, as in England, would lose their
numerical signification in course of time, and become
mere local allotments. In the hamlets and villages a
person mounted a tower every evening, and announced
where and how the inhabitants were to be employed next
day. The taxes were paid in the produce of the fields,
and magazines for receiving them were established in
every district. Such is the account given by Acosta and
Garcilasso of the civQ institutions of Peru, which may be
correct with regard to the oldest possessions of the Incas
near Cuzco, where their power had been long established ;
but it is not probable that such a complicated system was
ever fully in operation in the more distant parts of the
empire. .
The government ol Peru was a theocmcy. The Inca Govern-
was at once the temporal sovereign and the supreme ™=°t^<'
pontiff. ■ He was regarded as the descendant and repre- Keugioa
sentative of the great deity the sun, who was supposed to
inspire his counsels, and speak through his orders and
decrees. Hence even sliglit offences were punished with
death, because they were regarded as insults offered to
the divinity. The race of the Incas was held sacred.
To support its pretensions, it was very desirable that it
should be kept pure and distinct from the people ; but
human passions are often too strong for the dictates of
policy ; and though the mariiages of the family were con-
fined to their own race, the emperor-, as well as the other
males of the blood royal, kept large harems stocked with
beauties drawn from all parts of the empire, and multi-
plied a spurious progeny, in whom the blood of th'
" children of the sun" was blended with that of the " chil
dren of the earth." Among a simple-minded and credulous
people the claims of the Incas to a celestial origin seem
to have been implicitly believed. They were blindly
obeyed, and treated with a respect bordepng on adora-
tion, by the nobles as well as the common people. The
Peruvians worshipped the sun, the moon, the evening
star, the .spirit of thunder, and the rainbow, and had
erected temples in Cuzco to all these deities. That of
the sun, which was the most magnificent, had its walls
covered with plates of gold. The sacrifices consisted of
the objects most prized by the people, of grain and fruits,
of a few animals, and of the productions of their own in-
dustry. Sabianism, as it is the most rationa' of all the
forms of idolatry, is also generally the most mild; and
doubtless this results from the tendency which it has to
fix the thoughts on the marks of beneficence and wisdom
which are dispkyed in the works of nature. The Peru-
vian temples were accordingly never polluted, like those
of Mexico, with the blood of human victims ; and the
Incas even went farther, and signalised their zeal against
such honid rites, by suppressing them in all the couutrieo
they conquered. Though their history exhibits some
bloody deeds, the general character of their governmept
L CO
698
AMERICA
[a-NCIENT PERU.
was the reverse of cruel. The severe punishments prc-
Bcribed by their laws were rarelj inflicted, and rebellion
was scarcely knomi in their dominions The Inca not
only oasiuncd the title of the father of his people, bnt the
vices as well as the merits of his government sprung
partly from the attempt made to construct the govern-
ment on the model of paterual authority, and partly from
the Wending of moral and reli^oua injunctions with civil
duties. Hence the idle pietenaion of the state to reward
virtuous conduct, as well as to punish crimes ; henco
too the pUn of labouring in common, the extinction of
individual property, the absurdities of eating, drinking,
Bleeping, tilling, building, according to fixed universal
rules ; in fine, that minute and vexatious regulation of all
the acta of ordinary life, which converted the people into
mere machines in the hands of an immense corps of ciyil
and religious officers. Such a system may have served
to reclaim some tribes from the savage state; but it must
have stifled the seeds of improvement, and left the mass
of the people more stupid and imbecile than it found
them. The government was as pure a despotism, pro-
bably, as over existed ; but its theocratic character, no
doubt, helped to mitigate the ferocity of its spirit. Super-
stition and force are the two bases on which tjTanny
rests in all countries ; and in proportion as it is firmly
seated on the one, it stands less in need of the support of
the other. The Inca had so comiiletely enslaved the
minds of his subjects, and the apparatus he wielded for
directing and contrplling their acts was so perfect, that
he was able in a great measure to dispense with those ter-
rific examples of cruelty and bloodshed, by which the pure
military despot operates on the fears of those who live
under liis authority.
Origin of This system of the Peruvian monarchs, by which the
Peruvian people were kept in a state of perijclual tutelage, merits
"" the greater attention, because it ia precisely that which
the Jesuits employed, in Paraguay and other districts, to
reduce the natives to a settled mode of Ufe ; and it seems,
in fact, to be the only method i>y which a semblance of
civilisation can be introduced amongst xae American
nations. Two things must be supposed to account for its
prevalence ; first, a certain amount o' timidity, passive-
ness, and superstition, in the body of the people, implying
weak passions, but not necessarily smallness of intellect ;
and, secondly, a few minds of a higher class, to give an
impulse to the rest, and to control and regulate their
acts. In the case of Peru, did these ruling intellects
spring from the body of the people, and, after striking out
new lights in morals and legislation for themselves, devise
a complex and artificial system for establishing their power
over the minds of the rest, by the help of superstition and
force ? or were they strangers from another country, and
imbued with the principles of a higlier ci\'ilisation ? If
wo may believe the Peruvian annals, the latter was the
case. About the year 1000 of our era, or perhaps a cen-
tury later, Manco Capac, with his wife and sister Mama
Ocello, appeared as strangers on the banks of the lake
Titicaca. They were persons of majestic appearance, and
announced themselves as " children of the sun," sent by
their beneficent parent to reclaim the tribes living there
from the miseries of savage life. Their injunctions, ad-
dressed to a people who probably worshipped the god of
day, were listened to by a few, who ;jettled aroimd them,
and founded Cuzco. By degrees, other tribes were in-
duced to renounce their wandering habits. Manco Capac
instructed the men in agricnlture and the arts, and Mama
Ocello taught the women to spin atti to weave. Laws,
institutions, and religious rites, were added. The form of
a civilised society arose, which was gradually extended by
persuasion or conquest, — the Incas having always planted
laws.
tneir arts ana religion wherever they establiancd their
authority. Huayna Capac, the twelfth in succession from
the founder of the dynasty, occupied the throne when the
first party of Spaniards visited Peru in 1527, and the em-
pire was then still in a state of progress. There is, however,
little doubt that some advance in civilisation had been
made in times before the Incas.
Such is the account which ths Peruvians give of the Foreign
origin of their civilisation, which we should be disposed to logi«l»tor»
reject as a fable, if there were not peculiar circumstances ""*
which give it some credibility. First, their institutions, ° "
taken in the mass, do not present what, may be called thj
American type. The mild and paternal character which
they display, the injunction to " love one another" rai'sed
to the rank of a positive precept, the preference of the
useful arts to war, aU breathe a spirit, not only foreign to
the genius of the American tribes, but exactly opp6scd in
character to anything which a native self-taught legisla-
tor was likely to produce. Secondly, the artificial and
systematic form of the Peruvian institutions renders' it
improbable that they were developed by the natural ac-
tion of poUtical causes, but strongly favours the idea, that
they were framed by a few designing heads, as an in.5ti-u-
ment to tame and govern a patient, feeble, and credulous
people of rude or savage habits. A small number of
Jesuits wore led, by a sagacious study of the savage charac-
ter, to devise a system extremely similar in its nature,
which worked admirably. These missionaries were the
Manco Capacs of Paraguay ; and, like the Incas, might,
in the course of two or three centuries, have extended
their theocracy over as large a space as Peru, if their
situation had permitted them to employ force. Thirdly, a
million of native Peruvians yet survive, the living descen-
dants of those who built the temples of Cuzco ; and their
extreme stolidity, apathy, and feebleness of character,
sufficiently testify that the chances were nearly as great
against a legislator like Manco Capac arising amongst
them, as against the Jews in the time of Augustus pro-
ducing a being like Jesus Christ. They have the weak-
ness and passiveness which fit them to receive an im
pression from superior directing minds ; but they discover
no trace of the intelligence, energy, and originality which
must have been united in the persons who planned and
carried into eS"ect the political system of the Incas. We
admit that oppression may have degraded their character,
but it cannot have entirely changed it.
If, then, the civilisation of Peru was exotic, whence waa
it derived 1 To us it appears most probable, that the legi*
lators of Peru were either Chinese, or persons who had
received at second-hand a knowledge of the arts and in-
stitutions of China ; and our opinion is grounded on traita
of resemblance in the manners, laws, arts, and institutions
of the two nations, which, in our opinion, are too nume
rous, striking, and peculiar, to be the effect of chance.
We shall mention some of the most prominent.
1. The first and most obvious resemblance is in the Peruritiu
singularly artificial frame of society in both countries. In ""d Chi-
China, as in Peru, the legislation is directive as well as '">««<»'''•
punitive, and is distinguished by that minute and elabora'.o ^" '
system of regulation, inspection, and control, which inter-
feres with the most trifling actions of ordinary Ufe, and
reduces the mass of the people to the condition of automata,
moved and guided in everything by the rulers. China,
says Mr Barrow, is a great school, in which the magis-
trates are the masters, and the people the scholars. It
might be more correctly rompared to a large monastic
establishment, in which each person has his place and his
duty assigned to him, and all his acts directed by supe-
riors, whcse wisdom and authority he is not permitted to
question. The Chinese have the same immense miUtitud*>
ANCIENT PERU.]
AMERICA
699
of civil oSicera whick the Peruvians had, and the same
chain of subordination from the emperor down to the
petty constable. In Cliina this system was undoubtedly
the growth of many centuries ; but it was too artificial to
occur to the thoughts of a cacique, educated amongst a
tribe of savages on the sides of the Andes. 2. In China
as in Peru, the emperor assumes the title of the " father
of his people ;" and his government is modelled upon
this figure of speech. He affects to be sprang from pro-
genitors who descended from heaven Kke the children of
the sun, and he unites the character of supreme pontiiT
with that of temporal prince. There are vestiges, too,
of the worship of the heavenly bodies in China.^ 3. The
Chinese emperor extends an ostentatious patronage to
agriculture, by celebrating an annual festival in its
honour, on which occasion he proceeds to the field in
great pomp, and takes a part in the labour of cultivating
the ground vrith his own hands. This singular custom
existed in Peru, where the Incaa went through an annual
ceremony perfectly similar. How .foreign was such an
institution to the spirit of the American tribes ! 4. In
China agriculture is in a rude state, and exhibits proofs
of intelligence and skill only ia two things — the use
of manures, and a laborious system of iiTigation. Pre-
cisely the same circumstances characterised the agricul-
ture of Peru. 5. The internal taxes of China, Uke
those of Peru, are paid in kind (maize, rice, silk, cotton,
&o. ), and stored in public magazines or granaries. 6. The
Chinese government maintained pubho roads, even in
those provinces where neither carriages nor beasts of
burden were used, of course for the use of pedestrians,
and storehouses or places of refreshment were built upon
them at proper distances. The Peruvians constructed
roads on precisely the same plan, and for the same pur-
poses ; and this was done by no other people in America.
7. The Chinese do not inter the bodies of the dead,
but lay them on the ground and raise a tumulus or conical
heap of earth over them. Such was also the practice
in Peru. The only barbarously cruel rite practised in
Peru, that of immolating the Inca's domestics at the
obsequies of their master, was brought into China by the
Tartars. Its existence is an anomaly in each case, for
the genius of both nations was peaceful and mild. 8. The
architecture of the Chinese displays little taste, but is
distinguished by two peculiarities — the power shown of
cutting and moving immense masses of stone, and the
uniformity of style which pervades their structures, of
every size and description. "All the buildings," says
Mr Barrow, " from the meanest hut to the viceroy's
palace, are upon one plan." Humboldt remarks the same
adherence to a single model among the Peruvians, and
the walls of Cuzco show that they were acquainted with
the method of moving stones of prodigious size. The
Chinese were fond of covering their walla with carving,
and examples of the same practice occur in Peru. If
any of the Peruvian buildings had remained entire with
their roofs on, it would perhaps have been found, that
the type or primary architectural form employed in
the two countries was not very dksinular, and some
allowance should be made for the circumstance, that
Peru must have borrowed her models from China 700
or perhaps 1000 years ago. 9. The Peruvians made
coarse pottery, and aU the world knows that this is an
art in which the Chinese excel. The Peruvians were
the only American nation who had madb any progress in
the art of fusing and alloying metals, in which the Chinese
have long been distinguished by their skill. 10. The
* Eoo accoimta of tho temples at Pekin dedicated to the heavens, the
north star, tho moon, the earth, &c., and of tbo f«?3tival kept at the
rammu aolstice, like tho grand 3oIar festival a Peru.
Peruvians had dramas and dramatic spectacles. Whence
could a people so uninventive have derived the idea of such
entertainments, if not from China, where they have been
long familiar to the people? There were mimics and buf-
foons in Mexico, but nothing, we believe, to which the
term drama coxdd be applied. 11. But perhaps the most
remarkable coincidence is found in an invention entirely
confined to the two countries. We have described the sus-
pension bridges made of ropes, employed by the Peruvians
in crossing deep ravines. Now, it is singular that bridges
of the very same description, some of chains, and some of
ropes, are found in the south of China, and nowhere else
except in Thibet, which has interchanged arts and cus-
toms with China from time immemoriaL This single fact
we would consider as a proof of communication between
the two countries. The Peruvians made their ropes of
twisted osiers, and the Chinese had ropes also of this
description. 1 2. From what people nearer than the Chinese
covdd the Peruvians borrow the idea of rafts with a mast
and saOl These rafts, supporting covered huts, may be
considered as literal copies of some that are used in China ;
and the peculiar mechanism employed in lieu of a rudder
is no doubt borrowed from the paddles attached to the
Chinese boats, fore and aft. 13. The Chinese in ancient
times made use of quipus or knotted corda to facilitate
calculation. Is it not probable that this invention had
passed from them to the Peruvians, the Mexicans, the
Kaluschi, and other American nations who employed it 1
It would be easy to trace similar analogies in many other
customs, laws, and institutions of the two nations. Both
had nunneries or religious societies of women, who lived
under a vow of celibacy; both had a class of literary men
(the Haravecs and Amautas, or poets and philosophers, ia
Peru), patronised by the government; both divided the
year into twelve months, and placed the beginning of it in
January (a coincidence the more remarkable, as the year
of the Mexicans and other northern nations consisted
of 18 months); both were strangers to the use of nulk,
cheese, and butter.^ These facts may suffice, for we have
not room for lengthened inquiries, neither are we anxioua
to press our argument beyond its proper limits. Our po-
sition is, not that the Peruvians are descended from the
Chinese, but simply that Peru had been inoculated with
civilisation by persons who derived their ideas from China.
If it be asked why these persons did not import from Chiiia
the use of letters, the method of casting arches, and many
other arts practised there, our answer is, that no individual,
and still less any casual assemblage of individuals such as
the purposes of trade or navigation might bring together,
possesses a knowledge of every art and science which
exists in his country. How many men are there in Eng-
land at this day, who could not even carry the knowledge
of the alphabet to another country ! We must remember,
too, that all the arts existing in China do not exist in
every province of it, and have not always existed in
those provinces where we now find them.' As to the
means of communication, it is evident that the trade-
wind renders Peru almost unapproachable from Eastern
Asia, between the paraOels of 30° K'. and 30° S. latitude.
* Sir John Barrow ia our authority for this fact, which is the more
reraarkabla, aa the Monf^ols, the neighbours and conquerors of the
Chinese, had the u.sq of all tho three aiticlea immemorially.
8 The uniformity and unchangeableness of customs in China hav©
evidently been much exaggerated- The empire ia formed of an
assemblage of small states, conquered one after another, each of which
must have had its peculiar laws, manners, and superstitions ; and
commoa sense tells us, that to blend these into one perfectly homo-
geneous mass, must have required a much longer period than has
elapsed since tha empire attained its present magnitude. It would
be easy, too, to find instances of tho Chinese having changed
t' ':ir customs, both in matters of business and mattexs of domestio
economy*
700
AMERICA
IPEEirVIAN CI\'n.lSATIQ».
But beyond thcsa limits t,he west winds prevail, and hence
China, in point of facility of access, is nearer to P6ru than
the Society or Marquesas Islands. The Chinese have
long exposed themselves to the casualties of a maritime
life, in vessels of large size, provisioned for many months ;
and at this day they perform voyages of 3000 or 4000
miles, to Ceylon and Polynesia.
PemTiim The Quichua language, or that of Peru, was spread, by
ItBgango- the care of the Incas, over all the countries .which they
conquered, so far at least as to be understood, if not
spoken, by the great variety of tribes subject to their
sway. It is understood at present as far as Santiago del
Estero, 1200 miles of direct distance souili-easti from
Cu2co. This single fact proves both the long duration of
their power, and the efficiency of their internal adminis-
tration. It is said to be the most rich, polished, and har-
monious of the South jUnerican languages, abounding in
vowel sounds, but wanting those corresponding to the
Sp.inish consonants 6, d, /, y, I, x, v. Like all the other
American toiJgues, it wants terras for abstract and' uni-
versal ideas, such as tiTne, epace, heing, mbstance, matter,
body, and even such as virtue, justice, liberty, gratitude.
There are five dialects of the Quichua, which are spoken
in Peru proper, and in Quito, New Granada, and a con-
siderable part- of La Plata, and not only by the aborigines,
but by many Spaniards of the higher classes. The Peru-
vians had no alphabetic writing. They possessed a very
rude species of hieroglyphics, of which little use Was
made, and the quipus or knotted cords of various colours,
which last were originally employed simply as aids to
calculation, but latterly as records of facts, laws, &«.
Each quipu required a verbal commentary. About ten
years ago a copy of an old MS. was discovered, which
contained an account of the Maya alphabet of Yucatan
— th« only alphabet yet known to have existed in America.
The Peruvians of the aboriginal Quichua race are of a
thepeoflf copper colour, with a small forehead, the liair growing on
each side from the extremities of the eye-brows ; they
. have small black eyes, a small nose, a moderately si^ed
mouth, with beautiful teeth ; beardless chin (except in old
age), and a round face. Their hair is black, coarse, and
sleek, the body well proportioned, the feet small, the
stature rather diminutive. Their intellectual qualities,
according to M. Ulloa, are of the lowest order. The inost
prominent trait in their character is an imperturbable and
incurable apathy. Though half-naked, they are as con-
Wanners. tented as the Spaniard in his most splendid raiment.
Gold and silver have so little influence over them, that the
greatest recompense will not induce them to perform the
slightest service voluntarily. Neither power nor dignity
moves them, and they receive with the same indifference
the office of alcalde and that of executioner. They are
hr.bitually slow in their motions, and extremely indolent.
When employed at any piece of labour, if the master with-
draws his eye for a moment, they cea.-^e to work. They
are timid, shy, secretive, and always grave, even in the
dances, which are their favourite pastime. The love of
intoxicating liquors is deeply rooted in their nature. They
prepare a fermented beverage called chicha from maize,
by a process known to them before the conquest, and at
their festivals drink till their senses fail them, day after
day. This vicious habit, however, is common to all the
American nations, and is confined to the men, for the
women are in general strictly sober. The Peruviaiis are
a gentle and mild people ; they are fond of their dogs, and
breed up hogs, geese, and chickens, for which they have
Eo tender a regard, that they will often neither kill nor
Bell them. Their huts, says Mr Stevenson, consist of
Etones laid upon one another without any cement or
mortar, thatched over with long grass or straw, affordine
no defence from either the wind <» the rain. One small
room contains the whole family; their bed a sheep-skiQ
or two ; their furniture one or two earthen pota. The
principal food of the Peruvians is maize ; but they raise also
potatoes, wheat, beans, tcmatos, yucas, pumpkins, and
other vegetables. Christianity, imposed upon them dogma-
tically, by priests who tJce no pains to enlighten them,
has scarcely gained admission to their understandings,
and has no hold on their affections. They attend divine
service from the dread of chastisement, and give an out
ward assent to whatever they are taught, but without any
real religious impression being made upon their minds.
They meet death with the same stupid indifference as
the ordinary accidents of life, and rather decline than seek
the assistance of a priest in their last hours. It ought not
to be forgotten, however, that the inteUecttial torpor which
the Peruvians display may be attributed in part to the
deadening and debasing effects of three centuries of brutal
oppression,* They still cherish in secret a strong venera-
tion for their ancient faith and their native government,
which displays itself even in the large towns. The story
of Manco Capac (whom, since numbers of our ctrmtrymen
appeared- in Peru, they affect to call an Englishman) and
Mama OceUo, the wealth, power, and beneficence of the
Incas, are still fresh in their memories, and are handed
down from father to son with a degree of fond admiration
which three centuries of humiliation and misfortune seem
only to have rendered more intense. The barbarous murder
of the Inca Atahualpa by Pizarro is annually represented
in the form of a tragedy. " In this performance," says
Mr Stevenson, " the grief of the Indians is so natural,
though excessive, their songs so plaintive, and the whole is
such a scene of distress, that I never witnessed it without
mingling my tears with theirs. The Spanish authorities
have endeavoured to prevent this exhibition, but without
effect. The Indians in the territory of Quito wear black
clothes, and affirm that it is mourning for their Incas, of
whom they never speak but in a doleful tone."
The oppression of the mita, or forced labour in the V p.iUdoB
mines, with the introduction of the small-pox and the use
of spirituous liquors, has destroyed prodigious multitudes
of the Indians since the conquest. ^That their nimiber
was before that event it is impossible to tell ; but, judging
from the extent of the Inca's dominions, he probably had
not less than three or four millions of subjects. A pre-
tended Spanisir account, assigning a population of eight
millions to Peru shortly after the conquest, is known to
be fictitious. An official estimate in 1862 made the num-
ber of Indians in Peru amount to 1,600,600, being three-
fourths of the entire population.'
In Chili there were several tribes who possessed nearly CbilL
all the arts known to the Peruvians, but were distin-
guished from them by a finer physical constitution and
an unconquerable spirit. When the Spaniards arrived,
Chili, according to Molina, was inhabited by fifteen tribes
independent of each other, who were spread over the
country on both sides of the Andes, from latitude 30° to
the Strait of Magalhaens. They all spoke dialects of one
language, which is described as rich, harmonious, abound-
ing in compound words, and having, like the other Ameri-
can tongues, very complicated grammatical forms. It has
no affinity to the Quichua or Peruvian^ The inhabitants
of the plains are a stout people, of middle stature ; those
* la this account of the Peruvians we have chiefly followed Gorci-
lasso, AcostA, Frezier, and UUoa, of whose statements a copions digest
is given -by Prerost in the 13th vclnrae of his Hisioire QenhuU da
Voyages. We have also taken some f.icts from Humboldt's Researches,
Balbi's Eih-no^phical Atlas, and W. R Stevenson's Ji'arratire e/
Tventy Years' Residence in South America, a useful work, altbongfa
the author has shown rather too great an anxiety to exalt ^he ctiaract«i'
of the Indians.
CHILIAN TRIBES.]
AMERICA
701
of the moimtains are tall ; and one tribe, the Tehuels or
Patagonians, surpass in ske every other nation in the
World. AH the tribes inhabiting the plains, except those
of the extreme south, now make use of horbes. The com-
plexion of the Chilian tribes is, like that of the other
American nations, a reddish brown ; but one tribe is said to
be of a clear red and white. They do not paint their
bodies. The Clnlians lived partly by hunting, but chiefly
by agriculture, before they had any intercourse with
Europeans. They cultivated maize, magu, guegen, tuca,
quinoa, the potato, pumpkins, and some species of pulse ;
and to these they added, as food, the flesh of the hiz-
cacho, and of the llama' or Araucanian came), of whose
wool they .are said to have manufactured cloth. Like
the Peruvians, they understood the use of manure, prac-
tised irrigation with considerable skUl, and turned up the
ground with a wooden spade or mattock. They boiled
their grain in earthen pots, or brayed it into meal after
roasting it in hot sand ; of the meal they made puddings
or bread, which they knew how to leaven, and various
species of fermented drink. They had gold, silver, copper,
tin, and lead, procured probably by washing; but they seem
to have had few or no edge-tools of metal, those found
being almost ahvaj's of basalt. TTiey made baskets and
mats, extracted salt from sea-water, and were able to give
various dyes to their cloths. Tbey used quipus or knotted
cords for calculation, and, according to Mr Stevenson,
for the transmission of intelligence and for recording
events. They lived in villages formed of houses standing
at a distance from one another, under hereditary chiefs,
but whose power was limited. It is remarkable that
the Chinese mode of catching wild ducks on the rivers, by
covering the fisher's head with a gourd, was practised in
Chili.
The Araucanians, the most intelligent, improved, and
v.-arlilce of the Chilian tribes, occupy about 200 miles of
the £.ea-coast, between the 37th and 39th parallels. They
are of ordinary stature, but vigorously formed ; bold,
iiardy, hospitable, faithful to their engagements, generous
to a fallen enemy, ardent, intrepid, and enthusiastic lovers
of liberty. Their vices are drunkenness, and a contempt
of other nations, springing, from pride. Their govern-
ment, in the regularity of its form and its sub-division of
authority, has an outward resemblance to the Peruvian ;
but the spirit of the two systems differs as widely as the
genius of the two nations. Araucania contains four
tetrarchies, imder four toquis or princes, who are inde-
pendent of one another, but confederated for their joint
security against foreign enemies. Each tetrarchy ia
divided into five provinces, ruled by five chiefs called apo-
uliiicn; and each province into nine districts, governed by
as many ulmen, who are subject to the a^jo-ulmen, as
the latter are to the toquis. These various chiefs (who all
bear the title of ulmen, as our nobility of all orders are
bujons) compose the aristocracy of the country 'J hey
hold their dignities by hereditary descent in the male
line, and in the order of primogeniture. Ihe supreme
power of each tetrarchy resides in a diet or gre.it coun-
cil of the ulmen, who assemble annually in a largo plain,
like the Poles and Germans in old times; but as the
people are all armed, and have a high love of liberty, no
resolution of the diet is of any avail if it has not their hearty
concurrence. The chiefs, indeed, are little more than
leaders in war; for the ri;.'bt of private revenge, which is
fully admitted, limits their authority in judicial mat-
ters ; and they receive no taxes. Their laws are merely
primeval usages. The Araucanians can raise altogether
6000 or 7000 men, besides a body of reserve. When war
Ls declared by the great council, messengers bearing "ar-
rows dipt in bloo'd " are sent to all parts of the country
to summon the men to arms. Unlike many barbarous
nations, which are immovably attached to their ancient cus-
toms, the Araucanians were not slow in copying the mili-
tary arts and tactics pf the Spaniards. Their troops now
consist of infantry and cavalry ; the former armed with
pikes or club.-;, the latter with swords and lances. Tha
infantry are formed into regiments of ten compjaies, each
company containing a hundred men. When they take the
field, they carry parched meal with them for provisions ;
they station sentinels, send out scouts, and have advanced
guards preceding their main body. WTien necessary for
their security, they dig ditches, and plant stakes along
their sides, and throw up mounds of earth. They advance
to battle in lines, well formed, and fight with intrepidity.
Their history affords a biiiliant example of what a brave
nation, animated by an enthusiastic love of Uberty, can
accomplish under the greatest disadvantages. After re-
sisting the best troops and the best generals of Spain for
two hundred years, they at last compelled their proud
enemies to acknowledge their independence. The Arau-
canians . were indebted for their success to a deliberate
species of courage, to which even the bravest of the North
American tribes are strangers ; and they combined with it a
degree of sagacity and intelligence which led them to adapt
their mode of fighting to the new circumstances in which
they were placed. Experience having taught them the
inefficiency of their old missiles when opposed to musket
balls, they soon laid aside their bows, and armed them-
selves with spears, swords, or other weapons fitted for
close combat. Their practice was to advance rapidly
within such a distance of the Spaniards as would not leave
them time to reload after firing. Here they received
without shrinking a voUey, which was certain to destroy
a number of them, and then rushing forward in' a close
column, fought their enemies hand tp hand. In this way
they gained many victories, and impressed the Spaniards
with such a respect for their courage that an individual
of that nation made thf.ir achievements the subject of an
epic poem. Combining the moral, intellectual, and physi-
cal qualities of the Araucanians, they were certainly the
finest native race in the New World. They had nearly
all the germs of civilisation which belonged to the Me.ri>
cans and Peruvians, 'without the ferocity of the former, the
apathy of the latter, or the slavish habits common to both ;
and without having their minds stupified by that grovel-
ling superstition which the rulers of these two nations
seem to have considered as the only secure foiindation of
their authority. In true courage, in manliness and energy
of character, thev take precedence of aU tlie American
nations.
The Araucanians believe in a supreme being, and in
many subordinate spirit^, good and baf". They believe
also in omens and- divination, but t)iey have neithei
temples nor idols, nor reb'gious rites ; and discover upon
the whole so little aptitude for the reception of rehgious
ideas that the Catholic missionaries who have settled
among them have bad very jittle success in imbuing their
minds with a knowledge of Christianity. They believe in
a future state, and have a confused tradition respecting a
deluge, from which some persons were saved on a high
mountain. They divide the year into twelve months of
30 days, which have significant names, and add five days
by intercalation. They esteem poetry and eloquence, but
can scarcely be induced to learn reading or writing.
Cbess, a game of oriental Qrigin, is said to have been
known among them from time immemorial ; and it may
be further observed, that the numbers 5 and 9, employed
in their geographical and civil divisions, are favourite num-
bers in China.
The other Chilian tribes are aU much behind the Aran-
702
AMERICA
[cEILIAN TBIBE?.
canians in civilisation ; but some, as the Puelches and
the Tchuela, surpass them in strength and stature. I'art
of them live on horse flesh, part by keeping sheep and
cattle, and part by hunting, tjomo of thesa .tribes paint
Pot»go- their faces. With regard to the height of the Patago-
iii«ns. nians, M. Lesson, an eminent French naturalist, has col-
lected the authorities on the subject in a note published
by Balbi in liis Elluiographical AtUis ; and they appear to
us to remove every rational doubt as to the fact of a race
of men existing there whose average stature is about six
feet, and among whom men seven feet high are perhaps
more frequently to be met with than among an equal num-
ber of men in any other country. They have large heads,
but their hands and feet are small, and they are not strong
in proportion to their tall stature. They ride on horse-
back, and hunt the huanaco or the ostrich with a sling,
which they cast so as to entangle the animal's legs. They
dwell in tents, and lead a wandering life.
Indiana of Of the numerous nations that inhabited Brazil there
Briu'.l : 13 only one to which we can afford any special notice in
Gimranis, {jjjg article. The Ouaranis have at one time formed a
numerous people, which seems to have been spread over a
larger surface than any other now existing in America.
Tribes, or remnants of tribes, whose relationship to the
Guaranis is attested by the strong evidence of their lan-
guage, are found diffused over the wide space between the
Orinoco and the embouchure of the Plata, or more than
the half of South America. They arc met with among
the Andes of Peru, in the i)rovince of Chiquitos, iu Matto
Grosso, in Paraguay, in Minas Geraes ; and the Omaguas,
in the republic of Ecuador, who, from their nautical habits,
and the influence they obtained on the upper part of the
Amazon, have been caUed the Phoenicians of the now world,
are believed'to be of the same race. They constituted the
bulk of the native population of Brazil when the Portu-
guese gained possession of it, but were divided into many
distinct tribes, quite independent of one another, and living,
not in contiguity, but mi.ved with other nations. They
are of low stature, two inches shorter than the Spaniards,
according to Azara; of a square form, fleshy, and ugly.
• Their colour has a strong shade of the copper red, while
that of the other Brazilian tribes inclines generally to the
tawny or black. Their character, like their physical form,
resembles that of the Peruvians. They are patient, tor-
pid, silent, downcast in their mien, mild, and passionless.
Nearly aU the Indians whom the Portuguese have civi-
lised or converted belong to this race. It is difficult to
account for their dissemination through the southern con-
tinent, amidst nations much more brave and powerful than
theipselves. May we suppose that, like the subjects of
the Incas, they had been at one time the donuuant tribe
of an extensive empire, which derived its force from
union and civilisation 1 But if such a state did exist, its
■date cannot be very ancient ; for the identity or clo§e
resemblance of the dialects spoken by the scattered portions
of the Guaranis shows that their dispersion from a com-
mon point did not happen at a very remote period.^ Yet
no memorial of its existence survives, either in traditions
or monuments. Tlie supposition, therefore, that the
Guarani tribes are the remnants of a once powerful and
• united people, is scarcely admissible ; and Azara thinks
it more probable that they have crept gradually from
north to south. Their dispersion is the more remarkable,
as they are not a wandering but an agricultural people.
ThQy live in the woods, or in small open spaces in the
forests ; cultivate maize, beans, gourds, yams, mandioo;
and eat also wild honey, and the flesh of monkeys and
■various small quadrupeds.
' Dr Pricbud's iJ«cortto,,Tol. iL p. 487.
The Indians whom the Jesuits civilised and collected Pi(r*giu«
into conununities in the celebrated settlementa of Para- "nisaioo
gu.ay belonged chiefly to the nation of the Guaranis. "'"'^
These missionaries are said to have borrowed the plan ""''
of the theocracy which they established here from that
which the Incas had introduced into Peru. There ia
no doubt that the spirit of their system was the same ;
and, considering that they were precluded from any other
means of extending and supporting their authority than
persuasion, their success was remarkable. The settle-
ments were commenced about 1010, and were gradually
extended over the country watered by the Parana and
Uruguay, between the 27th and 30th degrees of south
I latitude, till the order of the Jesuits was suppressed in
1707. The phin of the govenmient may be called paro-
dual, for it was administered entirely by the parochial
clergy. The Indians were collected into villages. Each
village had its church and its curate, who was assisted by
one, two, or more priests, according to the number of In-
dians under his charge. The curate and assistant priests
were nominated, not by the Spanish authorities, but by
the father superior, also a Jesuit, who exercised a vigilact
superintendence over the whole. Indians were appointed
in each village with the titles of regidors and alcaldes ;
but they were merely instruments in the hands of the
curate and his assistants, in whom all power was lodged.
The curate gave his whole attention to religious offices,
saying mass in the church, and visiting the sick ; while
the assistant priests managed all secidar matters, direct-
ing the labour of the Indiana who cultivated the ground,
and training others to the crafts of the weaver, macon,
carpenter, goldsmith, painter, and sculptor ; for the fine
arts were by no means neglected. Private property did
not exist. The produce of the labour of the community
was stored in magazines, from which each family was sup-
plied according to its wants, special provision being made
for aged persons, widows, and orphans. The surplus was
sold by agents at Buenos Ayres, and the proceeds em-
ployed in paying the taxes to the king, in procuring or-
naments for the churches, and various articles which
the colonists could not manufacture for themselves. The
religious instruction was of the most simple kind ; but the
service of the church was conducted with a well-trained
choir, a pompous ceremonial, and every accessory calculated
to strike the senses. The punishments were mild; and
they were always accompanied with such admonitions as
a parent would address to a child whom he was chastising.
Crimes, in truth, were rare. The Indians, v,-ho regarded
their spiritual chiefs with the veneration due to beneficent
beings of a superior order, scarcely felt humbled in confess-
ing their misdeeds ; and offenders may have solicited correc-
tion, as Raynal says, for the quieting of their consciences.
The incursions of the Portuguese compelled the Jesuits
to tate means for repelling force by force. All the male
Indians of the proper age were accordingly armed with
muskets, and disciplined as a militia. In 1732, according
to Dobrizhoffer, the thirty villages or parishes under the
care of the mis^naries contained a population of 141,000
souls. The Jesuits had another establishment of the
same kind among the Chiriguas, a branch of the Guara-
nis, in the province of Chiquitos, containing 30,000 or
40,000 Indians; A third, of smaller size, in the province
of Moxos ; a fourth in California ; and probably others.
After the suppression of the order, all these were com-
mitted to the care of friars of other descriptions ; and we
believe they have universally fallen into a state of decay.
The social system established iu Paraguay was the most
effectual ever contrived for reclaiming the Indians frcm
their s-avaje mode of life ; but even its success shows how
hoceless the attempt is to raise the American tribes to
INDIAN EACES.]
A M E E I C A
703
the rant of ttorougUy civilised nations. The Jesuits
were able to introduce settled habits and a slight know-
ledge of religion and the arts among the Indians only by
means of the personal ascendancy they acquired over
them. It was a few superior minds gaining tiie respect
and confidence of a horde of savages, then employing the
influence they acquired to lead them as children ; giving
them such portions of instruction as taught them to trust
implicitly in their guides, working alternately on their
fears, their pride, their kind a.ffections, but never fully
revealing to them the springs of the machinery by which
they were governed. The incurable indolence of the
savages rendered it necessary to prescribe the labour
as task-work, and to carry it on under the constant in-
speeticii cf the missionaries. The plan of cultivating the
ground in common, and of storing the produce in maga-
zines, out of which the wants of eacl^ family were supplied,
was resorted to as a check upon their improvident habits.
In short, the eye and the hand of the missionaries were
everywhere ; and the social system was held together en-
tirely by their knowledge and address. Vv'^hen these were
withdrawn, the fabric soon feU into rains, and the Indians
relapsed into their idolatry and savage habits.
Other races To complete our genera! view of the aboriginal races, a
Tf Indians, fev? particulars remain to bs mentioned. Many of the
tribsa who inhabit the Pampas of South America make
use of horses. Dobrizhoffer enumerates eight equestrian
tribes in the province of Chaco, on the west side of the
river Paraguay, who are generally distinguished by tall
and vigorous forms, and a bold and active character.
The Abipones and Mbayas are the most celebrated of
theso. Th2 w-ods of Brazil are too dense for eques-
trians; b'.i.t horses are used by a few hordes in the great
plain of the Mississippi and in the" north of Mezico.
The American tribes in general either kill their prisoners
or adopt them ; but a few retain them as slaves, and
compel them to work. The Guaycurus of Brazil are an
example. The food of diflFerent tribes is extremely va-
rious. Maize, beans, pumpkins, and mandioc are raised
in small quantities by some; natiual fruits, benies, bulbous
roots, and bananas are gathered by others. Those who
dwell on the sides of rivers live greatly on fish ; in the
plains, buffaloes, horses, and sheep are killed. In the
forests of Brazil, monkeys, pigs, armadillos, pacas, agoutis,
and tapirs are the favourite food ; but birds, , turtles,
dfer, and the coati are also taken ; and in an emergency
the Indians do not scruple to feed on serpents, toads, and
Lizards, the larvae of insects, and other disgusting sub-
Etances. Salt is used where it can be easily obtained,
-.rA some season their food with capsicum. Some roast
tieir meat, others boil it ; and not oidy several savage
tiibes, but even the civilised Peruvians, ate theu' flesh
r.'.w. The Ottomaques, a tribe near the Orinoco, eat a
species of unctuous clay ; this strange diet, which no
c.oubt owed its introduction to the stern monitor* famine,
13 not extremely rare in Brazil, and Captain Franklin
found the same food in use among an Indian tribe near
lie Frozen Ocean. The clay is stated by that traveller
to have a milky and not disagreeable taste. A great
[proportion of tha tribes in Brazil and the basin of the
( jrinoco, and some in other parts of America, indulge in the
iiorrid banquet of human flesh. Shame, in our sense of
t;ie term, is nearly a stranger to the breasts of these sa-
vages. In the warni regions of Brazil men and women
go entirely naked, except in the neighbourhood of the
Portuguese settlements, where some wear a band of Cloth
round the loins. In such situations, where the want of
shelter is little felt, their dwellings are often nothing
more than a sort of arbour formed by interlacing the open
srpaco between two or three trees with twi^s, and cover-
ing it with leaves so as to form a screen on the \rindward
sido, while it is left entirely open on the other. The
manufacture of bows and arrows, war-clubs, baskets,
mats (which, swung from a tree, serve them both as
seats and hammocks), and in some cases a coarse pottery,
comprises the sum of their practical skill in the arts. It
has long been the practice of bands of Portuguese, con-
sisting chiefly of outlaws and vagabonds, to make maraud-
ing expeditions among the Indians living near the great
rivers, and to carry them off and sell them clandestinely
for slaves. This infanious trade is carried on in despite
of the orders of the government, which has issued many
decrees for the protection of the Indians, and, besides
employing missionaries to convert them, enjoined the
governors of provinces to furnish them with hoes and
other agiicultural implements. Wherever the negroes
are introduced in great numbers, as in the Capitanias
of Santo Paulo and Eio Janeiro, and in the whole of
the West India islands, the aborigines rapidly disappear, the
former being more inteUigeat, more tractable in their
habits, and more active and industrious. The negroes are
indeed a superior race to the Indians ; and the existence of
one or two hundred blacks, as slaves, among some thousands
of the Cherokees, does not detract from the accuracy of
this opinion. Missions for the conversion of the Indians
have been supported for more than two centuries by the
governments of Spain and Portugal, They are thinly spread
over those parts of Mexico, La Plata, Peru, Brazil, and Co-
lombia, which are stUl occupied by the savages ; but there
are extensive districts in all these provinces in which they
have never been established, owing to the fierce character
of the tribes, or the remote and inaccessible nature of the
country. A mission consists in general of one or two
friars or priests, who settle among the savages, learn vheir
language, and, besides teaching them the elements of
Christianity, always endeavour to instruct them in the
more simple and useful arts, and to tnin them to settled
habits. We believe that many of these establishments have
been abandoned, owing to the failure of the funds with
which they were supported; and that the success of the
others has been extremely trifling. The late revolutions
in those countries, by liberating the Indians from their
ancient state of tutelage under the whites, have in many
cases broken up the little settlements which the mission-
aries had formed. This has been the result even in Brazil,
where the political changes have been least felt.
Owing to the fanaticism of the Spaniards a large propor-
tion of the manuscripts of the natives were destroyed, so
that now we are unable to acquire so fuU and accurate a
history of the more civilised nations as we might othei-wise
have done. The literature which still exists, together with
the numerous remains of cities, temples, roads, bridges, and
other works of art, testify to the general truth of the his-
torical niiTat''ios. However obscure they may now be, or Traditional
however difiijult the reconciliation of statements, it seems iistofy "f
clear they have been founded on facts. As in the case of V'"' .
other- histories, there is much error and tradition, mingled
with truth, which renders their correct interpretation difli-
cult. Amongst some of the nations we know that historians
were appointed by the government, and that such historians
were severely punished if they ventured to tamper vrith the
truth wilfully. The best connected account of these his-
tories, so far as concerns the nations of Central America, is
that given by the Abbi5 Brasseur de Bourbourg.' If we
credit the native accounts, the earliest traces of civilisation
originated in Yucatan and the neighbouring districts, a
region which is amongst the most fertile in the New World.
* Jlistoire dis /fattens civilities du Mexiquc et de VAmiriquc cenlraU^
duranl la tUdes antirieurs A CImstojoM Columb. 4 tomoa. 6nk
1857-59.
704
AMERICA
[tbaditiSnac histoby.
It is stated tliat many centuries before the Cbriutiau era,
Votan, the oldest of the Amerioan Icgi.sLitors, established
himself in the region, watered by the rivera Tabaaoo and
Usumasinta. It is near the Bources of this latter river, in
the highlands of Vera Paz, that cities of civilised Indians
still exist, according to travellers who have recently visited
the adjoining districts. However this may be, this river
was the principal highway into the interior of Central
America for the earliest civilised tribes, as it is now for the
existing natives. Near the mouths of the rivers mentioned
the ground is scarcely above the level of the sea, and is foi
the most part a recent alluvial fonimtion. During the
rainy season it is covered with water, and all intercourse
between vil)ii{.'c and village takes place by water. Just
where the land acquires a slight rise, Palenque, said to be
the oldest city in Central America, was founded. At this
time, according to the tradition, the low land was occupied
by a lake. Votan, it seems, came from some foreign land,
and found the whole of the country from Daricn to California
occupied by a barbarous people, who used the skins of wild
beasts for clothing, caverns and huts made with branches
for shelter, and wild fruits and roots, with raw flesh, for
food. Votan announced to these people a knowledge of
the Supreme Deity, who was at first worshipped as the
God " of all truth." At first no temples or altars wcfe
dedicated to him, and it was not uiitU long after that
Nezahualcoyotl erected a teocalli, or " house of God," as it
means in the Mexican language, and dedicated it " to the
unknown God." At a later period the religious ideas were
considerably debased. In Votan's time there seems to
have been but one language prevalent over a largo area,
and this language was probably the Maya, which is the
stock of many of the languages formerly in use among the
natives, and is still the language of Yucatan. The
people apparently formed tribes differing somewhat in
manners, the most prominent of wliich tribes are referred
to as the Quinames or giants. Votan and his companions
arrived in large ships, wore long flowing garments, and
spoke the Nahuatl language. These strangers married the
daughters of the country, and established a settled form of
government. According to one document, the year 955
B.C. is assigned to these events; but it is quite imprac-
ticable to give any trustworthy fixed date. Votan, it is
said, wrote an account of the origin of the Indians, and of
their immigration into America. He attempted to prove
tliat they were the descendants of Lnos, of the race of Chan,
or the serpent. Votan made four voyages to his original
country, and described the route he followed. On one
of these voyages he visited the dwelling of the thirteen
serpents, as also the rains of an old building which had
beer erected by men for the purpose of reaching heaven.
The people who lived in its vicinity told liim it was- the
place where God had given to each family its particular
language. Allusion is also made by him to certain
mysteries like those of Egypt and Greece, of which traces
were still discoverable amongst the ci\'ilised nations
of America. On returning from his first voyage to his
native country he found the people at Palenque had
attempted to usurp his authority and overturn his power.
Thereupon he parted his monarchy into four divisions.
One of these had for its capital the town of Tulha, the
ruins of which may be seen near Ocosingo in Chiapa.
Votan also is the reputed founder of Tsequil, which was
afterwards called Ghowel, and the site of which is now
occupied by a suburb of Ciudad Real. Some time, pos-
sibly not many years, after Votan, Zamna appeared in
Yucatan. He introduced the Maya civilisation, founded
the town of Mayapan, and called the country Maayha, or
land vrithout water, a term well applied to the extremity
of the peninsula of Yucatan, where rivers are almost absent.
^layapan was once the capital of Yucatan, and in Zamna's
time the 8oa covered the country to within a short distance
of it. He lived to a great ago, and during the later years
of his life dwelt on the sea-coast, acJ was buried at
this phice. The spot became the site of a large temple
erected to his honour, which was visited by pilgrims from
great distances. A town sprung up around it called
Itzarnal, which is believed to correspond with the modem
Isainal, now about 30 miles distant from the sea. The
region to seaward is reported to be geologically very recent
as land, and the remarkable absence of names of any
antiquity in a country where almost every locality has its
appoUation is some confirmation of the traditions. The
architectural character of the oldest towns also lends some
support to the considerable antiquity claimed for tlicm.
The forest-covered ruins of Mexico and Central America
present so many different architectural styles that it seems
very probable they were built at different periods and by
different people. Those which appear to bo the oldest, and
which are most uniform in style, are the substructures in
iraya4)an, some of the buildings in Tulha, many of those
in Palenque, and others which occur in the country of the
Lacandons.
The names of the successors to Votan are mentioned, but
without details. One of the last of the dynasty was Chinax,
in whose reign mention is made of the Nahuatl people. Kot
long after his death, this people, who were called Nahoas
or Toltecs, obtained the dominion of the country, and tlit
throne was occupied by Nahoa princes. They originally
came from Huehuc-Tlapallan (but where this country was
situated is not known), having been induced to leave it in
consequence of a revolution. This event seems to have
occurred shortly before the Christian era. The journey to
America from their native eountrj- was a long and painful
one, and indicates that seas and lands intervened between
them. The traditions report it to be in the far east, and
that the first comers filled seven ships and disembarked at
Tampico, near the mouth of the Panuco. The leader of the
band bore the title of Quetzalcohuatl, and was the first
knowni by that name. They then coasted along the shore
as far as Tamoanclia, which place was evidently somewhere
near the mouth of the Tabasco. In this district there
was a traditisn in the time of the Spaniards that twenty
illustrious chiefs from the east landed there many centuries
before, who had long flowing garments and largo beards,
of whom the principal was Cukulcan, a name which
has the same meaning as Quetzalcohuatl Quetzalcohuatl
and his comrades soon obtained possession of the capital of
the country, Xibalba, which is believed to be the same as
Palenque. Their success induced others of the Nahoa
nation to join the first colonfsts, and their power gradually
spread over a large portion of Central America. The
strangers, however, met with considerable resistance from
the princes of Xibalba, who compelled the Nahoa to leave
their country and disperse themselves over the surrounding
region. This dispersion is stated to have occurred in
A.D. 174. Before this date, the lunar calendar, so prevalent
among the civilised nations of America, was introduced. It
was one of these parties of Nahoa that established
itself in Mexico, and founded many of the more im-
portant cities. They were called Olmeques, and were led
by Olinecatl and Xelhua. The latter was one of Quetzal-
cohuatl's companions, and was once shipwrecked along
with him. In order to commemorate his delivery he
erected the great pyramid of Cholullan. Before the arrival
of the Olmeques the valley of Mexico was inhabited by the
Quinames or giants, and they continued to dwell in the
mountains around for centuries after they had been
driven from their native valley. The Totonacs, Mixtecas,
and Othomis -nere the contemporaries, or possibly the
TBADITIONAL HISTOEY.J
predecessors, of tie Olmeques. The first mentioned people
erected the pyramids of the Teotihuocan, or the City of the
Gods, near Mexico. These tribes spoke a language quite
distinct from the Nahuatl. The Totonacs placed the cradle
of their race at Chicomoztoc, which was said to be far to
the north ; but the Othomis seem to have been in posses-
sion of the land from time immemoriaL According to the
traditions of the Quiches and other nations of North
America, they originally came from Tulan. They allude
to seveiul places of this name. One was in the region of
the setting s'ln and beyond the sea; and another, from
which the Quiches came, was also in the direction of the
setting sun and was apparently situated in California. In
the descriptions given of the migrations from the more
distant Tulan, which seem to haye occurred at frequent
intervals, each migration consisting of a moderate number
of people, the difficulties and hardships are prominently
noticed. They pointedly allude to the intense cold, to the
long dark night, and to the sterility of the country, which
allusions seem to point to travels in Arctic regions. The
travellers were reduced to such extremities as to be obliged
to suck juicy woods in order to sustain life. The name
Chichimecs, which means suckers of maguey, given to the
invading hordes from the north, may have some connection
with this traditional fact. Chicomoztoc has been identified
by some with the extensive ruins near the Eio Gila, in
California. The history of these early nations is somewhat
obscure, but it may be gathered from the preserved records
that the worship of the sun and the practice of human
sacrifice had nearly or wholly superseded the earlier and
purer religions. Towards the end of the 7th century we
first hear of the Chichimecs invading Mexico from the
north. This name is a general one given to all invading
hordes from the north, and is similar to that of barbarians
uppUed to the people who invaded the Roman empire.
The first invasion was by the Chichimecs-Culhuas, headed
by Mixcohuatl Mazatzm. They commenced their march,
or rather progress, from Chicomoztoc about 635, and
reached the valley of Mexico about 40 years after. After
many years' fighting the Toltec empire was astablished
in about 686 ; and from this period we enter upon more
detailed and trustworthy historical ground. At first the
government of the Toltecs was republican and theocratical,
but it soon became monarchical, and Nauhyotzin was elected
the first king. The most illustrious of his successors was
Topiltzin Ceacatl Quetzalcohuatl, during whose reign the
Toltec empire arrived at its most flourishing condition.
According to tradition, the Toltecs were taller and of
larger bmld than the existing Indians, were great runners,
and were as white as Europeans. They carried many of
the arts to a high state of perftctiofa, such as weaving,
building, jewelling, and making ornaments with the
feathers of birds. There were astrologers and poets,
sorcerers and philosophers and orators. They were well
acquainted \vith the medical properties of plants, and were
in the habit of recording in books their observations on dis-
eases. Quctzalcohuatl's reign was for the most part one
of prolonged peace, but this peace was disturbed by the
religious party who advocated human sacrifice, a practice
which bo used every effort to abolish. The rebellion
becoming ver^ formidable, Quetzalcohuatl left the country
with a few chosen attendants, and. founded a new Toltec
empire on the plain of Huitzilapan, which corresponds
with the one on which La Puebla now stands. This occurred
in 895. The town ot La Puebla stands on the site of the old
Huitzilapan, and at the time of Quctzalcohuatl's arrival
it was said that the pyramids of Cholullan had existed from
time immemorial, and had been built by the giants.
According to this legend, the country was inhabited by
giants, all but seven of whom were cither destroyed by a
1—24
AMERICA
705
great inundation or turned into fishes. These seven took
refuge in a cave, and when the waters abated, one of them,
named Xelhua, went to Cholullan, and built the famous
pyramid to commemorate his escape. Quetzalcohuatl built
a temple here, which he dedicated to the " creator of light,"
and around this temple sprang up Cholullan, or the " to'BTi
of the exUe." His disciples carried the Toltec civilisation
into Oaiaca. After having reigned at Cholullan about ten
years, during which period his subjects enjoyed all the
blessings of peace, he was attacked by enemies again.
Huemac had ascended the throne which he had vacated,
and being jealous of Quetzakohuatl's power and prosperity,
he suddenly resolved to march with his army against
Cholullan. In order that the town might be- spared the
horrors of a siege, Quetzalcohuatl informed his priests of
his intention to leave the place and to visit other countries.
Accordingly he proceeded to the mouth of the Coatzocualco
river, then entered a boat with four companions, and
nothing more was heard of him. Huemac finding his
enemy had escaped, wreaked his vengeance on Cholullan, and
took up his residence there with a view to subjiigating the
surrounding districts. He also re-established the practice
of human sacrifice. During Huemac's absence from his
kingdom of Tulan, Nauhyotl was elected king in his
stead. A battle took place between the rivals, vrhich
resulted in the defeat and subsequent death of Huemao
and the establishment of Nauhyotl's power. His reign
lasted for fifteen years, and as he was one of Quetzalcohuati's
disciples, he governed according to similar principles, so
that the reign was a prosperous one. Hii deatK occiUTcd
in 945. After this a series of disettcrs broke over the
country, and these, with constant civil war, weakened the
power of the empire in Anahuac This soon became known
to other nations, and led to the Chichimeoa-Teotenancas
leaving their homes in Texas and New Mexico to make an
irruption upon the valley of Mexico. This occurred between
1041 and 1047. The internal discord continued, and the
disorder was incfreased by the uprising of the sect of
Ixcuinames, the devotees of which practised the most
abominable rites. In the midst of this corruption another
horde of barbarians, the Teo-Chichimecs, poured down from
the north, and took possession of the country. The Toltec
power rapidly declined, and the last king of the empire
was Huemac Atecpanecatl, who after his dethronement lived
for some years at Chapultepec, and died there in 1070, ••;
According to the GuatemaUan traditions, four individuals
of the Tutul-Xius, a nation speaking a Nahuatl language,
left their country of Tulapan, to the west of Zuyna, in a.d.
174, and arrived the same year at Chacnouitan, which seems
to be the name for some place in Yucatan. In 258 another
migration of Tutul-Xius occurred, the new colony being
established in the province of Zyan-Caan, which is believed
to be the district around Chetumal Bay. About the end
of the 1 0th century, it is stated that a venerable personage
arrived in Yucatan, called Cukulcan, who retrieved the
falling fortunes of tlie Tutul-Xius. According to the Abbe
Brasseur do Bourbourg, this personage was no other than
the. Ceacatl Quetzalcohuatl whose departure from the
Coatzocoalco river has already been mentioned. After
-reigning here ten years, he voluntarily abdicated the throne
and left the country. According to a Mexican legend he
went to TlapaUan, and died there. His successor trans-
ferred the capital of the Tutul-Xius from Maj-apan to
Uxmal, a town which seems to have been founded some
centuries before, but which first rose to importance at this
period, or near the end of the 10th ceutuiy. Numerous
temples and public buildings were erected, the ruins of
which are now so abundantly met with in Yucatan.
Artificial ponds or zonotes wore constructed ; and the
number and magnitude of these indicate a largp number of
706
AMERICA
[discovert.
towns as well aa a tliicklypopuliiltj country. At the
present day they have all the apj>yaranco of being natural
ponds, and indeed wore long coniidercd to be such, not-
withstanding the repeated assertions of the Indiana that
they had been built by their ancestore, until chance led
to the discovery that the muddy floor of one was entirely
composed of flat stones, the interstices between which wore
stopped with a kind of clay not known in the neighbourhood.
The centre was occujncd by four artificial wells, the walls
of which were fonned of polished stones. Further research
led to the discovery of numerous other zonotes. After the
final fall of the Toltec empire there commenced the great
movement of the norllitrn tribes towards the south, a
movement which continued througliout the 11th, 12th, aud
13th centuries. The movement consisted of a succession
of migiations, and its starting-point appears to have been
in New Mexico and California, wliich region was evidently
the seat- of a semi-civili.sed empire. Amongst these in-
vading tribes was one wliich subsequently rose to higli
importance. The Aztecs, or Mexicans proper, were living
at Atzlan in the 11th century, a country which was sur-
rounded by water, and where their usual occupation was as
boatmen and carriers of wood. Other tribes also lived in
this region, which is believed to be that of Lower California.
The Aztecs commenced their journey towards Mexico in
1090. In 1110 they reached Chicomoztoc, and in 1177
they entered Anahuao. Settlements wpre gradually estab-
lished in the valley, towards which peoples of various
nations converged from the south as well as the north.
The numbers of the Aztecs were slowly augmented by
fresh arrivals ; but it was not until 1 325 that they were
able to lay the foundations of Mc^ico-Tenochtitlan, and
thus to inaugurate their assumption of power. In 1464 the
empire of the Tutul-Xius wa."! overthrown. The Mexican
empire had, however, acquired large proportions, and was
conducted with a magnificence and splendour scarcely
equalled by any other court in America, and this empire
continued up to the time of the Spanish conquest,
piscovery The discovery of a continent so ! .rg<> *hat it may be said
Of Americr. to have doubled the habitable world, is an event so much
\>y Euro- jj^g more grand and interesting that nothing parallel to it
can ever occur again in the history of mankind. America
had of course been known to the barbarous tribep of eastern
Asia for thousands of years ; but it is singular that it should
have been visited by one of the most enterprising nations of
Europe five centuries before the time of Columbus without
awakening the attention of either statesmen or philosophers.
Iceland was discovered about 8G0, and colonised by the Nor-
■wegians in 874. About 50, or, according to other accounts,
100 years later, the same people planted colonies in Green-
land. Into the disputes respecting the situation of these
colonies we have not room to enter. Sir Charles Giesecke,
a good authority, states that their ruins exist near the south-
em point of the peninsula. It is obvious that the same ad-
venturous spirit which enabled these northern mariners to
discover the southern extremity of the country, would not
permit them to stop short without visiting what is nowknown
to be the most habitable part of it — the western coast ; and
the fact has been established by an inscription in runic cha-
racters found on a stone four miles beyond Upernavik, at
the 73d parallel, intimating that " Erling the son of Sigvat,
and Enride Oddsoen, had cleared that place and raised a
hiUock on the Friday after Rogation day." The marking of
the date is indistinct, but it is supposed by Professor Rask.
the translator, to be either 1135 or 1170; and the runic
characters show at any rate that it waa anterior to the Refor-
mation, when this mode of writing was prohibited.' ^\'lioever
looks at the map of Greenland, and reflects on the fact
peons.
tint the Norwegians must have been ascending through Noracgun
Divib' Straits as high as the latitude mentioned, annually, DUco-
perhaps for two or three centuries, will admit that, with half *'"°*-
the spirit of enterprise which had carried them bo far, the
discovery of some portion of the west coast of these straits
was almost unavoidable. Now, the position and direction
of this coast once known, it required no great e9"ort to trace
it southwards to Labrador and Newfoundland. We mention
these particulars because Mr Murray, one of the few who
have denied the discovery of America by the Norwegians,
grounded his disbelief chiefly on the hypothtsis that the
colonies and the navigation of that people at the period
alluded to were confined to the east coast of Greenland.
In 1001 an Icelander, sailing to Greenland, was driven
away by a tempest far to the south-west, where he saw a
level country covered with wood. The wind abating, he
turned his course homeward, and on his arrival gave such a
flattering account of the country he had seen as induced
Lief, the son of the founder of the Greenland colony, to ,
undertake a voyage thither. Lief and Bjorn, who sailed
together, first reached a rocky island, to which they gave
the name of Helluland ; then a low country, thickly wooded,
which they called Markland ; and some days afterwards they
found trees loaded with fruits on the banks of a river. They
spent the winter in the country ; and one of them, who waa
a German, having found wild vines growing, they called it
Vinland. They had some intercourse and" traded for fura
with a people who came in leathern boats, and were called
Shrcelinffs, from their dwarfish size. A colony was planted,
and remained for many years in the country, the situation
of which is indicated by a fact casually mentioned, that the
sun remained nine hours above the horizon at the shortest
day. This indicates the 41st parallel of latitude;- and the
actual latitude of Rhode Island, the country which every col-
lateral circumstance would lead us to fix upon as the seat of
the colony, is from 41° to 42°. The Skrselings were of course
the Esquimaux.* The vine ai>pears Jo be the fox grape
( Vitis tmlpina), which grows wild in*hat part of America.
Only a few unimportant particulars respecting the settle-
ment are preserved ; but it was probably abandoned or
destroyed, like the Greenland colonies, of which it was an
offset. The account, though meagre, is distinct and consis-
tent. Its authenticity can scarcely be disputed ; and it is
almost equally ob-vious that the country it refers to under
the name of Vinland is in the -vicinity of Rhode Island. A
conclusion resting on such strong grounds scarcely requires
to be supported by the high authority of Humboldt and
Malte-Brun. That the colony disappeared, and that the
discoveries made were not prosecuted farther, are not cir-
cumstances which wiU shake the credit of the narrative in
the minds of those who know the numerous reverses which
befell the early colonies in New England and other parts of
America. The hostilities of the Skra;ling3 was no doubt
the principal cause of the abandonment of the colony. The
Norsemen describe Vinland as a rich country, -onth a de-
lightful climate. Helluland, Markland, and Vinland, were
no doubt regarded as countries either connected with or
similar to Greenland, the flattering descriptions of which,
given by the first discoverers were sadly belied by later ex-
perience.' The interest excited by the obscure accounts
■ Fen::;sac. /iaUetin da Scixnca Sudniauet, JoUiet 1823
* See the curious work of Torfaeua called VinU-idia Antitpta, Hafn,
1705 ; and the valuable Anttquitates Americants, published at Copen-
hagen in 1437. Alao Humboldt's Cosmos, vol. ii. p. 233, Sabine'a
tiansl. 1843.
^ M. Rafn, & Dane, wno was much engaged in researches respecting
these early voyages, announced that he had ascertained, from original
documents, various facts previously unknown ; among 'others, that
America (first discovered in 985) was repeatedly visited by the Ice-
landers in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries : that the embouchupe
of the St Lawrence, and in particular the bay of Gasp?, wa.s their
principal station ; that they had penetrated, along the coast as fsl
south as Carolina : and that thej intxoduced s knowledge of Chtu
CISCOVEEY.]
A M E B I C A
707
of these countries was probably such as the announcement
of a new island eastward of Spitzbergen would produce at
the present day. No reasonable doubt can exist, however,
that the north-eastern portions of America ' (considering
Greenland as a distinct country) were familiarly known to
the Norwegians in the eleventh century.
Discovery The obscure allusions of Arietotle, Plato, and Seneca, to
of America ^ country hid in the Western Ocean, must have derived fresh
|by Colum- importance from the discovery of the Canary Isles, Madeira,
*""■ and the Azores in the early part of the fifteenth century.
The love of maritime adventure was excited by those events ;
and among the active spirits who were attracted to nautical
life by the career of distinction which was then opened up,
was Christopher Columbiis. Our limits do not permit us to
enter into details respecting this great man, an outline of
whose Hfe will be found under the proper heading. He had
received a learned education, and the study of the geographi-
cal systems then in vogue impressed him with a strong con-
viction that a voyage to India by a course directly westward
waa quite practicable with the degree of nautical science
which his contemporaries possessed. From the old and im-
perfect maps of Ptolemy he was led to believe that the parts
of the globe known to the ancients embraced 16 hours, or
225 degrees of longitude, which exceeds the truth by more
than one-third. The discovery of the Azores on the west
side had lengthened the space by one hour ; and the accounts
gleaned by Marco Polo in Asia induced him to think that
the isles connected with this continent 'stretched out so far
to the eastward that their distance from Europe could not be
great. Ci^umbus was, however, without the fortune neces-
sary to fit out ships ; and when he attempted to interest some
of the princes of those times in his proj ect, he encountered
neglects and difficulties which would have exhausted the
patience of any mind less ardent than his own. 4.t length,
after many delays and discouragements, Ferdinand and Isa-
bella of Spain supplied him with three small vessels, two of
them only half-decked ; and in this Httle armament, accom-
panied by 120 men, he set sail from the port of Palos on the
3d of August 1492. He proceeded first to the Canary Isles,
where he was (Retained three weeks in repairing one of his
vessels. On leaving these isles he entered on a region of
ocean where all was mystery. The trade-wind, however,
bore him steadily along, and the labour of the ships pro-
ceeded cheerfully, tUl the increasing length of the voyage,
the failure of prognostics which had from time to time kept
alive the hopes of the crew, and various circumstances
Interpreted by their superstition as evil omens, produced a
mutinous spirit, which all the address and authority of Co-
lumbus would not have been able to quell had the discovery
of land happened one day later than it did. Columbus,
says Humboldt, on sailing westward of the meridian of the
Azores, through an unexplored sea, sought the east of Asia
by the western route, not as an adventurer, but according
to a pre-conccived and steadfastly-pursued plan. He had
on board the sea-chart which the Florentine astronomer
Toscanelli had sent him in 1477. If ho had followed the
chart, he would have held a more northern course, along a
parallel of latitude from Lisbon. Instead of this, in the hope
of reaching Zipangu (Japan), ho sailed for half the distance
in the latitude of Gomera, one of the Canary Islands. Un-
easy at not having discovered Zipangu, which, according to
his reckoning, he should have'met with 216 nautical miles
more to the cast, ho after a long debate yielded to the
tianity among the natives. The anrntitncement was cont.iiiied in a letter
addressed to a person in Washington, and published in Nile's RfjjisUr
(Baltimore), in November 1828. But M. Hafn afterwards foiuid reason
to change his opinion as to the site of the Icelandic colony, and he
latterly considered tnat il was ai. tne mouiu oi" the luver Taunton,
which falla Into the sea In Narragahset Bay, at the north end of
Hlioda Island.
opinion of Martin Alonzo Pinzon, and steered to the Eouth-
west. The effect of this change in his course cmioxisly ex-
emplifies the influence of small and apparently trivial events
on the world's history. If Columbus, resisting the counsel
of Pinzon, had kept his original route, he would have en-
tered the warm current of the Gulf Stream, have reached
Florida, and thence perhaps been carried to Cape Hatteras
and Virginia. The result .would probably have been to give
the present United States a Roman Catholic Spanish popula-
tion, instead of a Protestant English one, a circumstance of
immeasurable importance. Pinzon was guided in forming
his opinion by a flight of parrots towards the south-west.
Never, says the Prussian philosopher, had the flight of birds
more impprtant consequences. It may be said to have de-
termined the first settlements on the new continent, and its
distribution between the Latin and Germanic races. It was
on the 12th of October that the western world revealed
itself to the wondering eyes of Columbus and his companions.
What a triumph for this extraordinary man, who had trea-
sured in his breast for twenty years, amidst neglect, dis-
couragement, and ridicule, the grand truth which his own
incomparable skill, wisdom, and firmness had now demon-
strated in the eyes of an incredulous world ! The spot which
he first touched was Guanahani, or Watling Island, as was
suggested by Muiioz in 1793, and proved by Mr R. H.
Major in 1870. After spending nearly three months in
visiting Cuba, Hispauiola, and other isles, he returned
to Spain. He made three other voyages, and in the second
coasted along a part of South America, which he rightly
judged to be a continent from the volume of water poured
, into the sea by the Orinoco. But he died ignorant of the
real extent and grandeur of his discoveries, still beUeving
that the countries he had made known to Europe be-
longed to that part of Eastern Asia which the ancients
called India. Hence the name of West Indies which
the tropical islands and part of the continent have ever
since received.
We should extend this article to an unreasonable length Progrssa ol
were we to describe in detail the discoveries and settlements discovery^
made by the several nations of Europe in America. We ^. '^°''""'
shall therefore confine ourselves to a very brief chronologi-
cal notice of the more important events.
1495. The first pls^e in which the Spaniards established
their power was the \urge island of Hayti or Hispaniola,
which was inhabited by a numerous race of Indians of a
mild and gentle character, a third part of whom are said to
have perished within two or three years after the Spaniards
conquered them.
1497. John Cabot discovered Newfoundland June 24th,
and coasted along the shores of North America to Florida.
1498. Columbus first saw the mainland. May 30.
1500. Cabral, a Portuguese, visited the coast of Brazil,
and discovered the mouth of the Amazon. It was probably
colonised before 1515. In 1500, too, Cortereal touched at
Labrador.
1508. Vincent Pinzon is said to have entered the Rio de
la Plata. It was in the same year that the Spaniards, find-
ing the aborigines too weak for the labour of the mines in
Hayti, first imported negroes fiom Guinea, and thus' laid
the foundation of a traffic which continued to disgrace the
civilisation of Europe for three centuries.
1511. Diego Columbus conquered the island of Cuba
vi-ith 300 soldiers, of whom he did not lose one.
1513. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien ^vith 290
men, and discovered tho South Sea.
1519. Hernando Cortes sailed from Cuba with 11 ships
and 550 men, and landed on the coast of Mexico, which had
been discovered in tho previous year. The conquest of tho
empire was finished in 1521 by 950 Spaniards, assisted by
a vast number of tho Indians of Tlnscaia.
708
AMERICA
[colonisation.'
1531. Peru invaded by Pizarro, and conquered in little
mora than one year, with a force of 1000 men^
1535. Jacqilea Cartier, a Frenchman, discovers the Gulf
of St Lawrence.
1535. Mendoza, a Spaniard, with 2000 followers, founds
Buenos Ayre.?, and conquers all the country as far as
Potoai, at which silver mines were discovered nine years
after.
1537. Cortes discovers California.
1511. Chili conquered; Santiago founded ; Orellana
sails from the sources of the Kio Napo down the Amazon
to the Atlantic!
1578. New jVlbion, on the north-west coast of Ame-
rica, discovered by Sir Fi-an«is Drake.
153^. The Spaniards found St Thomas'* Island, in
Quiana.
1587. Davis' Straits and Cumberland Islands discovered
by John Davis.
1004. De Monts, a Frenchman, founded the first set-
Ucraent in Nova Scotia, then called Acadie.
1607. After many ineffectual attempts during more
than twenty years, the first permanent settlement of the
English in North America was made this year, on the
banks of the James River, in Virginia.
1608. Quebec founded by the French, who had had a
small neglected colony in Canada from 1542.
1611. Newfoundland colonised by the English ; a Dutch
colony established at Hudson's River.
1614. New York founded.
1618. Baifin penetrates to the 7Sth degree of latitude,
in the bay which bears his name.
1620. The ilrat English colony established in New
England at Plymouth. It was in 1619 that tho first
negroes were imported into Virginia. They were brought
by a Dutch vesseL
1635. A French colony established in Guiana.
1655. Jamaica conquered by the English.
1064. The Dutch colonies on Hudson's River capitu-
late to tho English.
1G66. The Buccaneers begin their depredations on the
Spanish colonies.
1682. William Pena establishes a colony in Pennsyl-
vania. La Salle takes possession of Louisiana in the
name of the French king.
1698. A colony of 1200 Scots planted at Darien. In
the following year tho settlement was attacked by the
Spaniards, and abandoned.
1733. Georgia colonised by the English.
1760. Canada and all the other French settlements in
North iVmerica conquered by the English.
British We must pause at this point to give a very short ac-
colonies. count of the colonial system introduced by the principal
European nations who occupied extensive tvncta of the
new world. The English settlements extended from
the Slst to tho 50th degree on the east coast, and were
divided into 15 or 16 provinces. The colonists had car-
ried tho love of liberty characteristic of their country-
men with them ; and after many struggles with their Bri-
tish rulers, all the provinces, with one or two exceptions,
were permitted to enjoy a form of government extremely
popular. The executive power was vested in a governor
appointed by the king. He was assisted by a council,
which sometimes conjoined the functions of a Privy Council
and a House of Peers. The people were represented by
a House of Assembly, consisting of persons chosen by the
freeholders in the country parts, and the householders or
corporations of towns. Tho governor could levy no
money without the consent of tho House of Assembly : the
British parliament, however, claimed, but scarcely ever
exercised, the privilege of imposing taxes upon the colonists
without consulting them. Against this assumption of
power the local legislatures always protested as an in-
fringement of their rights. The vessels il foreign states
were not permitted to trade Tsith the colonies ; but this
colonists were allowed to trade ili their own ships with
one another, with tho mother cefuntry, and, to a limited
extent, with foreign states. Their taxes, which were
always small, were all consumed in defraying internal
expenses ; and, compared with any other people in the new
world, they enjoyed an unexampled degree of commer-
cial and political liberty. It was the growing prosperity of
tho colonies and the increasing debt of the mother countrj',
which induced the British ministers, for tho first time, ia
1764, to attempt raising a revenue in America, for purposes
not colonial. The experiment was made uy imposing a
stamp-duty on newspapers and commercial wTitings. Tho-
sum was trifling ; but the Americans, far-sighted and
jealous of their rights, saw in it tho introduction of a
principle which deprived them of all security for their
property. The people declared themselves against it as
one man, in local assemblies, and by petitions and publi-
cations of all kinds. The ministers became uneaay, and
repealed the tax; but, as a salve to the pride of the "
mother country, a declaratory Act was passed, a.sacrting her
right " to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever."
Tho idea of raising a revenue in America was not re-
nounced, but another mode was to be tried. Duties
were laid on glass, colours, paper, and tea, and were met
by an opposition in the colonies still more zealous and
determined. The British ministers, irritated, but waver-
ing in their purpose, dropped all the taxes but that oi
tea, and commenced at the same time a series of alarm-
ing innovations. They closed the port of Boston, changed
the charter of the province, placed judges and- juries on
a footing to render them more subservient to the yiewp
of the government, and introduced a strong military force
to overawe the people. On the other side, the colonists
passed resolutions not to import or consume any British
goods, and hastened to supply themselves with powdei
and anus. Blood was at length shed in April 1775, at
the village of Lexington ; and in the following year the
American Congress published their celebrated declaration
of independence. We shall not enter into the details of
the war, which was closed in 1782. Suffice it to sp.y
that, on the part of the Americans, it rested on high
grounds ; it was a war to vindicate a principle — for tha
practical grievance was admitted to be slight ; and it was
conducted with a regard to humanity of which there are
few examples in history.
The Spanish possessions in America before the revolu- fr<inj«h
tion formed nine distinct governments, all constructed cvjunt'*
on the same plan and independent of one another. Four
of these, of the first rank, were vice-royalties, viz., Mexico,
Peru, La Plata, and New Granada ; and five were captain-
generalships, viz., Yuc?.tan, Guatemala, CkUi, Venezueb,
and tho island of Cuba. The government was vested
in the viceroy or captain-general, who was held to repre-
sent the king, and to enjoy all his prerogatives within
the colony. But in these countries, as in others where
the supreme power is apparently unlimited, it was in-
directly restrained by the influence of the courts of jus-
tice, corporations, and other public bodies. The royal
audiencias or supremo courts, composed of Spaniards
nomin.-^ted by the crown, had extensive judicial powers,
and were independent of the viceroys. The cabildos or
municipalities, and the fueros or corporations (similar to
our guilds), also possessed considerable privileges, which
derived security and importance from long prescrip-
tion. Lastly, the clergy, who were numerous and rich,
necessarily possessed great influence amons a superst*
COLONISATION.]
AMERICA
709
tious people. The vices naturally inherent m the colo-.
nial system existed in full force in the Spanish American
dominions. There was tolerable security for aU classes
except the miserable Indians, who were regarded and
treated precisely as beasts of burden, out of whose toil
and , sufferings a provision as ample as possible was to be
extracted, first to supply the wants of the royal treasury,
and next to provide for and satisfy the cupidity of a
shoal of do-nothing public officers and priests. Edicts
were indeed issued for the protection of the Indians, and
persons appointed to enforce them ; but these were feeble
correctives ofi the evils rooted in the system, and not
unfrequently increased their weight. Jhe Indians, after the
conquest, were at first slaves ; they paid a capitation
tax to the crown, and their labour was entirely at the
disposal of their lord. This system was modified from
time to time ; but all the changes introduced down to the
revolution did not release them from their state of vas-
salage. They still continued liable, in a less or greater
degree, to the performance of compulsory labour, under
the orders of persons against whom they had no protection,
This was an enormous grievance ; but, what was equally
bad, being held incompetent in law to buy or sell, or
enter into any pecuniary engagement beyond the value of a
few shillings, without the agency of white men, the swarm
of pubUc functionaries had an unlimited power of inter-
fering in their concerns, of vexing, harassing, and plunder-
ing them, under the forms of law. The memoir of UUoa,
long buried amidst the Spanish archives, with various
other documents published since the revolution, depicts
acts of extortion, perfidy, cruelty, and oppresaon prac-
iised upon the Indians which have rarely been paralleled.
Men rose to affluence in offices without salaries ; and the
priests rivalled the laymen in the art of extracting money
from those whom they ought to have protected. As the
sole aim of the Spaniards in the colonies was to enrich
themselves, so the government at home made all its acts
and regulations subordinate to the grand object of raising
a revenue. Spain retained in her hands the whole trade
of the colonies, and guarded her monopoly with the most
severe penalties. The price of aU European commodities
was enhanced three, four, or six fold, in America. The
colonists were not allowed to manufacture or raise any
article which the mother country could supply ; they
were compelled to root up their vines and olives ; and for
a long period one colony was not even permitted to send
a ship to another. To support such a system it was
necessary to keep the people in profound ignorance, and to
cherish prejudices and superstition. The schools were
extremely few, and permission to establish them was often
refused, even in towns where the Spaniards and Creoles
were numerous. The importation of books, except books
of Catholic devotion, was rigorously prohibited. Even
the more grave and dry sciences, such as botany, che-
mistry, and geometry, were objects of suspicion. And
the more effectually to crush all mental activity, natives
of America could rarely obtain leave to go abroad, to
seek in foreign countries what was denied them in their
ovrn. On the other hand, the priests, sharing in the spoil,
filled the minds of the people with childish superstitions,
as a means of confirming their own power, and employed
the terrors of religion to teach them patience under
oppression. To create a race of servants devoted to its
purposes, the court bestowed all offices, from the highest
to the lowest, on natives of the peninsula exclusively.
The wisdom of the plan seems questionable, but that it
was adhered to with wonderful pertinacity is certain. " It
was the darling policy of Spain," says Mr Ward, " to dis-
seminate through her American dominions a class of men
distinct from, the people in fccUuga, habits, and intercuts,
taught to consider themselves as a privileged easie, and to
regard their own existence as intimately connected with
that of the system of which they were the principal sup-
port." With aU those means and appliances, it is extra-
ordinaiy that Spain should have been able to uphold fot
three centuries a system in which the interests of so
many millions of human beings were so habitually anil
unrelentingly sacrificed. It was the course of events, much
more than its own inherent weakness, which ultimately
caused its subversion.
After the seizure of Ferdinand and the elevation of Ravol,.
Joseph Buonaparte to the throne of Spain, orders were dis- t'ons in
patched to aU the colonies with the view of secxiring their Spa^^ish
obedience to the new dynasty. The men in office were """*
generally disposed to submit, but the treacherous conduct
of the French excited a universal hatred of their cause
among the people ; and when the regency established in
Spain presented the semblance of a patriot government,
the loyalty of the Americans blazed forth, and poured
large contributions of money into the hands of Ferdi-
nand's adherents. The weak and suspicious conduct of
the regency, however, and its subserviency to the grasp-
ing spirit of the merchants of Cadiz, at length alienated
the colonists, and roused them to take measures for their
own security. But the diversity of views and interests
among the colonists rendered the course to be adopted a
matter of some delicacy. Ferdinand, being a prisoner,
was, politically speaking, a nonentity. Napoleon's brother
was clearly an usurper, odious to, and rejected by, the mass
of the Spanish people. The regency, shut up in Cadiz,
without troops or revenue, was but a phantom ; and the
little power it had was so employed as to raise doubts
whether its members were not secretly in league with the
enemy. In these circumstances, when the only govern-
ment to which the colonists owed allegiance 'had fallen
into abeyance, the wisest course they could have pursued
was to declare themselves independent. This would at
once put a stop to the machinations of France, which they
dreaded, and prevent the regency from compromising or
sacrificing their interests by its weakness or treachery.
The Spaniards, however, who occupied all public situa-
tions, were averse to a change which they foresaw must
lead to the downfall of their power. This was perfectly
understood by the other classes ; and in the first move-
ments which took place in the different colonies nothing
was said derogatory to the supremacy of Spain, though
independence was clearly aimed at. By spontaneous efforts
of the people "juntas of government" were formed,
at Caraccas in April 1 809, at La Paz in Upper Peru Chili t— d
in July, at Quito in August, at Santa Fe and at Bue- P""*-
nos Ayres in May 1810, and at Santiago in Chili in
September the same year. In 1810, also, the first insur-
rection broke out in Mexico. The colonists unluckily had
been too long the slaves of superstition and tyranny to
be fit for conducting so bold an experiment ; and after a
struggle, which was generally short, but almost every-
where bloody, the juntas were all put down except in
Colombia and Buenos Ayres. But in the stir and tumult
of the contest old prejudices had received a shock, and
the seeds of political change had struck their roots too
deep in the soU to be eradicated. A desultory war was
carried on for six years between Buenos Ayres and Upper
Peru, with little advantage on cither side. At length, in
1817, the former state, which had assumed the stylo of
an independent republic four years before, sent an army
across the Andes to ChUi, under General San Martin, and
defeated the Spaniards at Chacabuco. A second victory,
gained at Maipo in April 1818, led to the entire subver-
sion of the Spanish power in this colony. The war w»s
now transferred to Peru, where the Spaniards ccntimicd
710
AMERICA
[EETOLFTK»a.
to lose ground, till the decisiTe battle of Ayacucno put
an end to tlieir power in December 1824. Rodil and
Olaveta, with the obstinacy of their nation, held out for
some months longer, when every chance of success was
gone; but after the surrender of CaUao in Januar)' 1826,
the Spanish flag no longer waved on any spot in the land
of the Incas. ■
IjKow In New Oranada and Venezuela the struggle was more
Omnai'.a. Hoody, -variable, and protracted than in- any other part
■of South America. As this portion of the dominions of
Spain was comparatively easy of access, and from its cen-
tral position was in some measure the key to the whole,
she made immense efforts for its presen-ation. No less
■than ten thousand troops wore sent out to it within the
■course of one year. The jjatriota, on the other hand, pos-
sessed advantages jiere, in the greater intelligence of
the population, and the easy intercourse with the West
Indies. From 1809, when juntas were established in
Caraccaa and Quito, to the surrender of Vorto Cabello
in 1823, the vicissitudes of the war were numerous and
'extraordinary. The patriots were repeatedly on the eve of
a oompleto triumph, and as often the state of their affairs
' seemed nearly hopeless. But the spirit of resistance never
Tvas entirely subdued. The cau.so w:\s rooted in the hearts
of the people, and was inscn.iibly gaining ground even
during its reverses. To attempt the faintest outline of
the military operations would lead us beyond our proper
limits. It is enough to state that the decisive victory of
Carabobo, gained by the patriots in 1819, gave them an
ascendancy which they never afterwards lost ; but the
Spaniards, according to their custom, continued to main-
tain the 'contest as long as they had a foot nf land in tho
country, ijnd were only finally expelled in 1823.
Moico. In Mexico the revolutionary movement began at Dolores
in 1810, and soon wore a very prosperous appearance;
but tho weakness or fal.'io pride of tlio Creoles, who
were cajoled into tho ranks of their ojiprcssors tho old
Spaniards, armed against the patriots those who shouhj
have been their firmest sujiportors, and by one or two
mischances tho force of the independent \jarty was ruined
in November 1815, when Jlorelos, their able leader,
was taken prisoner and executed. For~six years after
this period many guerilla bands maintained themselves in
the provinces, and greatly annoyed the Sjjaniards ; but
they did not act in concert, and no congress or junta
professing to represent the Xlcxienn people existed.
Even during this interval the desire for in<lependence was
making great progress among ihe population ; but the
establishment of a constitutional government in Spain in
1820, and its extension to the colonies, gave a new a.spcct
to the affairs of Mexico. The viceroy Ajjodaca, while
outwardly yielding obedience to the new system, was
silently taking measures to effect its overtlirow ; b\it he mis-
took the character of the agent he employed. This per-
son, the celebrated Iturbide, turned his own arms against
liim, proclaimed a constitution under the name of "the
three guarantees," and put an end to the dominion of
fpain in 1821, almost without bloodshed. Iturbide, who
had nothing in view but his own aggrandisement, called a
congress, which he soon dissolved after getting himself
proclaimed emperor. His usuqiation kindled a spirit of
resistance. He was exiled in 1823, made a new attempt
on the liberties of his country in 1824, was^taken prisoner,
and expiated his crimes by a military death within a
few weeks after he landed.
Gnate- Guatemala was the last portion of the American con-
"^'»- tinent which threw off the Spanish yoke. In 1821 the
persons in office assembled and formed a junta. Divi-
sions arose, which were fomented by the intrusion of a
Mexican army sent by Iturbide. This force, however,
was beaten, and an elective assembly called, \ihich de-
clared the country independent, and eelablinhed a consti
tution in July 1823. Spain now retains none of her pos-
sessions in the new world but Cuba and Porto Piico.
The government of Brazil was conducted by the Por- Portngnesi
tuguese on a system extremely similar to that of the <»lony of
Spanish colonies. The monopoly which the mother coun- "r""-
try retained of the commerce of tho colony was equally i
rigorous ; the restrictions on its internaL industry as s u
vere ; and the same means were employed to keep the •
people in a state of pui)ilage and ignorance. Down to
1800 a single printing-press had never existed in IJra7.il.
In 1807, when the emperor Napoleon had resolved to
possess liimsolf of Portugal, and if possible to get tho
royal family into his power, the king, seeing no other
means of csca])ing from the clutches of his enemy, em-
barked with his suite in several ships, and sailed for
Brazil, where he arrived in January 1808. He was received
with joy by the colonists, who anticipated great benefits
from his residence, of which they were not di.sappointcd.
One by one tho fetters of colonial depencfence fell off.
^Yithiu a few months i)rinting-]iresscs and newspapers
were established, tho ports were ojiencd to the trade of all
natiiin.s, and tho people were iinntcd and encouraged to
prosecute all those branches of internal industry from
which they had till now been interdicted. To crown and
secure these advant.-igc.s, Brazil was declared an inde-
pendent kingdom in 1M1.5, subject to the crown of Portugal,
but entitled to its separate administration and its own
Liws. The revclutionary sinrit pervading the Spanish
colonies now found its w.ay into Brazil, and produced an
insurrection at I'crnambuco in 1817. It was soon sub-
dued, but received a new impulse from the constitutional
systems suddenly introduced into Spain and Portugal in
1820. To qiuct tho popular feeling, it was announced
th.at tho Poitugiieso constitution would be extended to
Brazil. Eeftiro this had been done, however, the old king
had sailed for Europe, leaving his son I)ora Pedro to rule
iu his alwcnco. Tho i>eoplo now discovered, or believed,
that the object of the king was to degrade Brazil again to
the rank of a colony, and to restore the old system in all
its rigour. Meetings were held, and resolutions adopted
to . maintain tho independence of the country at all
hazards ; and the patriots, gaining confidence by degrees,
called loudly for the establishment of a legislature, and
besought Doui Pedro to put himself at the head of the
independent government. Ambition or policy induced Erapire of
Pedro to listen to the solicitation: in 1822 he was pro- Braiil
claimed emperor, and had his own title and the indepen-
dence of Brazil acknowledged by his father three years
afterwards. A representative system was at the same
time introduced. An unlucky war now arose with Buenos
Ayres, which weakened both countries ; but it was at
length terminated in 1828 by the recognition of the dis-
puted territory as an independent state under the title of
the Banda Oriental.
Having finished this brief notice of the series of revo- Eristini?
lutiona which broke the fetters of America, we shall now Po'itiol
give a very short sketch of the new political order of I*'™'"'"-
things which has arisen out of these changes, referring for
a detailed account of the several states to the articles
appropriated to them in the different volumes of the pre-
sent work.
America, with its islands, embraces at present (1874)
twenty-one independent states, and various colonies belong-
ing to six European powers. The former are — 1. The
United States of North America ; 2. BrazU ; 3. Mexico ;
4. A'^enezuela ; 6. Colombia ; 6. Ecuador or Quito ; 7.
Peru; 8. Bolivia or Upper Pern; 9. Chili; 10. La Plata,
or the Argentine Republic; 11. Uruguay; 12. Paraguay;
STATE 3.] A M E
13. Patagoma ; 14. Co3ta Eica, 15. Mosquitia ; 16. Gua-
temala; 17. Honduras; 18. Nicaragua ; I'J, Sau Sajvador ;
20. Hayti ; 21. San Domingo. The colonies belong to
Britain, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, France, and Spain.
Patagonia is merely the geographical name of a district of
Chili, occupied by independent tribes of Indians ; Mos-
quitia, or the Mosquito coast, is a small Indian state ruled
by a native king ; and Hayti is a negro republic proclaimed
in 1867. For detailed accounts of these various states and
colonies we refer to the articles under the proper heads. At
present we must confine ourselves to a brief notice of the
more important ones.
"United The United States were colonised a century later than
States. Spanish America; but their brilliant and rapid progress
Bhows in a striking light how much more the prosperity
of nations depends on moral than on physical advantages.
The North Americans had no gold mines, and a territory of
only indiiferent fertility, covered with impenetrable woods ;
but they brought with them intelligence, industry, a love
of freedom, habits of order, and a pure and severe morality.
Armed with these gifts of the soul, they have converted the
wilderness into a land teeming with Ufe and smiling with
plenty ; and they have built up a social system so pre-emi-
nen*;ly calculated to promote the happiness and moral im-
provement of mankind, that it has truly become the " envy
of nations." The republic is bounded on the north by
Canada, on the south-west by Mexico, and on the other
sides by the sea. At present (1874) it consists of thirt)-
seven states, with one district and eleven territories, which
latter will be converted into slates as soon aS each acquires
a sufficient population. The extent of the country, includii\g
the Indian lands stretching west to the Pacific Ocean, over
which it claims a right of pre-emption, embraces 3,603,844
square miles of land. The agriculture of the United States
partakes to some extent of a tropical character. The sugar-
cane is cultivated in Louisiana, Florida, and other states
as far north as the latitude of 31J°. Cotton is raised in
all the south.-east states S. of the 37th parallel, and tobacco
chiefly in the middle states. Wheat succeeds in the middle
and northern states, and maize thrives in every part of the
Union. Agriculture is conducted with considerable skill ; but
the " high fanning " practised in England would not pay in
America, where money is of much value and land of little.
Scarcely any portion of the soil is rented in the United
States : the farmers are almost universally proprietors ; and
when their property is extensive, which rarely happens, it is
Boon broken into small occupancies under the lav/ of equal
division. The advance the Americans have made in manu-
factures may be judged of from the fact that in 1870,
according to the census then taken, there were upwards of
35,000 operatives employed in 969 cotton factories, and
77,870 in 1938 manufactories of woollen goods. The iron
industries gave employmentto upwards ofl 40,000 hands, the
iron produced in the country reaching nearly two millions
of tons. In the useful arts gener»lly America is on a level
Tvith France and England. The internal commerce of the
United States is conducted with extraordinary spirit. The
amount of capital expended on roads, canals, harbours,
bridges, and other public works, is very great. The length
of the lines of railway open for traffic now e.xceeds 70,000
miles, and is Ta\nd\y increasing. The extent of the foreign
tr::de of the country, and the amoimt of its shipping, place
it next to Great Britain in the list of commercial nations.
Tho population of the United Stales in 1870 was { „ ,,. „~.
..by census ( ' '
la 1800 it was 5,308,483
Incrcnso in 70 years 83,240,888
Elt!C9 1800 tho rate of incrca.so has been remarkably
•:-'.'.c,Zi,\' z'i ;'.-irly 3} por cent, per annum. In 1871 tho
RICA
711
number of immigrants was 346,938, of whom 198,843
migrated from the British Isles, 107,201 from Germany,
6030 from China, and the remainder from British North
America, Sweden, Norway, France, Austria, Italy, Switzer
land, Denmark, and Russia.
Slaves were first introduced in 1619. In 1775 slaverj
was abolished in Rhode Island; in 1780 Massachusett
abobshed it ; then numerous northern states followed
and in December 1865 slavery was abolished throughou
the United States. By subsequent amendment of th<
constitution all negroes were admitted to all the privileges
of citizenship. Thus it was enacted on March 30, 1870,
that " no discrimination should be made in the United
States among thefbitizens of the United States in ♦he
exercise of their electiv?^, franchise, or in the right to hold
office in any state, on account of race, colour, nativity,
property, education, or c^eed." Every person born or
cteei
naturalised in the Unitea States is recognised to be "
citizen thereof.
The American government is a pure representative do
mocracy in which the people are recognised as the fountain
of all power; and the sole object of all its mechanism is
to give efi'ect to their deliberate opinions. The federal
government and the governmentis of the separate states are
constituted on the same plan. The legislature consists in
every case of two bodies, a House of Representatives chosen
for one or two years, and a Senate for a period varying
from two years to six — all chosen by popular election, except
in the case of the Federal Senate, which is elected by the
legislatures of the thirty-seven states. The President holds
his ofiice for four years, but is occasionally re-elected for
four years more.
The characteristic facts in the condition of America are
the non-existence of titles, of privileged classes, of corpora-
tions in otir sense of the term, of a landed aristocracy, of
mendicity except to a very limited extent, and of an en-
dowed church ; the cheapness and efficiency of its govern-
ment, the universality of education, the omnipresence of its
periodical press, the high feeling of self-respect which e.xists
in the very humblest classes, and the boundless spirit of
enterprise which pervades all classes of society. The
higher classes are less polished than in England, the middle
are perhaps less carefully instructed ; but the American
people, taken collectively, are at least as well educated and
have as much intelligence and manliness of chal-acter as any
other nation in the world.
In 1867 the territory formerly known as Russian America
was purchased by the United States, and called Alaska.
It occupies the north-west comer of the continent, and
extends along the coast as far south as Mount Elias, where
it is bounded by British Columbia and the southern end of
Prince of Wales Island, in 54° 40' N. It comprises an
area of about 670,390 square miles. Furs and fish are
the most valuable commodities. Sitka is the capit.al. It
is situated on an island in 57° 2' 45" N. and 135° 17' 10*
W. It has a population of over 2000 person.s. The
Yukon river, which is about 2000 miles long, flows through
the territory.
British North America is bounded on the south by the British
United States, on the north by the Arctic Ocean, and on North
tho west by Alaska. In 1867 the provinces of Ontario *™'""
(formerly Upper Canada), Quebec (formerly Lower Canada),
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba (formerly Hudson's
Bay Territory), and British Columbia, were united under
the title of " The Dominion of Canada," whije Neivfound-
land and I'rinco Edwoid Island still remained independent.
The executive power is vested in the sovereign of the
British empire, but is carried out by a Governor-General and
Privy Council. The Parliament consists of a Senate and a
House of ''V>icinoD8. The ecoators are nominated for li."
712
AMERICA
U
by the Governor-General, and arc 75 in number. The mem-
bers of tlio House of Commons arc elected by thC i)eo[ile in
ihe proportion of one member for each 17,000 souls. The
Boat is retainable for five years, and each member is allowed
a salary and travelling expenses. Ottawa is the capital of
the Dominion. According to the latest census, taJcen on
A|)ril 3, 1871, the area and population of the several pro-
vinces are as under : —
Area, sqnarf mllea.
Ontario 121,200
Quebec 210,020
NovaScotin 18,660
Now Brunsuick 27,105
Manitoba 2,891,734
British Columbia. 213,000
3,481,779
Nowfonndland (1809) 40,200
I'liace Edwards Island (May 1871) 2,173
Population.
1,620,842
1,191,505
387,800
285,777
111,903
£0,000
8,047,887
140,536
94,021
In 1871 the Dominion had 2854 miles of railway open,
1173 miles in preparation, and ,3000 miles for which con-
cessions had been granted by the government. A line has
been projected to extend from Lake Superior to the Pacific
0;ean.
prazil. Brazil is the largest state in South America, and enjoys
the greatest combination of natural advantages. It is
bounded on the south, west, and north, by La Plata,
Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia,
Venezuela, and Guiana. Embracing an area of 3,100,000
English miles, it is nearly as large as Europe, and is capable
of supporting a much greater population. Its climate is
probably cooler and more salubrious than that of any other
extensive tropical country ; and every part of its soil is rich
and fruitful, as its magnificent forests and the exuberance
and boundless variety of its vegetable productions attest.
Its commcrical advantages are admirable. No country in
the new world has the same facUifies for carrying on in-
tercourse with Europe and with aU its neighbours. The
Amazon, with its numerous branches, the Parana, the To-
cantins, the St Francisco, and other streams, supply the most
remote parts of the interior with easy means of communi-
cation \nth the sea. Brazil possesses iron, copper, and pro-
bably all the other metals ; but her mines of gold and dia-
monds are remarkably rich. Her most valuable productions
for exportation are cotton, sugar, coffee, hides, tobacco,
vanilla, dyewoods, aromatic plants, timber, il-c. Her com-
merce is much greater than that of all the Spanish colonies
put together. The Brazilians are lively, irritable, hospitable,
but ignorant, superstitious, and rather inclined to indol-
ence. Their acquisition of independence in 1822, however,
worked like a charm, and produced an extraordinary change
in their industry, opinions, and modes of thinking. There
are numerous schools, but although the education is gra-
tuitous, they are not well attended. The advance litera-
ture has made will be allowed to be great when it is
remembered that printing was unknown in the country in
1807. According to the constitution introduced by IJom
Pedro, the legislature consists of a Senate of 52 members,
who hold their places for life, and a House of Congress of
107, elected by the people for four year?; upon the acts of
both of which bodies the emperor has a negative. The
members of the lower house are chosen by elections of two
stages. The householders of a parish meet and appoint
one elector for every thirty of their number, and the
electors thus chosen meet in districts and choose the depu-
ties. The members of both houses receive salaries. The
executive power is invested in the emperor assisted by a
mim"stry and a council of state.
The population of Brazil amounted to 3,071,558, accord-
ing to returns published in 1818, and procured probably for
the purpose of taxation. Thu was exclusive of the wander-
ing Indians. In 1823 it was estimated at 4,000,000
by Uuiuboldt M. Schoeffcr carries it to 5,700,000, and
an estimate for.l8C7 makes it 9,858,000, comprising
8,148,000 free persons, and 1,674,000 slaves. The census
taken in 1872 gives a population of 10,095,978, including
1,083,864 slaves.
Brazil, unlike the Spanish American provinces, has re-
mained, subject to its ancient sovereign ; and ita govern-
ment, from being colonial, has become imperial and inde-
pendent, without any violent revolution. The result has
been greatly in favour of the peace and prosperity of the
country. See Bbazil.
The portion of South America next to the isthmus in- Columbia,
eludes the states of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. From Venezuela
1820 till 1831, when a separation took place, it formed '""^ ^""•
one state under the name of Colombia; which name has °''
recently been assumed by the republic long known as New
Granada. The territories of these three states are bounded,
on the south by Peru, on the south-east and east by Brazil
and Guiana, oh the other sides by the sea, and embrace an
area of 1,020,000 square English miles. The soil is
fi-uitful and the climate salubrious, except iJcng the coast
and in a few other low situations. The eastern part
consists chiefly of the Uanos or steppes of the Orinoco,
which are very hot ; the western, of the mountain ridges
of the Andes, which support tracts of table-land where the
blessings of a temperate climate are enjoyed, and the
cerealia of Europe can be successfully cultivated. The
tropical vegetation extends to the height of 4000 feet;
from 4000 to 9000 is the region where wheat, barley, and
leguminous plants thrive. Above the level of 9000 feet
the climate becomes severe ; and at 15,700 feet vegetation
ceases. The -situation of Colombia is highly favourable
for commerce. It has excellent ports on both seas ; and
being mistress of the isthmus of .Panama, it h.is superior
facilities for establishing a communication from the one to
the other. The Orinoco and the Amazon afford the inmost
districts of Venezuela and Ecuador the advantages of
water carriage to the ocean. The Cassiquiari, an inter-
mediate channel, by which the Orinoco bifurcates or con-
nects with the Amazon (a remarkable hydrographical pheno-
menon), is within the limits of Venezuela. The territory
contains much gold and silver — the former in alluvial depo-
sits : it has mines of copper and mercury also, with platinum,
iron, and coal. Its tropicd productions are similar to those
of Brazil; but it has as yet cultivated few articles for foreign
markets, and its exports are inconsiderable. The ci's-ilised
population of this country is chiefly located in the districts
near the coast, and in the high valleys or table-land of the
Andes. Its amount, according to the Statesman's Year-
Book, is —
Tenezacla. .'. 1,564,433
Colombia 2,794,473
Ecuador 1,300,000
5,658,006
It is always of importance to know in what proportions the
different races are blended, but on this subject we have
only approximate data. In Colombia the whites form about
half of the population, the Indians about one-third, and
the negroes about one-tenth, the remainder being of mixed
blood. In Venezuela the whites form about one-third, the
Indians about one-thirtieth, and Zamboes (from Indians
and negroes) about one-half. In Ecuador the proportions
are, roughly — whites one-sixth, Indians nearly one-half,
negroes one-thirteenth.
All the three states are republican. See Venezuela,
CoLoiTBiA, and Ecuador.
The Argentine Republic, or La Plata, is, in point of
natural advantages, the second state of importance in South
STATES.]
AMERICA
713
Plata.
Argentine America. It is bounded on the west by Chili ; on the north
Republic, by Bolivia; on the east by. Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and
Of La jhe sea; and on the south by Patagonia. It embraces an
area of 515,000 square miles if we include Tucuman, Salta,
Santiago del Estero, and Jujuy, which scarcely acknowledge
its authority. Nearly the whole territory of this republic
consists of open plains destitute of timber, called pampas,
extending from the Atlantic and the river Paraguay to t^e
Andes. The eastern part of these plains exhibits a vigorous
growth of herbage, interpitxed with a forest of gigantic plants,
9 OT 10 feet high, which have been called thistles, but are
now known to be artichokes ; in the middle they are covered
with grass ; and the western division, which extends to the
foot of the Andes, consists of barren sandy plains, thinly
sprinkle'd with shrubs and thorny trees. The openness
and dryness of the country, however, render it healthy ;
and by the Parana, the Paraguay, and their branches, it
possesses a great extent of natural inland navigation. It
has mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, and probably iron ;
but its mineral riches have been greatly diminished by the
separation of Potosi, Cochabamba, La Paz, and other pro-
vinces now forming part of Bolivia. The force of this
republic lies almost entirely in the wealth, intelligence,
and commercial spirit of its capital, Buenos Ayres, which
contains 150,000 souls, including a large proportion of
foreigners. A small number of eslancias, or grazing farms,
are sparingly diffused over its boundless plains, the pro-
prietors of which keep multitudes of horses and mules,
flocks of sheep, and vast herds of cattle ; the latter being
chiefly valued for their skins. These people are a bold,
frank, hardy, half-civilised race, who live isolated in the
wilderness, and scarcely acknowledge any government.
The census of 1869 gives a total population of 1,736,922.
See Argentine REPasLrc; and for the two small states
formed out of the north-eastern portion of its territory, see
Pakaguay and Ukuguay. Entre Rios, formerly a sepa-
rate state, is now a province of La Plata.
Afll, Chili extends along the coast of the Pacific from 24° to
56° of south latitude: its length is 2270 miles; its breadth
varies from 40 to 200; and its surface, exclusive of Arau-
cania, which has an area of 88,000 sq. miles, is estimated
at 130,977 English square miles. The country consists
properly of the western slope or declivity of the Andes,
for the branches of the mountains running out in-tortuous
directions from the main trunk reach to the sea-shore. It
enjoys an excellent and healthfid climate ; severe cold is un-
known in the inhabited parts, and the heat is seldom exces-
sive. The useful soil bears a small proportion to the entire
■ surface of the country, con.sisting merely of the bottom of
the valleys. It has rich mines of gold, silver, and copper in
the northern provinces ; but very fev/ of thom can be worked
in consequence of the absolute sterility of the adjacent
country. Its two northern provinces, occupying 450 miles
of the coast, are nearly perfect deserts. The soU continues
extremely dry, and yields nothing without irrigation, tiU we
teach the latitude of 35° ; and it is believed that not one-
fif tioth part of the country is fit for cultivation. But south
of the river Maule the land is covered with fine timber, and
bears crops of wheat and other grain without the aid of any
other moisture than what is supplied by the atmosphere.
This is in truth the fine and fruitful part of Chili ; and the
project was once entertained of selecting its chief town. Con-
ception, for the scat of the government. Chili has no manu-
factures, and is unfavourably situated for commerce. It
has no navigable rivers, while its mountainous surface is an
obstacle to the formation of roads; but nevertheless it has
now upwards of 500 miles of railway opened A represen-
tative constitution was estaljlished in Chili in 1833. An
enumeration dated 1869 makes the population, exclusive of
Araucania (with 70,000 aborigiues), 1,938,801. See Cuiu.
Peru may be regarded as a coatinvir.tion of Chili, consist-. Vera,
ing of the western declivities of the Andes, from the 4th
to the 2 2d degree of south latitude, with the addition of
a considerable tract on the east side of the inountains, be-
tween the 4th and 15th parallels. There are few countries
in the world which have a more singular: physical charac-
ter than the western part of Peru. It is a belt or zone
of, sands, 1240 nules in length and from 70 to 600 in
breadth, with inequalities of surface which might bo called
mountains if^they were not seen in connection with tha
stupendous background of the Andes. This long line of
desert is intersected by rivers and streams, which are seldom
less than" 20 or more than 80 miles apart, and on the sides
of which narrow strips of productive soil are created by-
means of irrigation. These isolated valleys form the
whole habitable country. Some of the large rivers reach
the sea ; the smaller are either consumed in irrigating;
the pa.tches of cultivated land or absorbed by the encom-
passing desert, where it. never rains, where neithei: beast
nor bird lives, and a blade of vegetation never grew. No
stranger can travel from one of these valleys to another
without a guide, for the desert is trackless ; and the only
indications of a route are an occasional cluster of bones,
the remains of beasts of burden that have perished. Even
experienced guides, who regulate their course by the star^
the Sim, or the direction of the wind, sometimes lose their
path, and they almost inevitably perish. Of a party of 300
soldiers thrown ashore by a shipwreck in 1823 on one of
these desert spaces, nearly a hundred expired before they
reached the nearest valley. ' Ignorance and wonder have
been busy with this singular region : legends are current,
which tell that descendants of the ancient Peruvians have
lived in some of these mysterious valleys, hid from the know-
ledge of their merciless invaders, since the days of the
Incas. We have no reason to believe that more than one
acre in a hundred of maritime Peru will ever be available
for the sustenance of mankind. The country has two ad-
vantages— its mines of the precious metals, and a temperate
and dehghtful climate, in consequence of the absence of rain
and the fogs which intercept the solar heat. It can n^ver
be rich in the proper sense of the term, or make much pro-
gress in the improvements which depend upon a dense popu-
lation. Like ChQi, it has no navigable rivers — and nature
has deprived it of the means of forming good roads. There
are indeed few countries in the world whose natural advan-
tages have been so much overrated as Peru ; and it requires
little sagacity to discover that its future career cannot cor-
respond with its p%st celebrity. The districts east of the
Andes, which have a hot climate accompanied with a rich
soil, will ultimately be the most valuable part of the country ;
but their secluded situation and want 'of communication
with other countries must keep them long in a backward
state. The government is republican. Peru comprehends
a surface of 502,760 square miles ; the capital, Lima,
contained in 1862 a population of 121,370. In that year
a rough calculation was made which gave 3,199,000 as the
entire population of the republic. It was also estimated
that the proportions of races were : —
Indians 57 per cent.
Mixed races 23 ,,
Sjiauiards, Negroes, Chinese, &0. 21; ,,
Bolivia, or Upper Peru, lies eastward of Lower Peru, and Bolivia
is bounded on the south by the Argentine Kepublic, and oti
the north and east by Brazil. It is of an irregular form, and
comprehends a space of 473,300 square miles. The climate
is pleasant and healthful, the soil is generally dry, and in the
eastern parts, as well as the elevated table-land, its aridity
produces barrenness. Nature, however, as a compensation
for its other disadvantages, has bestowed upon it some of
the richest uiucs in the world. The country was erected
714
AMERICA
[states.
irnii an indcpenJcnt state only m 1826, and namea Bolivia
in honour of its lilicrator Kolivar. It has a small stiip of
barren territory on the slio-ea of the Pacific Ocean, between
the 22d and 25th parallel ; but it is, properly speaking,
entirely a^ inland country, and more deficient in the means
of communicating with foreign nations than any other state
.>n Amencii. See Bolivia.
Guat»- Guatemala or "Central America" originally occupied all
mala.- the narrow part of the continent from the 83d to the 94th
degiee of west longitude, extending 800 miles in length,
and covering a space of 1 30,000 square miles. The surface
of the country is hiUy, and in most parts mountainous ; the
climate warm and very moist. The mineral wealth of the
country is not great ; but this is compensated by the rich-
ness of its soil and its excellent commercial position. It
was a federal republic, but its five provinces have now
become independent states. Humboldt estimated the
population of the five states at 1,000,000. According
to a statement furnished to Mr Thouison, a former British
envoy by the government, it was 2,000,000 ; while the
mo3t recent of the estimates made by the resident oflBcials
give a total of 2,335,019, viz. :-
Guatemala (1865) 1,180,000
St Salvador (1870) 434,620
Honduras 250,000
KicaraRua. 350,000
CoataRica 120,499
Mexico.
2,335,019
The proportions of the difForcnt races have been esti-
mo.ted as follows : —
Homboldt Thomson.
TiTiites and Creoles 20 per cent. 20 per cent.
Mixed classes 28 ,, 40 ,,
Indians 52 „ 40 ,,
Mexico is the most populous and powerful oiF all the new
states erected in America since the commencement of the
present century. Previous to the war with the United
States it embraced an area of 1,600,000 square miles, which
was reduced to 1,030,442 by the cession of the northern
provinces in 1848. About three-fourths of the surface con-
sists either of mountains or table-land, raised from 5000 to
10,000 feet above the sea. Owing to this extraordinary
elevation, even those parts of the country which lie within
the torrid zone (the low ground on the coast excepted)
enjoy a dry, cool, and salubrious atmosphere ; but this
advantage is counterbalanced by the insufficient supply of
moisture and the rapid evaporation resulting from the
Bfvmo cause, which render the soO gefierally rather arid,
end in many parts absolutely barren ; by the smaUness
cf the rivers and the almost entire absence of inland
navigation ; and by the obstacles which the steep and
rugged ascents from the coast present to land-carriage.
The republic is, besides, almost destitute of ports on the
Atlantic side. Mexico is extremely rich in the precious
metals ; and there are few regions upon which nature has
lavished so great a variety of vegetable productions, or
where plants fitted to the coldest and the hottest climates
may be seen so nearly in juxtaposition. The low ground
on the east coast is admirably adapted for raising sugar;
end no country is more favourably situated for growing
the other great articles of West India produce — coffee,
cotton, cocoa, indigo, and tobacco. The raising of bread-
stuffs — 33 they are termed by the Anglo-Americans — wheat,
maize, and barley, with potatoes, the cassava root, beans,
pumpkins, fruit, &c. — for domestic consumption, will neces-
sarily be the chief branch of industry on the table-lands.
The mines have never employed above 30,000 labourers ;
and their superior productiveness depends chiefly on two
ci'^umstances — the great abundance of the ore, which is
on., of poor quality, and the comparative facility with
which they can be worked owing to their being generally
situated in fertDe districts, where provisions, wood, and all
materials can be easily procured.
Mexico has had her full share of the ignorance and super-
stition which belonged to Spain ; and these evils, ^ith her
internal dissensions and her rapacious, immoral, and intole-
rant clergy, are great obstacles to her improvement. That
excessive inequality of fortune which corrupts both extremes
of society has been nowhere in the world more prevalent than
in Mexico. Individual proprietors possessed immense tracts
of land and boundless wealth, while all the great towns
swarmed with beggars, and thousands fell a sacrifice to fa-
mine from time to time. The Mexican constitution, which
is federal and almost a literal copy of that of the United
States, was established in 1824. The distinction of cctste*,
which was maintained in the greatest rigour under the colo-
nial system, has now disappeared, and power and office are
open, not only legally but practically, to men of ajl colours.
The African blacks formed an extremely small proportion of
the Mexican population at all times ; and since the revolution
slavery has ceased. The number of inhabitants was estimated
at 6,800,000 byHumboldt inl823, and classed as follows: —
Numbcn. Propojtlotr
Whites 1,230,000 19 per cent.
Mixed races 1,860,000 27 „
Indians : 3,710,000 54
Mr Ward states that very few of the whites, so called, are
free from a mixture of Indian blood ; and now when the
odious distinctions founded on complexion are abolished,
they readily acknowledge it. Mr Ward estimated the
population at 8,000,000 in 1827. In 1869 that of
Mexico with its present boundaries was stated to be
9,176,082. See Mexico.
Hayti, called formely Hispaniola and St Domingo, was Eayti.
a colony belonging partly to France and partly to Spain
till 1791, when the blacks rose in arms, killed a number of
whites, and expelled the rest. The attempts of England in
1793, and of France in 1801, to conquer the island, both
failed, and Ilayti has at length been acknowledged as an
independent state by all the great powers, including Frances
, The island, which contains about 28,000 square miles, is
remarkably fertile; but its climate, like that of the West
Indies generally, is rather unhealthy. The population,
which before the revolution was estimated at 600,000, ia
now said to amount to 900,000 or 1,000,000, and it is almost
entirely composed of blacks and mulattoes. The island
formed one state till 1844, when the eastern or Spanish
portion revolted, and establLshed its independence. It is
now the republic of " Dominica," niled by a president,
while the western portion, retaining the name of Hayti,
was formed into an empire under Faustii) I. ; but in 1867 a
republican constitution was proclaimed. After long negotia-
tions, the French government agre.ed in 1838 to acknow-
ledge the independence of Hajrti on condition of the latter
paying 60,000,000 of francs by small annual instalments
continued for 30 years. The money was destined chiefly
to indemnify the French proprietors who were chased from
the island in 1791. Nothing has been paid of late years.
The miiltifarious nature of the subject prevents us from West
attempting any description of the West India colonies, in- I""!"*
sular and continental. The islands have been variously
denominated, but the most convenient division seems to ua
the following: — 1. The Great AntUles, comprehending
Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico; 2. The Small
Antilles, extending in a semicircle from Porto Rico to the
coast of Guiana ; 3. The Bahama Isles, about 500 in num-
ber, of which, however, only a small number are inhabited.
The British colonies are 18 in number, viz., 16 insular —
Jamaica, Antigua, Earbadoes, Dominica, Grenada, ilont
serrat, Nevis, St Kitts, St Lucia, St Vincent, Tobago
COMiHTaCATION.]
AMERICA
715
Tor:ola, Trinidad, Bahamas, Bermuda, Falkland Island ;
and 2 amtmerUal — British Guiana and Honduras. The
colonies contained a population of 1,228,967 in 1871, of
whom probably four-fifths were persons of colour.
The Spanish colonies are Cuba and Porto Rico. Cuba has
an area of 45,883 square miles, and in 1867 the population
was 1,414,508. Porto Rico has an area of 3530 square miles,
•and in 1866 a population of 646,362 persons. In 1867
there were upwards of 700,000 slaves in these two colonies.
In August 1872 the Spanish government issued a decree
ordering that arrangements ehould be made for the gradual
emancipation of the slaves ; and in December 1872 a bill
was laid before the Spanish Cortes for the abolition of slavery
in Porto Rico in 1873 ; so that probably slaverv will soon
te extinct throughout the whole of America.
The French colonies in the West Indies include Mar-
tinique, Guadaloupe, and some smaller isles ; and on the
continent, Guiana. According to a recent authority the
population of these colonies was 318,934.
The Dutch have Surinam on the continent, with the
islands of Cura^oa, St Eustatius, and St Martin.
In 1870 the population of the islands was 35,482, and
of Surinam 59,885, occupying an area of 2812 geographical
square miles. Slavery has ceased since July 1863, when the
Dutch government compensated theownersfor 44,645 slaves.
The Danes have the small islands of Santa Cruz
and St John, containing a population of 24,698 in
1860, of whom most are freed slaves, and St Thomas,
which had in the same year a population of 13,463.
St Bartholomew, another of the Lesser Antilles, belongs
to Sweden.
Fransit The problem of making a grand highway for travel and
from the traffic from the Atlantic to the Pacific, either across the
AtUntio to 1,1-eadth of the American continent or by taking advantage
of the narrow isthmus that joins its northern to its southern
portion, has been the subject of many schemes since its
western as well as its eastern shores have been inhabited by
enterprising nations, skilled in commerce and in mechanical
arts. It is interesting to remark that, whereas the hope of
sailing to India by a westward route was the motive which
guided the navigators of the 15 th century to the disco-
very of America, the means of internal communication for
this part of the earth, and the geographical exploration of
its remote extremities, have been more recently advanced
by the desire of finding a path in this direction to the
Asiatic resorts of mercantile activity. Arctic voyagers
were at first invited to the icy seas of high latitudes by
the dream of a north-west passage to China and the East
Indies. It was a pa,?sage by sea from the Atlantic to the
Pacific which Sir John Franklin went to seek in his last
expedition in 1845, but which Captain Mjclure effected irr
1856, though by an opposite course from Behring's Strait
to Baffin's Bay. But it is scarcely possible that this route
along the north coasts of America should ever be habitually
frequented by mariners going to and fro between the two
oceans. At the opposite extremity of the continent arrange-
ments have lately been made to substitute a shorter way
to the Pacific for that round Cape Horn by improving the
navigation of Tie Strait of Magalhaeng, which separates
Tierra del Fuego from the south portion of the mainland.
The project of cutting a canal through the central American
isthm'i.s has often been discussed. There can be no doubt
of the practicability of a system of inland navigation from
the Atlantic coast by the river San Juan to Lake Nicar-
agua, and thence by a canal to the neighbouring Lake
Managua or Leon, with a short artificial channel of eiii to
the Pacific. A different route, of combined river and canal
Bavigation, has more recently been proposed, which would
fit oif the whole of the isthmas from the body of South
&m6--a — entering the upperr"'^'st part of that mainland
by the river Atrato from the Gulf of Darieu, ascending
this river 150 mOes, then following up the course of tha
Napipior the Bajaya, tributaries of the Atrato — crossing
the coast range of hiUs by a canal with several !o;ks, and
descending to the Pacific either in Limon Bay or in the
Gulf of Cupica. But these projects could be adapted only
to the admission of vessels of smaller size than such as in
the present day are commonly employed for coicaiercial
traffic betv^een distant regions of the world. In spite of
the grand example of the Suez Canal, it seems likely that,
in a country tolerably productive of wealth and capable of
supporting population, the more profitable means of provid-
ing for a through traffic will be found in railroads, v.hich
serve also for the accommodation of intermediate districts.
In this class of undertakings North America has of late
years displayed a wonderful degree of active enterprise.
The line of 60 miles from AspiuwaU, near Chagres, across
the neck of land, which is there bo narrow, to Panama, on
the Pacific side, though situated in the territory of a Spanish
republic, was constructed by citizens of the United Stai es,
expressly for the traffic between New York and San
Francisco. But since that first opening of a gateway
of communication with California, Australia, or China,
for the travellers and merchandise of the Atlantic states
or of Europe, the whole breadth of the continent where it
widens, in latitudes between 35° and 45° N., all belonging
to the United States, has been traversed by a continuous
railroad system. The middle liiik of this system is the
Union Pacific Railway, 1600 miles long, from Omaha, on
the Missouri, in the state of Nebraska, through that state,
up the course of the Platte river, and through Wyoming,
Idaho, Utah, and Nevada, crossing the summits of three
great mountain ranges from 70D0 feet to 8250 feet high,
and meeting the Central Pacific Railway of California.
This line was through a barren desert for several hundred
miles, in the arid uplands of Idaho -.rad the salt plains of
Utah; but its construction has served to bring the com-
mercial cities of the' Atlantic and of the Pacific within six
or seven days' journey of each other. Three or four rival
projects of railways across the width of the United States,
or extensions of the existing railway system Trestward from
the Mississippi and Missouri, have been taken up with
some promise of their reaUsation. The one which oS'era
the greatest advantages is that designed to ascend the long
and broad valley of the Arkansas river, and to cross the
Rocky Mountains with a southerly inclination into New
Mexico, opening up the Rio Grande and Sari Juan country,
which is said to be very rich, and thence passing on to the
Grand CaiBon of the Colorado, and (* the Nevada mining
district. Near the northern frontier of the United States
territory, where it borders on the British Dominion of
Canada, another continental line from east to west is now
in progresi? — that is, from the western extremity of Lako
Superior, through ilinnesota, Dakotah, and Washington, to
Puget Sound, just below Vancouver Island. But the work
of this kind that will be most interesting to many of our
readers is that undertaken in 1871 by the goversment of
the Canadian Dominion. By the extension of the Dominion
beyond the Rocky Mountains to include British Columbia,
and the incorporation of the vast territories of the Hudson's
Bay Company, nearly the whole of North America above
the 49th parallel is united in one grand British colonial
province, and the Canadian Pacific Railway will do much
to promote a compact union between the vridely-scattered
communities of Her Majesty's subjects on this great con-
tinent. The line will proceed from a port on the northern
shore of Lake Superior, westward to the Red River settle-
ment, near Lake Winnipeg, now forming the province of
Manitoba ; and will thence be conducted up the valley
i of the river Saakatchev.an to the foot of the Rocky
71G
A I\l E R I C A
[pOPIXLATIOIf.
Oold
Minos.
Popula-
tion.
Slonn) liiis, whicn it will cross hy tho YcUowncad Pasa,
to clr cond along tlio Tjomson and Frascr rivers, in
British Columbia, till it finally reaches tho coa.st of tho
Pacific Ocean, po»,sibly connecting Vancouver Island with
tho mainland by a bridge over tho narrowest part of tho
straits. In connection with tho Grand Trunk and other
railways of Canada, supplemented by the Intercolonial
Railway between Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and
Nova Scotia, this new western lino will afford tho most
direct and expeditious moans of transit .icross North Anio-
rica, and will probably become tho favourite route for mails
and passengers and light traffic from Europe to China. It"
will open, a country which abounds in mineral wealth,
especially of iron, coal, and coppdr; while tho Saskat-
chewan valley, and the belt of fertile soil lying at tho baso
of tho Rocky Mountains (where tho clim.-vte, as far north as
Fort Dunvegan on tho Peace river, is not more severe than
that of Toronto, thotgh in latitudes boyond 6G° N., nearly
thirteen degrees above that place), are capable of sustaining
an agricultural population. Tho progress of railroad con-
struction in North America, stimulating and assisting the
dcvclopmoiit of ind)i8trial resources with amazing rapidity,
is a feature of high importance in tho most recent phases of
tho world's civilisation. Its average rat« of advance in the
United States alone, during the five years preceding January
1873, was nearly 6000 miles annually of now railway; and
tho aggregate length of railway lines in the Union, all com-
pleted and in actual working, was then computed at 71,000
miles. Briti.nh America, aa we have seen, will not bo left
deficient of similar appliances for its internal improvement.
A groat auriferous deposit was discovered in Upper Cali-
fornia in the end of 1817, just before its formal cession
to the United States. It is situated in the valley of the
Sacramento river, and its principal branch the Joaquin, and
is believed to extend over a range of country 200 miles in
length, or more. The gold is found in its virgin state in
small grains in three different situations — jlrsl, in sand
and gravel beds ; secondly, among decomposed or di.sin-
tegrated granite ; and thirdly, intermixed with a friable
talcose slato standing in vertical strata, and containing
white quartz, interlaminated or in veins. The largest
pieces of gold are found in cjid near the talcose slate rocks,
over which tho streams flow ; but the finer particles and
scales have been carried down by the water to the lowest
part of the valleys. It was known before that gold existed
in the country ; but tho wonderful richness of the depo.iit
was only discovered in 1847, in making a mill-race on
American Fork, a small branch of the Sacramento. It
Boon became widely .known, and attracted multitudes of
persons, first from the noij^hbouring di.stricts, and by and
by from all parts of the world. The population, which
was estimated at 15,000 in 1848, had ?jicrcaaod to 92,000
in 1850, and in 1870 was found to bo 500,247.
Humboldt gave the following estimate of the entire popu-
lation of America in 1823 : —
Number.
Whites 13,471,000
Indians...... 8,010,000
.. _ i Slaves, C.OOO.OOO ( , ,., .„.
^'««"« 1 Fr.6, i;433;000 \ MS3.000
Mixed races 6,423,000
34,942,000
Bollaert made the following estimate for 1863
XtiTnfccr.
%VTiitcs 33,074,423
Indiana 11,011,710
Npgroea 12,122,030
Mestizoes 6,031,000
Mulattoea 4,037,440
Zamboos 1,563,230
Proportion.
88 per cent.
25 „
19 „
13
Proportion.
■ 62 per cent.
15 „
17 ./
18 ..
72,642,833
What will bo the number of tho inhabitants of tho new
continent two or thrco centuries hence, and of what races
will it consist! Setting aside the negroes, to simplify tha
question, and tho Indians, who will gradually disappear, it i
is evident that tho soil of America is destined to be occupied
by two races, who may bo designated as the Anglo-Saxon
and tho Spanish-Indian. In the hitler tho Indian blood
greatly predominates, for tho Creoles or pure progeny of
tho Spaniards probably do not constitute more than 20 per
cent, of the population, while tho civilised Indians may
amount to 50, and tbo Mestizoes to 30.
Tho whites in the United States were in 1850 19,500,000
The population of Britiah Americ* 2,600,000
22,000,000
Tho population of Spanish and Portuguese America,
exclusive of slaves, waa in round numbers 20,000,000
Tho Anglo-Saxon population in America increases at 3
per cent, annually, and doubles its numbers in 25 years.
Ita amount in 1850 yr»a 22,000,000
In 187S it will be 44,000,000
In 1900 88,000,000
In 1925 176,000,000
A population of 176,000,000 spread over the territories
of the United States and Canada would only afford an
average of 40 persons to each square mile, about l-7th part
of the density which England now exliibita, and could occa-
sion no pressure. But let us suppose tho rate of incrcaeo
after 1925 to faU to 2 per cent., the period of doubling trill
then be 35 years.
In 1960 tho number will be 352,000,000
In 1995 do. do 704,000,000
Suppose tho rate again to decline to 1^ per cent, which
scarcely exceeds that of England and Prussia, the period of
doubling will then be 50 years.
In 2045 the number will be 1,408,000,000
In 2095 do. do 2,816,000,000
Let us now compare with this the growth of the Spanisn-
Indjan population, doubling its numbers in 75 years.
Its amount in 1850 waa 20,000,000
In 1925 it will bo 40,000,000
In 2000 do 80,000,000
In 2075 do 160,000,000
In 2096 (interval of 20 years) 200,000,000
It hence appears that, supposing both races to have free Prospects
space for expansion, tho Anglo-Saxon population in 220 of Americ*
ye.ir3 from the present time will amount to 2816 millions,
while the Spanish-Indian populatioij -mil only have multi-
plied to 200 millions, or one-fourteenth part of tho other.
It will be shown by and by, on probable grounds, that the
new continent, if fully peopled, could support 3600 millions,
and there would consequently be room enough for both ; but
long before this density is attained tho two races will inevi-
tably come into collision. In new settlements, where the
best lands are invariably first occupied and the inferior
neglected, the population is always thinly diffused. The
Anglo-Saxons will therefore crowd to the richer fields of
the south, while millions of acres of their own poorer lands
are still untenanted ; for we may rest assured that before
cultivation is extended to the third-rate soils on the north
side of the boundary, means will be found to appropriate
the first-rats soils on the south side. These may be acquired
by purchase like the lands of Louisiana, or by conquest
liie those of New Mexico and California, but in one way
or another they will be acquired. Nearly forty years ago
M. do Tocqueville calculated that along the great space
from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian lakes tho whites
were advancing over the wilderness at on average rate of
17 miles per annum, and that enlightened observer waa
powerfully impressed by the grandeur and eolemnity of
this deluge of men, for ever swelling and flowing onward.
J
PKOSPECTS
3.]
AMERICA
717
I
sects.
to tlie west, the south,- and the north, as " driven by the
hand of God." Since he wrote the rate of progress has
perhaps doubled, and every year will quicken it.'i pace. If;
then, we take a glance at the state of America at any
future period, say 220 years hence (a.p. 2095), we must take
the ratio of increase of the two civilised races as the prime
element of, our calculation. We may assume that the
■whole continent, from Behring's Straits and Hudson's Bay
to Cape Horn, will be divided between the two races in
some such proportion as their rate of growth indicates — it
may be 10, 1.5, or 20 to 1. Supposing them to maintain a
separate existence, the weaker race wiU probably be driven,
like the Welsh before the English, into the mountainous and
inhospitable regions. On the other hand, it is possible, and
not improbable, that the smaller population may be absorbed
into the mass of the greater, be incorporated with it, and
adopt its language; The result, like other things in the
womb of time, may be modified by causes yet unseen ; but
in whatever shape it may present itself, there is little risk in
predicting that the Anglo-Saxon race is destined by its
superior intelligence and energy to rule the New AVorld
from end to end. American statesmen now speak of the
whole continent as the heritage of their people.
Useful soil Paradoxical as the fact may appear, we are satisfied that
m New and the new continent, though less than half the size of the old,
Old^Conti- contains at least an equal quantity of useful soil and much
more than an equal amount of productive power. America
is indebted for this advantage to its comparatively small
breadth, which brings nearly aU its interior within reach of
the fertilising exhalations of the ocean. In the old conti-
nent, owing to its great extent from east to west, the cen-
tral parts, deprived of moisture, are almost everywhere de-
serts ; and a bdt round the western, southern, and eastern
shores, comprises nearly all that contributes to the .support
of man. How much fruitful land, for instance, is there in
contineiital Asia^ H we draw a line from the Gulf of
Cutch (near the Indus) to the head of the Yellow Sea, we
cut off India and China, with the intervening Birmain em-
pire and the southern valleys of Thibet ; and this space,
which comprises only about one-fifth of the surface of A^ia,
embraces five-sixths of its productive power. A"abia,
Persia, Central Thibet, Western India, Chinese and Inde-
pendent Tartary are deserts, with scattered patches of use-
ful soil not amounting to the twentieth part of their extent.
Siberia, or Northern Asia, is little better, owing to aridity
and cold together. Anatolia, Armenia, the Punjab, and a
narrow strip along the western shores of the Pacific Ocean,
north as far as the 60th parallel, compose the only valuable
agricultural territory beyond India and China. Europe,
•which is merely the western margin of Asia, is all fruitful in
the south ; but on the north its fruitf iJness terminates at the
COth or 62d parallel. Africa has simply a border of useful
goil round three-fourths of its sea-coa.st, with some detached
portions of tolerably good land in its interior. Of the
31,000,000 of square miles which these three continents
occupy, we cannot find, after some calculation, that the pro-
ductive soil constitutes so much as one-third, and of that
third a part is but poor.
Now, in estimating the useful soil in America we reject — '
1. Most of the region north of the latitude of 53°, amounting
to 2,600,000 square miles ; 2. A belt of barren land about
300 miles broad by 1000 in length, or 300,000 square mUes,
lying on the east side of the Rocky Mountains; 3. A belt of
arid hind of similar extent situated on the east side of the
Andes, between'24° and 40° of south latitude; i. The dessrt
shore o£ Peru, equal to 100,000 square miles; 5. An extent
of 1 00,000 square guiles for the arid country ol Lower Cali-
fornia and Sonora ; and 6. An extent of 500,000 square
miles for the summits of the Andes and the south extremity
of Patagonia. These make an aggregate of 3,900.000
square miles; and this, deducted from 13,900,000, leavef
10,000,000 square miles as the quantity of useful soil in
the New World.
The productive powers of the boU depend on two circmn- F.a'.iu of
stances, heat and moisture; and these increase as we 5'""'j'''y ^o
approach the equator. Now, it appears that the produc- "^"•" ^'
tive or rather nutritive powers of the soil will be pretty
correctly indicated by combining the ratios of the heat and
the moisture, expressing the former of these in degrees of
the centigrade scale. Something, we know, depends on the
distribution of the heat through the different seasons; but as
we do not aim at minute accuracy, this may be overlooked.
Latitude. luchea of RaiD. Mean Heat. Product. Ratio.
CO 16 7 112 4
45 29 14 406 15
0 96 28 2688 100
Thus, if the description of food were a matter of indiffer-
ence, the same extent of ground which supports four persons
at the latitude of 60°, would support 15 at the latitude of
45°, and 100 at the equator. But the food preferred will
not always be that which the land yields in greatest abund-
ance; and another most important qualifying circumstance
must be considered — it is labour which renders the ground
fruitful, and the power of the human frame to sustain labour
is greatly diminished in hot climates.. We shall therefore
consider the capacity of the land to support population as
proportional to the third power of the cosine (or radius of
gyration) of the latitude. It will therefore stand thus in
round numbers : —
Latitude, 0° 15° 30* 46° 60°
Productiveness, 100 90 65 35 12J
In England the density of population is about 389 per- increase
sons per square mile ; but England is in some measure the ^f PoP"''
workshop oi the world, and supports, by her foreign trade, ""*•
a greater population than her soil can nourish. In France
the density of population is about 177 ; in Germany it varies
from 100 to 200. On these grounds, we may assume that
the number of persons which a square mile can properly sus-
tain without generating the pressure of a redundant popula-
tion is 150 at the latitude of 50°, and 26 is the sum whicl
expresses the productiveness of this parallel. Then taking,
for the sake of simplicity, 35 as the index of the producti-se-
neas of the useful soil beyond 30° in America, and 85 as that
of the country within the parallel of 30° on each side of the
equator, we have about 4,000,000 square miles, each capable
of supporting 200 persons, and 5,700,000 square miles, each
capable of supporting 490 person. It follows that if the
natural resources of America were fully developed it would
afford sustenance to 3,600,000,000 of inhabitants, a number
nearly five times as great as the entire mass of human beings
now existing upon the globe !
Alphabeticax Contents.
AborlglneB, 686,
Alaska, 711, ,^
Atnazon, 674.
Anglo-Saxon race, 716.
Antiiiultic;!, 692.
Audo, 670,
Arancaniau3, 701.
Area, ,C69,
AiRentine Republic, 713.
Aztecs, 695.
ilarrows. 692.
Birds, 684.
Bolivia, 713.
Botany, 684.
Brazil empire, 710, 712;
Indians, 702.
Canada, 711.
Camivora, S. A., 682.
Central America, accieut,
703.
Chili, 709. 713.
Climate, C.A„ 680; N.A,,
676. 680; S.A., 6>i.
Colombia, 713,
Colonisation. 708.
Columbus, 707.
Iiiociivery, European, 706.
h»nliqnako<, S. Air 67S, >
Ecuadof, 712.
Enplisb eettlemente, 708.
EsiHiimflux, 690.
Kthnology. G35.
Icnillty. 717.
Fishes, 684.
Forest?, 676.
Fossil animals, 682.
Gcology.N.A., 679; S.A.,
671.
(iold, 716.
Guaranift. 702,
Ountcmalo, 710, 714,
Hayti, 714, .
Indians, 686, 690.
Istlimus. central. 71S.
Laiigtiagea, 688; Pei-uTlan,
700,
Mammalia, N,A,, 68 1; S. A.,
681.
Mexico, ancient.
Spanlsb, 710, 714,
Mlnerali, N, A., 680.
»lssissip|ii, 674.
Mountains. Brazil,
C. A, 673; N, A,
677 ; S A, 070,
New Granodn, 710.
I Klcaraguan isthmua, 715,
' i'uiiaxua. 71S.
; Span-
684';
671;
674,
Patagonlans, 702.
Peru, ancient, 696 ;
ish, 709, 713.
Physical reeiona, 670.
Plateaux, 677,
Population, 716. 717.
Productiveness. 717.
Qiiadi~umana, S. A., €61.
Uivers, 674,
Rocky mouutaiDS, 6ii
677.
numiuantia, S, A„ 682,
Russian America, 711,
Serpents. 681,
Spanish Bclliemcnts, 707.
Spanish-Indian racti, 716.
Stato^ 7 10.
Table-land, 677.
Ti.ltcc empire, 706.
Toltecttn^ 6fll,
Trade winds, 675.
United Slates 711;
Venezuela, 712,
Volcauoos. Ucxlco, 674,
S, A.. 673.
Votan, 704.
West nidics. 7K.
WbKncy, Profcuor, 689.
Zoolog)-, C8L
718
AMERICAN LITERATURE
I. — ISTEODUCTOKY.
^. The literature of the United States, while still half our
jwn, is pcr\'aded, to a degree not easily estimated, by a
foreign elomfut. The relationship , between Englishmen
and Americans, making them ignorant of their mutual
ignorance, oVorates against the soundness of their judg-
ment on each other's work. Community of speech, which
ought to be a bond of union, is often a medium of offence;
lor it dispenses with a study of the language, and in
studying a language wo learn something also of the
habits and social histories which are reflected in, and
serve to interpret, distinctly alien literatures. Facility of
travel, making it easy to acquire first impressions, is a
temptation to such hasty estimates as many of the most
accomplished Americans have formed of England, and
many of the most accomplished Englishmen have formed
of America. The least satisfacloiy works of some of their
foremost writers, as Mr Hawthorne's Old Ilome and Mr
Emerson's i'n^lish Trails, are those associated with their
transatlantic experiences. But of the mistakes on both
sides, ludicrous and grave, we have had perhaps the larger
share. Few Americans have ever so misconceived, a
British statesman as we misconceived Mr Lincoln, or gone
BO far astray in regard to any crisis of our history as we
did in reference to the moving springs and results of their
Civil War. The source of this greater ignorance lies not
so much in greater indifference as in greater difficulty.
England is one, compact and stable. The United States
are many, vast, various, and in perpetual motion. An old
country is a study, but a new country is a problem.
Antiquity is brought to our firesides in the classics, till
Athens and Borne
** To us are nothing novel, nothing strange
We are more familiar with the Acropolis than with the
Western Capitol — with Mt. Soracte than with the Catskills.
Our scholars know more about Babylon than about Chicago.
Dante immortalises for us the Jliddle Age ; Plantagenet
England is revived in Chaucer ; the inner life of modem
England has a voice in Tennyson and the Brownings.
Where is the poet who will reveal to us " the secrets of a
land," in some respects indeed like our own, but separated
in other respects by differences which the distance of 3000
miles of ocean only half represents ; which, starting on
another basis, has developed itself with energies hitherto
unknown in directions hitherto unimagined 1 Who will
become the interpreter of a race which has in two centuries
diffused itself over a continent, the resources of which are
not more than half discovered, and which has to absorb
within itself and harmonise the discordant elements of
other races for whom the resources of the Old World are
well-nigh exhausted? Caret vote sacro ; but it does not
want poetical aspirations as well as practical daring -
'* This lajid o' cam I tell ye*s gut to be
A better country than man ever see ;
I feel my sperit swellin" with a cry
That seems to say, * Break forth and prophesy.*
O strange New World, thet yet wast never young,
Whose youth from thee by gripin' want was wrung,
Brown foundlin o' the woods, whose baby bed
^Vas prowled round by the Injun's cracklin' tread,
Kl.' who grew'st strong thru' shifts an' wants an* pains,
iiursed by stem men with empires in their brains."
n. — Conditions and Characteristics op Ajierican
Literature.
The cuffll^er of n'rit«rs who have acauired soiue ampuni^
of well-founded reputation in the United States is startling.
The mere roll of their names would absorb a great part or
the space here available for an estimate of the works
which best represent them. Mr Griswold informs us that
he has in his Own library more than 700 volumes of native
novels and tales ; his list of " remarkable men " is like
Homer's catalogue of ships. Almost every Yankee town
has indeed its local representatives of literature, reflecting
in prose or verse the impulses and tendencies of the time.
But while America has given birth to mure than a fair
proportion of eminent theologians, jurists, economists, and
naturalists, hardly any great modem country, excepting
Russia, has in the same number of . years produced fewer
works of general interest likely to become classical ; and
Bishop Berkeley's prophecy of another golden age of arts in
the Empire of the West still awaits fulfilment. This fact,
mainly attributable to obvious historic causes, is frankly
recognised by her own best authors, one of whom haa
confessed — " From Washington, proverbially the city of
magnificent distances, through all its cities, states, and
territories, ours is a country of beginnings, of projects, of
designs, of expectations." The conditions under which
the communities of the New World were established, and
the terms on which they have hitherto existed, have been
unfavourable to Art. The religious and commercial en-
thusiasms of the first adventurers to her shores, supplying
themes for the romancers of a later age, were themselves
antagonistic to romance. The spirit which tore down the
aisles of St Kegulus, and was revived in England in a
reaction against music, painting, and poetry, the Pilgrim
Fathers bore with them in the " Mayflower," and planted
across the seas. The life of the early colonists left no
leisure for refinement. They had to conquer nature before
admiring it, to feed and clothe before analysing them-
selves. The ordinary cares of existence beset them to the
exclusion of its embelhshments. While Dryden, Pope,
and Addison were polishing stanzas and adding grace to
English prose, they were felling trees, navigating rivers,
and fertilising valleys. We had time, amid oxir wars, to
form new measures, to balance canons of criticism, to dis-
cuss systems of philosophy ; with them
" The need that pressed sorest
Was to vanquLih the seasons, the ocean, the forest.*'
The struggle for independence, absorbing the whole
energies of the nation, developed military genius, states-
manship, and oratory, but was hostile to w.hat is called
polite literature. The people of the United States have
had to act their Hiad, and they have not had time to sing
it. They have liad to piece together the disjecta memhra of
various races, sects, and parties, in a TTavTonuiXiov iroXiTctQiv,
Their genius is an un wedded Vulcan, melting down all
the elements of civilisation in a gigantic furnace. Ap
enlightened people in a new land, " where almost every-
one has facilities ekewhere unknown for making his
fortune," it is not to be wondered that the pursuit of
wealth has been their klding impulse ; nor is it perhaps
to be regretted that much of their originality has been
expended upon inventing machines instead of manufactur-
ing verses, or that their reUgiou itself has taken a practical
turn. One of their own authors confesses that the " com-
mon New Ejigland life is still a lean impoverished life, in
distinction from a rich and suggestive one ; " but it is
there alone that the speculative and artistic tendencies of
recent years have found room and occasion for d3velop-
ment. Our travellers find a peculiar charm in the manly
force and rough adventurous soirit of the Far West, but
AMERICAN LITERATURE
719
tie poetry of the pioneer is unconscious. The attractive
culture of the South has been limited in extent and degree.
The hothouse fruit of wealth and leisure, it has never
stnibk its roofs deeply into native soiL Since the Revolu-
tion days, when Virginia was the nurse of statesmen, the
few thinkers of America born south of Mason and Dixon's
line — outnumbered by those belonging to the single State
of Massachusetts — -have commonly migrated to New York
or Boston in search of a university training. In the
•world of letters at least, the Southern States have shone
by reflected light ; nor is it too much to say, that mainly
hy their connection with the North the Carolinas have been
saved from sinking to the level of Mexico or the Antilles.
Whether we look to India or Louisiana, it would seem
that the tropical sun takes the poetic fire out of Anglo-
Saxon veins, and the indolence which is the concomitant
of despotism has the same benumbing efect Like the
Spartan marshalling his helots, the planter lounging among
his slaves was rna.de dead to Art by a paralysing sense of
his own superiority. AU the best transatlantic literature
is inspired by the spirit of confidence — often of over-con-
fidence— in labour. It has only flourished freely in a free
soil ; and for almost aU its vitality and aspirations, ' its
comparatively scant performance and large promise, we
must turn to New England. Its defects and merits are
those of the national character as developed in the Northern
States, and we must seek for an explanation of its peculiari-
ties in the physical and moral circumstances which sur-
round them.
When we remember that the Romans lived under the
sky of Italy, that the character of the modern Swiss is
like that of the modern Dutch, we shall be on our guard
against attributing too much to the influence of external
nature. Another race than the Anglo-Saxon would doubt-
less have made another America ; but we cannot avoid
the belief that the climate and soil of America have had
something .to do in moidding the Anglo-Saxon race, in
making its features apprcximate to those of the Red
Indian, and stamping it with a new character. An electric
atmosphere, and a temperature ranging at some seasons from
50° to 100° in twenty-four hours, have contributed largely
to engender that restlessness which is so conspicuous " a
note " of the people. A territory which seems boundless
as the ocean has been a material agent in fostering an
ambition unbridled by traditionary restraints. When
European poets and essayists wrlt-i of nature, it is to con-
trast her permaneace with the mutability of human life.
We talk of the everlasting hills, the perennial fountains,
the ever-recurring seasons. " Damna tamen celeres reparant
coelestia lunje — nos ubi dooidimus " — In the same spirit
Byron contemplates the sea and Tennyson a running
arream. In America, on the other hand, it is the extent of
nature that is dwelt rpon — the infinity of space, rather
than the infinity of time, is opposed to the limited rather
than to the transient existence of man. Nothing strikes a
traveller in that country so much as this feature of magni-
tude. The rivers like roUing lakes, the lakes which are
inland seas, the forests, the plaips, Niagara itself, wiUi its
world of waters, owe their magnificence to their immensity ;
and by a transference, not unnatural although fallacious,
the Americans generally have modelled their ideas of art
after the same standard of size. Their wars, their hotels,
their language, are pitched on the huge scale of their
distances. " Orphaned of the solemn inspiration of anti-
quity," they gain in surface what they have lost in age ;
in hope, what they have lost in memory.
" That untravelled world whose margin fades
For ever and for ever when thoy move,
IS all their own : and they have the arena and the expecta-
tions of a continent to set against the culture and the
ancestral voices of a thousand years. Where Enghshmua
remember, Americans anticipate. In thought and action
they are ever rushing into emr^y spaces. Except in a few
of the older States, a family mansion is rarely rooted to the
same town or district ; and the tie which unites one gene-
ration with another being easily broken, the want of con-
tinuity in life breeds a want of continuity in ideas. The
American mind deUghts in speculative and practical, social
and poKtical experiments, as Shakerism, Mormonism, Pan-
tagamy ; and a host of authors, from Emerson to Walt
Whitman, have tried to glorify every mode of human life
from the transcendental to the brutish. The habit of in-
stability, fostered by the rapid vicissitudes of their com-
mercial life and the melting of one class into another, drifts
away all landmarks but that of a temporary pubUc opinion ;
and where there is little time for verification and the study
of details, men satisfy theu' curiosity with crude generalisa-
tions. The great literary fault of the Americans thus comes
to be impatience. The majority of them have never learnt *
that " raw haste is half-sister to delay;" that " works done
least rapidly, art most cherishes," The makeshifts which
were at first a necessity with the Northern settlers have
grown into a ciistom. They adopt ten half measures instead
of one whole one ; and, beginning bravely, like the grandi-
loquent preambles to their Constitutions, end sometimes .
in the sublime, sometimes in the ridiculous.
Many of the artistic as well as many of the social pecu«
liarities of the United States may doubtless be traced to
their form of government After the most obvious wants
of life are provided for. Democracy stimulates the produc-
tion of literature. When the hereditary privileges of rank
have ceased to be recognised, the utility, if not the beauty,
of knowledge becomes conspicuous. The intellectual world
is spurred into activity: there is a race in which the prize
is to the swift. Everyone tries to draw the eyes of others
by innumerable imperfect eS'orts with a large insignificant
sum totaL Art is abundant and inferior: whitewashed
wood and brick pass for marble, and rhythmical spasms
for poetry. It is acknowledged that the prevailing defect
of Aristocratic Hteratures is formality; they are apt to
be precise and restricted. A Democratic literature runs
the risk of lawlessness, inaccuracy, and irreverence. From
both these extremes the Athenian, the Florentine, and
the Elizabethan classics were preserved by the artistie
inspirations of a flexible traditioiL The one is exemplified
in the so-called Augustan ages of letters, in the France of
Louis XIV. and the England of Queen Anne, when men
of genius, caring more to perfect their style than to estab-
Hsh truth, more to captivate the taste than to stir the
passions, moved •nith clipt wings in a charmed circle of
thought. The other has its best Ulustration in the leadeiu
of our own romantic schoolSj but its most conspicuous
development in America; a country which is not only
democratic but youthful without the modesty of youth,
unmellowed by the past and untrammelled by authority,
where the spirit of adventure is unrestrained by feelings of
personal loyalty — where order and regularity of all kinds
are apt to be misnamed subservience — where vehemence,
vigour, and wit are common, good taste, profundity, and
imagination rare ; — a country whose untamed material
infects tlie people, and diverts them from the task of
civilisation to the desire of conquest.
American literature is cramped on another aide by the
spirit of imitation. It has been in great measure an offshoot
or prolongation of our own. As English sculptors study at
Rome and Naples, the most prominent Western artista in
every department have almost invariably inaugurated their
careers by travelling in Europe, and writing descriptions of
the foreign lauds where they have found their richest inte!-
720
AMERICAN LITERATURE
lectnal culture. Tliey have sougnt the sources, ino themes,
tho rules, and the sanctions of their art in the Old World,
and their highest ambition, like that of all colonists, has
hitherto, been to receive a favourable verdict, not from the
country of their birth, but from that of their aiicestora.
Even Franklin — in some respects an American of the
Americans — was in philosophy a practical disciple of
Locke, as Jefferson was of the French Revolution. " Tho
literaiy genius of Great Britain," says De Tocque^-ille, "still
darts its rays into the cccesses of the West . . . The small
number of men who write are English in substance, and
still more in form." Of tho great number of men who
have written in America since the date of this criticism,
only a few have written much to confute it. Wa.shington
Irving, who, in tho course of four distinct visits, spent
much of his life in Europe, only escapes from tho influence
of Addison in his Knickerbocker and Dutch sketches. On
land at least. Cooper — though in many respects an original
writer — everywhere remembers 3tott. As in tho works of
• the Scotch novelist, the semi-barbaroua feudal spirit ia repre-
sented in conflict with modem law, in those of the Ameri-
can the enterprise of New England is struggling against
the ruggedness of nature and a savage life. ■ The writers
of_the last thirty years have been making strenuous, some-
iimcs sp-wmodid, efl'orta after originality, but they arc still
. raSTected by transatlantic associations. In the stylo of Mr
Motley we cannot help observing tho stamp of Carlyle.
The Transcendental movement begun by Emerson is ad-
mitted to have derived its first Impulse from Sartor
Resdrtiu ; and amonjf the ■ eccentricities that mark its
followers none ia more remarkable than their mania for
p^rman and Oriental quotations? The tjTanny which five
centuries' load of classics, in tho same tongue, exercises over
the mind of a nation not yet a century old is very much
strengthened by the non-existence of an iotematiuna!
^py'nght.vwhich leads to the intellectual market being
glutted ^with^ stolen goods. As long as a publisher' in
Boston or New York can republish a good book written
in Edinburgh or London without pajnng for it, he is likely
to prefer an undertaking which involves no risk and com-
paratively no outlay, to another which involves both; that
is, the republication of the English to the first publication
of an American book ; for the EnglL'^h book has already
attained its reputation, and its popularity in America is
secured, while the American book, for the copyright of
•which he has to pay, has, except in the case of a few authors,
still to win its spurs. If the people of the United States
lad spoken a language of their own, it is probable they
■would have gained in originality; .ts it ia, they arc only
now beginning to sign their intellectual declaration of
independence, — a fact confessed among the latest words of
their own greatest prose artist: — " Bred in English habits
of thought as most of us are, we have not yet modified our
instincts to the necessities of bur now modes of life. Our
philosophers have not yet taught U9 what is bc.?t, nor have
car poets sung to us v.-hat is most beautiful in the kind of
life that we must lead, and therefore we still read the old
English wisdom, and harp upon the ancient strings."
ill— E.\RLtER American Literathee.
TVe may trace the influence of the foregoing oontrtiUing
facts or tendencies, subject to various phases of personal
power^ through the three great periods under which Anglo-
Aitierican listory obviously falls: — The ColoniaL the
Revolutionary, and that of the 19th Century.
1. Tkt Colonial Peri/>d^ — LitU« of interest in tho worid
pf letters has come dowtt fro us fVx>m the 1 7th century in
the West. Sandys's Ovid, tran^lsited on the Kxuks of the
Janlea Kiver, dedicated to Ckarios L, and published 1 626,
is worthy of note as the first contnoution to English
htorature from America. About the some date tho WtUh
Puritan Vaughan sent home his Golden Fleece from New-
foundland, and Captain Smith gave to the world his
descriptions of Virginia. But tho earliest verse that has a
real claim to be regarded as American is a doggerel list,
by an ononjTnous author, of New England's annoyances,
which, if we remember the date — a generation after
Spenser had celebrated " the Indian Peru " in his Faery
Qiieeh — will confirm our view of the backwoodsman's want
uf leisure for " polishing his stanza;" —
" The place where wo live is a wildomcsi wood,
■Whcio grass is much w»atiiip that's fmitful and good.
• • »
If fresh moat be wanting to fill np our dish,
"We have carrote and pumpkins, and turnips ftnd fish;
AVo have pumpkins at inorning and Dumpkins at noon.
If it wne not for piunjikini w« shoutd Iw undone."
A little later we have a Puritan version of the Psalms, th«
worst of many bad; and about 1C50 the poems of Anno
Bradstreet and Benjamin Thomson, worthy of mention,
but scarcely readable. In prose are relics of tho sermons
and controversies of Roger Williams and John Cotton and
Eliot, tho apostle of the Indians, with the pondcroua
ilaynalia and witch denvmciations of Cotton blather.
The main literary event of the century was the founda-
tion (1636) of Harvard CJLlversity. Yale College followed
at a long iutorval, and subsequently Princeton College, and
Brown University (Rhode Island). In all new countries in-
dustrial and commercial interests are at first the strongest.
The febrile activity produced by fear of a sterile future leaves
little room for speculative imagination. But in the New
World, colotiised in part by adventurers, in pai-t by reli-
gious refugees and enthusiasts, another influence was from
the first at work. When her solitudes begr.n to give place
to cities, the brains of her people were expended on the
farm or the exchange wi'Ji a zeal materially modified by
the spirit and formulae of the faith which led the founders
of the Northern States across the sea, and continued to
infuse a religious clement into their enterprises. This
element, which elevated the settlers of New Enghmd above
ordiiiary emigrants, adding to their strength and giving a
faster dye to their morality, was yet, in its original form,
no more favourable to freedom or variety of thought than
the industrialism by which it was surrounded. But it
begat and fostered the Puritan theological literature which
was concentrated in the massive yet incisive treatises and
discussions of Jonathan Edwards of Conaecticut — (1703- 'E'dwara*
1758) — who, if not, as asserted by American panegyrists,
" the first man of the world during the second quarter of
the 18th century," was yet, by the clear vigour of his
thought and the force of its expression, one of the fore-
most figures of that era. An estimate of his rank as a
theologian belongs to a distinct branch of the history of
American literature. It is enough here to refer to the
testimony of all competent judges as to tho singular
lucidity of his style, and to that of his contemporaries as
to the fervour of his eloquence and the modest simplicity
of his life. Passagjs of his occasional writings, as the
description of his future wife, evince a grace and sweet-
ness of temper not always associated with the views of
which he was and remains the most salient EagUsh advo-
cate. A slightly junior" contemporaiy of Edwards, tho
exponent kot' iio)(Tiv of the other — that is, the secular side
of early American life — was destined to see the end of one
and play a prominent part in opening another era of his
country's history. Benjamin Franklin, as long as Utili Pisnklia
tarian philosophy endures, will be a name to conjure with.
It is clarum et venerabile, though its owner was endowed
with as little as possible for a great man of the " faculty
diviae." Franklin's autobiography, the details of which
AMERICAN LITE RAT IT RE
721
Deed not find place here, 13 as romantic aa the life of an
anromantic person can be. The incidents of the young
candle-moulder — the printer's apprentice — the ballad-
monger wisely discouraged by the wise paternal criticism,
"Versemakers are .generally beggars" — the runaway,
eating rolls on the Philadelphia street — his stnaggUng life
in'London with Ealph of the Dunciad — his return, " cor-
recting the erratum" of his infidelities by marriage with
liis old Pennsylvanian friend — his success as a printer,
economist, statesman, and diplomatist— his triumphs in
natural and political philosophy, clenched, in Turgot's
line, adapted from ManiliuE —
" Eripuit caelo fulmen, sceptrumque tjTaimla " —
his examination before the House of Commons, resulting
in the repeal of the Stamp Act, when Lord Chatham spoke
of him as one who was " an honour not to England only,
but to human nature " — his signature of the. Declaration of
Independence — hb ministry in France and popular triumph
with Voltaire, who said, " Je n'ai pu r^sister au d(5sir de
parler un moment la langue de Franklin" — the acclamations
of shouting mxiltitudes on his return home — Mirabeau's
announcement of his death (in 1790, in his eighty-fourth
year) to the Assembly—" the genius which has freed
America, and poured a flood of light over Europe, has
re;._~.cd to the bosom of the divinity" — are elementary
facts of schoolboy history. They are the records of the
successive stages of the greatest success achieved in modem
times by the genius of common-sense, integrity, and in-
dustry indomitable. Franklin's experiments and physical
discoveries form a chapter in the history of science ; but
half of his fame even in this field is due to the precision
and clearness of the manner in which they are announced.
" The most profound observations," says Lord Jeffrey,
" are suggested by him as if they were the most obvious
and natural way of accounting for phenomena." The
same literary merit characterises the financial pamphlets
and treatises which first brought him into celebrity. Both
are marked by the same spirit, — the love of the Useful,
which was his passion through Ufe. Franklin follows
Bacon, to an extreme opposed to that of the Platonists, in
decrying abstractions. Archytas is said to have apologised
for inventing the arch. Franklin is ashamed to have
wasted time over pure mathematics in his " magical
squares." His aim is everywhere to bring down plulo-
aophy, like the Ughtning, from heaven to earth, "illust/axs
cammoda vitoe." His ethics — those of Confucius or the
Seven Sages, modified by the experience and the circum-
stances of a later age — are embodied in the most famous of
popular annuals. Poor Richard's Almanack, in which for
twenty-six years he taught his readers (rising to the
number of 10,000) "the way to be healthy and wealthy
and wise," by following simple utilitarian rules, set forth
in plain incisive prose and rhyme, rendered attractive by
a vein of quaint humour and the homely illustrations
always acceptable to his countrjTuen. The same train of
thought appears in the " Whistle," among the letters fJom
Passy, where his persistent deification of thrift appears
side by side with graceful compliments to Mcsdames
Helvetius and Brillon, records of the aftermath of senti-
ment that often marks a green old age. Franklin remains
the most practical of philosophers in perhaps the moat
practical of nations.
2. The Revolution Penod. — ^It has been oiten remarked
that periods of political national crisis arc more favourable
to the preparation than to the actual production of litera-
ture. Wordsworth's assertion, that poetry is the. outcome
of emotion recollected in tranquillity, applies with slight
modification ulso to artistic prose. The demands of instant
action cant the reflective powers into abeyance, but a
stormy era is the scod-tmie of a later harvest. There ia
only one exercise of the imagination that it directly stimu-
lates— that of the orator ; and the conditions of his success,
save in a few instances, make a drain oh his posthumous
reputation. In reading even the greatest speeches of the
past, divested of the living presence which gave them
colour and force, we find it difficult to account for the
effect which they are known to have produced. They are
the ashes or the fossHs of genius. Little that is of per-
manent literary value is left vls of the harangues that
were the trompet-KiaUs of patriotism during the American
Kevolutionary War. The triumphs of Patrick Henry, who Orators.
" wielded at will that young democraty," are commemor-
ated in the judicious biography of Wirt, but few of his
orations are accurately preserved ; and of the speeches of
James Otis, which were compared to " flames of fire,'' we
have mainly a tradition, -ffis pamphlet (1762), entitled
A Vindication of the conduct of the Home of Representa-
tives, is considered to contain the germ t>f the Declaration
of Independence. Amcng other considerable efforts of
-eloquence, thoSe of Fisher Ames are worthy of note as
being directed in great measure against the excesses of
democracy. The master-minds of the era were the states- StaUshet.
men and jurists, who fought for the free boU, sunk the
deep foundations, and reared the superstructure of thea.ew
Commonwealth. The history of American law is a distinct
theme. It must suffice here to mention, as claiming recog-
nition in the field of letters, Washingtop himself, in his Waahins
clear and incisive though seldom highly-polished corre- ton.
Bpondenoe ; his biographer John Marshall, chief justice of Marshall,
the supreme court from 1801 to 1835, one of the early
pilots of the state, who left behind him a noble and
stainless name, and laid down the first principles of that
international code afterwards elaborated by Wheaton;
Madison, John Jay, the elder Adams, and Alexander
Hamilton, during the war Washington's " most confiden- Hamiltoi
tial aid," afterwards the presiding genius of the movement
represented by the Federalist, the organ of the anti-
democratic party. To this he contributed three-fourths of
the material, marked, as are all his papers and speeches, by
originality of thought, breadth of view, and purity of style.
As secretary of the treasury, he became .perhaps the greatest
of financiers. The general judgment of his countrymen
acquiesces in the terms of the tribute paid to his memory by
Guizot " He must be classed among the men who have
best known the vital principles and fundamental con-
ditions of a government worthy of its name and mission."
Of Hamilton's numerous historical sketches, the most
celebrated is his letter to Colonel Lamens gi%'ing an
account of the fate of Major Andr(5, in which refinement
of feeling and inflexible impartiality of view are alike
conspicuous. The groat and unhappily the bitter anta- Jefferson
gonist of the Federalists is one of the most conspicuous
figures in the history of J'.merican thought. Thomas
Jefferson (1743-1826), President from 1801 to 180E, is the
representative in chief of the revolutionary spmt of lus
ago and country. While his rival compeers stood -firmly
on the defensive against the encroachments of an arbitrary
government, his desire was, in politics as in speculation
generally, to break with the past. Inspired with patriotic
zeal by Patrick Henry's denunciations of the Stamp
Act, he came forward prominently in 1769 ns a member
of the Colonial Assembly of Virginia. In 177C the main
part of the responsibility of drawing up the Declaration of
Independence fell upon him. In 1781 he was appointed
minister of tlie congress in Paris, where ho spent the
greater part of six years, and brought back an admiration
for those phases of the French Kevolution from which
tho more teinpomte judgments of Ilaniiiton and Fisher
Amc; had recoiled. He threw himself heart and soul ihto
tJ.
r>
AMERICAN LITERATURE
the anns or the Democratic party, and in the constitutional
struggle that ensued his keener sense of the direction
in wliich popular sympathies were tending, n-ith the
■weight of his half physical energies, gave him the ascend-
ancy over the wider knowledge and more far-seeing intel-
lects of his adversaries. Jefferson might be termed the
Danton of the West, but his forte lay not so much in oratory
as in political management and incisive vivacity. More
perhaps than any other great statesman of his age, he
aspired to bo an author, to which title the best passages
in his Notes on Virginia, his Autobiography, and Correspond-
ence, give him a f;iir claim. ULs descriptions of scenery in
the first are always pleasing and generally graphic. His
sketches of Continental society are lively, and his occasional
flights of fancy, as the dialogue between the head and heart,
at least ingenious. His religion and ethics Tvero those of
his friend Tom Paine and the Encydopidie.
>rinor The age of the Titain in transatlantic history ahoiinds in minor
wTitcra. literati, whose light t-fTusions, mainly satirical or descriptive sketches
in prose and verse, throw a soroewnat dim and ragged lustre over
its graver page. The bulk of these obvious rellections of the
manner and thought of Buthr, Pope, and Swift, or of Gay, Prior,
find Sbcnstone, are a penance to wade through, and scarce claim re-
membrance for their authors. A few stand out conspicuously by
the celebrity of the names with which ttiey are associated, or a
certiiin raciness and approach to originality in their style. Of these
the cliief are : — The social caricatures of Judge Brackenridgo (who,
though bom in Scotland, lived in America from infancy), and his
doggerel but vigorous lines on Bunker's Hill ; the once popular
humorous lyric entitled M'Finga}, by J. Trumbull, also the author
of Tht progress of DuItuss, in the Hudibrastio metro which
seems to have been used by imitators to show how intolerable it is
in any but the original hands ; the more flowing but on the whole
commonplace odes of Philip Freneau, including his patriotic hymns
to Washington, with themoremusicallyrics the "Wild Honeysuckle"
and the "Indian Death Song,"andhi3proseentitled.(4rfnic<:/o-4uiAw5;
the political satires of ilercy Warren, authoress of Things necessary
to a Woman {the obvious model of the more modem squib. Nothing
to tVcar), and of a History of the Kevoluiion, remembered only as
being the first in date ; the patriotic rhapsodies of Phillis Wheatley,
interesting aa the production cf a young negress brought from
Africa in 17C1, and soon afterwards sold in Boston to the mistress
from whom she took her name ; Francis llopkinson's Baltic of the
Kegs and his Pretty Ston/ — ^^a burlesque closely fashioned after
Arbuthnot's John Bull~his Kew Roof, meaning the American con-
stitution, and his satire on the pedantry of the sciences entitled
the Salt Box; Joel Barlow's Hasty Pudding ; the humorous IFants
of Man, by Quincy Adams, more prominent as a statesman than as
a poet ; and on a similar but higher platform the best of too large
a volume of verses, in which the " Triumph of Infidelity" (after the
manner of Cowper), the "Con(juest of Canaan, "and "Columbia," are
the leading pieces, by the amiable theolo^an Dr Timothy Dwight.
Dwight's prose descriptions, as that of the Notch of the "White foun-
tains and the evening on Lake George, are superior in grace to his
elforts in rhyme.
Ballad The ballad literature of the revolution days is said to have at-
literature. tracted the attention of Lord Chatham, less probably from ita
intrinsic merit than from its faithful though rough embodiment of
the sentiment that not only moved over the surface, but pencti-ated
the depths of the national life. The anonymous popular literature
of a country is the best " abstract and brief chiouicle of the time "
in which it is produced. The songs current in America during this
era, inspired by the same spirit and pitched in the same key, are
Mstorically interesting and artistically monotonous. They celebrate
in rude verse the achievements of native heroes, like " Bold Haw-
thorne ;" or ridicule, like "Jack Brag," the British Lion, or, like the
•' Fate of Bnrgoyne," the overthrow of vaxiltin^ ambition ; or, as in
*' Wyoming Massacre," bewail the fate of the fallen ; or, as in " Free
America," celebrate with schoolboy huzzahs the triumph of the good
cause. Among the very rude UAtional anthems of the West,
"Yankee Doodle" is remarkable as having been an old Dutch
catch adapted into an English satirical chant, and adopted, with
conscious or unconscious irony, by the American troops. "Hail
Columbia," which as a poetical production takes even a lower rank
than "Rule Britannia," was a somewhat later production by
Joseph Hopkinson (179S) ; and the "Star-Spangled Banner" of
Francis S. Key is associated with the traditions of the second
British war. As inspired with the spirit of the 18th, though be-
longing in date to the early years of the 19th century, we may
mention in advance the " Pilgrim Fathers" of J. Pierpont, Wood-
worth's "Old Oaken Bucket," "Home, Sweet Home," by J. H.
Pavne ; the humorous burlesque of J. G. Saxc. "iliss MacBrido ;"
and the verses of the ffrcat painter ano creditable romMcer TTesli.-
ington Allston, with the refrain " ^\ e are one."
English philology and literature were during this period
represented by the famous Lindley JIurray, and Noah
Webster (1758-1843), the author of the best dictionary of
otir language that has appeared since Johnson's. In
natural science, the two Bertrams ; Alexander Wilson tho
ornithologist; and Audubon, the literary glory of Louisiana,
whose descriptions of animate nature rival those of Bufi'on,
are illustrious names.
rV. — The Litebatube op the Nineteenth Centuby.
Prose Writings.
1. In a rapid estimate of the literature of this prolific
age we can only signalise its contributions to the several
branches of physical and mental science. The United
States have during the last two generations been justly
proud of the names of Morton and Schoolcraft in ethnology,
of Bowditch in mathematics, of Sullivan and Dana in
chemistry and mineralogy. Their classical scholarship,
which hardly competes with that of England, has yet been
fairly maintained by Everett, Felton, Woolsey, Anthon,
and Robinson. Dr Warsh is an accomplished English
scholar, while Professor Wliitney is a learned and accurate
philologist, whose researches in Sanscrit are well known
and appreciated by European Orientalists. The meta-
physical schools of Locke and Rcid are nowhere better
represented than in America by Dr Bowen and Dr N.
Porter. Tho place of Marshall as a jurist has been
worthily filled by Chief-Justice Kent and Judge Story ;_
tho latter of whom ranks, by virtue of his essay on classical
studies and his graceful descriptions of natural scenery,
among the most accomplished of the numerous professional
men who have in the New World devoted their leisure
hours to lighter literature.
The inhabitants of the United States have always been Oratoiv
noted for remarkable fluency, sometimes a super-fluency
of speech. The early years of the century were illustrated
by the fiery zeal of Randolph and the practical force and
occasional impassioned eloquence of Henry Clay. The
great political controversies inherited from the preceding
age found their most conspicuous popular exponents in
two leading minds laj-ing claim to diverse kinds of great-
ness, and destined to be in almost incessant antagonism.
John C. Calhoun, the most illustrious representative of Calhoar.
the Southern States, of whose rights, real or imaginary, he
was during his life the foremost champion, was by educa-
tion and choice a professional statesman. Secretary of
War in 1817, and Vice-President of the Commonwealth in
1825, he resigned the latter oSice on occasion of the dis-
pute about the tariff law in 1832, to become the leader
of the Opposition ; and in vindicating the attitude of Soiith
Carolina was the first to lay the strands of the future
Secession war. The most accomplished modern apologist
for slavery, it is probable that he only hastened the conflict
between opposing principles which m^s sooner or later
inevitable. Calhoun's eloquence, as attested by his audi-
tors and the numerous speeches and papers preserved in
the six volumes of his published works, was notable for its
earnestness and gravity, the terse polish of its manner, for
philosophic generalisations and anal3rtical dialectic His
prevailing sincerity and candour have made his memory
respected by those farthest removed from him in sentiment
and opinion. Daniel Webster, on the whole the grandest Webss
orator of the New World, was during the greiter part of
his career the champion of Massachusetts and the assertor
of her policy. His defence of that State in the Senate
(1830) against General Hayneof Carohna,and his oratorica»
duel with Calhoun (1838), resulting in the temporary over-
throw of the doctrine of nullification, are among the most
J
AMERICAN LTTERATUHE
723
Sveiett
Dana.
PUillips.
Histurical
and bio-
graphical
wiiten.
Bancroft.
remarkable triumphs of debate in history. Soiue of his
pleadings on criminal trials have an almost terrible power.
But his literary genius and richness of illustration found
freer scope in his famous appeal for the Greeks iu 1824,
his great speech (1820) on the second centennial anni-
versary of the landing of the Pilgrims, or his address
(1825) on laying the comer-stone of Bunker Hill monu-
ment. Webster's eloquence, everywhere solid, massive,
and on great occasions glowing with a lurid Ught, is not
the mere record of half-forgotten strifes ; it is " vital in
every part," and belongs to the permanent Uterature of his
country, in whose political arena he was during his hfe
perhaps the most powerful actor. The art of making
commemorative speeches, technically called " orations,"
has been cultivated in North America to excess. The
great master in this species of composition was Edward
Everett, distinguished by his early association with Lord
Byron in Greece, the high dignities — governor of Massa-
chusetts, minister to the cotirt of St James's, and president
of Harvard — to which he attained, and by the variety of
his accomplishments. Mr Everett was for ten years a
useful member of Congress. In his hterary work he
displayed an almost fatal fluency, having contributed to
the " Korth American Eeview," of which he was for some
time editor, upwards of a hundred articles in the space of
a few years. These articles are inevitably of unequal
merit, but they everywhere evince the ripe scholarship
of a highly cultivated mind. The volume by which he
is best remembered— twenty -seven Orations — published
in 1836, is marked by the same characteristics. Discoursing
on a wide range of subjects — among which the refrains are
America and Greece, the " Mayflower," the Progress of Dis-
covery, Patriotism, Reform, the Eepublic, Concord, Lex-
ington, and the inevitable Bunker Hill — these speeches
are always able, but seldom inspiring : carefully elaborated
and richly adorned, they are the production of the first of
rhetoricians rather than a genuine orator.
Among the remajning lawyers and statesmen, remarkably nume-
rous in the States, who }iave in the course of their professional
careers made liifijhlv creditable contributions to literature, it may
euffice to mention H. Swinton Legarfi of Charleston, at one time a
student of law at Edinburgh, a prominent speaker in the House of
Representatives, afterwai-ds President Tyler's attorney-general, who
published in the SoiUhcm Qtcarierly and New York EcvUios a series
of masterly criticisms mainly relating to Greek and Roman- litera-
ture ; J. P. Kennedy of Baltimore, a successful barrister and Con-
gressman, also a vigoi-oua essayist and author of some remarkably
Bvely sketches of country life and manners in the Old Dominion ;
Richard H. Wilde, of Georgia, in which State, after surmounting
unusual dilHculties with remarkable persevemnce, he rose at the bar
to be attorney -general, author of the song entitled the " Lament of
the Captive," and of a Life of Tasso, displa}-ing great research
and occasionally subtle criticism, written after two years' residence
in Europe ; and, taking higher rank as an author, Richard Dana, a
barrister of the early years of the century, and adherent in jwlitics of
the old Federalist party in tlie state. Dana became known in the
world of letters as the author of a Fourth of July Oration in 1814,
and somewhat later as the contributor to the North American
Savieiv of appreciative and discriminating criticisms of the English
lakepoeta. In]827hepubli3hedhi3fantasticghoststoryof the "Buc-
.caneer " and other poems, to which he continued to add at intervals.
Many of his minor verses are characterised by remarkable grace,
but they want original force. Among contemporary politicians,
Mr Wendell Phillips is the ot Jy one who can be called a great orator ;
the ease and energy of his style at its best being rarely surpassed.
But the speeches of Mr Sumner are eloquent, and his arrange-
ment of facts converging to clench his argument is often masterly.
2. History, as the reflection of philosophy on the states-
manship and the struggles of the past, seldom comes very
early in national literatura The 18th century in America
BuppUed, in letters, journals, and contemporary chronicles,
materia! for more elaborate and comprehensive treatment
in the 19th at the hands of George Bancroft, a leading
Democrat, who held the post of representative of his country
in Great Britain from 184C to ISIO. His great work-
three volumes of which are devoted to the Colonisation
and seven to the Revolutionary period — published at in-
tervals betweeu 1834 and 1874, has been generally ac-
cepted as the standard history of the United States up
to this time. The book is written for the most part in a
sufficiently vigorous style ; somewhat defective, however,
■ in elegance, and characterised by a certain monotony and
want of ease, which detracts from the pleasure of the reader.
Bancroft's statements of matters of fact are generally
reliable ; but his comments are moulded even more than
is usual by the foregone theories of a political partisan.
The rival history of Richard Hildreth, which appeared in Hildretb
six volumes, issued iu rapid succession (1849-53), while
marked by the same Puritan tone, is even more severe
in its judgments. The style is more animated, but moro
prone to the torva voluptas of false rhetoric. The key-
note of the sentiment which pervades Mr Hildreth's book
is to be found in his keen abolitionist views, previously-
expressed in a juvenile work of the author. The White
Slave, One of its merits is its appreciation of the
Federalists, and especially of the genius and character
of their leader, Hamilton. Of the host of national bio-
graphies iu which the West abounds, Sanderson's Lives
of the Signers, the historical sketches of G. C. Verplanck,
Wirt's Patrick Henri/, and the stupendous series edited
and largely written by Jared Sparks, may be signalised.
Nearly one-half of the works of the most classic American
prose writers of the generations previous to our own are
historical or biographicaL Washington Irving's Conquest Irving
of Granada, and his lives of Columbus, the Followers of
Mahomet, Goldsmith, and Washington, if not the most ori-
ginal, are among the most interesting of his works — accu-
rate in their leading estimates, and marked by the usual
smoothness and even flow of his style. Irving contemplated
a continuation of the record of the early relations of Spain
to the New World, but, with his wonted generosity,
abandoned the theme on hearing that the task had
been assumed by worthy hands. The works of WUliam ix. Prescott.
Prescott, the most artistic historian to whom the United
States have hitherto given birth, are remarkable from the
difficulties under which they were produced, and for the well-
deserved success which they have achieved. This success
is due in part to the genius and indomitable industry of
the writer, in part to the steady concentration of his powers
on the arduous undertaking of which he had at an early
age formed a just estimate. In a diary of 1819 (that is,
in his twenty-third year) he allows ten years for preliminary
studies and ten more for the execution of his task — a
notable example to his countrymen, nine-tenths of whose
literary performances will prove ephemeral, less from lack
of abihty in the writers than from an utterly inadequate
sense of the time and toO. that every true Muse demands
of her votaries. Ferdinand and Isabella, given to the
world in 1838, was written while Mr Prescott was, owing
to an accident at college, almost whoUy deprived of his
sight. His authorities, in a foreign tongue, were read to him
by an assistant, and by aid of a writing-case for the blind
he scrawled the pages of his great work. It soon attained
a European as well as an American fame, and superseded
all other records of the period of -which it treats. No such
comprehensive view of Spain at the zenith of her greatness
has ever appeared in English The proportion of its parts
and the justice of its estimates are universally acknow-
ledged ; while hypercriticism of the style — graceful, correct,
and sufficiently varied — can only point to the occasional
possibility of greater condensation. Among tbe most
notable of the descriptions, which can seldom bo detached
from the whole into which they are woven, wo may refer
to the return of Columbus and the contrasted characters of
Queen Isabella and Elizabeth. The ConouesC of MexiiO,
724
AMERICAN LITERATURE
written with somewhat iiaproT«d sight, fuUowed in 1843 ;
that of Para in 1817. These have attained au even wider
popularity than their precuiBcr, owing to ihe more con-
densed romance and greater novelty of their theme*.
They are "ojHjn sesaiues" to an old T.orid of wondere,
real, and yet frojn its strangeness ijiivested with half the
charms of faiiyland. Few piuiBijj^es of fiction are so
ctilhraUiiig to the youthful reader as the story of
Xezahualcoyotl, king of Tezcuco, the life and expkit«
of ilontezuma, the night retreat from the Artec capital,
or the account of the Eua-worshijiperB in the Golden
City. Both works are dramas in uhacli our sj-mpathy is
cjiridcd between the chivalry of Spain in her hey-Uay
and .the poetical traditions and innocent patriotiqm of a
vanished race. But their author has never, in the midst
of his " Claude-like descriptions " and charmijigly vivid
r.arratives, allowed hii»self to forget that ho is writing
histoiy. Boys read his Mexico and Peru as they read the
Arabian Nights ; critics can point to few flawia in the
accuracy of the author's judgment. FhilLp IJ^ Mr Pres-
cott's latest work, has similar excellencies in dealing with
Motley. a less attractive theme. John Lothrop Motley, a dis-
tijjgui.shod ambas-sador in foreign courts, and author of
the best existing history of Holland, is Mr Prcscott's
only more recent rival. Less faultless, he is more strik-
ingly original ; and the greater complexity of the theme,
which he has made his own, calls for the exercise of even
iuglier powers. The Dutch Jiepuhlic, which appeared in
180C, at once arrested attention by its eWdence of careful
end long research, comprehensive grasp, rich pictorial
power, and the enthusiasm which, only here and there
interfering with the ijnpartial judgment of the author,
gives colour and life to the work. Mr Motley's style, even
to minute turns in his sentences, bears the impress of the
influence of Carlvle. The very titles of his chapters,
especially in the first volume, seem transferred from the
French Memlulion. Such are " Sowing the Wind," " The
Harvest Ripening," "The First ^\Tiirlwind," "The Taciturn
against King, Cardinal, and Elector," kc. From the same
source he may have caught some of his hero-worship,
which, however, by the choice of a worthy object, he has
done much to vindicate. The Dutch Jiepuhlic, preluded
iViy the overture of a masterly and vivid historical survey,
ia a drama, which facts have made highly sensational, of
the most terrific struggle against temporal and spiritual
despotism that, tvithin the same space of years, modem
times have seen. It is divided, not inappropriately, though
perhaps with some regard for effect, ihto a prologue and
live acts, to each of which in succession the name of
the Spanish governor for the time is attached. The por-
traits of those emissaries, particularly those of GranveUe
of Arras and Duchess Margaret of Alva, Don John of
Lepanto, and Alexander of Parma, are drawn with bold
strokes and in lasting colours. Behind the scenes, director
of the assailing forces, is the evil genius Philip himself, to
whose ghastly figure, writing letters in the Escurial, our
attention is called with a wearisome, if not affected, ttera-
tior. of phrase ; while the presence of the great champion,
like that of Achillas in the Iliad, is felt at every crisis
retrieving the retreat and urging on the victory. The most
horrible chapter of modem history — that of the Inquisition
— is unfolded with a power that brands its records into the
memory of the reader; and amid a throng of scenes of-
pageantry and pathos we jnay refer to those of the resigna-
tion of Charles V., Egmont's triumph at St Quentin and
his death, the misery of Mook Heath, the siege of Leyden,
and the hero's death. The United Netlieiiands (1867-69)
is a continuation of the same history in the same spirit ;
but, as regards style, a somewhat calmer and more matured
composition. Tli2 most thrilling" tliapters is those four
later volumes are the aiege of Antwerp— wlil ''■•. c^ianares
with that of Syracuse in Thucydidus — and il".; on the
wreck of the Armada, uusurpa/jsed in rividnesu au:! vigour
by either Froude or Kingslcy ; to which wo should add
the episodes of the battle of IvTy and the skirmish at
Zutpher, with one of the most eloquent tributes ever paid
to the genius and character of Sir Philip Sidney. Of the
other full-length pictures, which, with the campaigns of
Parma, Spinob, and Maurice, and the intrigues of England
and Fi-ance, divide the interest of the book, are those of
Queen Elizabeth (whose habitual treachery, real meanness,
and shallow pretences to magnanimity are exposed, as
afterwards by Jlr Froude), Henry of Kavarrc, St Alde-
gonde, the Earl of Leicester, and the great Barneveld,
who, with the Prince of Nassau, divides our sy7ni«jthy at
the close of the book. Since the death of Lord Mg/riulay
no equally solid and valuable contribution has been made
t9 historical literature. As supplementary in some measure TicVoor.
to the volumes of Mr Prescott, we may mention here the
UvUory of Spanish Literalura by his coadjutor Geo. Ticknor,
incomparably the best, the most comprehensive, inoat criti-
cal, and most jutercsting work which exists on the. subject.
Of other contributions to Utorary criticism, from wbiclj, owing to
their superabundiuice, it is hard to gelect, those of George S. Hiilard,
one of tho most highly cultured vmujrs in Nc-w hnglacd ; of
Henry T. Tuckemiann, author of Jlioughts on Ow Puts, ao elegant
but sotttimoatal essayist ; of £. F. Wiiipplc, a ciitic who, aooordix^ to
Ur Griswold, cOBibines " the strength uf the Areopagitica with the
liveliness of the SjiecUitor" (!) ; of Margaret Fuller D'OssoU, a pre-
cocious linguist, translator of Eckennann's Cvnvenatwns with
Gvelhe, heiself a briliiaiit conversationalist and somewhat cloudy
transcendentalist and advocate of the superiority of women to nen ;
the always lively reviews of Ht Lowell, with nuxQerous papers in
the North Amtrican and Atlantic Reviews, — may be referred to. To
these we sliould add the discriminating " Essays on recent English.
Poets " contributed to Scribner's ilontUy by E. C. Stedmw.
3. PoiJTE LiTEEATiTEE, of any cxceUence, in the lighter
^branches is, in the West, almost wholly a growth of the
present century. The most widely and justly celebrated ol
transatlantic authors in this field, during ita earUer half.
was -the amiable and versatile Washington Irving. Of his, Irving,
numerous writings, we have referred in last section to
those which are directly historical. The rest fall undei
two heads, according as they are concerned mainly with
American or with European themes. On the same principle
on which Agassiz, and FoUen, and Paine^ even Berkeley
and Priostley, have been claimed by the United States^
Irving is associated with the progress of English litera-
ture ; for in virtue of his Scotch parentage, and in the
course of four distinct and extended visits to Europe —
1803-6, 1815-20, 1827-32, and 1841-46— he may be
said to have become half an Englishman. His style is in
the main that of the es-sayists of Queen Anne, modified by
the humonr of Charles Lamb; and many of his most effective
sketches of life, manners, and society relate to the eastern
hemisphere. Such are his Histories, the Tales of a Travel^
ler, Bracebridge Hall, Keicsiead and Albotsford, the
Alliamhra, and half of the Sketch Book. In reference to
those works — the best pa.ssages of which are classical — a
French critic haa said that Irving describes all countries
but his own in the style of Addison. In others, however,
ami Qlese the earliest and latest of his works, he treats of
national legend and scenery in a manner peculiar to
himself. His first literary efforts, which restilted in the
series of papers entitled Salmaguadi, were gently satirical
descriptions of the features of society in American cities.
The Miatory of New York, by " Diedrich Knickerbocker," in
point of pure originaUty his masterpiece, is one of the
richest farragoes of fact, fancy, and irony that have ever,
issued from the press. In later life, his Tour if the
Prairies — The Adventures of Bonneville, and Asiurit^, are
instinct with the spirit of western discovery and sdT.;at-5re,
AMERICAN LITERATURE
725
la this, as in other points of view, versatiKty and grace are
his prevailing characteristics. He belonged historically
to both worlds, and was equally at home in each ; he
reflected the quiet philosophy of the Toiler and Spectator,
adding to it the pathos which cims the eye of the reader
over his " Wife," and " Widow and Son," and " Broken
Heart," and " Pride of the Village." He started the vein
of burlesque that has run through his country's literature,
but under the restraints of taste and temperance that have
nnfoitunately been often dbcarded. The even grace of his
manner ovten leads hasty critics to do scant justice to the
range of liis sympathy. His manly but gentle style is at
home in Spanish history, English . essay, and American
legend ; in the Alhamhra and among the slopes of
" Sleepy Hollow," where, as in the famous " P.ip Van
Winkle," we have some of the earliest models of amuse-
ment with grave faces and the melancholy parties of
pleasure that are, under various forms of buffoonery, stiU
typical of American humour. Associated with Irving in his
Pauldiug. Salmagundi, the name of J. K. Paulding deserves a distinct
place for the humorous vigour of his character sketches,
and his vivid pictures of early colonial life, in the Dutch-
man's Fireside and Westward Ho! where the features of
the contest between the new settlers and the aborigines are
brought before us in clear relief. His apologue of " Bull
and Jonathan," and the thirteen good farms over which
they squabbled — founded on Swift's Tale of a Tub — pre-
sents us, in a satire which lies on the border of irony and
a rougher form of wit, with an early American view of the
relations between his own and the mother country.
Some of the same themes have been handled with superior
richness of illustration and force by the greatest, with one
Cooper. exception, of transatlantic novelists^J. Fenimore Cooper
(1789-1 8.51) — a man remarkable no less for the somewhat
defiant independence of his character, which led him to
defend his countrymen in Europe, where he travelled from
1827—33, and to assail their foibles in America, than by
the marked originaUty of his genius. His first consider-
able work. The Spy, appeared in 1821, and from its fresh
treatment of a patriotic theme obtained a European reputa-
tion. His second. The Pioneers (1823), with a vivid repre-
sentation of the scenery of the author's early Ufe, introducing
for the first time his ever-recurring hero the famous Xatty
Bumpo, or Leather-Stocking, established his place as a
new actor on a crowded stage. Then followed T/ie Pilot,
in which he first asserted his claim to an empire since
indisputably made his own among novelists — that of the
sea; and -somewhat later The Last of the Mohicans and
The Prairie, in which he asserted a similar sway over the
" gardens of the desert " and the hiUs of the remoter West.
While abroad he vrrote his Bed Pover and The Bravo — a
graphic tale of Venice, and flung on the aspersors of
his country the American in Europe. Shortly after his
return he issued his satirical assault on newspaper editors
and other delinquents — his Homeward Bound, which
led him into several actions for hbel, in which he claims
to have been almost in%-ariably successful — The Pathfinder,
and The Deerslayer (IMQ-iX). The latter, perhaps the best
of the Leather-Stocking series, completes the list of his
great novels; to which must be added another important
work — The History of tlie American Kuvy — published in
1839. There is a certain severity about Cooper's genius,
showng itself in a hardness in his style, which restricts the
range of his readers. He wastes perhaps too many words
on descriptions, is exhaustive where he might have been
Buggcstive, and his plots are apt to be deficient in interest
— The Red Hover conspicuously excepted. But, deducting
the echoes of Scott, to which wo have referred, he is
American to the core ; ho needs no slang- or affectation to
Bstablish his originality, but moves on his own way with
Boinething like disdain of comment. His best descriptiona
T— as, for example, those of the prairie on fire, of the
"Ariel" among the shoals, of the capture of the whala
and the panther in The Pioneers, of the last sea-fight in
The Rover, of the regatta in the Bravo — are unsurprised.
Els ships move over the seas like things of life. TTia
hunters, traverse the prairies with a sense of possession.
His best characters are few ; but Natty Bumpo, Bob Yam,
Nightingale, Long Tom Coffin, Hetty Hunter, and Brand
Merideth are undjdng creations. The earliest American '
romancer of note, Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810), Brockden
who came before the world (1797) in Alcuin, a Dialogue Bi'own.
on the Rights of Women (first of a mob of tracts on the
same theme), set the example on his side of the Atlantic of
that love of the anomalous, fantastic, and horrible, repre-
sented on our own by Beckford, Walpole, and Godwin,
and later by Mrs Radcliffe and Mrs Shelley. His main
works — Wieland, Ormond, Arthur Mervyn, and Edgar
Huntly — are unmistakably the productions of a man of
genius. None are wanting in passages of thrilling interest,
striking situations, and subtle analysis of character. But
they dwell too prevailingly on the night-side of nature —
on such themes as insanity and somnambulism, and all the
repulsive anatomy of mental disease. Brown's account of
the yellow fever in Arthur Mervyn may be compared with
the corresponding narratives in Thucydides, Lucretius, and
Defoe ; and Wieland's confession of the murder of his wife
(a favourite subject of Western fiction) is hideously vivid ;
but the author's plots as a whole are wanting in method,
his bursts of passion are dulled by intervening tediousness,
and his style deformed by pedantic circumlocutions.
Brown must be credited With considerable originality of con-
ception, and blamed for introducing a morbid vein of
thought. His influence is apparent in two novels of
Richafd Dana— to whom we have before referred — Tom
Thornton and Paul Felton, in which a more graceful style
is employed with almost equal vigour to illustrate similar
monstrosities of character on the basis of incidents almost
equally unnatural Of the same school are many of the
sketches of Charles F. Hofl'mann, as "Ben Blower's Story" Hoffman
of being immured in a steam-boiler, and the "Flying
Head ;" but alongside of these are others, as his " Winter
in the West," " Romance of the Mohawks," and " Adiron-
dacks," that are steeped in the fresh atmosphere of the
green fields and hills. Hoffmann is also the author of
three deservedly popular songs, " MjTtle and Steel,"
" Sparkling and Bright," and " Rosalie Clare." The
influence of those writers, along with that of a profounder
analyst, the French Balzac, is apparent in the works of po5_
the most morbid genius the modem world of letters has
known. In the regions of the strangely terrible, remotely
phantastic, and ghastly, Edgar AUan Poe reigns supreme.
For clearness of style, aptness of illustration, and subtUty
of thought, he distances in this field all his predecessors
except Balzac, who in the mental dissecting-room is his
only master. But while the Frenchman deals with
anomalous realities, the power of the American consists in
making unrealities appear natural. One of his great
charms is his perpetual interest. Confining his imagina-
tion within limited bounds of space, he is never dull, save
in his acridly jealous criticisms and miserable attempts a'j
humour. Criticism would hardly strike a line from the
longest and perhaps the most thrilling of his narratives,
that of '■ Arthur Gordon Pyni." In fictitious verisimilitude
it is onlj' equalled by De Quincey's "Flight of the Kalmuck
Tartars." With the "Adventure of Hans Pfaall" in hia
balloon, and the " Descent into the ilaclstrom," it is the
obvious source of the ingenious pseudt-scientific romances
of Jules Verne, which have lately attained so wide a
popularity. Poe's most hideous talcs, as " Thor. art the
72b
AMERICAN LITERATURE
Man," "TLe Black Cat," "The Premature Burial," "The
Pit and the Pendulum," " The Cask of Ampntillado," " The
Tell-Tale Heart," are redeemed by their literary merits and
their roferenco, under the form of grotesque circumstanci.-s,
to 'lociinant fears and passions of mankind. In the " Fall
of the House of Usher," "The Domain of Arnhcim,"
"William Wilson," and "Ligeia," a more purely poetic
or deeply psychological element is added to the l^orror. In
the " Murders of the Rue Morgue," " The Mystery of JIarie
Roget," ",The Purloined Letter," and '.'The Gold Bug,"
4ie is on the border land between romance and reality, and
seems to prove himself in potentiality the prince of all
detectives. We shall have to refer to Lira again as a poet.
The super-subtilty of Balzac and Poe appears %vith hifjher
qualities in the woiks of the greatest of New England
romancers, on the whole the most artistic of American prose
S*nie ^"^t«re, Nathaniel Hawthorne. Of his style it is impossible!
to speak too highly ; for without any of the defects often
found in the wiitings. of his countrymen, it has a healthy
flavour of nationality. It is accurate and strong, terse anil
yet full, rich and jet simple^ harmonious, varied, and
suggestive. These excellencies of form give a fascination
to his most ordinary themes as to his descriptions of scenery
%nd works of art. The only modern pictures of Italy
comparable to those of Rome and her sculptures in
Tramformation are Ruskin's Venice and the finest stanzas
in the fourth canto of Childe Harold. But Hawthorne's
scenery can seldom be disentangled from the mood of mind
in which he views it, and which constantly associates it
with some remoter purpose or underlying allegory. Amid
the din of voices in the Custom-house or half-buried in
the mosses of his Manse, wallcing along the Appian Way or
gliding down the Assabeth, ho dwells among strange
visions. The sea-shore tells him secrets of the ppst, and
the jirattling village \s full of a present sympathy. But
the features of nature, and life, and character which he
loves to draw are peculiar. They are for the most part
sombre and mysterious ; not with the sort of mystery that
attends unprecedented events and unnatural marvels, but
with the mystery which he finds underneath the current of
' common lives. One of his prevailing thoughts is, things
are not what they seem^he is so fond of peering beneath
tha surface of existence, that in his pages it almost loses
its ordinary reality ; he tries so constantly to look through
lifi that he scarcely takes time to look at it. The
highest art of all is that which comprehends both aspecus,
and, seeing the face of nature as it is, also penetrates to its
hidden meanings. Hawthorne, on the other hand, weaves
hi3 fictions, to borrow a phrase from himself, in " the
moonhght of romance ;" and while he admits that materials
for a better book than ho has written " lie scattered on the
page of life open before him, he has seldom stooped to
gather them."
"Moonlight," he repeats in his preface to the Scarlet LelUr,
"mooDlight in a fiimiliar room, falling so white upon the carpet
end sho\ring all it3 fig-.irea so distincliy, making every object so
distinctly visible, yet so unlike a morning or noontide viaibiJity, is
ft ii.edium the most suitable for a romance writer to get acquainted
with his illusive guests. The room becomes a neutral territory,
somewhere between the real world and fairyland, where the actual
and imaginary may meet, and each imbue itself with the nature cf
the ether."
Hawthorne has sometimes abandoned this neutral terri-
tory, and given us a few short sketches which show that
he is eminently capable, when he chooses, of illustrating
and characterising common things ; such, among his minor
tales, are " The Old Apple Dealer," " Little Annie's
P.amble," " A Rill from the Town Pump," " Sights from a
Kteeple," " The Village Uncle," that well-named " Buds
and Bird Voices," and "The Seven Vagabonds," the most
humorous and genial of his lighter pieces. His prevailing
themes are drawn on a^border-knd or twilight between
two worlds, half real and half ideal ; fairy tales, in which
human beirgs are the fairies, and arc made to point morals
of their o^vn histories. He haunts us, as he himself was
haunted, by problems. Of the five volumes of his minor
sketches, three at least are filled with allegories — riddles,
some of them hard to read, and open to doubtful because
dc uble interpretations. " The Great Stone Face " is a
noble piece of writing, apart from the lesson it is intended
to convey. " Drowne's Wooden Image " and " The Artist
of the Beautiful " are in themselves "beautiful exceedingly."
The exquisite pathos of "Lily's Guest" and "Edward
Fane's Rosebud " lies on the surface. " Lady Eleanor's
Mantle " tells its own story in a parable of the Nemesis of •
pride ; but in " Roger Malvin's Burial," " The Wedding
Knell," '." Yoiiug Goodman Brown," and others, the meaning
is either more intricate or more remote. Hawthorne's
longer works are all conceived in the same spirit. Their
incidents are comparatively few, and might have easily
been condensed into one of his shorter tales ; which iu
their turn might easily have been expanded into elaborate
romances — what a consummate story, for instance, might
have been reared on the basis of " Rappacini's Daughter ! "
His forte lies in Che analysis of character and situations,
rather than the dramatic arrangement of events. " To
live in other lives, and to endeavour to learn the secret
which was hidden even from themselves," is the purpose
set before himself by a cha.racter which in one of thosq
romances ' nearly represents the author. Everywhere he
seems to be carrying out this purpose, operating upon
some thiee or four characters, and removing them — as he
tells us in the introduction to Blithedale — a little from the
highway of ordinary travel to a theatre where these
creatures of bis brain may play their phantasmagorical
antics without exposing them to too close a comparison
with the actual events of real lives. A small group of
figures is thus made to work out some problem- of life, or
at least to throw by their ideal actions a light on some
puzzle in the author's mind. The great question over
which, iA one form or other, he perpetually broods, is the
nature of evil — the effect of sin and error on the soul —
ac-d their relation to virtue and human progress. In the
Blitludale liomanct, for instance, his theme is that the
exaggeration of good may turn to evil This almost pain-
fully min ute anatomy cf four lives, relieved by passages of
delicate description and a few scenes of thrilling power, is
designed to show the blighting effects of a one-sided idea,
even thouj;h it assumes the guise of a benevolent impulse,
when it overrides private and personal claims. In Trans-
formation, or the liomance of Monte Beni, a conception in
some respects the converse of this, is wrought out of richer
materials ; and we are taught to appreciate the possibilitiea
of good that there may be in evil, by the effect which an
impulsive crime has in inspiring a simple instinctive nature
with a stronger life. The- Scarlet Letter, which is at once
the most solid and the subtlest of the author's works,
illustrates the fatal influence which a single- sin exerts on
aU the persons whom it involves ; but uidike the BlithedaU
Romance, which is a dismal tragedy, it ends with a magnifi-
cent triumph of expiation. The Scarlet Letter appears to
us to be the best analytical novel of this century, the
nearest approach to it in artistic finish and pyschological
penetration being Goethe's Elective Affinities. The House
of the Seven Gables has more variety, and mixes humour
with its pathos ; but the web of this last romance, which
has for its moral the malign influences which may be
transmitted from one generation to another, is woven of
thinner threads. Hawthorne's Protean genius is a power
in American thought. His influence as a teacher and an
artiit is still crescent among the contemporaries froiu
AMERICAN LITERATURE
727
whom lie has lately passed. Hia symbolic yet real cha-
racters— Hester and Pearl by the forest brook; Dimmesda'e
by the scaffold, ivith the red morning upon his brow ; the
•dead Judge sitting with his watch ; the Cleopatra of Brook
-Farm plunging in the pool; Miriam and Hilda, and
DonateUo the Faun — are stamped in letters of &ne gold on
the pages of his country's literature, and the music of his
quiet sentences 3'et lingers on the ear of strangers as of
friends. But hia name remains as a warning as well as an
example. In one sense he was a patriot, glorying in the
great deeds of his country's past. Of this feeling the
■" Gray Champion " and " Howe's Masquerade " give suffi-
cient evidence. At the close of the last he writes, as we
may fancy with a grim Puritan smile : " On the anniver-
sary night of Britain's discomfiture the ghosts of the
ancient governors of Massachusetts still glide through the
portals of the Province House." But as a politician he
•wrecked himself with the democratic party. He looked
upon slavery as " one of those evils which Providence does
not leave to be remedied by human contrivances." He
iad no sympathy with the abolitionists, and at least a half
sympathy with the planters. " As regards human progress,"
le wrote, " let them believe it who can ; " and in the pre-
face to his last completed work, as his excuse for laying
the scene in Italy, — " There is in our country no shadow,
no ambiguity, no mystery, no picturesque and gloomy
■wrong." " Romance and poetry, ivy, lichens, and wall-
flowers, need ruin to make them grow." Hawthorne lived
to see the beginning of what he could only regard as ruin :
he did not live to see his country rising stronger after
a great struggle with a gloomy wrong.
■Jmeii Oliver WendeU Holmes, the accomplished physician of
Harvard, better known as a humourist and author of
occasional verses, has contributed to psychological romance
two remarkable volumes : Elsie Tenner and The Guardian
Angel. The former, and more striking of the two, is a
weird tale of destiny, dwelling upon the idea of transmitted
qualities in a manner which suggests comparison with The
■House of the Seven Gables ; but Holmes's story has a more
incredible plot, the chief character being a sort of sprite,
'having mysterious relations to the animal world, a snake-
charmer, herself half a snake (as Donatello in Transforma-
-ion is half a faun), like the Lamia of tradition and Keats,
but endowed with the graces of Undine. The vigorous
sketch of the hero Langdon, with which the book opens, is
impaired by the somewhat obtrusive manner in which he
is vaunted as a type of the blue-blooded or Brahmin caste
of New England. The same pathological treatment of
human nature pe'rvades The Guardian Angel, which turns
partly on mysterious phy.sical. and psychical affinities. The
— Margaret of Sylvester Judd, a Unitarian clergyman of
Maine, belongs, by virtue of some of the problems with
which it deals, to the category of metaphysical novels.
This work of decided genius, to which a just tribute is
paid by ]Mr Lowell in his Fable for Critics, has hardly
attained the popularity it merits, owing to the slender cha-
racter of the plot, and the frequency of the dissertations
by which the author endeavours to impress his own views
ci society, art, and religion. But it is a powerful picture
of the more ideal sides of New England life; the character
of Margaret and Chilion are permanent types, and the
whole book is extremely fresh and original The most
utlirop, genuine successor of Hawthorne is Theodore 'Winthrop,
who left a counting-house in New York for an adventurous
life, and fell at Great Bethel in 1861 in his thirty-third
year. His best novel, Cecil Dnieme, teems with life-like
characterisation, bathed in a poetic element of mystery ;
and John Brent, ihe next in mer;t, is a graphic sketch of
romantic incidents in the Far West, drawn from hia own
experience.
Of tslea evincing t'.lcpt "ftere is a plethora ; they lio on the Minor
shelves of the libraries " tliick as the leaves on Vallombrosa." novelist
-\mong those worthy of aote are the pictures of Southern society
by W. G. Sunms, whose fertile brain is said to have produced fifty
volumes in t«-enty years ; The Bee Hunter, and other narratives ot
the south-west, by T. B. Thorpe of Baton Eouge ; John Neal's
Uachel Dyer and Ruth Elder; the classical romances of 'W'are,
Zmobia and Probus and Julian; Jlrs E. 0. Smith's Indian
Eemuiiscences ; The Linwoods, Hope Leslie, and other philaL-
thropUo tales of New England, by Miss Sedgwick ; Mrs Lydia
Child's Hoiomck, and her J'Mlothca, a romance of Pericles and
Aspasia, somewhat too sentimental in its style, and not free from
anachronisms ; with the anti-slavery pictures represented by Mrs
Stowe's Unele Tom, a book which, inspired by ordinary talent and
written in an earnest spirit, owed its success to the air of simple
narration which pervades it, and its having the aggressive strength
of a political pamphlet appearing at the right time in harmony with
the passion on one side of an impending struggle. The light but
graceful and often incisive sketches of N. P. liViUis take a some- ^i^"3i
what higher rank. , A rapid writer, but at his best a brilliant
colourist, his fertile fancy has been employed in almost all the
countries of Europe, and in his own, in prose and verso, with mora
than average success. His Pencillings by the JVay and People I
have Met are among the most agreeable of books for a leisure hour;
his de.scription3 are always interesting as well as accurate, and hia
characters, grave and gay, are generally life-like. His picture of
the Indian girl, Nunu, in the Inklings of Adventure, is fascinating
and vivacious enough to be wort,hy of a higher artist.
Books of Tkatel, among which those of Mr 'WUlis hold a Ti-avels
respectable place, superabound in the literature of the West.
Nine-tenths of the literary men of America have crossed
the Atlantic, and idne-tenths of those who have done so have
published their impressions of the Old World, with every
variety of good and bad taste, from the Old Home to the
Innocents Abroad. After that of his birth, an American
author's travels are the first essential of his being. We
may next predict his praise of Italy, his half satirical half
curious view of England, and his wonder at the Pyramids.
Of the multifarious descriptions of Europe to which this
habit has given birth, the worthiest of note are those of
Hawthorne and Emerson, of Story and Cheever, and
Curtis's A'l'/e AVcs. In the '"Lotus Eating" of the last
named we have pleasing reminiscences of the watering-
places of his own country. But the most interesting
records of western scenery are those of Fremont ; Win-
throp's Canoe and Saddle, and Life in the Open Air; and
the numerous remarkable " Excursions " of Emerson's
leading pupU, H. D. Thoreau — his " Maine Woods," "Cape
Cod," and " Merrimack ; " with the vacation vovage to
Cuba of the younger Dana.
4. A leading feature of transatlantic liicrature is its Humorous
HuuouE. Humour is a word of many meanings : it writers,
begins on the low level of any laughter-provoking absurdity,
and rises, as in the speeches of Lear's Fool, to a tragic
height. In the Greek classics it shows itself in the
Rabelaisian exuberance of Aristophanes or in the Socratic
irony : in the English fre have an even more subtle appre-
ciation of the curiosities of character, and a deeper sens©
of the contradiction or conflict between the higher and
lower phases of human nature. In Sterne and Fielding,
as in Ben Jonson, we have every man in his humour. As
developed in America, this quality of the mind seldom
penetrates to the under-currents of life; its insight is clear
but not profound ; it relies mainly on exaggeration, and a
blending of jest and earnest which has the efl'ect of singing
comic words to a sad tune, or telling a preposterous story
with a grave face. Mr Lowell makes us laugh by his
description of a negro " so black that charcoal made a chalk
mark upon him," and of a wooden shingle "painted so like
marble that it sank in the water." Mr Browne (Artcmus
Ward) excited the same sort of laughter by his remark in
pointing to a hill daubed on his canvas, " the highest part
of this mountain is the top." In both cases there is a
suqirise, excited in the one by a falsehood plausibly pr(-
tending to be the truth, in the other by a truism aasertiivi
728
A JI E R I C .\ N LITE R A T U R E
itself as a novelty. Similarly, vrtiT ll'o kt'cr writer,
amoog hia anecdotes of the conscription, tells ua tbit " one
young man who was drawn claimed to be exempt because
ho was the onlj- son of a widowed mother — who supported
him," the amusement is all in the unexpected turn of the
last throa words. In contradistinction to this, the humour
of Don Quixote, of Falstaff, of Uncle Toby, of Major Bath,
of the Vicar of Wakefield and Sir Roger de Coverley, of
Major Pendcnnis and Bishop Blougram, consists in its
truih. What these people do or say never surprises us.
It is absurd as a great part of human life is absurd, and,
laughing at them, we feel we are laughing at something in
ourselves. The bf;st recent instances of this higher kind
of humour which American literature affords are to bo
found in Washington Irving, in Mr Lowell's Bigloiti
Papers (to which, as a considerable national poem, wa
shall have to revert), in passages of Mr Longfellow's
Kavanagh, in Mr Hawthorne's Seven, Gahtea and Seven
Vagabonds, and in the prose and verse of Dr Holmes. In
his three pleasant volumes. The Autocrat, The Professor,
and The Poet at the Breahfast Table, there is much that
might have been omitted, more that should have been
compressed. They contain too many jokes, good, bad,
and indifferent, and are tainted here and there with what
we must be excused for regarding as New England slang.
But they are pervaded by a genial glow of kindly sym-
pathy, and they exhibit, with a quaint mannerism — not
without its attractions — personages, and situations, and
sentiments which we recognise as at once odd and real Dr
Holmes's works have frequent reflections of Mont?.igne and
Barton, and the Nodes Amhror.a-noe ; he mixes pathos and
whimsicality after the manner of Lamb and Sterne. His
humorous verses, the best knovm of which, " Daily Trials,"
" Evening, by a Tailor," and the " Music-grinders," inevi-
tably recall the drolleries of Hood. His genius has,
nevertheless, an original vein, less mellow, but at its best
as genuine as that of his older masters. Several of the
miscellaneous papers, essays, and periodicals belonging to
the earlier years of the century, as Salrr.oijv.ndi, The
Talisman of Bryant and Verplanck, Tht Olipodiana of
W. G. Clarke, and the Spnrro:^ Grass Papers, are fre-
quently enlivened by sparkles of wit and evidences of
keen discrimination. In others we trace the germs of a
vicious style which thre:itens to degrade the lighter litera-
ture of the States. The Charcoal Sketches of Joseph Neal
— which might be entitled Comicalities of the Mississippi
-r<ire among the earliest examples of the habit of playing
with slang terms characteristic of his successors. An
author who relies for effect on giving his imaginary
personages such nicknames as " Dawson Dawdle," " Peter
Ploddy," " Tippleton Tipps," and " Shiverton Shanks," is
more likely to be the cause of wit in others than the source
of humour himGclf. During the last generation in America
the anxiety to bo national has led many of her minor
authors to mate themselves ridiculous. To avoid walking
like Englishmen, they have gone on all-fours ; to escape the
imputation of Anglo-Saxon features, they have painted
their faces with ochre and put ear-rings through theu:
nostrils; forsaking the speech of Addison and Steele, they
have expressed themselves in an unseemly jargon of
strange tongues. Of this mocking-bird humour the most
legitimate form is that of the Biglow Papers, where the
New England dialect is employed with effect to give voice
to the sentiments of that district of the country during the
national struggle, on one side of which it took the lead.
A similar justification may be put forward in behalf of the
Californian peculiarities, which are perhaps not too promi-
nent in the often really humorous pieces of Bret Harte.
The mixture of two dialects in the Breiimar.n Ballads is r.
bolder licence, though for the best of these Mr Leland
may plead thij wide-spread use of the nongrel speech, an'I
the original success of a drollery which has only become
tiresome from his not knowing when his readers have had
more than enough of it_ The parodies of Mr Browne
(Artemus Ward) are open to the same criticism. The
writer was a man of wit and talent, and therefore bis
writings are amusing. They are good specimens of the
worst style of satire : for the wit that relies on bad spelling
is almost as false as that which consists in bad language.
In vindication of the " Showman," it must, however, be
observed that his sarcasm is generally directed against
mean or ridiculous things. But his example has paved,
for those who have caught the trick of his phrase and
who are unrestrained by his good feeling and good sense,
an easy descent to the lowest form of light Lterature —
that which panders to the rice of moral scepticism and
thrives on the buffoonery of making great and noble
things appear mean or ridiculous. The names of those
who habitually fc(!d on mental garbage should bo left to
sink into the oblivion from which they have unfortu- .
nately emerged. It is painful but necessary to observe
that some of the more considerable wrivers and thinkers of
the New World are apt to condescend on occasion to this
burlesque way of writing. American light literature
bristles in puns which are at best the " a-b abs" of
wit. Of these, Mr Lowell (a severe critic of everything
English) has made the worst — " Milton is the only man
who has got much poetry out of a cataract — and that was
a cataract in his eye " Mr Leland, the next worst, in his
book of travels — " If a thing of beauty be a jai!> for ever,
as the American said of his handsome, scolding wife, then
the donkey boys of Cairo are the most jaw-ous and
beautiful creaturej; for the Eound of their voices drieth
not up." Eccentricities of this sort, with the graver
irreverences which intnida themselves even into the
pulpits of the West, should ba universally discredited as
blasphemies against the first principles of taste. They
are as " flat, stale, and unprofitable " as the contortions of
a wearied clown. Tmo humour — as ever in our classics
— must go hand-in-hand with seriousness ; it must never
forget that behind the comic there is a tragic element in
human life. The mere " farce " is contemptible, because
it is as unnatural as the expression of a countenance dis-
torted by a continual grin. In forgetfulness of this lies
the greatest danger of the recent literature of America,
and we can only trust to the higher intellectual instincts
and tendencies of the age to detect and resist it.
5. New England Tkansceitoen-talism. — Picligion, the Theology,
first motive power of thought in America, has continued
to flow, both in its old channel — that of the orthodox
Puritanism which came down from Eliot and Edwards
through Dwight to Hodge and the Princeton Es.says — and
in another, that of the new forms of faith advocated by
W. E. Channing, and with gravely heterodox modifica- Chaunuig.
tions by Theodore Parker. Criticism of Channing's
theological position is apart from our purpose here. He
claims notice in a renew of literature by the vigour of
his conceptions and his graceful and correct expression of
them. His earliest considerable essay, the Moral Argu-
ment against Calvinism, one of the best known of his
numerous controversial works, indicates by its title his
prevailing attitude. He relied through life on a priori
moral arguments, and employed them as his engines of
attack against all persons, institutions, or practices that
offended his rigid sense of justice or his enthusiastic
benevolence — e.g., Napoleon I., War, and Slavery A
generous indignation against wrong, and keen practical
sense of the duties of life, are more conspicuous in his
writings than speculative power ; but his insight into the
political position of parties and the probability of future
AMERICAN LITERATURE
729
conflicts is remarkable. Though at variance with the
older creeds of Christendom, Channing's writings are
everywhere marked by a reverential Spirit, and not un-
frequently by a touch of asceticism inherited from the
Puritan days, whose abstract doctrines alone he proposed
to modify. On the other hand, he admired the higher
forms of Art, and in his eloquent essays on Self-culture
anticipated much that has been said more recently by
Emerson. He loved beauty as well as vii-tue for itself,
and his style, except on rare occasions, is free from the
defects of taste so frequent in the writings of his con-
temporaries. His reviews of Milton and Fenelon abound
in passages — as the picture of religious peace in the latter
— which exhibit the delicacy and the breadth of his
Parker, sympathies. Theodore Parker — unlike Channing — asssdls
the whole basis of the old theology, and frequently errs
from arrogance and impetuosity. He had, perhaps, a
more powerful but a less highly cultivated mind. He
was a p\ipil of the transcendental movement of New
England, to which, because of its influence on literature
and its association with the most original thinker of the
New World, we must accord some space.
Transcen- In the early years of this century the mental philosophy
dentalism. of the West, beyond that which was a handmaid to the
Calvinistic theology, was limited to commentaries on Locke
and Brown and the eckcticism of Cousin, when the repub-
lication of Sartor Resartus, and the works of the German
idealists which it introduced, gave life and voice to a new
intellectual wo-ld. Ideas which filter slowly into English
soil and abide there for a generation, flash like comets
through the electric atmosphere of America. Coleridge and
Carlyle were Jiailed as prophets in Boston while their own
countrymen were still examining their credentials. The rate
of this transformation was surpassed by its thoroughness.
The converts put their teachers to the blush ; and in recoil
from solid Scotch psychology and practical materialism,
rushed to the outer verges of idealism, mysticism, and pan-
theism. Their quarterly magazine, the Dial, during the
space of four years represented their views throughout four
volumes of miscellaneous merit. The Dial is a pantheon
from which only Calvinists and Utilitarians are excluded,
where the worshippers, Parker, Fuller, Alcott, and a
host, meet and .sing hymns to Confucius, Zoroaster,
Socrates, Goethe, Tieck, and Richter, set to German
music; and pass from antiquated laudations of Homer
and Shakespeare to friendly recognitions of new heresies ;
from thoughts on labour to puffs 'of poetasters; from
Hindoo mythology and Chinese ethics to 19th century
truisms about progress and union, prudence and humanity;
from soaring among the heights of a modem religion of
beauty to raking among the tangled roots and dead leaves
of a second-hand Orientalism. . But those vapours of ideal-
ism might have soon faded into the light of common day,
had not all their best aspirations been concentrated and
.jnerson. vitalised by Mr R. W. Emerson. His first oration, delivered
at Cambridge tbirty-five years ago — the refrain of which is
the independence of American literature — is referred to by
recent critics as a landmark in the annals of their country.
In this discourse — as in the six volumes through which the
author enforces the same conceptions — there is scarce any-
thing of which, taken separately, we need fail to trace the
pedigree. Fichte had many years before spoken in the
same strain of the vocation and nature of the scholar; the
view of science comes from Swedenborg and Schelling ; and
the dignity of labour from Carlyle. The originality, as is the
case with the author's whole system of thought, is in the
combination — which, it may be, is the only kind of origin-
ality now possible, llis position, as far as it is tenable,
illustrates the fact that the divisions of philosophy are being
continually altered as old systems form affinities with new
beliefs and historical conditions. Mysticism in the Now
World has been combined vrith the opposite extravagances
of Mount Lebanon and Oneida Creek, but it has been dis-
tinguished from idealism proper by its exaltation of emotion
above reasoning. Mr Emerson, defining transcendentalism
as " the saturnalia of faith," difl'ers from the older mystics
in his absolute rejection of all external authority, his almost
arrogant confidence in the sufficiency of the inner light, and
his new American preference for the active to the passive
sides of life. He has an historical sympathy with the un-
satisfied aspirations of all ages, with the day-dreams of
restlessness in search of rest that inspired the quest of the
Sangreal, and led the monks to Christianise the eastern
Nirvana; that laid out Brook Farm in Massachusetts, and
gave Novalis and Newman back to the fold of Rome : but
he will not be drawn by them into any church with walls.
All religions are to him " the same wine poured into dif-
ferent glasses." He drinks the wine, and tries to shatter
the glasses. His unflinching scepticism pierces the armour
of all. definite dogmas, while he entrenches himself behind
an optimism like that of Spinoza. Mysticism has in the
main been fatalistic. As a developed system, its natural
home is in the East; where the influence of great uniform-
ities of soil and climate have only in recent years been
partially counteracted by the conquering activities of an
energetic race. Beneath her burning sun and surrounded by
her tropic vegetation, the mass of men were overwhelmed
by a sense of their insignificance, and this feeling of sub-
jugation was intensified by absolute forms of government.
The same Ustlessness which permitted a secular and
priestly despotism, led its victims to welcome the idea of a
final absorption of their individuality. Their pliilosophical
ambition was to pass into the framework of a gigantic
nature, to be " roUed round the earth's diurnal course with
rocks and stones and trees." There is a rehc of this spirit
in the drapafia, aTrd^cta, and -qpeixia, which are the aims at
once of the Epicurean and Stoic systems; but the doctrines
of passive obedience had been banished from Greece as
early as the overthrow of the Pythagorean institute. They
revived in the dark and middle ages, when the church took
upon itself the task of legislating for the intellect; and
even the precursors of the Reformation were possessed
with an almost oppressive sentiment of resignation.
The reproduction of the Oriental spirit in America, in so
far as it is genuine and not the mere expression of a love
of far-fetched quotations, may be attributed t'o external
influences in some respects comparable to those which
weighed on the inhabitants of ancient India. In the
Western, as formerly in the Eastern World, nature still
struggles to assert her old supremacy, and threatens to
domineer over men's minds by the vastness of her empire.
But in other respects the conditions are reversed. In place
of stagnation and uniform although magnificent decay, we
have to deal with the manifold progress of 19th century
civilisation in a land where every one is more or less
inspired by the resolve of the modem mariner with an
ancient name to " sail beyond the sunset " in pursuit of
fresh adveuturcs; where the energies of the individual are
in constant, and in the long run triumphant, struggle >vith
all that tends to restrict the fuU sweep of his ai'm or to
retard the freest activities of bis mind. ^Vhere every moon
sees new forests felled, new rivers crossed, new fleets built,
new tribes amalgamated, new discussions raised, and new
problems solved, mysticism, if it exist at all, must take
on a form very different from that handed down from the
East of 3000 years ago to the Alexandrians, and trans-
mitted to the European ages of implicit faith by the pseudo
Dionysius. Mr Emerson strikes the key-note of the dif-
ference when he writes, " Feudahsm and orientalism had
long enough thought it majestic to do nothing; the modem
T. — 92
730
AMERICAN LITERATURE
majesty consists in work." Retaining from the mystics his
hohef in the supremacy of the higlier emotions, he substi-
tutes for a religious creed an idealised view of modern
physical science. His combination of stern practical recti-
ludo vdlh an ideal standard is his point of contact with
ruritaiiism. A chivalric nobility, iii which beauty and
goodness are blended, is at onco the goal, the sanction, and
the motive of his ethical system. Praise of the virtue
which, transcending all prudence and di.sdaining all conse-
quences, is its own reward, is the refrain of his moral
monologue His severe censure of Goethe's artistic indif-
ferentism recalls the ago when the Bible and theological
commentaries wore regarded as the sum of honest literature.
He writes of our great dramatist in the spirit of the men
,who closed the theatres: " He was the master of the revels
to mankind" — a sentence far removed from the sjiirit of
modern prt-worship. But thoso which follow, protesting
against the opposite extremes of austerity, indicate his
divergence on the other side from tho old faith of New
England.
Mr Emerson is, we believe, most widely known in this
country by his Representative Men: by no means tho most
satisfactory of his work.s. A series of generally acute criti-
cisms, pervaded by no well-marked ethical idea, it leaves
on the mind a somewhat indefinite impression. Its cate-
gories are not exhaustive, and it is difficult to determine on
what principle they are chosenj.but it serves as an interest-
ing point of comparison with the corresponding lectures of
tho great English advocate of hero-worship, to tho sugges-
tions of which it probably owes its existence. Mr Carlyle,
whose whole faith is centred in strong individualities, adopts
the view of 'hi-story wliicli practically resolves it into a
series of biographies. Jfr Buckle, caring little for persons,
and confiding rather in general laws, resolves biography
into history. Mr Emerson on this question steers a middle
course. Ho believes in great men, •' to educate whom
the state exists, with the api^earance of whom tho state
expires;" but he regards them as inspired mouthpieces of
universal or national ideas rather than as controlling forces.
Their mission is not so much to regulate our action as to
"fortify our hopes." Possessed of a larger share of tho
Over Soul which " makes the whole world kin," they appre-
hend and explain phenomena which have hitherto passed
unheeded; but their indirect services are the best. Their
examples, more weighty than their acts or discoveries, are
perjjetual encouragements. The great man is an encyclo-
pedia of fact and thought; the belief bom in his brain
spreads like a current over humanity, and ho becomes for
a time the golden key to the ill-defined ideal of the multi-
tude. But his career should rouse us to a like assertion
of our liberties. We ought not to obey, but to follow some-
times by not obeying him. Our author accepts the position
upheld by" Aristotle and popularised by Macaulay, that
different forms of government are adapted to diilerent social
conditions; but maintains that the tendency of modem
times, attaching more weight to the equaUty of persons and
less to the inequalities of property, is towards Democracy,
with which and the industrialism of his age he has in the
main a cordial sympathy. He believes in collective wisdom
as the best check on collective folly, and, allowing that tho
state exists for its members, he thinks they can act best in
union when all are subject to the fewest external restraints.
He diflTers from Thoreau and others of his disciples in
having no share in their selfish isolation. His best essays,
woven of two curiously intersecting threads, present us with
a unique conjunction of shrewdness and idealism. There
never was a mystic with so much of the spirit of the good
famier, the inventor, or the enterprising merchant.
As regards form, Mr Emerson is the most unsystematic
of writers. The concentration of his style resembles that
of a classic, but, as with others who have adcptcd th
aphoristic mode of conveying their thoughts, he everywber:
sacrifices unity to riches of detail His essays are bundle:
of loose ideas tacked together by a common title, handful,
of scraps tossed down before his audience like the content.
of a conjuror's hat. Ha delights in proverbs and ap':
quotations ; ho exaggerates like an American, loves a con-
tradiction for itself, and prefers a surprise to an argument
His epigrams arc electric shocks. He sacrilices everything
to directness. His terse refinement of phrase and trenchant
illustrations are his charm. His ideas are on the scale o'
a continent; his sentences are adapted for a cabinet 6':
curiosities — bits of mosaic work, sweeping generalLsationfi
given in essences. Hia style, armed with points like thi
bristles of a hedgehog, wants repose. This feature is con-
spicuous in the English Traits, where his estimates of mei:
and things, frequently felicitous and generally racy, are
often marred by an impruned violence. His eye is keen,
but its range is narrow, and he is ignorant of the fact.
Unconsciously infected by the haste which ho condemns
he looks at other nations through the folding telescope o-
a tourist. His representations of our leading writers and
statesmen seldom rise above the level of Mr Willis's Pen-
dllings by the Way. His taste is constantly at fault, and
an incessant straining after mots often leads Mm intf-
caricature. His judgments of those whose lives and writ-
ings do not square with his theories are valueless; and ir.
dealing with foreign languages he betrays the weakness o
his schoLirship.
One qualification for a good critic is a well-defincc
artistic standard, another is the dramatic capacity/8',
I)lacing himself for the time in the position of the pereoi;
who is being criticised. Mr Emerson has neither of these.
With tho spirit of a fearless inquirer, ho unfortunately
blends so much presumption as to feel an absolute indif-
ference regarding the opinions of others; and this in excess
con.stitutes a moral as well as an artistic defect. Though',
is free, and tho expression of it ought to be so; but wher,
our thought wanders very far from that of the majority oi
the wise and good, we are bound to watch it, to sift its
conclusions, and to state them moderately. Mr Emerson's
thought does wander far, and it runs fast; he does no',
know what moderation in expression means, and his almost
childish love of contradiction perpetually, and often justly,
provokes offence. He rides rough-shod over the most
cherished convictions, or waves them aside with a com-
placent smile and a sort of divine impudence. Every
claim of authority he receives as a challenge to 'his per-
sonal rights, and he stabs the bull Apis, in utter disregard
of the historian's warning. His impatient anticipationc:
naturae detract from his reliability in matters of detail,
while by a similar carelessness he repeats and contradicts
himself with equal frequency. His soundest judgments
relate to the men around him, of whom he is at once th»
panegyrist and the censor. AH that is weak and foolish
in their mode of Life he condemns, all fhat is noblest anci
most hopeful he applauds.
Mr Emerson has left his mark on the century; to use r.
favourite phrase of his own, " he cannot be skipped,')
Even where his results are least satisfactory, his intense
suggestiveness is the cause of thought in others; and as
one of the "genetic" powers of modern literature, his fer-
tilising influence will survive his inconclusive speculationi:
His faults are manifest: a petulant irreverence, frequen
superficiality, a rash bravery, an inadequate solution of difh-
culties deemiiig itself adequate, are among the chief. '>■ Ba.
he is original, natural, attractive,-' and direct — limpid in
phrase and pure in fancy. His best eloquence flows aj
easily as a stream. In an era of excessive reticence ar;-*
cautious hypocrisy he lives within a case of crystiii ^hav.
A M E ii I C AN LI T E R A T U R E
731
there are no concealments. We never suspect him of with-
holding half of what he knows, or of forniularising for our
■ satisfaction a belief which he does not sincerely hold. He
is transparently honest and honourable. His courage has
no limits. Isolated by force of character, there is no weak-
ness in his solitude. He leads us into a region where we
escape at once from deserts and from noisy cities; for he
rises above without depreciating ordin.ary philanthropy,
and his philosophy at least endeavours to meet our daily
wants. In every social and political controversy he has
thrown his weight into the scale of justice, on the side of
a rational and progressive liberty; and his lack of sym-
pathy with merely personal emotions is recompensed by a
veneration for the ideal of the race which recalls the beau-
tiful sentiment of Malebranche : " When I touch a human
hand I touch heaven."
Poetry.
Half the Hterary men and all the literary women of this
century in America have written verses; most of them are
respectable and many are excellent. But a brief review of
the poetry of the West must dwell on the works of four or
five authors who most clearly and saliently express the
main tendencies of their nation. It must suffice here to
name as familiar, or worthy to be so, the graceful vers de
societe of Holmes, especially his " Punch Bowl" and *' Old
Ironsides ;" the patriotic chants of James Percival ; the
sparkling fancies of J. R. Drake's " Culprit Fay ; " the
fashionable satires of Halleck ; the lyrics and romances of
the great traveller and prolific author, J. Bayard Taylor ;
the well-balanced stanzas of Hillhouse ; the plays of Conrad
and Bird • " Woodman, spare that Tree " and the " Whip-
poor- Will." by G. P. Morris ; A. B. Street's " Settler," and
" Forest Walk ;" and, pre-eminent among female minstrels,
Mrs Sigourney, whose blank verse descriptions of nature
approach those of Bryant; the youthful prodigies, Lucretia
and Maria Davidson; and Maria Brooks, authoress of the
richly imaginative southern romance of Zophiel, whom
Southey, her friend and admirer, pronounced to be " the
most impassioned of poetesses." We proceed to review the
position of the reaUy great poets of the United States, as re-
presentingsomewhatdifferentmannersand modes of thought.
1. The European School. — Of these, in our judgment,
Mr Longfellow is still the first. His works are free from
the defects that stamp the national literature of his country.
Me has none of the uncouth power and spasmodic exag-
geration of his contemporaries. He is all grace, polish,
and sweetness. His prose masterpiece, " Hyperion," is the
key-note of bis minor poems. The source of their inspira-
tion is " Outre Mer " among feudal towers, Flemish towns,
and Alpine passes. Like Irving in the variety of his
culture and superior in genius, his imagination is Teutonic
rather than American. He lingers in Nuremberg, Bruges,
and Prague; and chooses for his emblem of life's river,
not the Ohio, nor the Hudson, nor the Assabeth, but the
" Moldau's rushing stream." His " New England Trage-
dies" are perhaps his least successful efforts, partly because
dramatic literature has seldom yet flourished in American
soil, and partly because his sympathy with the nider age
13 not keen enough to enable him to vitalise it. Mr Long-
fellow has given us the best translations in the world from
Swedish, German, Spanish, and Italian authors, and many
of his best verses are avowedly suggested by proverbs
or sentences, or bits of old romance. A few words from
an old French author give him the burden of the " Old
Clock on the Stairs;" a leaf out of Mathers Ma^nalia
Christi is rhj-med into the " Phantom Ship ;" the ballad
of the Count Arnaldos sets him dreaming over the secret
of the sea; a verso of Euripides is the key-note to his
"Voices of tho IJifhl " a few lines from Goethe gather
up tho essence of the " P.^alm of Life." la tho ^ew
World, but not of it, he dwells with almost wearisome
fondness on the word "old." Volumes of old days, old
associations that we cannot buy with gold, quaint old
cities, old poets and painters, sweet old songs, old haunted
houses, dear old friends, the grey old manse, Nature th'3
dear old nurse, dear old England, — on phrases and thoughts
like these his fancy broods. American verse is fre-
quently rough-hewn and audacious, sometimes obscure aud
pedantic; its novelty \i often more striking than its truth.
Every sentence that Longfellow has penned is as clear as
crystal and as pure as snow. He wears his weight of
learning lightly .as a flov,-er; and though he cannot create,
he cannot touch without adorning. He seldom gives us
thoughts absolutely new, but he puts our best thoughts
in the best language. Critics react against his popularity,
and complain of his want of concentration and tho con-
ventionality of his epithets (a fault more rare in his later
volumes); but his place as the laureate of women and
children and gentle men is unassailable ; and there are
seasons when we^refer his company to that of the grand
old masters, when we seek an anodyne rather than a
stimulant —
*' His songs have power to quiet
The restless pulse of care. "
Longfellow's command of verse alone proves him to oe a
genuine poet. There are passages in the " Arsenal," the
" Occultation of Orion," the " Building of the Ship," and
the " Household Poems" unsurpassed in melody by any in
contemporary English verse. The introduction to " Hia-
watha," the closing lines of " Evangeline," and some of
the character sketches which preface the "Tales of the
Wayside Inn," have a music equally attractive and more
decidedly original. The highest flights of Longfellow's
imagination are in the strangely-confused old-world story
of the " Golden Legend ;" but the work on which his fame
most securely rests is " Hiawatha." This poem, in which
a series of idylls are strung together on the thread of an
idea common to Indian and Scandinavian legend, has that
exhilarating flavour of nationality wanting in many of the
asthor's works, and it yields to none of them in artistic
finish. The monotony of the verse is like that of a
bird's song which has only two or three notes, and yet
from its everlasting freshness never palls upon the ear.
Most modern attempts to reproduce old ballads put new
vrine into old bottles; but the American poet has thrown
himself as completely into the spirit of aboriginal western
life as he has into that of Gothic paganism in the " Chal-
lenge of Thor." Like Chibiabos the musician he is at
home among the pine-groves and the prairies and "the
great lakes of the Northland;" and
" All the many sounds of Kature
Borrow sweetness from his singing."
Longfellow's descriptions charm us more than they astonish.
Inferior in luxuriance to those of " Enoch Arden," in in-
tensity to those of *' Locksley Hall," in subtilty to Brown-
ing's Italian pictures, they are superior in simplicity. Ii
they do not adorn Naturs as a mistress with the subjective
fancies of a lover, they bring her before us as a faithful
nurse, careful for her children. In " Evangeline" the poet
follows tho wheels of the emigrant's waggon over
" Billowv boys of grass, ever roUing in sunshine and shadow ."
and
" Over them wander the buffalo herds and the elk an^ the
roebuck."
Hiawatha speaks of Nature with the familiarity of aa
inhabitant; there is no trace of tho grandiose stylo of the
tourist. In tho best episodes of tlio volume — as the
account of the hero's childhood and his friends — of tht
wooing of Minnehaha — of the son of the evening star — of
732
AMERICAN LITERATURE
ttie ghosts and the famine— the parable of human life,
with ita incidents of birth, love, and death — of ciWlisation
and decay — ^is told in a narrative of child-like tenderness
as well as masculine grasp. He who runs may read it,
and yet the whole is lit up by an imagination like an
aurora borealis. A recent New York critic ridicules the
European view of " iliawatha" as an American poem. It
is true that the feverish ardour of Wall Street has no
place in its pages; but it is none the leas manifestly
transatlantic and eui genrrU. In celebrating Ked Indian
life, it inevitably discloses some of the features of the race
which has come into close contact with that life. The
New Zealand myth about the strength of the dead enemy
passing into his conqueror applies here. Mr Dixon has
dwelt very justly on the extent to which the aborigines
of America have communicated their spirit to the pioneers
before whom they have given way. Hiawatha sings of.
the decadence of a primitive people in strains that recall by
their pathos the old British legends of the death of Arthur,
but has also a prophetic side; from the meeting-point of
two races it looks before as well as after.
Poe? More devoid of national sentiment and local colouring
aro the remarkable verses of Edgar Allan Poe, to whom
we have before referred as a romancer. If the aim of
poetry be to astonish or to fascinate, Poo takes a high
rank among poets. According to Wordsworth's definition
of the art, he has hardly a place among them at all He
teaches nothing, and living in one world wTites in another.
All we know of the personality of most of the authors wo
have named adds to the charm of their works. Regarding
Poe's career it is otherwise. The vain and captious jea-
lousy of his criticism is a.s repulsive as his graver defects.
It has been said that he is the greatest of American
writers in verse. This is an exaggeration of his powers
only surpassed by his own exaggeration of them. It is
true, however, that by pure intensity of delirium he now
and then takes a flight beyond that of any other Western
poet. His " Politiau" is perhaps the stupidest fragment
of a play that exists. But in hjs lyrics the fervour of his
sympathy with himself makes artistic recompense for his
want of sympathy for others. The passion of " Annabel
Lea " is at a white heat, and is pervaded by a true pathos.
The class finish of the best of his verses is unsurpassed,
and his musical cadences give a charm oven to those which
aro comparatively meaningless. The "Raven" is at the
worst a marvellous {>iece of mechanism; and the same deli-
cacy of touch is everywhere visible in the rushing lines of
"Annie," "Eulalie/" "Ulalume," "Lenore," anj the "City
in the Sea," The purity of those poems is one of their most
remarkable featuj-es. By the side of the author's life, they are
like nuns in the convent of a disorderly city; but they are
at the same disadvantage — their isolation gives them an air
of unreality. The "banners, yellow, glorious, golden," of his
fancy " float and flow " on the roof of an imaginary {ftlace.
2. School ot' American Scenery and Adventure. —
The French critic M. De TocqueviUe remarks that, in
democratic communities, where men are all socially insig-
nificant, poetry will be less apt to celebrate individuals,
but will incline to dwell on external nature or on the ideas
which concern mankind in general It will' be either
Bryant. descriptive or- abstract. The works of- Mr Bryant, the
earliest considerable American poet, help to vindicate the
generalisation. His " Thanatopsis," written in his 19th
year, is perhaps the masterpiece of his bombro contempla-
tive imagination. The reason why the author has never
surpassed this efi'ort of his youth is Ue found j.artly in the
cast of his mind, characterised by a narrow greatness, and
partly in the fact that, during the major part of his life
he has been constrained to " scrawl strange words mth the
barbarous pen" as the editor of a daily newspaper: a fact
to which, at the close oi nis " Green River," he makes a
touching reference. Mr Bryant has lived in thronging
cities, an honest and energetic politician; but in his leisure
hours his fancy has roamed to breezy billa and valleys and
the undulating sea of the prairies. The perpetual autumn
of his writings is peculiar. He has written smoothly in
various measures, but ho is never lively. An American
Alastor, Le loves "the air that cools the twiligh': of the
sultr)' day " better than morning " clad in russet vest."
In the beautiful verses on the "Death of the Flowers"
his ear catches a dirge in the wind
"The south wind searches for the flowers whoso fragrance late
he boro,
And eighs to Und them in the wood and bv tbo atrcam do
more."
The high rank grass of the meadow is to his eye the
garniture of the graves of a race represented by his " Dis-
interred Warrior." His " Evening Wind," " Forest Hymn,"
" Monument Mountain," " The Burial Place," and " Tho
Past," are set to tho same slow music, and pervaded by
the thought of life as the avenue of death. If we com-
pare his " Address to a Waterfowl" with Wordsworth's ot
Shelley's ". Skylark," we appreciate the monotony of hia
mind, which is Uke that of Cowper without Cowper's
occasional vivacity. Mr Bryant stands on a high level,
but tho space he covers is limited; he has. no touch of
humour, and only the distant pathos ot prevailing melan-
choly, -blaster of his position where he is at home in the
woods, he loses his inspiration when he draws near hii
own cities. His nature-worship has a parallel in the
feeling which animates some of the most graphic passages
in New England prose; as when Emerson writes —
**At the gntcs of the forest, the surpri.'«;d man of the world is
forced to leave his city estimates of f^reat and small, wise and
foolish. The kuapsnck of custom falls olf his back with the first
step ho makes into these precincts. Here is sanctity which shames
our religions, and reality which discredits our heroes. . . . Wo
liave crept out of our crowded bouses into tho night and morning.
. . . . The incommunicable trees bcmn to persuade us to live with
them, and quit our life of bolcmu-trilles. Here no history or church
or state is interpolated on the divine sky and the immortal year."
The whole life and writings of the morbidly eccentric Thoraau.
genius H. D. Thoreau are a comment on the results of
this one-sided spirit. It pervades half the volumes of
Theodore Winthrop, a manlier though less original mind.
It has taken possession of the poetic advocate of Far
Western and wild Indian life, Joaquin Miller, whose
'' Songs of the Sierras " in their best passages add to
Bryant's descriptive power more of the fire of adventure,
finding expression in the quicker pulse of the verse. But tho
lyrics of this writer, though the vehicle of national thought,
bear the mark of foreign influence. Their cadences are
echoes of Mr Swinburne. Tho impulse which made captive
the "Scholar Gipsy," which the hero of " Locksley Hall"
welcomes and then rejects, is a leading feature of Western
literature. Imaginative and ardent minds, oppressed by
what Mr Arnold calls " this strange disease of modem
life," try to escape from the region of the real drama into
that of the ideal IjTic, — " arva, beata petamus arva, divites
et insulas," — and have now and then endeavoured to convert
it into an actual idyll, as when Thoreau buried himself in
a log hut by Walden lake, or Theodore Winthrop, leaving
his ledgers in New York, scoured over the crags of Oregon ;
or Home, witk his " Orion" still unsold, was found mining
in a quarry of New South Wales. But this emigre spirit,
when put into practice, ultimately cures itself: a poet
soon tires of working with his hands for a livelihood. Tne
aspirations of Clough's " Bothie" are stifled by the vUiosae
curoe of "a hard life, or terminate in the catastrophes of a
fanaticism, such as Hawthorne has branded with his genius
in the BlUhedaU Eomance. . The philosophicil refugees
AMERICAN LITERATURE
733
End that tne solitude thoy desired charms only by its
contrast with the civilisation they have left ; as the beauty
of the sea is its contrast with the shore. . But this wander-
ing impulse, strong in the ancient Greek and the modern
■ , English race, has colonised and civilised the world: it is
H especially strong in the Angli)- American. The very restless-
K ness which makes his cities so noisy bid him long for a
■ remoter rest, and this longing acts in conjunction with
K more material demands to drive him across the Mississippi,
* and pioneer the way to the Pacific.
Emerson. 3. Teanscendentai and Eccbntkic School. — The
freshness which breathes through Mr Emerson's essays
reappears in his poems : but they are seldom so successful
as his prose. Apart from the obscurity of their matter,
which is great — for he has chosen verse as the vehicle of
Ids remoter mysticism — they are defaced by frequent
mannerisms and incongruities : most of them are wanting
in melody, many in syntax. The writer seems to trust to
providence for his rhymes, and changes his metres at will
Nevertheless, his genius has a lyric side, and the imagina-
tive sympathy with nature which makes his prose poetical,
prevents his verse, even when awkward, from becoming
prosaic. The rippUng of rivers, the sough of the pine,
the murmur of the harvest, and the whirr of insects per-
vade and give life to his descriptions. A morning light is
thrown over his happiest pages, and some of his quieter
reflective pictures are not unworthy of the author of -the
" Excursion." Interleaved between the gold-dust of Alex-
andrian rhapsody there are pieces that speak of a love
that is neither "initial," "da=monic," nor "celestial," but
human. Of these, " The Dirge," " In Memoriam," « The
Farewell," the lines " To J. W.," " To Ellen," and the
"Threnody," ar&the most conspicuous. The prevailing tone
of the greater part of Emerson's poetry is cheerful Unlike
those of Bryant, his "woodnotes" are those of the sprang.
" Thousand minstrels wake within me,
Our music's on the hills,"
is the perpetual refrain of the exulting worshipper of
nature. His lines entitled " Good-bye, proud World,"
breathe the hermit-like spirit of Quarles or Andrew Mar-
veil ; but the Puritanism of older days has here assumed
another shape. There are other pieces relating to the
intercourse of men with each other showing a keen obser-
vation of common life and sound worldly wisdom, in neat
quatrains and a few vigorous political songs. The " Hymn
on Concord Monument" is strong and dignified, while the
verses relating to the civil war address the nation in forcible
terms both of warning and encouragement. Those prac-
tical manifestoes are the more striking from the fact that
they are printed by the side of others proclaiming in trau-
6cendental enigmas the emptiness of transitory things,
the fixity of fate, and the doctrine of the absorption of
the individual in the infinite.
Whitman. Mr Emerson was one of the first to praise the extra-
ordinary rhapsodies of Mr Walt Whitman, which have
since attracted too much attention to be passed without
notice. But although this author on various occasions
displays an uncouth power, his success is in the main
owing to the love of novelty, wildness, and even of ab-
surdity, which has infected a considerable class of critics
and readers on both sides of the Atlantic. Mr Wliitman
does not write in vjerse; he discards not only rhyme, but
all ordinaiy rhythm. What there is of the latter seems to
come by accident in bnes of various length, and arranged
either on no principle or on one which we have failed to
discover. " The Leaves of Grass" is redeemed by a few
grand descriptive passages .from absolute barbarism both
of manner and matter. It is a glorification of nature in
her most unabashed forms, an audacious protest against all
that civilisatioa has done to raise men above. the savage
state. The "Drum Taps," a set of generally vigorcus
pictures of the war, are less objectionable; the dirge oa
Lincoln in particular has many qualities of a noble elegy,— r
the imagery is rich though sometimes fantastic, and there
is here and there a wild music in the composition, — but it
is still defaced by pedantic words and unjustUiable, because
unnecessary, novelties of phrase.
4. Patkiotio and Political Poetey. — The assertion
of Henri Beyle, that politics are like a stone tied round
the neck of literature, must be accepted with a reservation ;
for if the songs make the la-ws, the battles often make the
songs of a nation. The growth of a history on their own
soil is, in the minds of most Americans, a requisite to the
fuU development of national art. English history inade-
quately supplies the desired background, for they cannot
associate it with what they see around them. Memories
of the Revolution war have, during this century, been
recalled in some stirring verses, as " Paul Revere's Ride,"
in Mr Longfellow's " Wayside Inn;" but the most effective
national poetry has been suggested by more recent events.
The " Biglow Papers," a series of metrical pamphlets, born ":,oweil
of the last great social and political struggle of the Nev/
World, are ainong the most original contributions to itc
literature. Mr James Russell LoweU is the author of
several volumes of miscellaneous verse. His earlier efi'orts
buoyant and vigorous, but bearing the marks of haste
display more impetuosity than power. His genius every-
where appears in contrast to Bryant's. Far from shrinking
into solitary places, he loves great cities and their cries,
and sets them to rhyme with hearty good-v/iH When he
goes into the country, it is on a " day in June," to have
his blood sent faster through his veins by 'die spiing
morning, and not to dream among the autumn woods of
" Thanatopsis." His " AUegra," " Fountain," and " Indian
Summer Reverie," are marked by the same jubilant energy
and the same apparent carelessness. Mr Lowell's diffuse-
ness is only half redeemed by his fluency. Ha vmtes
currents calamo; and, imchecked by any spirit of reverence,
contemns what he is pleased to call " the blaspheming
past" and the " dotard Orient." In dealing with tht
forms of nature around him, he shows a keen eye and a
fine sense of analogies: his images drawn from history are
less successful. Few Americans know how to use tho
classics with reticence, and Mr Lowell's pages are iiueotsd
with schoolboy commonplaces. His " Oue to Freedom,"
" The Present Crisis," with other semi-political and social
pieces, are noble and stirring platform verse, but they will
not bear analysis. His " Irene," " Requiem," aad " Beg-
gar Bard" are marked by genuine sentiment and trua
pathos. But the prevailing flaw of his earlier and later
serious poems — as " The Cathedral," and " Under the
AViUows," is the confusion of inspiration with aspiration.
In the " Fable for Critics," which may be compated with
Leigh Hunt's " Feast of the Poets," he breaks ground an
tho field in which he has found his harvest. The merit of
this piece lies in its candour and the general fairness of its
ciiticisms, in the course of which " the whole tuneful herd"
of American authors are reviewed with good-humoured
banter. In several instances, as in the following, ho shows
himself alive to the defects which he shares with the
majority of his countrymen —
"Neal wants balance ;■ he throws his mind always too far,
And fthisks out Hocks of comets and never a star;
He lias so much muscle, and longs so to show it,
That he strijis himself naked to prove he's a poet."
The author's style is rapid and sparkling; his points* fol-
low one another like the sparks from a Leyden jar ; his
love of freedom and tnith and detestation of pretence are
always admirable; but his earlier poems are constantly
defaced, by violeacea.
734
AMERICAN LITERATURE
*Vliil-;er.
Mr Lowell informs iis that the Mexican war, which he
regarded as a crime perpetrated in behalf of slavery, led to
the publication, in 1846, of the first of his series of " Big-
low Papers." After an interval of thirteen years, the
second began to appear in 1861, and closed with the war
in 1865. In his preface to those remarkable productions
the author makes a successful defence of the language in
wluch they are written. The more homely stan'dards of
the present as compared with those of the last century
give countenance to his mottoes — " Unser Sprach ist auch
ein Sprach," and " Vim rebus aliquando ipsa yerl>orum
humUitas affert.' The essential to the use of a patois is
that it be natural to the writer. Mr Lowell has taken
pains to show that the pecaliaritics of the Yankee dialect
are not indigenous; that the pronunciation and meanings
given to familiar words, and the employment of words now
unknown in England, are authorised by the example of
OUT elder classics. We are more concerned to know that
he has been happy in his use of the words and phrases in
question. The popularity of his work is in this respect a
voucher for his success. The rural dialect seems to suit
his genius better than the English of his university. The
quasi-dramatic form he has ylopted confines within limits
a too discursive fancy. The letters of Mr Sawin are excel-
lent examples of the form of satire in which contemptible
qualities are stripped of their varnish by the sheer effrontery
of the wearer. The style of the book is more trenchant
and better matured than that of Lowell's other works, and
it is really humorous. The humour of the " Biglow
Papers" is broad and obvious. They derive their force
from the incisive expression given to the sentiments shared
ty the author with 4 large section of his countrymen; and
the lines most frequently quoted owe everything to a
startling directness, something bordering on irreverence.
Mr Lowell's poetical powers are set on fire by political
zeal, and his animosity sharpens the edge of hia most
elTective verse. The satiric scorn of the lines put into the
mouth of Calhoun, with the speeches of Garrison, Phillips,
and Sumner, helped to hasten the inepressible conflict of
the contending forces in the Western Continent. The
second series of the " Biglow Papers" are animated by the
spirit c» an uncompromising Unionist as well as that of
an Abolitionist. Li these the poet's patriotism glows with
a deeper fervour, and his songs rise out of the battlefield
" like rockets druv* by their own bumin'." The graver
poetrj' of this volume reaches a higher standard than the
author has elsewhere attained. The short rural romance
entitled " The Courtin' " is one of the freshest bits of pas-
toral in the language. The stanzas beginning " Under the
yallar pines I house," and ending " A nation sared. a race
delivered," are his master]iieces»
Mr John Greenleaf Whittier is the political lyrist par
excellence of America; and the best of his lyrics have a
verve, swing, and fire that impart to the reader a share of
the writer's enthusiasm. His verse, rapid as a torrent, is
pei-petuaUy overflowing its banks. No one stands more
in need of the advice once given to Southey, " squeeze out
the whey;" and to no works more than to his is the
maxim irXeoV -Tjiiuro ttovtos more applicable. There are
few more graceful talcs in verse than those of his " Tent
on the Beach." They are remarkable for their smooth-
ness and quiet beauty of sentiment. The music of " River-
mouth Rocks," " Revisited," and the " Grave by the Lake"
recalls that of Longfellow's best ballads. The most strik-
ing is the " Brother of Mercy," Piero Luca, who, like Abu
Ben Adhem, loves his fellow-men. The same trust in the
divine love which is the sum of 'Whittier's ardent faith,
appears in the beautiful verses entitled " The Eternal
Goodness " and " Our Master." The strongest lines in the
book, addressed to "Thomas Stair King," have the rare
merit of condensation. Of Whittier's national l}Tic8, the
most powerful is " Laus Deo," the burst of accLtmation
suggested by the passing of Lincoln's constitutional amend-
ment. Uis narrative power is best illustrated in " Maud
Muller," au original and more innocent version of Brown-
ing's " Statue and the Bust;" springing up in an American
meadow.
v. SUMMAEY.
The critics of one nation must, to a certain extent,
regard the works of another from an outside point of
view. Few are able to divest themselves wholly of the
influence of local standards; and this is pre-eminently
the case when the early efforts of a yoimg country are
submitted to the judgment of an older country, strong in
its prescriptive rights, and intolerant of changes the
drift of which it is unahie or unwilling to appreciate.
English critics are apt to bear down on the writers and
thinkers of the New World with a sort of aristocratic 'liauteur ;
they are perpetually reminding them of their immaturity
and their disregard of the golden mean, Americans, on
the other hand, a.'3 impossible to please. Ordinary
men among them are as sensitive to foreign, and above
all to British, censure, aa the irritahile gmtu of other lands.
Mr Emerson is permitted to impress home truths on* his
cptmtrymen, as " Your American eagle is very well; but
beware of the American peacock." Such remarks are not
permitted to Englishmen: if they point to any flaws in
transatlantic manners or ways of thinking with an effort
after politeness, it is " the good-natured cynicism of well-
to-do age;" if they commend transatlantic institutions or
achievements, it is, according to Mr Lowell, " with that
pleasant European air of self-compliment in condescending
to be pleased by American merit which we find so con-
ciliating." Now that the United States have reached
their full majority, it is time that England should cease
to assume the attitude of their guardian, and time that
they should cease to be on the alert to resent the assump-
tion. Foremost among the more attractive features of
transatlantic literature is its freshness. The authority
which is the guide of old nations constantly threatens to
become tyrannical : they wear their traditions like a chain ;
and, in the canonisation of laws of taste, the creative
powers are depressed. Even in England we write tinder
fixed conditions; with the fear of critics before otir eyes,
we are all bound to cast our ideas into similar moulds, and
the name of "free-thinker" has grown into a term of
reproach. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is perhaps the
last English book written without a thought of being
reviewed. There is a gain in fhe habit of self-restraint
fostered by this state of things; but there is a loss in the
consequent lack of spontaneity; aud we may learn some-
thing from a literature which is ever ready for adventures.
In America the love of uniformity gives place to im-
petuous impulses: the most extreme sentiments are made
audible, the most noxious " have their day, and cease to
be;" and truth being left to vindicate itself, the overthrow
of error, though more gradual, may at last prove more
complete. A New England poet can write with confi-
dence of Lis country as the land
" Where no one raflers loss or bleecU
For thoughts that men call heresies."
Another feattire of American literature is its iomprehen^
siveness: what it has lost in depth it has gained in breadth.
Addressing a vast audience, it appeals to universal sym-
pathies. In the Northern States, where comparatively
few have leisure to Yrnie well, almost every man, woman,
and child can read and does read. Books are to be found
in every log-hut, and public questions are discussed by
I
A M E — A M E
735
every scavenger. During the war, when the LowoU fac-
tory girls were writing verses, the " Biglow Papers" were
being recited in every smithy. The consequence is, that
(setting aside the newspapers) there is little that is sec-
tional in the popular religion or literature; it exalts and
despises no class, and almost wholly ignores the lines that
in other countries divide the upper ten thousand and the
lower ten million Where manners make men the people
are proud of their peerage, but they blush for their boors.
In the New World there are no " Grand Seigniors," and
no human vegetables; and if there are fewer giants, there
are also fewer mannikins. American poets recognise no
essential distinction between the " Village Blacksmith " and
the " caste of Vere de Vere." Burns speaks for the one ;
Byron and Tennyson for the other; Longfellow, to the
extent of his genius, for both. The same spirit which
glorifies labour denounces every form of despotism but that
of the multitude. American slavery, being an anachron-
ism based on the antipathies of race, was worse than
Athenian slavery. But there is no song of an Athenian
slave. When the ancients were unjust to their inferiors,
they were so without moral disquietude : the lie had got
into the soul Christianity, which substituted the word
" brother " for " barbarian," first gave meaning to the word
" humanity." But the feudalism of the Middle Agee long
contended successfully against the higher precepts of the i
church : the teaching of Froissart held its ground agaijist '
that of Langland. The hero-worship of our greatest Uving
author is apt to degenerate into a reassertion of the feudal
spirit. The aspirations of our descendants in the West
point, on the other hand, to a freedom which is in danger
of being corrupted by licence. But if the vulgarism of
demagogic excess is restrained and overcome by the good
taste and culture of her nobler minds, we may anticipate
for the literature of America, under the mellowing influ-
ences of time an illustrious future. (j. n.)
AMERIGO VESPUCCI. See Vespucci.
AMEPiSFOORT, a town of Holland, in the province of
Utrecht, situated 12 miles E.N.E. of the city of that name,
on the Eem, which here is navigable. It contains a town-
house, several churches — Protestant and Roman Cathob'c
— a court of primary jurisdiction, a Janscnist college, an
industrial and several other schools. Woollen goods,
cotton, sUk, glass, and brandy are the chief manufactures,
and there is a large trade in corn, tobacco, and dried
herrings. Amersfoort received its municipal privileges in
1249. It was taken by the Archduke Maximilian in
1483, and by the French in 1672 and in 1795. Popula-
tion, 13,200.
AMEESHAM, or Agmondesham, an ola market town
in Buckinghamshire, pleasantly situated in the valley o*
the Misbourn, a small tributary of the Colne, 32 miles
from Buckingham, and 26 from London. It consists
chiefly of a main street crossed by a smaller one , and
possesses a handsome church, containing some beautiful
monuments, several dissenting places of worship, a town-
hall, built in 1642 by Sir William Drake, and a grammar
school It has manufactures of black lace, cotton, straw-
plait, wooden chairs,' flour, and beer. Edmund Waller,
the poet, was born near Amersham, and sat for the
borough, which sent two members to parliament until
1832. Population of parish in 1871, 3259
AMES, Fisher, an eminent American statesman and
political writer, son of Nathaniel Ames, a physician, was
born at Dedham, in Massachusetts, on 9th April 1758.
He studied at Harvard college, where he graduated in
1774. After practising the law for some Lttle time, he
abandoned that profession for the more congenial pursuit
of politics, and in 1788 became a member of the Massa-
chusetts convention for ratifpng the constitution. In this
assembly he bore a conspicuous part, and in the next year,
having passed to the house of representatives in the state
legislature, he distinguished himself greatly by his elo-
quence and sprightliness and readiness in debate. Dur-
ing the eight years of Washington's administration he
took a prominent part in the national councils ; and on
Washington's retirement, he returned to his residence at
Dedham to resume the practice of the law, which the state
of his health after a few years obliged liim to relinquish.
He still continued his literary labours, and published
numerous essays, chiefly in relation to the contest between
Great Britain and revolutionary Franco, as it might affect
the liberty and prosperity of America. Four years before
bis death he was chosen president of Harvard college, an
honour wliich his broken state of health obliged him to
decline. Ho died on the 4th July 1808, admired and
respected by his countrymen from the briUiancy of his
talents and his private virtues. His writings, wliich abound
in sparkling passages, displayii% great fertility of imagina-
tion, were collected and published, with a memoir of
the author, in 1809, by the Rev. Dr Kirkland, in one large
octavo volume. A more complete edition in two volumes
was published by his son, Seth Ames, in 1854.
AMES, Joseph, author of a valuable work on the pro-
gress of printing in England, called Typorjraphical Anti-
quities (1749), which is often quoted by bibliographers.
He was bom in 1689, and died in 1759. The best editions
of his work are those published with the additions of
Herbert (1785-90), and of Dibdin (1810-16). These both
include a life of Aines written by Mr Gough.
AMES, William, D.D. In the Latinised form of
Amesius this distinguished English theologian is now
better known on the Continent than in our own country,
through works th?-t were a power in their day, and are not
yet spent of their force. He was bom at Ipsmch, Suffolk, in
1576. He received an excellent education at the grammar
school of Ipswich ; and proceeded next to the university
of Cambridge, where he was entered of Christ's college.
From the outset, as to the latest, he was an omnivorous
student. Entering half-carelessly into the church where
the great Master William Perkins was the preacher, he
was, under the sermon, roused and alarmed in such fashion
as was not rare under so burning and intense an orator as
Perkins. Like another Nicodemus he visited the vener-
able preacher, and was taught and comforted so as never
through Ufe to forget his interviews with the " old man
eloquent." Perkins having died at a ripe old age, was
succeeded by one of kindred intellect and fervour, Paul
Bayne, and his friendship also was gained by Ames. He
proceeded B.A. and M.A. in due course, and was chosen
to a fellowship in Christ's college. He was universally
beloved in the university. His own college (Christ's) would
have chosen him for the mastership ; but a party-opposi-
tion led to the election of a Dr Carey, who at once sought
a quarrel by arraigning Amps for disapproving of the sur-
plice and other outward symbols. Not succeeding by
threats of expulsion, which were illegal and powerless, the
master resorted to transparent flattery. Ames stood firm,
was led to re-examine former opinions, and the result was
that more absolutely than ever he decided against con-
formity. Nevertheless, he preached in season and out of
season, and always with profound impression. One eer- ,
mon became historical in the Puritan controversies.- It ■
was delivered on St Thomas' day, before the feast of Christ's
73(5
A M E — A M E
nativity, and in it he reijUKCQ sharply Lusory Lotts and
the " heathenish debauchery " of the Btudcnta during the
twelve days ensuing. His exposures and scathing denun-
ciations won thunders of applause, but tborc were sheathed
in them lightnings of WTath among the High Church party.
Ho was summoned before the vice-chancellor and whole
senate of the university. Ho appeared, and in presence of
as brilliant an assembly as ever met in the congregation-
house, defended himself triumphantly. Noncorifoniity,
admittedly in lesser things, was regarded as excluding liim
from the Church of England. Ho left the univer.sity,
and would have accepted the groat church of Colchester in
&sex, but the relentless bishop of London refused to grant
institution and induction. Like furtive persecution awaited
him elsewhere, and at last ho passed over to Holland. To
leave England was not so simple or easy a thing then, and
Aiacs had to disguise himse'f for safety. HLs disguise was
singularly timed, for it produced an incident that has long
been worked into the very fabric of church historj' in Eng-
land and Holland. Coincident with his arrival at Rotterdam
a congress of theologians — Remonstrant and non-Remon-
strant— was being held. Ames went into the meeting in
liLs " habit of a fisherman, with his canvas slops about his
body, and a red cap on his head." As the debate pro-
ceeded, the English visitor rose and craved permission to
oppose Grcvinchovius — a theologian long since in oblivion,
but a tower of strength in heresy at that day — in Latin.
The Remonstrant champion was rather taken aback at first;
but jeered and flouted the plain countryman, " like an-
other Goliath scorning Dai-id." The question was the old-
new one of the " self-determining power of the human will
to spiritual good, without any need of the previous effica-
cious operations of, divine grace." Amos bore his op-
ponent's gibes at his dress, and overwhelmed him with his
logical reasoning from Phil. ii. 13, " It is God that worketh
in us both to will and to do." The fisherman-contro-
versialist made a great stir, and from that day became
known and honoured in the Low Countries. Subsequently
Ames entered into a controversy in print with GVevin-
chovius on universal redemption and election, and cognate
problems. He brought together all he had maintained in
his Coronia ad Cotlationem Hagiensem — his most master-
ful book, which figures largely in Dutch church histoiy.
At Leyden, Ames became intimate with the venerable Mr
Goodyear, pastor of the English church there. While thus
resident in comparative privacy he was sent for to the
Hague by Sir Horatio Vere, who appointed him a minister
in the army of the states-general, and of the English
soldiers in their service, a post held by some of the greatest
of England's exiled Puritans. Ho married at the Hague a
daughter of Dt Burgess, who was domestic pastor of Vere.
On his father-in-law's return to England, Ames succeeded
to his place It was at this time ho began his memorable
controversy with Episcopius, who, in attacking the Coronis,
railed ;i^'ainst the author as having been " a disturber of
the public peace in his native country, so that the English
magistrates had banished him thence ; and now, by his
late printed Coroitis, he w-as raising new disturbances in
the peaceable Netherlands." It was a miserable libel. Mr
Goodyear being present in the Iccture-roora when Ejiis-
copius vented his malice, there and then rebutted his
charge against his absent friend None the less did the
controversy proceed. Ultimately Ames reduced the Re-
monstrants to silence. The Corcnis had been primarily
prepared for the Synod of Dort, which sat from November
1C18 until May 1G19. At this celebrated synod the posi-
tion of Dr Ames, if an extremely honourable, was a
peculiar one. The High Church party in England had in-
duced the king to interfere and bring about his removal
from the Hague, on the ground of his nonconformity ; but
he was still held, deser%'cdly, in euch reverence that it w-aa
arranged he should attend the synod informally. Through-
out its sittings Dr Ames appears to have been the most
active and influential of the foreign divines. It is a
sorrowful fact that, from lCll-12 onward, Anies was
interfered with harassingly by the High Church party in
England. Twice over, when chosen professor, the most
envenomed opposition was led from England. Ho was
kept from the university of Leyden : and when later in-
\'ited by the state of Friesland to a professoriate at Franekcr,
tho persecution was renewed, but this time abortively.
He was installed at Franeker on 7th May 1622, and de-
livered a most learned discourse on the occasion on " L^rim
and Thummim." He soon brought renown to Fraucker as
professor, preacher, pastor, and theological writer. He
prepared his Medulla Tlutologica for his students. His
Casus Conscienlice followed. Both these treatises left their
mark on tho thought of the century. His " Cases of Con-
science" was a new thing in Protestantism. The work shows
much insight into human nature, and may be favourably
compared with the bulkier Duclor Duhilantium. Having
continued twelve years at Franeker, his health gave way, and
ho contemplated removal to New England. But another
door was opened for him. His English heart yearned for
more frequent opportunities ,of preaching the gospel to his
fcllow-countr)'men, and an invitation to Rotterdam gave
him such opportunity. His friends at Franeker were
passionately opposed to the transference, but ultimately
acquiesced. At Rotterdam he drew all hearts to him by
his eloquence and fervour in the pulpit, and his irrepres-
sible activity as a pastor. Home-controversy engaged him
again, and ho prepared his Fresh Suit ar/ainsl Ceremonies —
extrinsically ha^-ing the distinction of being tho book which
made Richard Baxter a Nonconformist. It was pdsthu-
mously published. He did not long survive his removal to
Rotterdam. Having caught a cold from a flood which
drenched his house, he died in November 1C33,- iu his
fifty-seventh year.
Few En^lisljmen have exercised so formative and controlling fto
inlluence on coutinental thought and opinion as Br Ames. Hcwaj
a master in theological controversy, shuiiniii;^' not to cross swords
with the formidable Bellarmine. Ho was a scholar among scholars,
being furnished with extraordinary resources of learning. His
works, which even the Biographia Briiannica (1778) testifies, were
famous over Europe, were collected at Amsterdam in 5 vols. 4to.
Only a very small proportion were translated into his mother tongue.
His Lccti'jtus in, oinnes Psabnos Davidis (1635) is exceciingly sug-
gestive and terse in its style, reminding of iJengel's Gnomcm, wt
does also his Commcniarius uiriusqiu Epist. S. Petri. His
"Koplics" to Bishop Morton and Dr Burgess on "Ceremonies"
tell us that even kinship could not prevent him from " contending
earuestly for the faith." (John Quick's MS. Jconcs SacrcK Anglicantr,
who gives the fisherman ftnecdote on the personal authority of one
who was present ; Brook's Puritans, vol. iii. pp. 405-8 ; Win-
wood's Mcmoriah, vol. iii. pp. 3J6-7 ; Neat's Puritans; Fuller's
Cambridge {Christ's College) ; tiylvestei's Life of Baxter, part i. pp.
13, 14; Biogr. Brit., vol. i. pp. 172-3; Mather's New England,
book iii. ; Palmer's Nemconf. Memorial. ; Mosheim's Eedes. Hist.,
who mistakenly calls him a Scotsman; Hanburg, s.v. ; Collcctiom
of the iiassackusclts Hislorieal Society, vol. vi., fourth series, 1863,
pp. 576-7.) (A. B. G.)
AMESBURY, an old town in Wiltshire, on the Avon,
8 miles north of Salisburj-, and 78 west of London. It
is an iU-built place, with little trade. It contains an old
parish church, which probably belonged to an abbey, a
chapel for the Wesleyan Methodists, and a beautiful house
erected by Inigo Jones for the Duke of Queensl^erry.
Near Amesbury are Stonehenge, and Milston. where Addi-
son was born. PopuLation, 1169.
AMETHYST, properly, is only a variety of quartz or
rock-crystal distinguished by its fine violet-blue or purple
colour. This tint seems to be caused by a minute mixture
of the peroxide either of iron or of manganese, and is Ipst
when the stone is exposed to the action of tJie fire- It
A M H - A M H
737
tLcn changes tnrougU ycUow and green to colourless ;
and in this condition is often sold for the aquamarine or
topaz. Amethyst is generaliy found in thick columnar
masses, of short hexagonal prisms terminating in pyramids.
The faces, especially in Brazilian specimens, are often
marked by zig-zag or undulating lines, and the colour in
many is similarly disposed, showing a peculiar internal
structure in the stone. It has been proposed to name all
varieties of quartz, whether coloured or uncoloured, show-
ing this peculiarity, amethyst, but without sufficient reason.
Amethyst, according to Pliny, got its name, dfic'^Doro!, from
its supposed power of preventing drunkenness. Though
not a, true gem, it was formerly much valued as an orna-
mental stone, but has greatly declined in value in the
present century, being obtained in great abundance from
rSraziL There it is often white or yellow, and named topaz.
The finest blue stones are found in Ceylon and Siberia;
and less remarkable ones in many places in Europe, India,
and Australia. Amethysts may be counterfeited by glasses,
to which the proper colour or stain is given by mineral
matter. There were fine ones made in France about the
year 1690, which even .imposed on connoisseurs, but with
the decrease in price there is now less danger of such
deceptions.
AMHERST, a distnct and city within the Tenasserim
division of British Burmah, and within the jurisdiction of
the chief commissioner of that province. • The Distkict
forms a narrow strip of land between the Indian Ocean
and the mountains which separate it from the independent
kingdom of Siam. It lies in 1G° N. lat., 98° E. long.,
and consists partly of fertile valleys formed by spurs of
the mountain system which divides it from Siam, and
partly of a rich alluvial tract created by the great rivers
which issue from them. The most important of these are
the Sal ween river and the Houng-da-raw Khyoung. The
river higliways bring down inexhaustible supplies of rice
to Maulmain, the chief town of the district, as also of the
province of Tenasserim, and the second city in British
Burmah. The district comprises an area of 15,144 square
miles, of which 346 are cultivated, 4889 are capable of
being brought under cultivation, and the remaining 9909
square irules are returned as uncultivable. The population
in 1872 numbered 235,738 souls, occupying 38,945 houses,
and consisting of 203,774 Buddhists, 15,598 Hindus,
12,279 Mahometans, and 4081 Christians. The town of
Maulmain contains 53,653 inhabitants. The rainfall is
veryheavy, 245'85 inches being registered in 1871-72. The
temperature is uniform, but not excessive, and averaged
83° at 2 P.M. throughout the month of May 1871, 80° at
2 P.M. throughout July, and the same at 2. P.M. through-
out December 1871.
Amherst Town, situated in the district of the same
name, about 30 miles south of Maulmain. It was founded
by the English in 1826 on the restoration of the town of
Martaban to the Burmese, and named in compliment to
the Oovernor-Qeneral of India who projected it. The
proclamation inviting the natives to people the town was
well adapted to the character and capacities of those whom
it addressed. "The inhabitants of the towns and villages
who wish to come shall be free from molestation, extortion,
and oppression. ,They shall be free to worship as usual,
temples, monasteries, priests, and holy men. The people
Bhall go and come, buy and sell, do and live as they
jilcase, conforming to the laws. In regard to slavery,
since all men, common people or chiefs, are by nature
equal, there shall be under the English government no
slaves. Whoever desires to come to the new town may
come from all parts ar.d L've hajijiy, and thoso who do
not wish to remain may go where they please without
hindrance." Shortlv after its settlement the number of
1—25
hoxises amounted to 230, and the population to 1200.
Large teak forests abound in its neighbourhood, and tha
timber is exported in considerable quantities. The harbour,
though large and capable of accommodating ships of any
burden, is difficult of access, and dangerous during the
south-west monsoon. Amherst town has been ecUpsed by
the rapidly rising city of Maulmain, which has absorbed to
itself the trade -and mercantile enterprise alike of Amherst
district and of the Tenasserim province.
AMHERST, a post township of Hampshire county,
Massachusetts, United States. It is a picturesque viUago
intersected by two branches of the Connecticut river.
Its water-power is utilised for manufactories of machinery,
edge tools, cotton goods, paper, (tc; but it is principally
known as the seat of Amherst college, a valuable institu-
tion founded in 1821, mainly for the purpose of educating
poor and pious young men for the ministry. The charity
fund is large, and pays the tuition fees of forty or fifty
students. The faculty of the college consists of eighteen
professors, beside the president. The number of students
in 1873 was 261. The buildings of Amherst college are
situated on a hiU at the southern extremity of the village.
An octagonal building in advance of the line of college
halls is devoted to the purposes of a museum. Some of
the collections are of great value, especially those in the
pal;eontological department. The Massachusetts Agri-
cultural school, founded in 1863, has also its seat at
Amherst. .Its handsome buildings are on the edge of a.
rich plain from which fine views are obtained of the moun-
tains on the west and soutL There is a large farm for
experiment attached to the school, which is esteemed ono
of the best in America. The population of Amherst in
1870 was 4035.
AMHERST, Earl (William Pitt amheest), bom in ,
1773, was the nephew of Jefi'ery Amherst, who, for hia
services in America, where he was commander-in-chief at
the time of the conquest of Canada, was raised to tha
peerage as Baron Amherst in 1776. The patent of nobOity
was renewed in 1788 with remainder to the subject of this
notice, who succeeded to the title in 1797. In 1816 he
was sent as ambassador extraordinary to the court of China,
with the view of establishing more satisfactory commercial
relations between that country and Great Britain. On
arriving in the Peiho, he was given to understand that he
could only be admitted to the emperor's presence on condi-
tion of performing the ko-tou, a ceremony which Western
nations have always considered degrading, and which is,
indeed, a homage exacted by the Chinese sovereign from his
tributaries. This Lord Amherst, following the advice of
Sir George T. Staunton, who accompanied him as second
commissioner, refused to consent to, as Lord Macartney
had done in 1793, unless the admission was made that his
sovereign was entitled to the same show of reverence from
a mandarin of his rank. la consequence of this ho was not
allowed to enter Peking, and the object of his mission was
frustrated. His ship, the " Alceste," after a cruise along tha
coast of Corea and to the Loo-Choo Islands, on proceeding
homewards was totally wrecked on a sunken rock in Caspar
Strait. Lord Amherst and part of his shipwrecked com-
panions escaped in the ship's boats to Batavia, whence reUef
was sent to the rest. The ship in which he returned to
England in 1817 having touched at St Helena, he had
several interviews with the Emperor Napoleon (Ellis's
Proceedings of the Late Embassy to China, 1817; M'Leod's
Narrative of a Voyage in U.M.S. "Alceste," 1817). Lord
Amherst held the office of governor-general of India from
August 1823 to February 1828. The principal event of
Uis government was the Burmese war, resulting in the
cession of Aracan and Tenasserim to Great Britain. He
was crcAted Earl Amherst of Aracan in 1826. On Iii*
'38'
A M H - A I\t L
roturu'to Englaud ho'Iivcd iu rotiiemcDt till )iis death in
March 1857. "^
AM HURST, Nicholas, an English poet and political
writer of the 18th century, was born at Marden in Kent,
and entered (171G) at St Jolin's college, Oxford, from
which he was expelled, ostensibly for libertinism and
irregular conduct, but really, according to his own statc-
raent, on account of the liberality of lib opinions. Retain-
ing great roscntinent against the university on this account,
lio gave expression to his feeling in a poem published in
1724, called Ocuhia BiUannim, and in a book entitled
Ti-rrco FUius. He published a Miscellany of Poems, sacred
.ind [irofane; and The Convocation, a poem in five cantos,
wliich was a satire on the bishop of Bangor's antagonists
Jlut ho is best known for the share he had in the political
paper called 7'/i« Craftsman, which he conducted for
several years. It attained a circulation of 10,000 or 12,000
espies, and had very considerable influence in inflaming
popular opinion against Sir Robert AValpolc, and in bring-
ing about the political change of 1742. Ainhurst's party
made no provi.sion for him, however, on their accession to
power, and their neglect is sujiposed to have hastened his
death, which occurred at Twickenham on the 27th April
1742.
AMIANTHUS (unstained, from a privative, and /iioiVu,
to stain), the best kno^vn and most beautiful of the
aibostos cla.ss of substances. See Asdestos.
AMICI, GioVAN.vi Battista, a celebrated designer and
consti-uctor of optical instruments, was born at Modena in
1734. VHiilo studjdng mathematics at Bologna, he
acquired a taste for astronomical science, and devoted
himself early iu life to the improvement of astronomical
instruments with great ingenuity and success. For the
, specula of his reflecting telescopes he prepared a veiy hard
alloy, capable of receiving and retaiuing a fine polish, and
to prevent spherical aberration he wrought the specula into
an elliiitical form. About 1812 he undertook the con-
struction of a telescope with a five-foot speculum, and the
gun-foundry at Pavia was put at his disposal for this
purpose by the war minister of Italy, but the project was
broken off, owing apparently to political complications.
Amici is stiU better known from his microscopes. His
reflecting microscopes, with ellijisoidal specula, were an
improvement on all that had preceded them , and he
attained still greater success in the construction of com-
pound achromatic object-glasses. His compound micro-
scope was the first that could be used either in a vertical
or in a horizoutal position. His prism, too, for the oblique
illumination of objects of microscopical observation is much
commended. Amici was a very diligent and skilful
observer ; and his intimate acquaintance with the principles
of optical science enabled him to arrange his apparatus to
the very best advantage. Various papers Recording the
results of his observations, which he read before learned
societies, were published in scientific journals. They treat .
of the measurement of the diameters of the sun (by means
of a micrometer ho invented) and other astronomical
subjects, the circulation of the sap in plants, the fructifica-
tion of plants, infusoria, &c. After holding for some time
a professorship of mathematics in Modena, he was in 1831
appointed inspector-general of studies in the duchy. A
few years later he was entrusted with the charge of the
observatory at Florence, where he also delivered lectures
as professor of mathematics at the museum of natural
history. He died in April 1863.
AMIENS, an ancient city of France, capital of the
department of Somme, and formerly of the old province of
Picardy, situated on the Somme, about 40 miles from its
mouth, and 71 miles N. of Paris. It was once a place of
great strensrth. and still possesses a citadel, but the ramparts
which sun ouiided it have been replaced by beautiful boule-
vards. The new part of the town is well built, but the
streets of the old quarter are narrow and irregular, and arc
80 cut up by the eleven canals into which the Somme is
here divided, that Louis XL is said to have called the town
" little Venice." The most interesting object in Amiens
is its magnificent cathedral, one of the finest in Europe,
commenced in the year 1220 and finished in 1288, although
additions to it were afterwards made. Among the other
important public buildings are the HOtel de Ville, the
Chateau d'E.au, the theatre, the museum, the hospital, and
several churches. The Uivin is the seat of a bishop, of a
prefect, and of the departmental couils of justice; and
possesses a library containing more than 50,000 volumes,
besides manuscripts, an academy of sciences, various other
learned societies, a theological seminary, a lyceum, and
several ordinary schooK It has many important manu-
factures, the chief being cotton velvets, kerseymeres,
woollen and linen cloths, flax, beetroot sugar, soap, leather,
and paper. Amiens occupies the site of the anrjent
Samarobriva, capital of the Amhiani, from whom it
probably derives its name. After the dissolution of the
empire of the west it repeatedly changed o^vners, becoming
for the first time a dependency of the French crown iu
1185, «'hen Philip of Alsace ceded it to Philip Augustus;
and since that date it has more than once passed out of the
power, of the French kings. The famous treaty between
Great Britain, France, Spain, and Holland, which took its
name froni this city, was signed in the Hotel de Ville on
March 25th, 1802. During the recent war between Franco
and Germany Amiens fell into the hands of the Prussians
on the 28th of November 1870. General Manteufi'el was
operating against the French army of the north, which had
been formed with the view of helping the armies of Paris
and of the Loire to effect a junction, and thus raise the
siege of the capital. The French, however, were defeated
in a battle in front of Amiens, which was fought on the
27th of November, along a line stretching from Saleux to
Marceleane, and extending, it is said, more than four
leagues. They retreated northward in the direction of
Arras, and Amiens surrendered on the following day, after
a very slight demonstration of force on the jiart of the
Prussians. Peter the Hermit was born at Amiens about
1050. Population (1872), 63,747.
AMIOT, Peee Joseph, a learned Jesuit missionary to
China, was born at Toulon in 1718. In 1750 he arrived,
along with two others of his order, at Macao, from which,
on a favourable answer to a petition being received from
the emperor Kien-Lung, he removed to Peking in the
autumn of the follomng year. He continued to reside in
the capital until his death in 1794, devoting himself
almost exclusively to the study of Chinese and Manchoo-
Tatar literature. The results of his labours were com-
municated at frequent intervals to Europe iu works which
did more than had ever been done before to make knovm
to the Western world the thought and life of the farthest
East. Many of his statements, however, are not trust-
worthy, and his works are practically superseded by those
of others who entered the field later. His Diclionnairt
Tatarmantchou-Franr^ii (Paris, 1789) was a work of great
value, the language having been previously quite unknown
in Europe. His other writings are to be found chiefly in
the Mejnoiren concemant V Histoire, les Sciences, et les Arts de
Chinois (15 vols. 4to, Paris, 1776-91). The Vie de
Confucius, which occupies the twelfth volume of that
collection, is very complete and accurate.
AMLWCH, a town of Anglesey, North Wales, situated
on a rising ground on the north coast of the island, 15
miles from Beaumaris. It owes its importance almost
entirely to the cooper mines of the Parys Mountain : before
A M M — A M M
739
tlie discovery of tho ore iu 17G8 it was a small tamlet of
some six houses. At one time the mines produced 3000
tons of metal annually, but in recent years the quantity
has greatly diminished. The harbour has been cut out of
rock at considerable expense, and is protected by a break-
water. A branch of the Chester and Holyhead Railway
terminates in the town. Amlwch, which is associated
with Beaumaris, Holyhead, and Llangefni, in retjrning
■ine member to parliament, had a popiulation of 29CS in
1871.
AMMAlSi, joUAN-N CoNEAD, a physician, and one of the
earliest wTitcrs on the instruction of the deaf and dumb, was
born at Schaffhausen, in Switzerland, in 1CC9. In 1G87
he graduated at Basle, and coihraenced tJie practice of his
profession at Amsterdam, to which he had to flee on
account of his religious views. He first called the atten-
tion of the public to his niethod of training the deaf and
dumb in a paper which was inserted in the Philosophical
Truntiactiu}is, and which appeared in a separate form in
the year 1G92, under the title Siirdus Loqtiens. It was
again issued, with much additional matter, in 1702 and
1728, under the title Disssrtatio de Loquela. In this
work, which Haller terms " vere aureum," he develops,
with great ability, the mechanism of vocal utterance, and
describes the process which he employed in teaching its
use. This consisted principally in exciting the attention
of his pupils to the motions of his lips and larynx while
he spoke, and then inducing them by gentle means to
imitate these movements, till he brought them to repeat
distinctly letters, syllables, and words. As his method
was .excellent, we may readily give him credit for the all
but universal success to which he laid claim. The edition
of Cailius Aurelianus, which was undertaken by the Wet-
.steins in 1709, and stUl ranks as one of the best editions
of that author, was superintended by Amman. He died
about 1730.
AMMAN, JosT, an artist celebrated chiefly for his en-
gravings on wood, was born at Zurich in June 1539. Of
his personal history little is known beyond the fact that
he removed in 15G0 to Nuremberg, where he continued to
reside until his death in March 1591. His productiveness
was very remarkable, as may be gathered from the state-
ment of one of his pupils, that the drawings he made
during a period of four years would have filled a hay-
waggon. A large number of his original drawings are
contained in the Berlin collection of engravings. The
genuineness of not a few of the specimens to be seen else-
where is at least questionable. A series of copperplate
engravings by Amman of the kings of France, with short
biographies, appeared at Frankfort in 1576. He also
executed many of the woodcut illustrations for the Bible
published at Frankfort by Feierabend. Another serial
work, the Panoplia Omnium, Liberalium Mechanicarum et
'>'edeniarjfirum Artium Genera Continens, containing 115
[.lates, is of great value. Amman's drawing is correct and
i:[>irited, and his delineation of the details of costume, &c.,
is minute and accurate. He executed too much, however,
to permit of his reaching the highest style of art. Paint-
ings in oil and on glass are attributed to him, but no
specimen of these is known to exist.'-
AMMAN, Paul, a physician and botanist, was born at
Breslau on the 30th August 1G34. In 1662 he received
the degree of doctor of physic from the university of
Leipsic, and in 16G4 was admitted a member of the society
Nalura: Curiosorum, under the name of Dryander.
Shortly afterwards ho was chosen extraordinary professor
of medicine in the above-mentioned university; and in
1074 he was promoted to the botanical chair, which he
again in 1682 exchanged for the physiological He died
un the 4th February 1691. Paul Amman seema to have
been a man of acute mind and ertensive learning; but a
restless and irritable disposition led him to engage too
much in controversy, and to indulge in raillery tn hia
writings to a degree which the nature of the subjects hardly
warranted.
Ammau's principal works ■xere—Medicina Cntica, sen. Centuria
Casuum in FacuUalc LipsicTisircsolutorum variis Siscursiimaucla;
Parcencsis ad Doccntes ocmpata circa Institutionum Midiairv.m
Kmcndnlimem: Irenicum Nnmce Pompitii cum BippocraU : Supellex
Botanica, et Manuductio ad Materiam Medicam ; and Character
Naturalis Plantarum. "
AMMANATI, Bartolomeo, a celebrated Florentine
architect and sculptor, was born in 1511, and died in
1592. He studied under Eandinelli and Sansovius, and
closely imitated the style of Michael Angelo. He waa
more distinguished in architecture than in sculpture. Ho
designed many buildings "in Eome, Lucca, and Florence,
an addition to the Pitti j.alace in the last-named city being
one of his most celebrated works. He also planned the
beautiful bridge over the Arno, known as Ponle delta
Trinita — one of his celebrated works. The three arches are
elhptic, and though very light and elegant, have resisted tho
fury of the river, which has swept away several other bridges
at difi'erent times. Ammanati's wife, daughter of Giov.
Antonio Battiferri, an elegant and accomplished woman,
published a volume of poems of considerable merit.
AMMIANUS, Marcellinus, a Pioman historian of the
4th century, was born in the city of Antioch, in Syria. In
his youth he was enrolled among the protectm-es domestici,
or household guards, which proves him to have been of
noble birth. In the year 350 he entered the service of
Constantius, the emperor of the East, and, under the
command of Ursicinus, a general of the horse, he served
dming several expeditions. According to his own modest
account, it appears that he acquired considerable military
fame, and that he deserved well of his sovereign. He
attended the Emperor Julian in his expedition into Persia,
but it is not known that he obtained any higher military
promotion than that which has already been mentioned.
He was either in the city or in the vicinity of Antioch vhta
the conspiracy of Theodoras was discovered, in the reign
of Valens, and was an eye-witness of the severe tortures to
which many persons were subjected by the emperor ou
that account. But his lasting reputation was not to be
acquired from military service. Ho left the army and
retired to Rome, where he employed himself in writing a
history of the Roman empire, comprising a period of 282
years. Though a Greek by birtb, he 'vroto in the Latin
language; but, according to the remark of Vossius, his
Latin shows that he was a Greek, and also a soldier. His
history extended from the accession of Nerva to the death
of Valens ; and the work was originally divided into thirty-
one books. Of these the first thirteen have perished, and
the eighteen which rem.ain commence with the seventeenth
year of the reign of Constantius, and terminate at the year
378. But there are several facts mentioned in the hisloiy
which prove that the author was alive in the year 380.
Of this number are the accession of Theodosius to the
Eastern empire, the character of Gratian, and the consulate
of Neothorius. The style is har.sh and redundant, as was
to bo expected from the author's education and military
life ; but the work is valuable as a source of information
for the period of which it treats. Gibbon appears to give
a correct estimate when he says that Ammianus is "an
accurate and faithful guide, who composed tho history of
his ovm times without indulging the prejudices and pas-
sions which usually affect the mind of a contemporaiy."
From the I espectf ul manner in which he speaks of pagan
deities, and of the advantage of heathen auguries in fore-
telling future events, it is evident that Ammianna was >
740
A M M — A M ]M
heathen. Tho favourable account -which ho gives of the
religion, manners, and fortitude of Christians, ia the result
of his candour and impartiality as an historian. The work
of Ammianus has passed through several editions, of which
the best ore the Loydon edition of 1C'J3, by Oronovius,
and those of Leipsic, published in 1773 and 1808. The
latter was edited by Wagner and Erfurdt.
AMMIRATO, Scipio, an Italian historian, bom ot
Lccce, in the kingdom of Naples, on the 27th September
1531. His father intending him for the profession of
law, sent him to study at Naples, but his own decided
preference for literature prevented him from fulfilling his
father's wishes. Entering the church, ho resided for a
time at Venice, and afterwards engaged In the Borvico of
Pope Pius IV. In 1509 ho went to Florence, where ho
was fortunate in securing the patronage and support of
Duke Cosmo I. It was at the suggestion of this prince
that ho wrote the work by which he ia best known, his
latorie Fiorenlitie (ICOO). In 1595 ho was made a eauon
of the cathedral of Florence. Ho died in 1601. Among
the other works of Ammirato, some of which were first
published after his death, may bo mentioned discourses
on Tacitus and histories of the families of Naples and
Florence.
AMMON, tho name of an Eg}i)tian deity, called by tho
ancient Egyptians Amen or Anutn, and one of the chief gods
of tho country. Ilis name meant tho hidden or concealed
god, and in this respect was analogous to ffapi or Apis,
which conveyed tho same idea. Ho was tho local deity of
Thebes or Diospolis, and supposed by tho Greeks to bo
tho same as Zeus or Jupiter. His type was that of a man
wearing on his head the red crown teshr, emblem of
dominion over tho lower world or hemisphere, surmounted
by tho sun's disc to indicate his solar nature, flanked by
two tail feathers of a hawk, also symbolical of his relation
to tho gods of light. Ammon was not one of the oldest
deities of Egypt, for his form and name do not appear till
tho eleventh or DiospoUtan dynasty, when the kings of
that line assumed his name, and built a sanctuary to him at
Medinat Habu. From this period the monarchs of Thebes
introduced his name into their titles, and the worship of
Amen became the predominant one of ancient Egypt; and
tho embellishment of his shrine and enrichment of his
treasury were the chief object of tho policy of the Pharaohs.
Victory and conquest were the chief gifts he offered to his
adorers ; and he ia often seen leading up tho conquered nations
of tho north and south to tho monarchs whom he endows
with power and victory. In this character Amen ia often
represented holding the Egyptian scimitar khepsh. In his
•elestial character hia flesh was coloured blue, that of the
heaven. He ia said to have been called on some monu-
ments tho son of Hapimaa (or tho Nile) ; but in the hymns
addressed to him tho title of self-engendered ia applied to
him, and he was one of the self-exiatent deities. Hia
principal titles are — lord of the heaven, king of the goSa,
substance of the world, and resident on tho thrones of the
world, eternal ruler, — appellatives of his celestial and ter-
restrial functions. He was also lord of heaven and earth,
streams and hills, and as a demiurges, the creator of beings.
Tho hymns addressed to him designate him as the sole or
only god, in terms applicable to one god who alone exists,
who moulds and governs the world. •" At one time an
attempt was made to identify him with the solar orb. Con-
sidered 03 the active, intelligent, and pervading -spirit of
the universe, he transfuses the breath of life into the
nostrils of kings and other persons. In his solar characters,
Ammon was allied with Ra, and called Amen Ra, or Amen
Ra Harmachis, or " the sun in the horizon," Amen being
considered one of the forma of the sun itself. The worship
of J^e celestial Ammon prevailed chiefly at Thebes, ■where,
with tho Mut, or "mother" goddess, and his son Khonsn or
Chons, ho formed the Theban triad, and the sacred name
of Thebes was "the abode of Amen." Besides Thebes, his
worship has been found at Siuah in Lybia, at Beit Oually,
and at Meroe in Ethiopia, marked respect being shown to
his worship by the later Ethiopian monarchs. At PhUa! and
Debud hia name alao appears as one of tho dominant
deities. In tho representations at Hermonthis he assists at
tho birth of Har-pa-Ra; and in the scenes of tho passage
of Ra, or tho sun, through tho hours of tho night, tho
gigantic arm of Amen strangles tho serpent Apophis, " tho
great dragon" of Egj'ptian mythology, tho spirit of dark-
ness, who warred against the gods of light Another
of tho types of Amen represents him as the reproductive
power of nature, still in tho human form, but mummied,
and holding— instead of tho usual sceptre, itasm, or so-
called Icukupha sceptre — tho whip nrkhekh. In this type
he was supposed to bo Amen the father and Ilorus tho
child of the triad, which then consisted of Amen, Ament,
or the female Immon, and Harka. His titles in this
character are Amen-ka-mutf, — Amen, "tho husband of his
mother," considered as the final avatar of the god, tho
alpha and omega, the oldest and youngest of created
beings. He is, considered in his youthful character, called
Ilarnekht, or " tho powerful Horus," and identified with
Kkons, tho local god of Chemmo or Panopolis. As Horus
he is called the " son of Isis," but thb ia clearly a later
fusion of the two myths. In the inscriptions it is said
" ho has tall plumes," and in the esoterical explanations of
the seventeenth chapter of the Ritual, these plumes are
explained by " hia two eyes," or Isis and Nephthys, who
are seen accompanying Horus in certain scenes. This
tjpo of Amen was net usually exhibited, but brought out
on the occasion of his festival, called th6 manifestation of
Khem, one of tho oldest fetes of Egypt This type of
Amen is principally found at the Ruan, or valley of El
Hammamat, on tho way to Coptos; and at Wady Haifa,
where a temple was erected to him by Amenophis IIL As
the god of tho reproductive powers of nature, tho kings of
Egypt are seen hoeing the ground before him, or ofl'ering
various coloured calves and gazelles to him. A great fes-
tival in hia honour is represented at Medinat Habu, where
hia statue is carried by twenty priests, and Ramesea III.
cuts down before him the corn which has just ripened for
the sickle. The negroes of Arabia, or else the Rcgio
Barharica of later geographers, appear as assistants at this
festival. Another typo of Amen connected him with the
god Khnum or Chnoumis, the spirit of the waters. In
this relation he has tho head of a ram instead of tho usual
human one. Khnum was one of tho demiurgi, and creator
of mankind, whom ho had made as a potter out of clay on
the wheel, as also Osiris and Horus. Sometimes tho type
of Khnum beaia the name of Amen; and with the ram's
head he was worshipped in tho Oasis of Ammon, as also
up the Nile at the cataracts, Syene, Elephantine, Beghc,
Beit Oually, and Meroe. It ia thia type of Amen with
which the later Greek and Roman writers were most fami-
liar; and Ramesea XL, as the son of Amen, assumes fhe ram'a
horn, which Alexander the Great adopted at a later date.
The worship of Khnum waa older than that of Amen, aa
it appears on the Pyramids and at the Wady Magaresh,
but became less important, and finally fused into that of
Amen. Although it has been supposed that the worship of
Amen came from Meroe, it ia now known that the Ethiopian
civilisation was comparatively of much more recent date
than tho Egyptian, and that it was implanted in Ethiopia
by the conquests of the Pharaohs, and subsequently adopted
by the later rulers of Meroe; and that the statements of
Herodotus, that it waa brought from thence to the Oasis
of Ammon are incorrect, the existing temple at the Oasi^
A M M — A M M
741
fcof Tiling older than the Persian ndera of Egypt, wMte the
•worship of the god at Thebes dates from a much older epoch.
The later chapters of the Ritual, -added at the time of the
twentieth dynasty, which contain the .mystic names and
appellatives of the god in the language of the negroes of
Pimt, are also of too late a date to throw any light on the
origin of Amen, which appears prior to the Hykshos, when
the Egyptian princes were driven to the south. The sheep
was sacred to the god, and the inhabitants of Thebes in
consequence abstained from it; but it is said they annually
sacrificed a ram to Amen, and dressed the figure of the
god in the hide of the animal The reasons assigned by
.classical authorities for this action, aa well as for the
Astronomical meaning of his horns, are not confirmed by
monumental evidence On the conquest of Egypt Alex-
ander the Great called himself the son of Ammon, and his
portraits wear the ram's horn. In this he had only
imitated the Pharaohs of the nineteenth dynasty. Amen
is only mentioned by the Hebrew prophets in speaking of
DiospoUs as the city of No or No Amon.
Jablonski, Panlh. JSgypt., L 160-184; Birch, Gallery
of Antiq., pt. i. 1 ; Wilkinson, Manners and Customs, iii
313, iv. 246, /.; Goodwin, Trans. Soc. Bihl. Arch., iL
pp. 353-9; Herodotus, iL 42, 54; Diodorus, iii 72; Jer.
xlvi. 25; Nah. iii, 8. (a. b.)
AMMON, Chkistoph Fbiedeich.voit, a distinguished
theological writer and preacher, was born at Baireuth in
January 1766, studied at Eriangen, held various professor-
ships in the philosophical and theological faculties • of
Eriangen and Gottingen, succeeded Reinhard in 1813 as
court preacher and counsellor at Dresden, retired from
these offices in 1849, and died May 21, 1850. He sought
to establish for himself a middle position between rational-
ism and supernaturalism, inclining, however, decidedly to
the former. He declared for a " rational supernaturalism,"
and contended that there must be a gradual development
of Christian doctrine corresponding to the advance of know-
ledge and science He was a man of great versatility and
extensive learning, and a very voluminous author, his
principal work being the Fortbildung des Christenthums zur
Weltreligion, in 4 vols. (Leipsic, 1833-40). Eidvmrf einer
rein biblischen Theologie appeared in 1792 (second edition,
1801 ),and Summa Theologica in 1803 (other editions, 1808,
1816, 1830). Von Ammon's style in preaching was terse
and lively, and some of his discourses arcs regarded as
models of pulpit treatment of political questions.
AMMONIA (NHj), sometimes called the Volatile
alkali, or Alkaline air, was known to the alchemists in
aqueous solution. Priestley first separated it in the gase-
ous state in 1774.' Scheele in 1777 discovered that it
contained nitrogen, and its true composition was ascer-
tained by BerthoUet about 1785. Ammonia occurs in
the atmosphere as carbonate and nitrate, in sea-water, and
in many mineral springs. Iron ores and many clayey
soils contain it in small quantity, and sal-ammoniac and
ammonia alum aro found as minerals in volcanic districts.
Carbonate of ammonia is obtained in largo quantity by
the putrefaction of the urine of animals, or the dry distilla-
tion of animal matter. Ammonia is obtained from its
salts by the acting of slaked lime or solutions of potash
or soda, and is freed from water by passing over quick-
lime or solid potash, and finally collected over mercury.
It is a colourless gas, of a pungent smell, and alkaline
taste and reaction. It docs not support combustion or
respiration, and is feebly combustible. It is remark-
ably soluble in water, 1 volume dissolving nearly 700 of
the gas. It may by the action of a low temperature
and great pressure bo changed into the liquid or solid
state. The gas is easily decomposed into its elements by
ft succession of electric sparks, or by passing it over red-
hot iron or platinum wire. The aqueous solution in pre-
puce of finely divided platinum and atmospheric air is
converted into nitrite of ammonia; and conversely, the
oxides of nitrogen, mixed with excess of hydrogen and
passed over platinised asbestos, are changed into ammonia.
Nitrogen and hydrogen have not by any process been in-
duced to combine so as to yield this compound directly,
unless in very small quantity. For theoretical relations of
ammonia, salts, &c., see Cuemistey.
AMMONIAC, Sai (NH,C1), the eariiest Known salt of
ammonia, now named chloride of ammoniitm, formerly
much used in dyeing and metallurgic operations.
The name Hammoniacus sal occurs in Pliny [Nat.
Hist. xxxi. 39), who relates that it was applied to a kind
of fossil salt found below the sand, in a district of Cyre-
naica It was similar in appearance to the alumen scissile,
and had a disagreeable taste, but was useful in medicine.
The general opinion is, that the sal-ammoniac of the
ancients was the same as that of the moderns ; but the
imperfect description of Pliny is far from being eufiiciuut
to decide the point. The native sal-ammoniac of Bucharia,
described by Model and Karsten, and analysed by Klaproth,
has no resemblance to the salt described by Pliny. The
same remark applies to the sal-ammoniac of volcanoes.
Dioscorides (v. 12G), in mentioning sal-ammoniac, makes
'use of a phrase quite irreconcilable with the description of
Pliny, and rather applicable to rock-salt than to our sal-
ammoniac. Sal-ammoniac, he says, is peculiarly prized if
it can be easily split into rectangular fragments Finally,
we have no proof whatever that sal-ammoniac occurs at
present, either near the temple of Jupiter Ammon, or in
any part of Cyrenaica. These circumstances induce us to
conclude that the term sal-ammoniac was applied as inde-
finitely by the ancients as most of their other chemical
terms. It may have been given to the same salt T/hich
is known to the moderns by that appellation, but was nut
confined to it.
Some derive thenarae Mi-am mon/ac from Jupiter Ammon,
near whose temple it is alleged to have been found; others,
from a district of Cyrenaica called Ammonia. Pliny's
derivation is from the sand (a/x/ios) in which it occurred.
Whether our sal-ammoniac was known to the ancients
or not, there can be no doubt that it was well known to
the alchemists as early as the 13th century. Albertua
Magnus, La his treatise De Alchymia, informs us that
there were two kinds of sal-ainraouiac, a natural iind dii
artificial. The natural Was 'sometimes white, and some-
times red ; the artificial was more useful to the chemist.
He does not teU us how it was prepared, but ho describes
the method of subliming it, which can leave no doubt that
it was real sal-ammoniac. In the Opera 3/ineralia of
Isaac Hollandus the elder, there is likewise a description
of the mode of subliming sal-ammoniac Basil Valentine,
in his Currus Triumphalis Antimonii, describes some of
the peculiar properties of sal-ammoniac in, if possible, a
still less equivocal manner.
Egypt is the country where sal-ammoniac was fii-tt
manufactured, and from which Europe for many years was
supplied with it. This commerce was first carried on by
the Venetians, and afterwards by the Dutch. Nothing
was known about the method employed by the Egyptians
till the year 1719. In 1716 the younger Qeoffroy read a
paper to the French Academy, showing that sal-ammoniac
must bo foi-med by sublimation ; but his opinion was
opposed so violently by Homberg and Lemery, that tho
paper was not printed. In 1719 M. Lemaire, the French
consul at Cairo, sent tho Academy an account of the mode
of manufacturing sal-ammonLic in Egypt. Tho salt, it
appeared, was obtained by simple sublimation from sooL
In the year 1760 Linnaetm communicated to tho Royal
742
A M ]\I — A U U
Society a correct detail uf llie wliole process, wliicji ho had
received from Dr Hasselquist, who had travelled in that
country as a naturalist. This account is puVjlishcd in the
51st volume of the Philosophical Transaclions, 17C0, p.
501. Almost the only fuel used in Egypt is the dung of
cattle. The dung of black cattle, horses, sheep, goats, ic,
which contains the sal-ammoniac ready formed, is collected
during the first four months of the year, when the animals
feed on the spring gra-ss, a kind of clover. It is dried,
tnd sold to the common people as fuel. The soot from
lliis fuel is carefully collected and sold to the sal-ammoniac
makers, who work only during the months of March and
April, for it is only at that season of the year that the
Uung is fit for their purpose.
The composition of this salt scorns to have boeu first
discoverod by Tournefort in 1700. The experiments of
the younger Geoffrey in 1716 and 1723 were still more
decisive, and thoso of Duhamel, in 1735, left no doubt
ujjon the subject. Dr Thomson first pointed out a process
Ly synthesis, which has the advantajo of being very simple,
and at the same time rigidly accurate, resulting from his
observation tliat when muriatic gas and ammoniaeal gas,
both as dry as ])ossible, are brought in contact with each
other, tlicy always combine in equal volumes.
The first attempt to manufacture sal-ammoniac in
Europe was made, about the beginning of the 18th cen-
tury, by Mr Goodwin, a chemist of London, who appears to
Imve used the mother ley of common salt and putrid urine
03 ingredients. The first successful manufacture of b.tI-
nmraoniao in this countiy was established in Edinburgh
by Dr Hutton and Mr Davy, about the year 1700. It was
first manufactured in Franco about the same time by
Baurn^. Manufactories of it wore afterwards established
in Germany, Holland, and Flanders.
Chloride of ammonia is now manufactured in large quan-
tity from the crude carbonate of ammonia obtained in gas-
works, or from the destructive distillation of animal
matter. This salt is changed into chloride by the addition
of hydrochloric acid or the mother liquor of salt-works,
called biiici-n, containing the chlorides of calcium and
magnesium. When hydrochloric acid is not easily got for
neutralisation, the crude gas liquor is transformed into
sulphate, and this is mixed with an equivalent quantity of
common salt. During the subsequent evaporation the
sulphate of soda separates in hard granular crystals, which
aro apt to adiiero to the sides of the boiler. The liquor is
agitated to prevent this adhesion taking place, and assist
ill the separation of the sulphate of soda. The sulphate
of soda is removed by drainers as it is formed, and the
mother liquor boiled up to the crystallising point, and run
off into coolers. The crystals of impure muriate of am-
monia are dried carefully and subsequently sublimed.
Sal-ammoniao occurs usually in the form of a hard,
white cake, opaque, or only slightly translucent. Its taste
is cooling, saline, and rather disagreeable. It dissolves in
3'72 parts of water at 18°'7 C. with great reduction of tem-
perature, and in about an equal weight of water at the
boiling-point. The feathery crj'stals it forms are found
on microscopic examination to be masses of cubes or
octahedrons ; their specific gravity is about 1 "5. AVhen
exposed to a moist atmosphere, the salt gradually absorbs
wat«r, and deliquesces, though very slowly, becoming
slightly acid. \Vhen heated, it sublimes unaltered in a
white smoke, having a peculiar smell, very characteristic
of sal-ammoniac. If a cold body be presented to this
Bmoke, the sal-ammoniac condenses on it, and forms a
white crust. When thus sublimed, it has the property of
carrjnng along with it various bodies, which, when heated
by themselves, are perfectly fixed.
For the other ammoniaeal salts see Chjsmistet.
AJIMONIACUM. or Ammoniac, a g;um-rcEinou8 cxctda>
tion from the stem of a perennial herb (Dorema aiftmonia-
cum) belonging to the natural order Umbellifera;. The
plant grows to the height of 8 or 9 feet, and its whoI<s
stem is pervaded with a milky juice, which oozes out on
an incision being made at any part. This jaice quickly
hardens into round tears, forming tho "tear ammonia
cum " of commerce. Lump ammoniacum, the other form
iu which tho substance is imported, consists of aggrega-
tions of tears, frequently incorporating large quantities of
tho fruits of the plant itself, as well as other foreign bodies.
In order to flee lump ammoniacum from these impurities,
it has to bo melted and strained, operations which depre-
ciate its therapeutical value. Ammoniacum has a faintly
foetid unpleasant odour, which becomes more distinct on
heating ; externally it possesses a reddish yellow appear-
ance, and when tho tears or lumps are freshly fractured
they exhibit an opalescent lustre. It L". chiefly collected
in the province of Irak in Persia ; but some quantity is
also produced in tho Punjab, and comes to the European
market by way of Bombay. Its composition, accoiding to
Hagen, is — resin, 68'6; gum, 19'3; gluten, 5 •!; volatilo
oil and water, 2'8; extractive, ic, 39. Ammoniacum is
closely related to assafoctida, not only in the plant yielding
it, but also in its therapeutical effects. It may be used as
a substitute for assafoetida, although, containing a much
^mailer proportion of volatile oil, its effect is less powerful.
Internally it is used in conjunction with squills in bronchial
affections ; and in asthma and chronic colds it is found
useful. It is, however, more used externally in tho form
of plasters, as a discutient or resolvent application in indo-
lent tumours, affections of the joints, itc.
African ammoniacum is a totally different substance,
though often confounded with the real gum-resui, which
is produced only in tho East. It is the product of an un-
known plant growing in North Africa, and occasionally
shipped to our markets from Marocco. It is a dark-
coloured gum-resin, possessed of a very weak odour and a
2)ersistcnt acrid taste. A considerable commerce in it is
carried on between Mogadop and Alexandria, where it is
in demand for purposes of fumigation.
AMMONITES, called also very frequently the children
of Amman, a people allied by descent to tho Israelites,
and living in their vicinity, sprung from Lot, Abraham's
nephew, by the younger of his daughters, as the jrame-
Jiately adjoining people, the Moabites, were by tho elder
(Gen. xi.x. 37-38). Both peoples are sometimes spoken
of under the common name of the children of Lot (Deut.
ii. 19; Ps. IxxxiiL 8); and the whole history shows that
they preserved throughout the course of their national
existence a sense of tho closest brotherhood. The original
territory of tho two tribes was the country lying imme-
diately on the cast of the Dead Sea and of the lower half of
tho Jordan, having the Jabbok for its northern boundaryj
and of this tract the Ammonites laid claim to the northern
portion, the "half mount GUead" (Deut. iiL 12), lying
between the Amon and the Jabbok, out of which they had
expelled the Zamzummim (Judg. xL 13; Deut. ii 20, 21;
r/. Gen. xiv. 5), though apparently it had been held, in
part at least, conjointly with the Moabites, or perhaps
under their supremacy (Num. xxL 2C, xxii. 1 ; Josh. xiii.
32). From this their original territory they had been in
their turn expelled by the Amorites, who were found
by tho Israelites after their deliverance from Egypt in
possession of both Gilead and Bashan, that is, of the
whole country on the left bank of the Jordan, lying to the
north of tho Arnon (Num. xxi 13). By this Amorite
invasion, as the Moabites were driven to the south of
the Arnon, which formed their northern boundary from
that time so the Ammonites were driven out of Gilead
A M M — A ]\r M
743
across tne upper waters of the Jabbok wbere it flows from
south to north, which henceforth continued to be their
western boundary (Num. ytj 24; Deut. u. 37, iii. 16).
The other limits of the Ammonitis, or country of the
Ammonites ('A/x/ianns x^pa, 2 Mac. iv. 26), there are no
means of exactly defining. On the south it probably
adjoined the land of Moab (but cf. Ewald, Gesch. Israels,
ii. 266); on the north it may have met that of the king of
Geehur (2 Sam. xiiL 37); and on the east it probably
melted away into the desert ceopled by Amalekites and
other nomadic races.
The chief city of the country, called Rabbah, or Kabbath of the
children of Amraon, i.e., the metropolis of the Ammonites (Deut. iii.
11), and Eabbathammana by the later Greeks {Polyb. v. 7, 4). whose
name was changed into Philadelphia by Ptolemy Philadclphus, a
large and strong city with an acropolis, was situated on both sides of
a branch of the Jabbok, bearing at the present day the name of
Moict or Nahr Amman, the water or river of Amnion, whence the
designation " city of waters" (2 Sam. xii. 27 ; cf. Burckhardt, Syria,
p. 361). The ruins called Amman by the natives are extensive and
imposing. The country to the south and east of Amman is dis-
tinguished by its fertility ; and ruined towns are scattered thickly
over it, attesting that it was once occupied by a population which,
however fierce, was settled and industrious (see Burckhardt, op. cit.,
357, cf. Lindsay, Soiy Lnnd, 5th ed., p. 279), a lact indicated also
by the tribute of corn paid annually to Jotham (2 Cbron. xxvii. 5).
The Israelites on their journey out of ligypt to the land of promise
were forbidden to meddle with the territory of Amnion as of Moab
(Deut. ii. 19); and it soema to indicate that friendly relations sub-
sisted at first between this people and the chosen nation, that after
the latter had conquered and slain Og, the ginnt king of Bashan, the
enemy of both, his bedstead was placed in liabbah (Deut. iii. 11).
Like Moab, however, the Ammonites beheld with jealousy the rising
greatness of Israel. They joined the former in hiring Balaam to
curse them (Deut. xxiiL 4) ; and thenceforward their history, so
far as known, reveals a spirit of bitter hostility against the people
of Jehovah— shown in invasions repeated and violent, and cruelties
the most outrageous and unsparing (Judg. x. 8 ; Amos i. 13). They
could not forget that the Gileadite portion of the inheritance of
Israel had once been their possession, nor cease to press their claim
for its recovery (Judg. xi 13). We find them joined first with
Moab (Judg. iii 12), and then with the Philistines (Judg. x. 7, 8),
in tlie invasion and oppression for lengthened periods of the land of
their enemies. Subdued by the prowess of Jephthah, they began
again to act on the offensive in the days of Saul, laying siege to
Jabesh-Gilead (1 Sam. xi. 1). David ofi*ered his friendship to
the king of Ammon, but his offer was rejected with coutumely and
outrage, for which a terrible vengeance was exacted in the capture
and overthrow of their metropolis, and the deliberate slaughter of
the people (2 Sam. x. ) They were united with Moab against Judah
in the days of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xx. 1) ; they paid tribute to
Uzziah and Jotham (2 Chron. xxvi. 8, xxvii. 5) ; and with the
neighbouring tribes helped the Chaldean monarch against Jchoiakim
(5 Kings xxiv. 2). When, after the destruction of Jerusalem, the
poor remnants of the Israelites were gathered together under the
Ei*otectorate of Nebacbadnezzar, it was by the instigation of a
ing of Amnion that Gedaliah, the ruler appointed over them, was
murdered, and new calamities were incurred (Jer. xii. 14); and
when Jerusalem was to be rebuilt, the foremost in opposing the
patriotic Jews were a Moabite and an Ammonite (Neh. ii. 10, 19; iv.
1- 3). True to their antecedents, the Ammonites, with some of the
neighbouring tribes, did their utmost to resist and check the revival
of the Jewish power under Judas Maccabaius (1 Mace. v. 6 ; cf. Jos.
Ani. Jud. xiii. 8, 1). The last historical notice of them is in Justin
Martyr (Dial, cum Tryph. § 119), where it is afliimed that they were
still a numerous people. The Ammonites are repeatedly mentioned
under the form Bit- Amman, i.e., house of Amman, in the inscrip-
tions of Nineveh among the tributaries of the kings of Assyria
(Schrader, Kcilinschriftcn und d. A. T. 52). The names of their
kings, BO far aa known, — in Scripture, Nahaah, Hanun, Baalis,
cr liaalim (2 Sam. x. 2; Jer. xh 14); in Assyrian, Puduilu {cf.
Pednhel (Num. xxxiv. 28), Basa (c/. Baasha, 1 Kings xv. 33), and
Sanibi (of less obvious analogy), —testify, in harmony with other
considerations, that their language was Semitic, closely allied to
the Hebrew j and tfiis fact iS now placed beyond question by the dis-
covery of the Mesha-stele, presenting the language of the Moabit^s,
and doubtless that also of the brother tribe (see Moabites). Their
national deity, Moloch or Milcom (see MoLOCU), was worshipped
with cruel rites, — a cirrvumstanco tending to foster that fierceneys
of character which distinguished this people throughout their
history.
AMM0NlUS,8urnamed HERMi.B,or the son of Hermias,
studied at Alexandria, alons v.ith his brother lleliodorus.
under the neo-Platouist Proclus during the latter part uf
the 5 th century A.D. He was afterwards the head of a
school for philosophy; and among his scholars wero
Asclepias, John Philoponus, Damascius, and Simplicius.
Although a neo-Platonist, Ammonius appears to have
devoted most of his attention to the works of Aristotle.
Commentaries on some of these are all that remains of hia
reputedly numerous writings. Of the commentaries we
have — 1. One on the Isagoge of Porphyry, published at
Venice, 1500, fob; 2. One on the Categories, Venice, 1503,
fob, the authenticity of which is doubted by Brandis; 3.
One on the Le IiUerpreiatione, Venice, 1503, fob Of
each of the coumicutaries there are several Latin transla
tions, and the three have been published in a collected
form, with a Latin translation, Venice, 1546, 3 vols. 8vo.
They are also printed in Brandis' Scholia to Aristotle,
forming the fourth volume of the Berlin Aristotle. The
special section on fate has been published separately by
Orelli, Alex. Aphrod. Ammojiii et all. de Faio quae super-
sunt, Zurich, 1824. A life of Aristotle, generally ascribed
to Ammonius, but with more accuracy to John Philoponus,
is often prefixed to editions of Aristotle. It has been
printed separately, with Latin translation and Scholia, at
Leyden, 1621, and again at Helmstadt, 1666. Other com-
mentaries on the I'opics and the first six books of the
Metaphysics still exist in manuscript. Of the value of the
logical writings of Ammonius there are various opinions.
Prantl, perhaps the highest recent authority, speaks of them
with groat but hardly merited contempt {Cteschichle der
Logik, i. 642). (For list of his works, see Fabricius,
BiUiotheca Graeca, v. 704-707; and also Brandis. ilemoira
of the Berlin Academy, 1833.)
AMMOKIUS, surnamed Saccas, or " The Sack Carrier,"
from the fact of his having been obliged in the early part
of his hfe to gain his livelihood by acting as a porter in
the market, Uved at Alexandria during the 2d century
A.D., and died there 241 a.d. Very little is kno^vn of the
events of his life. He is said by Porphyry to have been
born of Christian parents, and to have belonged originally
to their faith, from which he afterwards apostatised,
Euscbius (Chureh History, vi. 19) denies this apostasy,
and affirms that Ammonius continued a Christian to tie
end of his life. It is clear, however, that Eusebius is
referring to another Ammonius, a Christian who lived at
Alexandria during the 3d century a.d. Ammonius, after
long study and meditation, opened a school for philosophy
in Alexandria. Among his pupils were Hcrennius, the
two Origeus, Longinus, and, most distinguished of all,
Plotinus, who in his search for true wisdom found himself
irresistibly attracted by Ammonius, remained his closo
companion for eleven years, and in all his later philosophy
professed to be the mere exponent of his great master.
Ammonius himself designedly wrote nothing, and the
doctrines taught in his school were, at least during his life,
kept secret, after the fashion of the old Pythagorean
society. Thus, while aU the later developments of neo-
Platonism are in a general way referred to him as their
originator, little is known of his special tenets. From the
notices of Hierocles, a scholar of Plutarch, in the early
part of the 5th century A.D., preserved in Photius, we
learn that his fundamental doctrine was an eclecticiAm, or
union of Plato and Aristotle. He attempted to show tli.it
a system of philosophy, common to both and higher than
their special views, was contained in their writings. Ha
thus, according to his admirers, put an end to the inter-
minable disputes of the rival schools. What other elements
Ammonius included in his eclectic system, and in par-
ticular how ho stood related to the Jewish and Christian
tbeosophies, are points on which no information can ba
Drocurcd. Few direct references to him eiij.t, aiid cren
744
A M M — A M M
these are not o( unquestionaLlo authority. Ho un-
doubtedly originated the neo-Platonic movement, but it
cannot be determined to what extent that philosophy, as
known to ua through Plotinua and Proclus, represents hia
ideaa Euscbius {Church History, vi. 19) mentions some
Christian works by Ammonias. As Poqjhyry expressly
tells us that Ammonias the philosopher wrote nothing,
liusebius must bo referring to the later Christian of the
same name. To this later Ammonius belongs the Diatet-
$aron, or Harmony of the Four GoapeU, sometimes ascribed
to the philosopher. (Soe Fabricius, Bibliotheca Grceca,
V. 701, 713; and Zeller, Phil. d. Griechtn, 2d cd., iii. 2,
398, note 6.) On Ammonius the philosopher, besides
general works on the Alexandrian school and the history
of philosophy, see Hosier, De Commentitiii Philotophia
Ammoniaae Fraudibut et Noxii, Tubingen, 1786; and
Dehaut, Eaaai Jlistorique sur la Vie el la Doctrine
d'Ammnniua Saccaa, Brussels, 1836.
AMMUNITION in its general sense comprises not only
the powder and projectiles employed in guns of all classes,
but also all stores directly connected with artillery fire, such
as friction-tubes, fuses, percussion-caps, and rockets.
Gunpowder, as manufactured in England, consists of 75
parts of saltpetre, ID parts of charcoal, and 10 parts of
^ulphur, reduced to a fine powder and mechanically mixed
together, pressed into a cake, and granulated to a size
varying according to the purpose which it is designed to
fulfil. In cinnon, a large grain is necessary for regular
and thorough burning, a fine powder choking up the inter-
stices, and 60 preventing the flame from finding its way
through the entire charge. On the other hand, a Lirge
grain is blown out of a small piece before it is burnt to
the centre. For the very heavy guns recently introduced
into the British service powder formed into " pellets " or
" pebbles " has been adopted, by which the pressure of the
gas is kept up till the shell leaves the muzzle, without
being at any instant excessive and likely to injure the
gun. Modified forms of powder and gun-cotton have been
employed experimentally as the charges of guns.
For heavy guns or cannon the charge is carefully
weighed and made up in a serge cartridge sewn with
worsted, which entirely consumes in firing — any residue left
ignited in the bore being liable to cause explosion when the
cartridge of the succeeding round is rammed down on it,
and so to blow off the arms of the gunner using the sponge
stave. The shell or other projectOe employed is forced
home on the cartridge {vide fig. 1) in muzzle-loading
guns. In breech-loaders the shell is introduced first, and
pressed into the shot chamber, beyond which it can only
pass by the " lands " of the rifling cutting into the lead
coat, which is effected by the explosion of the charge.
The cartridge is pressed forward against the base of the
projectile.
Rifled guns— that is, guns constructed to impart rotation
to the projectiles they discharge — have superseded smooth-
borcd cannon in the armaments of all civilised nations ;
elongated projectiles, which are impeded by the resistance
of the air much less than spherical ones, being in all cases
employed. Fig. 1 shows a section of the bore of the
TlO- 1— -1, 1, wnngbt-Lron coDj; 2, steel; 8, ccpper stadj; 4, worsted liraltU
muzzle-loading gun, whose projectilos are made to rotate
by means of gun-metal studs which fit in the spiral groovet
of the bore. The following kinds of projectiles are fired
from rifled cannon in the British service: — Common shell.
Shrapnel shell, Palliser shell and shot, and case-shot.
Light balls, carca-sses, and spherical shells are discharged
from smooth-bored mortars. The two last mentioned, as
well as spherical Shrapnel, round shot, grape, and case, ore
fired from smooth-bored guns.
Common thell for rifled guns are simply hollow elongated
projectiles filled with powder, which is fired by the action
of a fuse, and bursts the shell with great violence, acting
in walls or earth into which it has penetrated like a small
mine, the largest shells, which are twelve inches in diameter,
containing nearly 37 lb of powder. Gun cotton, nitro-
glycerine, and other substances, have been tried for burst-
ing purposes, but it has been found very difficult to prevent
premature explosion from the sudden shock of discharge
of the gun. Picrate of potash, or " picric powder," has
been recommended as stronger than gunpowder and quite
cafe, but it is not as yet adopted. Common shells are
generally fired at earthworks, buildings, and wooden ships.
When carried, as in English men-of-war, filled and fused
with percussion fuses, they can be discharged as rapidly as
shot. The most terrible instance of their use in hi.story is
the entire destruction of the Turkish frigates by the
Russian fleet at Siuope on November 30lh, 1853. At the
battle of Sedan in 1870 the Prussians made such havoc
among the crowded French troops that the ground became
covered with " heaps of flesh and rags ; " and a similar
result was produced by the fire of mortars concentrated on
the Russian troops in the Redan at the termination of the
siege of SebastopoL The slaughter in the two last named
instances is, however, to be attributed to the concentration
of fire on masses of men rather than to the description of
shell used, for the showers of bullets ejected by Shrapnel
shell would have struck many more men, although the
ghastly spectacle of dismembered human bodies would not
have been exhibited.
Shrapnel shell are hollow projectiles containing bullett
and a very small bursting charge. Fig. 2 exhibits the
construction of the Boxer Shrapnel
shell for the 40-pounder breech-load-
ing Armstrong gun, and is a good
specimen of this class of projectile.
The shell follows the usual course of
flight up to within about 100 yards
of the object, when the time fuse, if
properly set, fires the bursting charge,
and opens the shell by splitting it
along certain grooves forming lines
of least resistance. The bullets and
fragments then continue their course
in the form of a shower of missiles.
This class of shell was designed for
smooth-bore guns by General Shrap-
nel It was used with great effect
during the Peninsular war, especially
in clearing the breach and ramparts
of St Sebastian of defenders, over
the heads of the English storming
party, who drew back into the ditch
for a time. The projectile has never |
been understood and thoroughly
taken up by foreign powers, and has ™:^7^'^.;°5!r.'ro«ht
never been used to full advantage iron ornuidueei; e, ie»<i;
on service. In skilful hands it is '' ff"-
capable of producing results far beyond any that have as
yet been achieved.
The Armstrong segment thell fulfills the same general
purpose, — that is to say, it is desit^ned to sweep down bodin
AMMUNITION
745
of troops, tut it opens rather more suaaenly, segments of
iron taking the place of lead and antimony bullets, which
segments being buUt up in a ring with the bursting charge
in the centre, are dispersed more widely when the shell
opens than the bullets of the Shrapnel The segment shell
consequently is rather suited for the action of a percussion
fuse on striking the head of a column of men, or the ground
clpse in' front of it. In this way results have been obtained
which are out of aU proportion to anything that has ever
occurred in actual service. At Dartmoor in 1869 the
average number of hits for every segment shell fired during
the series of experiments, including failures of all kinds,
was 17"1. The meaning of this estimate maybe appre-
ciated by applying it to some action. For example, at
Waterloo the English artillery fired 9467 rounds. On the
Dartmoor scale this would give 161,885 casualties. This
result shows that after making the most liberal deductions
for the peculiar circumstances of war, appalling effects
might be produced by modem artillery with segment or
Shrapnel shells.
Palliser sliell and shot are projectiles made with specially
hard and rigid heads, with the object of piercing the sides
of armour-clad vessels. The form of the head, which is
termed "ogival," is seen inside the gun in Fig. 1. A point of
this shape causes the resistance of the plate to fall on the
shell as an increasing pressure, acting inwards towards
points distributed along the axis, rather than as the full
sudden blow that would be experienced by a round shot.
This enables chilled iron to be used, which has great hard-
ness and crushing strength, but is very brittle. Sir W.
Palliser fij-st proposed chilled projectiles ; subsequently
mottled iron projectiles with chilled heads have been used.
Sir J. Whitworth has obtained great results with flat-headed
projectiles of a special quality of steel, which have been made
to penetrate iron plates at an angle even more oblique than
45°. Solid and hollow shot, as well as shell, have been
employed against plates. The shot, having thicker sides
or walls, have some advantage in penetration. Shells, by
their explosion, destroy wood backing better than shot,
when the front plating is not too thick for them to pene-
trate. They are charged with powder through a filling
hole in the base of the shell, closed with a strong screw
plug. No fuse is required, impact against thick iron being
sufficient to explode the bursting charge of a shell without
any fuse. The greatest penetration that has yet been
obtained in armour was achieved by the 35-ton Woolwich
gun (termed the Woolwich " infant "), at Shoeburyness on
June 20th, 1872, the head of a Palliser projectile passing
entirely through 18 J inches of iron and 12 of teak, a thick-
ness of armour exceeding that of any iron-clad vessel afloat.
Solid shot have gradually disappeared since the introduc-
tion of rifled guns, and the reasons are obvious. A round
shot fired from a smooth-bored gun, after its first graze,
continued to ricochet in a straight line; it produced, there-
fore, a considerable moral eS'ect, and on smooth ground
was actually formidable. A rifled shot, on the other hand,
is violently deflected after each graze, from the fact that
it is rotating rapidly as it touches the ground, and this,
coupled with its liability to bury itself, detracts greatly
from its efficiency. Shells for any rifled gun may be made
of such length as to bring them to the same weight as the
corresponding shot, which was not the case with smooth-
bore projectiles, they being all of one size instead of one
weight. In short, Palliser shell with thick walls (fired as
hollow shot) excepted, the only projectiles of the shot class
now employed with rifled guns are case shot. Owing, how-
ever, to the fact that the charge of a rifled gun varies from
Jth to Jth the weight of the projectile, while in smooth-
bored guns it-was sometimes as great as ^d that of the shot,
the effect of rifled case is comparatively weak. At any time
the range of case shot hardly exceeds 300 yards, while
its efiiciency depends on the ground along which it bounds
being hard and leveL Each shot consists of a number of
balls enclosed in a thin metal cylinder, which breaks up
in the gun, the balls scattering from the muzzle, but sweep-
ing the groimd with great effect under favourable circum-
stances. Grape differs only in the balls being larger. At
the battle of Friedland, at the bridge of Lodi, and at
Sebastopol, grape and case were fired with great effect.
Tiine and percussion fuses have been mentioned. Time
fuses are those which open a shell at any given time,
whether in the air or during penetration. Fig. 2 shows
the " Boxer 9-second fuse " for breech-loading guns, fixed
in the sheU. On the shell moving, the hammer in the head,
by its inertia, shears a copper wire, fires a detonating patch
of composition beneath it, and lights the fuse composi-
tion. This burns until it reaches the point at which a
hole is bored in the fuse, when it flashes down the channel
shown on the left side of the cut, and fires the powder
primer and bursting charge of loose powder. The action
of this fuse therefore depends on its correct boring and
regular burning. A percussion fuse is one that acts on
impact or graze. Fig. 3 shows the Pettman general service
fuse. On the first movement of the
shell, the detonating ball A, and the
plugs above and below it, by their '
inertia, crush the lead cap C, and shear
the copper pin above F. During flight
the ball becomes detached from the
upper or steady plug B, and on im-
pact is fired by its momentum against
the part in front of it. The steady plug
itself has also a ring of detonating
composition, DD, which, should the
plug fail to escape from the detonating
ball, and so hold against it, is thrown Fio. 8.— i, cnprer parto; 3,
against the Httle plain baU E. The eun-m=tai; 3, lead,
fiash in either case acts down the tube F, and fires the burst-
ing charge of the shell. This fuse is made not to explode
against a wave, being chiefly used for sea service. It acts
both with smooth-bored and rifled guns. For land service
more sensitive ones are employed to explode on graze.
Friction tubes are copper tubes driven with mealed
powder, and pierced from end to end. A friction bat ia
the head is rubbed against patches of de-
tonating composition by pulling a lanyard,
which hooks into a loop at the end of it.
The tube is entered in the vent of a gun,
which is thus fired by pulling the lanyard.
For mitrailleuses and breech-loading small
arms, lead bullets or lead and tin bullets,
fixed in central-fire cartridges, are used. The
cases are made of sheet brass, with a thick
base disc containing a cap chamber, cap, and
anvil. Fig. 4 shows the Boxer-Henry am-
munition for the Martini-Henry rifle. These
metal-cased cartridges are not liable to ex-
plode in store, even from the firing of a small
charge of powder confined inside the same
packing-case with them. They admit of a
very rapid rate of firing. The Gatling mitrail-
leuse has discharged 657 rounds in two
minutes at Shoeburyness. The Martini-
Henry rifle has fired 25 rounds in a minute.
Rockets are projectiles containing composi- '
tion which, as it burns, generates sufficient
T
Fio. 4—1, 1, Bhoet
brass ; 3, cop.
per; 3. wrotlffbt
, . , 1,-11 ■ Uon : 4, piipor ;
gas to drive forward the roftket by an action «, e. niiii-boaii;
resembling that of the recoil of a gun. Of '• '""■-«'"•
rockets there are three kinds : first, war rockets, with
iron cases, introduced by Sir W. Congreve, and subsequently
74(>
A M N — A M O
brought by Mr Ilale to the fi>rm shown in Tig. 5. Con-
peve rockets were kept point first by sticks screwed into
their bases, which acted on the princip!'!
of the feathers of an arrow. The Hil'
rocket is kept point first by rotation, caiisr.i
by the gas escaping from the vents prefisiiig
against -the curved shields. The second
class orrockets are signal rockets, made of
paper, and containing stars, which throw
a bright light in falling. The third class
are the rockets- used to carry a line and
establish communication between a wrecked
vessel and the sea-shore. (c. o. B.)
AMNESTY (({/injoTia, oblivion), an act of
grace by which the supreme power in a state
restores those who may have been guilty of any offence against
it to the position of innocent persons. It includes more than
pardon, inasmuch as it obliterates all legal remembrance
of the offence. It is chiefly exercised towards associations
of political criminals, and is sometimes granted absolutely,
though more frequently there are certain specified cicep-
tions. Thus in the case of the earliest recorded amnesty,
that of Thrasybulus at Athens, the thirty tyrants and a
few others wore expressly excluded from its operation ; and
the amnesty proclaimed on the restoration of Charles II.
did not extend to thoiie who had taken part in the execu-
tion of his father. Other celebrated amnesties are that
proclaimed by Kapolcon on 13th March 1815, from which
thirteen eminent persons, including TaUeyrand, were
excepted; the Prussian amnesty of 10th August 1840;
and the general amnesty proclaimed by the Emperor
Francis Joseph of Austria in 1857. The last Act of
amnesty passed in Great Britain is 20 Geo. II., c. 52,
which proclaimed a pardon to those who had taken cart in
the second Jacobite rebellion.
AMOL, or Amul, a town of Persia, in the province of
Mazandoran, about 12 miles above the mouth of the Heraz,
a river which flows into the Caspian Sea. It is not
walled, and is now a place of no great importance, but
in and around it there are ruins and ancient buildings
which bear witness to its former greatness. Of these the
most conspicuous is the magnificent mausoleum of Seyed
Quara-u-deen, king of Sari and Amol, who died in 1378.
At Amol there is a bridge of twelve arches over the Heraz,
and the bazaars of the town are large and well supplied.
The population is about 40,000, but a great number of
these leave the city in summer to tend their flocks.
AMONTONS, GuxLLAUME, a celebrated French ex-
perimental philosopher, was the son of an advocate who
had left his native province of Normandy and established
himself at Paris, w'here th» subject of this notice was bom
on the 31st August 1663. The exertions of genius fre-
quently take a particular direction from accidental circum-
stances. A severe illness with which Amontons was
alHictod in his early youth had the effect of rendering him
almost entirely deaf, and consequently of secluding "him in
a great measure from the ordinary intercours", of society.
Being compelled by this accident to depend for his enjoy-
ments on the resources of his own mind, he began to take
great pleasure in the construction of machines of various
kinds, and in the study of the laws of mechanics, a path
of inquiry which he pursued through life with unremitting
ardour and distinguished success. One of the first objects
■which engaged his attention was the discovery of the
perpetual motion, — an attempt which, though necessarily
unsuccessful, was productive of greater advantage to him
than it has usually been to those who have pursued that
vain chimera. Amontons devoted himself particularly to
the improvement of instruments employed in physical
gxperiments, a subject which requires the finest applica-
tions of mechanical principles, and which till thitt tune had
not met with a due share of attention. In 1687, before he
had attained his 24lh year, he presented to the Academy
of Sciences an hygrometer of his own invention, which was
received with approbdtion by that learned body. In 1695
he published the only work which he has given to the
world. It was dedicated to the Ac.idemy, and entitled
Jiemarquet et Experiences I'hysiquta tur la Construction
d'un NouvelClepsydre, tur les JiaromUret, let Tftermometrct,
et let I/t/ffromkrei. After Huyghens's beautiful application
of the pendulum to the regulation of the motion of clocks,
any attempt to revive the clepsydra, an incommodious
instrument, and not susceptible of much accuracy, might
seem to subject its nuthor to the imputation of not suf-
ficiently appreciating the great importance of a discovery
which has so completely changed the face of astronomical
science ; but the object of Amontons was to produce an
instrument capable of measuring time on board ship, in
circumstances where the motion of the vessel rendered
such timekeepers as were then known useless. The
machine which he constructed is said to have been
extremely ingenious, and probably difl'ered entirely from
those of the ancients, among whom the clepsydra was in
common use. In 1689 Amontons was admitted into the
Academy of Sciences, the ilemoirs of which he enriched
with many important contributions. The first papei
which he presented after his admission was one on the
theory of friction, a, subject then involved in great
obscurity, and on which his inquiries tended to throw con-
siderable light After that appeared in succession de-
scriptions of a new thermometer, and of numerous experi-
ments made with the barometer relative to the nature and
properties of air,- — a detailed account of all which is given
in the history of the Academy. In the course of these
investigations he found that the boiUng point of water
varies with the pressure of the atmosphere, a discovery
made almost contemporaneously in England by Dr Halley.
By his countrymen be is generally regarded as the inventor
of the telegraph ; and he had the honour of exhibiting the
methods by which he proposed to accomplish the object in
view before some members of the royal family. It appears,
however, from a paper read by Dr Hooke to the Royal
Society in 1684, that that ingenious philosopher had
brought the telegraph, in theory at least, to a state of far
greater maturity than Amontons, and nearly 20 years
earlier. The experiments of the latter were made about
the year 1702. It may be regarded as a curious fact in
the history of inventions, that although the great import-
ance of telegraphic communication is obvious, and the
method of accomplishing it was clearly explained by Hooke,
and its practicability demonstrated by Amontons, it con-
tinued to be regarded as of no practical value, and was not
regularly applied to useful purposes till nearly a century
afterwards, at the time of the French Revolution.
Amontons died in 1705, aged 42.
AMOOR, Amouk, or Ajuhr, a large and important rivei
of eastern Asia, formed by the confluence of the Argun
and the Shilka, at a place called Ust Strelkoi, in 53° 19' N,
lat. and 121° 50' E. long. Both these rivers come from
the south-west: the Argun, or Kerulen as it is called above
Lake Kulon, through which it flows about half-way between
its source and Ust Strelkoi, rises near Mount Keutei, in
49° N.lat. and 109° E. long. ; the ShUka is formed by the
union of the Onon and the Ingoda, both of which rise in
the Kingan mountains, not far from the source of the
Argun. The Amoor proper flows at first in a south-easterly
direction for about 800 miles, as far as 47° 42' lat. ; it then
turns to the north-east, and after a total course of over
1600 miles discharges itself into the Sea of Okhotsk,
opposite to the island of Saghalien. Its principal tribu-
A M O — A M 0
747
tariea from the south are the Songari, which the Chinese
consider to be the true head river of the Amoor, and the
Ussuri; from the north it receives the Zeya, the Bureia,
die Gyrin, and the Omogan. The climate of the valley of
the Amoor varies veiy much in diJferent parts : in the
upper portion of its course there are long and cold winter's
and short summers; as the river descends into more southern
latitudes the rigour of the climate relaxes, and the heat
becomes almost tropical ; the vegetation is rich and luxu-
riant, and large forests of oaks, limes, and elms replace
barren larches and firs ; while on the lower Amoor the cold
again to a certain extent prevails, and at the mouth the
river is ice-bound for more than half the year, a circum-
stance which greatly impairs its otherwise admirable facilities
for navigation. The river is abundantly stocked with fish,
and the mountains near it are believed to contain iron and
gold. The Amoor became known to the Russians in 1639,
and they resolved to annex it to their empire along with
the territory through which it flows. In 1651 a party of
Cossacks, under a bold leader named Khabaroff, built a
fort at Albazin, about 100 niiles below Ust StrelkoL Many
sanguinary conflicts between the Chinese and the Russians
followed. Albazin more than once changed owners ; but
at last, in 1689, a treaty was concluded, by which the
river Gorbiza or Kerbeche became the easterly Umit of the
Russian empire on the Amoor, the boundary stretching
from the source of the Gorbiza, along the Yablonnoi moun-
tains, to the Sea of Okhotsk. This state of matters con-
tinued till 1847, when the Russians again began to make
preparations for the conquest of the Amoor valley. In
1850 and the three succeeding years, expeditions were
sent up the river, and the towns of Nikolaevsk, Marinsk,
and Blagovchenk were founded; in 1854 a powerful flotiUa
sailed down from Ust Strelkoi to the mouth of the river.
A large and very important tract was added to the Russian
empire by the cession in 1858 of the whole left bank of
the Amoor and the right bank below the Ussuri, and the
further cession in 1860 of all the territory between the
Ussuri and the Eastern Sea.
AMORITES, a powerful people, widely spread through
the Promised Land before the settlement of the Israelites,
belonging to the Canaanitic stock, according to Gen. x. 16,
though some think they belong rather to the pre-Canaanitic
inhabitants of the Jordan basin (see Knobel, Volkertafel,
201, sq., who refers them to the Shemitic race of Lud). In
all probabUity there were incorporated among them the
remnants of the older tribe of the Rephaun. Their name,
" the high ones," has by Ewald (Gesch. Israels, i. 315), after
Simonis (Onomasiicon, s.y.) been interpreted highlanders,
or inhabitants of the heights, as Canaanites is supposed
to mean lowlanders, or inhabitants of the plains (cf. Num.
liiL 29; Deut. i. 44; Josh. v. 1, s. 6). Others call this in
question; and find an explanation rather in the tallness of
stature by which they seem to have been distinguished
(Num. iriii 32, 33; Amos iL 9, cf. Kurtz, Gesch. d. Alt.
Bundes, L § 45 ; Pusey, Minor Frophels, 174, n.)
That this people had. a certain preponderance among the Canaan-
itic tTchea is shown by their name often standing in Scripture for
Canaanites in general (Gen. xv. 16 ; Josh. xxiv. -IS ; Jud. vi. 30).
Their principal seat on the west of the. Jordan was the mountains
of Judah and their southern slopes, — to the whole of which moun-
tainous region, indeed, the name the Mount of the Amorites is
applied (Gen. itiv. 7, 13 ; Num. xiiL 29 ; Deut i. 7, 20, 44 ; Josh.
n.' 3 ; Jud. i. 36). We hear of them also at Giheon, north-west of
Jerasalem (2 Sam. xxi. 2), at Aijalon, west of Gibeon, and in the
northern part of the Philistine plain .(Jud. L 34, 35), and in the
land of Ephraim (Gen. xlviii. 22). On tho east of Jordan, after
having dnven back the Ammonites and Moahites, they occupied
the wEolo of Gilead and Bashan, from tho Amon, the northern
limit of Moab, as far oa Mount Hermon, fonniug in this region at
the epoch of Moses two powerful kingdoms, — that of Silion, whoso
capital was He-shbon, tho more southerly ; and that of Og, whose
••jinital was Ashtaroth, the more northerly (Num. xii. 21-30 : Deut.
iii. 8, 10 ; iv. 48). It was with this east-Jordanio sectjon of the
Amorites that the Israelites first came into conflict. After these
had bean subdued, and after the Israelites had crossed the Jordan
and had begun to capture the Canaanitish towns, five of tho most
powerful of the Amorite kings of the western section formed a con-
federacy to oppose the advancing host (Josh. x. 6, sq.) When this
combination had been overthrown, a final attempt at resistance
waa made by the more northerly portion of the Canaanites, under
tho auspices of Jabin, king of Hazor ; and in the united forces,
which were overthrown at the waters of Merom, Amorites were
included (Josh. xi. 3). Those of tliis and the other tribes of the
Canaanites who survived the conquests of Joshua, either gradually
became mingled with the Pliilistines and others of the neighbour-
ing nations, or they continued to live among the Israelites in the
condition of tributaries and slaves (Josh. xi. 23 ; Jud, i. 34, 35 ;
1 Kings ii. 21 ; 2 Chron. viii. 8).
In old Egyptian literature mention is frequently made, from the
time of Sethos I., of un Asiatic people called the Amar or Amaor,
whom Egyptologers agree in identifying with the Amorites (Eunsen,
Egypt's Place, vol iii. 212). There is as yet less agreement in
regard to the position of their coimtry. Brugsch is of opinion that
the people in question are located in the north of Syria, on the
banks of the Orontes (see his Geog. Inschri/ten, Bd. li. 21 ; Mist.
cCEgypte, 132, 187). The later researches of Chabas, however,
have rendered the interpretation on which this view depends very
doubtful, and shown that in all probability their territory lies,
in entire Iiarmony with the representations of Scripture regarding
the Amorites, on the west of the Dead Sea and south of the land
of Judah (Cliabas, Etudes sur V AiUiquii^, 267, f. ; RcchcrcheSy 44,
107.) Among the towns of the Amaor are mentioned Dapur and
Kodesh, evidently to be identified with the scriptural Debir and
Kadesh.
The language, &c., of the Amorites will be more convenionlly
considered under Canaanites.
AMORPHISM (from a privative, and fi.op<f>-q, form),
a term used in chemistry and mineralogy to denote the
absence of regular structure in a body. Glass, resin, coal,
albuminous substances, &o., are amorphous, exhibiting
uniformity of properties in every direction : they have no
planes of cleavage, as crystals have; they conduct heat
equally in all direction?; and they do not show double
refraction unless in a constrained state. Amorphism is not
peculiar to one kind of substances, for the same molecules
may exist either in the amorphous or the crystalline state.
Thus charcoal or lamp-black is the amorphous form of the
diamond; sulphur and phosphorus, when slowly cooled,
assume a crystaUine arrangement, but when rapidly cooled
are perfectly homogeneous^the suddenness of transition
from the liquid or fused state giving no time for definite
arrangement of particles.
AMOS (not the same as Amoz, the father of Isaiah)
was an inhabitant of the district of Tekoa, a fortified town
(2d Chron. xi. 6) among the hiUs of the south of Judah,
where a breed of stunted sheep and goats, prized, how-
ever, for their wool and hair, found a scanty pasturage
(Amos i. 1). Possibly he was a common day labourer;
certainly he was far from wealthy, as the Jewish com-
mentators would have him ; for though he is called
a "nuked" {loc. cit.), like one of the kings of Moab
(2 Kings iii. 4), he tells u i himself that he was glad to com-
bine this employment with that of a dresser of sycamore
fruit (vii. 14). He may thus be contrasted, as the peasant
prophet, with Isaiah, the prophet of the capital and the
court. It does not, however, follow that Amos was devoid
of such cultivation as could then be had. Distinctions of
rank were not, among the primitive Semitic races, co-
incident with those of culture ; it is enough to refer to the
pre-Mohammedan Arabs, whose poetry has been so accu-
rately reprodiiced by Ruckert. And in the case of Amos
there is evidence in his own works that he was well
acquainted with the literature of his day. It is true that
he boldly admits the irregularity, from an official point of
view, of his prophetic ministrations — "No prophet I, and
no prophet's disciple I" (viL 14); but his discourses are
not only full of references (sometimes dubious) to the
book of Joel and tho Pentateuc^h. but framed, howcvei
r48
A M O — A M r
imperfectly, on a gcnuino artistic plan. This is unmis-
takably the case in the discourse contained in i. 3-ii. 16;
but with greater or less correspondence to the course of
thought in the remainder of the book. Thus, according
to Ewald (who aims, it ia true, at an unattainable pre-
cision), chapters iii. and iv. consist of five strophes — iii.
1-8, iii. 9-15, iv. 1-3 (incomplete), iv. 0-11, iv. 12, 13;
chapters v. and vi. of a prologue (v. 1-3) and four strophes
—V. 4-0,8, 9; V. 7, 10-17; v. 18-27; vL 1-10; with a sort
of epilogue in vi. 11-14. And the groat critic De Wctto
goes 80 far as to declare that no Hebrew prophet has
shown an equal regard for clearness and harmony of pro-
portion. (Comp. Dr Pusey, Minor Prophets, p. 152.)
The date of the first public appearance of Ajnos cannot
bo ascertained. From the heading of the book (i. 1),
which, though not by the prophet himself, has the air of a
genuine tradition (Ewald, Die Propkcten, L 123), we learn
that ho " saw " — that is, prophesied — " two years before
the earthquake." This earthquake is referred to again in
Zech. xiv. 5, and, as some think, in passages of Joel and
other prophets. It seems, therefore, to have constituted
an era in popular tradition, but is of no significance for
chronology, as has been well shown by Dr Pusey {Minor
Prophets, p. 148). More to our purpose is the former
part of the heading, which Umits the prophetic career of
Amos to the twenty-five years that Uzziah and Jeroboam
II. were contemporary — i.e., 810-784, according to the
common chronology ; 775-750, according to the Assyrian.
(Comp. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testa-
ment, p. 120.) He flourished, therefore, in the greatest
age of Hebrew prophecy. He seems to have been younger
than Joel, to whose prophecy he makes several references,
and more or less senior to Hosca and Isaiah. This view
is fully borne out by the gradual emergence of the Assy-
rians on the prophetic horizon. Altogether absent from
Joel's prophecy, they are but vaguely alluded to in Amos,
and first mentioned by name in H jsea and Isaiah.
It was while "following the flock" (vii. 14, 15) that
Amos received a prophetic impulse to leave his home and
preach In the sister country. The circumstances are on
several accounts worthy of notice. They indicate — 1. A
distinction between Hebrew prophecy, in its mature stage,
and non-Hebrew — viz., that the former is not dependent
on a special artificial training ; 2. That though his writ-
ings are included in the prophetic canon, Amos did not
consider himself officially a prophet (which has a bearing
on the great controversy of Daniel); and 3. That prophets
of the higher or spiritual order did not recognise the revolt
of the first Jeroboam (comp. ix. 11; Hos. iii, 5). But
the prophecies of Amos had a wider scope than the destiny
of IsraeL They show a dim presentiment of the philosophy
of history, and of the reproductive power of revolutions.
Accordingly, Syria, Philistia, Phoenicia, Edom, Ammon,
Moab, and Judah were successively rebuked by the in-
spired messenger. But the chief blame fell upon Israel,
whose unparalleled prosperity imder Jeroboam IL had
developed the germs of vices inconsistent with the religion
of Jehovah. The denunciations of Amos produced a power-
ful impression. Ho was expelled with contumely by
Amaziah, a priest of the reactionary image cultus at the
frontier town of Bethel (viL 10-17).
It is not to bo supposed that the discourses of Amos
were delivered exactly as they stand. This view is pre-
cluded by their elaborate literary character, and by the
allusions to the prophet's experience in Israel in iL 12, v.
10, 13. He probably put them together, with the addi-
tion of a grand Messianic epilogue, after his return to
Tekoa. There has never been a doubt of their genuineness.
The text is good, but there are a few corrupt passages.
Some of the charactenstica of Amos have been already
mentioned. The tradition that he was a stammerer (based
on an absurd etymology of his name), and the Btatemcut
of Jerome that ho was " imperitus sermono (sed non
scicntii)," only prove the incapacity of the ancients for
literary criticism. The simplicity of his style is that of
the highest art. He delights in abrupt short clauses, but
they are linked together Vjy the closest parallelism. And
the supposed rusticity of his dialect ia deduced from the
spelling of only five words, analogies to which may be
traced in the great poem of Job. All that we can admit
as probable is, that the native force and talent for observa-
tion displayed by this prophet were derived from his early
converse with nature on the wild hills of Judah. His
imagery, in fact, from its freshness and appropriateness
(comp. iL 13; iiL 5, 12; iv. 2, 9; v. 19; vi. 12; ii. 9),
almost reminds us of Dante, and entitles him to as high a
place in the historv of literature as in that of theistic
religion. (t. k. c.)
AMOY, a city and seaport in the province of Fo-kicn,
China, situated on the slope of a hiU, on the south coast
of a small and barren island of the same name, in 24°
28' N. lat. and 118° 10 E. long. It is a large and exceed-
ingly dirty place, about 9 miles in circumference, and ia
divided into two portions, an inner and an outer town,
which are separated from each other by a ridgo of hills,
on which a citadel of considerable strength has been built.
Each of these divisions of the city possesses a largo and
commodious harbour, that of the inner town, or city proper,
being protected by strong fortifications. Amoy may be
regarded as the port of the inland city of Chang-chu, with
which it has river communication; and its trade, both
foreign and coastwise, is extensive and valuable. In 1870,
5G0 vessels, exclusive of Chinese junks, entered the port,
of an aggregate burden of 224,436 tons; of these, 315, of
150,171 tons, were British. The chief articles imported
wore sugar, rice, raw cotton, and opium, as well as cotton
cloths, iron goods, and other European manufactures; their
value was £1,915,427. In the same year, 554 vessels, of
226,911 tons, cleared the port, including 314 British, of
150,826 tons; the chief exports were tea, porcelain, and
paper, and their value was £1,144,046. It is not pos-
sible to give the statistics of the trade that ia carried on
by moans of Chinese junks, but it is said to be large ; and
the native merchants are considered to be among the
wealthiest and most enterprising in China. Amoy was
captured by the British in 1841, after a determined resist-
ance, and is one of the five ports that were opened to
British commerce by the treaty of 1842; it is now open to
the ships of all nationa. The population of Amoy ia esti-
mated at 250,000.
AMPERE, ANDEi-MABiB, the founder of the science of
electro-dynamics, was bom at Lyons in January 1775. Ha
took a passionate delight in the pursuit of knowledge from
his very infancy, and is reported to have worked out lengthy
arithmetical sums by means of pebbles and biscuit-crumbs
before he knew the figures. His father began to ttach
him Latin, but left this off on discovering the boy's greater
inclination and aptitude for mathematical studies. The
young Ampere, however, soon resumed hia Latin lessons,
to enable him to m.aster the works of Euler and Bemouilli.
In later life he was accustomed to say that he knew aa
much about mathematics when he waa eighteen aa ever he
kuew; but his reading embraced nearly the whole round of
knowledge, — history, travels, poetry, philosophy, and the
natural sciences. At tTiin age he had read the whole of the
Encyclopedic, and with such interest and attention that ha
could repeat passages from it fifty years after. When
Lyons was taken by the army of the Convention in 1793,
the father of Ampere, who, holding the ofiice of juge de
paix, had stood out reaolutcly against the previous rovolil-
A M P — A M P
749
tionary excesses, was at once thrown Into prison, and soon
after perished on the scaffold. This event produced such
an impression on the susceptible mind of Ampere, that he
continued for more than a year iu a state little removed
from idiocy. But Rousseau's letters on botany falling into
his hands, the subject engrossed him, and roused him from
hia apathy. His passion for knowledge returned. From
botany he turned to the study of the classic poets, and to
the writing of verses himself. About this time (1796) an
attachment sprang up, the progress of which he naively
recorded in a journal [Amorum). In 1799 he was happily
married to the object of his attachment. From about
1796 Ampere gave private lessons at Lyons in mathe-
matics, chemistry, and languages; and in 1801 he removed
to Bourg, as professor of physics and chemistry, leaving
his ailing wife and infant son at Lyons. His wife died in
1804. After two years' absence he returned to Lyons, on
his appointment as professor of mathematics at the
Lyceum. His small treatise. Considerations sur la Theorie
Mathematique da Jeu (Lyons, 1802), in which he success-
fully solved a problem that had occupied Buffon, Pascal,
and others, and demonstrated that the chances of play are
decidedly against the habitual gambler, attracted consider-
able attention. It was this work that brought him imder
the notice of M. Delambre, whose recommendation obtained
for him the Lyons appointment, and afterwards (1805) a
subordinate position in the Polytechnic School at Paris,
where he was elected professor of analysis in 1809. Here
he continued to prosecute his scientific researches and his
multifarious studies with unabated diligence. He was
admitted a member of the Institute in 1814. It is on the
service that he rendered to science in establishing the rela-
tions between electricity and magnetism, and in developing
the science of electro-magnetism, or, as he called it, electro-
dynamics, that Ampere's fame mainly rests. On the 1 1 th
of September 1820 he heard of the discovery of Professor
Oersted of Copenhagen, that a magnetic needle may be
deflected by a voltaic current. On the 18th of the same
month he presented a paper to the Academy, containing a
far more complete exposition of the phenomenon, which he
had in the interval investigated by experiment, and show-
ing that magnetic defects can be produced, without magnets,
by aid of electricity alone. In particular he showed that
two wires connecting the opposite poles of a battery attract
or repel each other according as the cm'rents pass in the
same or in opposite directions. According to the theory
of magnetLsm which Ampfere's subsequent investigations
led him to adopt, every molecule of magnetic matter is
acted on by a closed electric current, and magnetisation
takes place iu proportion as the direction of these currents
approaches parallelism. The whole field thus opened up
he explored with characteristic industry and care. He
anticipated the invention of the electric telegraph, having
suggested in 1821 an apparatus of the kind with a sepa-
rate wire for each letter. Late in life he prepared a
remarkable work on the classification of the sciences, which
was published after his death. In addition to this and
one or two works of less importance, he wrote a great
number of memoirs and papers that appeared in scientific
journab. He died at Marseilles in Juno 1836. The great
amiabUity and child-like simplicity of Ampfere's character
are well brought out in his Journal el Con'espondence,
published by Madame Chevreux (Paris, 1872).
AMPfiRE, Jean-Jacques-Antoine, the only child of
the preceding, was born at Lyons, August 12, 1800. Ho
ahowed an early preference for literary pursuits, and this
was strengthened by his intimate intercourse with the
brilliant circle to whi;h his introdu-^tion to Madame
IWcamier's celebrated reunions admitted him. He began
lii3 literary career as a contributor to the Olohe and lievue
Franfaise, which Guizot conducted in opposition to the
government of Charles X. After spending some time in
travel, he commenced a course of lectures at the Athenaeum
of Marseilles in 1830, the first of which, De VHisloire de
la PoSsie, he published. The revolution of July led to his
return to Paris, where he lectured at the Sorbonne, till,
in 1833, he succeeded Andrieux as professor of the history
of French literature in the college of France. His lectures
here, which were greatly admired, form the basis of several
works, particularly of his Hiatoire litteraire de la France
avant le \1me Siecle, 3 vols., Paris, 1839, 1840. Ampere
was a constant contributor to various periodical publica-
tions. He wrote for the Revue des Deux Mondes sprightly
accounts of his long journeys in Egypt and North America,
as well as in various parts of Europe, which were siter-
wards collected under the title, LiUerature et Voyages (2
vols., 1834). Hia principal work is the Histoire Romaine
a Rome (4 vols., 1856-64), a series of papers, reprinted in
part from the Revue des Deux Mondes, showing shrewd
sense and great and varied learning, particularly on
archffiological questions, and written in an attractive though
often discursive style. Ampfere was officer of the Legion
of Honour from 1846, and in 1847 was admitted to tho
French Academy. He died March 27, 1864.
AMPHIARAUS, in Greek legend, a son of Oicles and
Hypermnestra, descended on the paternal side from tho
kiiigly seer Melampus, and, like his ancestor, endowed with
the prophetic gift ; but at the same time known for his
valour in the great enterprises of his time — the expedition
of the Argonauts and the hunt of the Calydonian boar.
The expedition, however, on which the chief events of his
life hinge is that of the Seven against Thebes, into which
he was unwillingly driven by the treachery of his wife,
Eriphyle (Odyssey, xL 326), a sister of Adrastus, who then
ruled in Sicyon, and by whom the enterprise was planned
to restore Polynices to the throne of Thebes. As prince of
Argos, Amphiaraus was in a position to assist greatly; but
when called upon by Adrastus to take a part, he declined, on
the ground that the cause was unholy, and would end
fatally.- His marriage with Eriphyle, however, had not
only been meant to heal previous quarrels between him
and Adrastus, but was to be a bond of peace for the
future in this way, that she should always arbitrate between
them. To secure her favour now, Polynices gave her the
fatal necklace which Cadmus had once given to Harmonia,
and, though warned of the consequences, Eriphyle accepted it
and decided against her husband. Knowing that he would
never return, Amphiaraus enjoined his son Alcma^on, then
a boy, to avenge his death upon his mother ; and to his
children generally he gave wise counsel Aste stepped into
his chariot to depart he turned with a look of anger towards
his wife, a scene which was represented on the chest of
Cypselus. The assault of Thebes was disastrous to the
Seven ; and Amphiaraus, pursued by Periclymenus, would
have fallen by his spear had not Jupiter, at a critical
moment, struck the earth \^'ith a thunderbolt, and caused it
to open and swallow Tiim with his horses, Thoas and Dias,
his chariot, and his charioteer, Baton. Jupiter and Apollo, it
is said in the Odyssey (xv. 245), loved Amphiaraus dearly;
yet he did not reach an old age, but feU at Thebes, through
the gift accepted by his wife. After death he continued,
as a deified hero, to exercise his prophetic power by giving
oracles on the spot where he had simk into tho earth. In
earlier times this was believed to have happened at Uarma,
on the way from Thebes to Potnia:, and it was there that
tho oracle of Amphiaraus was which Crceeus and Mar-
donius consulted (Herodotus, I 49, 52; viiL 134). After-
wards this oracle yielded to that in the neighbourhood
of Oropus, where was also a sanctuary to Amphiaraus
(Jupiter Amphiaraus, as ho was styled), with athletic auJ
750
A M P — A MP
musical festivals in Lis honour, and with a sacred enclosure
(temenos) in which were two springs. At one of them he
was thought to have risen from the lower world, and hence
its water was employed for no sacred purpose. Invalids
who had been cured by oracular prescriptions threw a piece
of money in it. The water of the other spring was ex-
cellent to drink and to bathe in {'Afirl>iapilov Xourpa). The
oracles were conveyed in dreams, to obtain which it was
necessary vo fast for a time, then to offer sacrifice at the
great altar (Pau^inias, L 34, 2), and again to sacrifice a
ram and to sleep on its skin. The ruins of the temple,
with inscriptions which identify them as such, exist ctilj
at Maurodilissi, in the ancient Oropia. In the derivation
of his name from o/ii/)! lipaa^ai, the piety for which Amjihi-
araus was celebrated is expressed. (a. b. m.)
AMPHIBIA
LINNyEUS originally employed this term to denote a
class of the Animal Kingdom comprising crocodiles,
lizards and salamanders, snakes and Ccecilice, tortoises
and turtles, and frogs ; to which, in the later editions of
the Systema Natura, he added some groups of fishes. In
the Tableau Eiemenlaire, published in 1795, Cuvier
adopts Linnocus's term in its earlier sense, but uses the
French word " Reptiles," already brought into use by
Brisson, as the equivalent of Amphibia, In addition,
Cuvier accepts the Linno^an subdivisions of Amphibia-
lieptilia for the tortoises, lizards (including crocodiles),
salamanders, and frogs ; and A mphibia-Berventa for the
snakes, apodal lizards, and Ccecilice.
In 1799' Brongniart pointed out the wide differences
which separate the frogs and salamanders (which he terms
Batrachia) from the other reptiles; and in 1804, Latreille,^
rightly estimating the value of these difTerences, though he
was not an original worker in the field of vertebrate
zoology, proposed to separate Brongniart's Batrachia from
the class of Jieptilia proper, as a group of equal value, for
which he retained the Linnsan name of Amphibia.
Cuvier went no further than Brongniart, and, in the
Rigne Animal, he dropped the term Amphibia, and substi-
tuted Reptilia for it. Meckel,' on the other hand, while
equally accepting Brongniart's classification, retained the
term Amphibia in its earlier Linnaean sense ; and his
example has been generally followed by German writers ;
as, for instance, by Stannius, in that remarkable monument
of accurate and extensive research, the Handhuch der
Zootomie (Zweite Auflage, 1856).
In 1816, De Blainville,' adopting Latreille's view, divided
the LLnnsean Amphibia into SqvamifSres and Nudipelliferes,
or Amphibiens ; though he offered an alternative arrange-
ment, in which the class Reptiles is preserved and divided
into two sub-classes, the Omithoidcs and the Ichihyoides.
The latter are Brongniart's Batrachia, plus the Ccecilice,
whose tnii) affinities had, in the meanwhile, been shown
by Dum^ril; and, in this arrangement, the name Amvhibient
b restricted to' Proteus and Siren.
Merrem's Pholidota and Batrachia (1820), Leuckart's
Monopnoa and Dipnoa (1821), Mailer's Squamata and
Nuda (1832), are merely new names for De Blainville's
Omithoides and Ichthyoides, though Miiller gav^ far better
anatomical characters of the two groups than had pre-
viously been put forward. Moreover, following the indica-
tions already given by Von. Bar in 1828,* Miiller calls
the attention of naturalists to the important fact, that
while all the Squamata possess an amnion and an allantois,
these structures are absent in the embryos of all the Nuda.
* BroDgniart's " Essai d'une ClasaiBcation Naturelle des Reptiles"
was uot published in full till 1S03. It appean in the volume of the
iiftnoirts presentls d C Inatitut par divers Savans fo^ 1805.
* Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Hisloire Naturelle, zxiv., cited in i^-
tpeiUe'e Families NaturelUa du Rigne Animal,
* System der Vergteichenden Anatomie, 1821.
* "Prodrome d'une Nouvelle Distribution du Regne Animal,"
BulUtin des Sciencu par la Sociiti Philomatiqua de Faria, 1816,
p. 113.
* Bnlvickelunjs-Oeschichle der Thicrt, p. 26Z
Miiller makes an appeal for observations on the develop-
ment of the Cccciliae, and of those Amphihia which retain
gills or gill-clefts throughout life, which has unfortunately
yielded no fruits from that time to this.
In 1825, Latreille published a new classification of the
Verlebrata,^ which are primarOy divided into Ucematherma,
containing the three classes of Mammifera, Monotremata,
and Aves ; and Ucemacryrrui, also containing three classes
— Reptilia, Amphibia, and Pixel. This division of the
Vertebrata into hot and cold blooded is a curiously retro-
grade step, only intelligible when we reflect that the excel-
lent entomologist had no real comp'rehension of vertebrate
morphology ; but he makes some atonement for the blunder
by steadily upholding the class distinctness of the Amphiiia.
In this he was followed by Dr J. E Gray; but DumAril and
Bibron in their great work,' and Dr Giinther in his Cata-
loffue, in substance, adopt Brongniart's arrangement, the
Batrachia being simply one of the four orders of the class
Reptilia. Professor Huxley has adopted Latreille's view
of the distinctness of the Amphibia, as a class of the Verte-
brata, co-ordinate with the Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia, and
Pisces; and the same arrangement is accepted by Gegenbaur
and HacckeL In the Hunterian lectures delivered at the
Royal College of Surgeons in 1 863, Professor Huxley divided
the Vertebrata into Mammals, Sauroids, and Ichthyoids, the
latter division containing the Amphibia and Pieces. Su'>.
sequently he proposed the names of Sauropsida and Ichlhy-
opsida for the Sauroids and Ichthyoids respectively. It
is proper t" mention, finally, that Professor Owen, in his
work on The Anatomy of Vertebrates, follows l,atreiUe in
dividing the Vertebrata into JIaematotlierma and Ilccma-
tocrya, and adopts Leuckart's term of Ditmoa for the
Amphibia,
The Amphibia are distinguished from the Sauropsida
and Mammalia by very important aid sharply-defined
characters. The visceral arches of the embryo develop
gills, which temporarily, or permanently, perform the respi-
ratory function. There is no trace of an amnion, and it is
still a question whether the urinary bladder, which all.iim-
phibia possess, answers to the allantois of the higher Verte-
brata or not. At any rate, it plays no part in the respira-
tion of the embryo, nor is it an organ by which nutriment
is obtained from the parent. There are two occipital
condyles, and the basi -occipital region of the skull is either
very incompletely, or not at all, ossified. There is no basi-
sphenoidal ossification. 'When young, the Amphibia nro
provided with, at fewest, three, and usuaUy four, cartilagin-
ous, or more or less o.ssified, branchial archeii. Fruui
Pisces, on the other band, they are distinguishable only by
the characters of their lorouiotive apparatus. When they
possess median fins and limbs, these never present fin-
rays ; and the limbs exhibit, in full development, the type
of structure which obtains among the Sauropsida and
Mammalia, and difi'er very widely from the fins of any
fish at present known. This difference obtains even among
, * Families Naturflles du R^ne A nitnaL
' Erptlolugit OmiraU, ou Ilisloire Naturelle comjiUte des P,epfiUi,
1830.
AMPHIBIA
751
the long extinct Amphibia of the Carboniferous epoch. In
other respects, the lower Amphibia approach the Chimcerw,
the Ganoidei, and the Dipnoi very closely ; while, in their
development, they present curious apDroximationa to the
Marsipobranchii.
With respect to the primary subdivisions, or orders, of
the class Amphibia, no one can doubt the propriety of the
separation of the recent forms into what may be broadly
termed Newts {Urodela) ; Frogs and Toads (Anura) ; and
CcecilicB {Peromela) effected by Dum^ril ; while all that ie
known of the organisation of the extinct Amphibia of the
newer Palaeozoic, and older Mesozoic, formations tends to
show that they form a fourth natural assemblage of equal
value to each of the others.
The names of Urodela and Annra, given to the first two
of these divisions, are undoubted!}' open to criticism ; but
if well-understood terms, which have acquired a definite
scientific connotation, are to be changed whenever ad-
vancing knowledge renders them etymologically inappro-
priate, the nomenclature of taxonomy will before long
become hopelessly burdened ; and, to set a good example,
the names of Urodela, Anura, Peromela, and Labyrinlho-
donta are adopted here for the four orders of the A mphibia,
even although it be true that the Labyrinthodonta do
not all possess the dental structure on which the name
was founded ; though there is reason to believe that some
Labyrinthodonts were devoid of limbs, or peromelous ; that
the Anura are not more tail-less than are the Peromela;
and that the tails of the Urodela are not more conspicuous
than were those of the Labyrinthodonts.
The Urodela are Amphibia with elongated bodies and
relatively short limbs; devoid of scales or pectoral plates,
with numerous prje-caudal vertebrae, and with amphicoalous,
or opisthocoelous, vertebral centra. The hyoidean arch re-
mains connected with the suspensorium throughout life,
and its comua are large in proportion to its body. The
mandible is dentigerous. There are one or two pairs of
limbs, the pectoral arch and limbs being always prestmt.
The manus never possesses more than four digits. The
bones of the antebrachiun and of the eras remain distinct,
and the tarsus is not elongated. So far as the spermatozoa
are known, they are elongated filaments with a vibratile
, fringe. The larva develops external gills only ; and, except
Siren, none are known to possess, at any time, a horny
masticatory apparatus.'
The Anuea have relatively short and broad bodies, and
■ both pairs of limbs are constantly present, the hinder
being the longer and stronger. There are no scales, nor
( pectoral plates, but ossification sometimes occurs in the
dorsal integument. The vertebrae vary in character, but
are usually proccelous. The prae-sacral vertebrie never
I exceed nine in number, and the caudal portion of the verte-
bral column is represented by a pecuhar styliform coccyx.
The hyoidean arch detaches itseljf from the suspensorium,
I and almost always becomes connected with the pro-otic
I region of the skulL The comua are usually slender, as
compared with the broad body of the hyoid. The mandible
is almost always devoid of teetL The bones of the ante-
brachium and of the eras early ankylose, and the astragalus
and calcaneum are much elongated The manus has a
rudimentary fifth digit Except in Bomlinator, the sperma-
tozoa have flagelliform appendages, like those of ordinary
Vertebrala. The larvae develop first external, and after-
wards internal, gills, and, so far as is known at present, are
provided with deciduous horny masticatory plates. The gill
' ThiB circunuUnu appears to hav« bocn remarked only by MUller.
Speaking of the larvB of the Salamandera, he ««y« — " Sie baben ulcht
den Ilomschuabel der Froicblaryen." — {Bntrag tur Anal. d«r Amphi-
^ien, p. 209.) Duiniril and. Bibton affirm the contmry (op. cit.. i. Ix
■j>.ia».
apertures are closed by the growing over them of an opeM
cular membrane.
The Peeomela have snake-like bodies, totally devoid of
limbs and limb arches. In most, the integument is pro-
vided with transverse rows of imbedded cycloid scales, but
there are no pectoral plates. The vertebrae of the trunki
are very numerous, and are amphicoelous ; those of the,
■ caudal region are very few, and are free. The hyoideaa'
arch is attached neither to the suspensorium, nor to the
skull; its cornua are very slender, and no distinct body,
is developed ; it is followed by several slender, hoop-
like, branchial arches. The mandible is dentigerouai
Nothing is known of the early stages of development ; but!
MiiUer discovered branchial clefts, with rudimentary bran-
chial filaments, in young CoEcilice.
The Labtrinthodonta for the most part resembled the
Urodela in the proportions of the tail and limbs to tha
body, but some (as Ophiderpeton) were serpentiform, and
apparently apodal ; no raniform Labyrinthodonts have yet
been discovered. The vertebrae are amphicoelous. The
mandible is dentigerous. The bones of the antebrachium'
and crus remain distinct, and the tarsus is not elongated.
The manus and pes appear to have been pentadactyle.
Three sculptured pectoral plates and a peculiar dermal
armour of small scales, confined to the ventral face of tha
body, are present in many genera. Nothing is known of
the early stages of development, but the yonng Archegosaurui
appear to have possessed ossified branchial arches.
In giving a sketch of the organisation of the Amphibia,'
it will be necessary to enter much more fully into tho
characters of the skeleton than into those of the other
systems of organs.
The Vertebral Column, Ribs, and Sternum. — Leaving tha
extinct Archegosauna aside for the present, all the Amphibia
possess well-ossified vertebrae, the arches of which, in the
adult condition (except, perhaps, in some Labyrinthodonts),
are not separated by a neuro-central suture from tha
centra. The latter may be amphicoelous, as in the lower
Urodela, the Peromela, and the Labyrinthodonta ; or opis-
thocoelous, as in the higher Urodela and some Anura {e.g.,
Pipa and Bombinator) ; or procoelous, as in the majority,
of the Anura (with the exception of the eighth vertebra,'
which is usually amphicoelous ; and of the ninth, whichi
commonly has one convexity in front and two behind).'
In all the recent forms which have been examined, the
centra and intervertebral masses contain more or less dis-
tinct remains of the notochord. The arches of the trunk
vertebrffi are connected by zygapophyses ; the spinous pro-
cesses are usually low, but attain a great relative length ia|
the caudal reaion of some of the Labyrinthodonts {e.g.
Urocordylus). Transverse processes are present in all tha
trunk vertebrae, except the atlas ; they are shortest in the
Peromela, longest in the Anura. In most Urodela, these;
transverse processes, at any rate in the anterior trurik ver-
tebrae, are divided into two portions, a dorsal and a ventral,
which diverge towards their free ends ; or, more strictly:
speaking, these processes are made up of two subequal trans-
verse processes, a dorsal "tubercular" process, and a ventraj
" capitular " process. Sometimes this division prevails through-
out the whole length of the trunk, but, more commonly, the
two transverse processes become fused into one, posteriorly.
In the long-bodied Urodela {Siren, Proteus, Amphiuma),
only a small nimiber of the vertebrae which succeed tlia
atlas present traces of double transverse processes ; further
back, the coalesced transverse processes form trihedral pnv
jections, their dorsal and ventral contours converging
instead of diverging, and giving a v^ry^aracteristic aspect
tp these vertebrtD.
752
AMPHIBIA
In lome Labyrinthodont.s, the capitular and tubercular
processes, divergent and Bubequal in Bome (probably the
anterior) vertebraj, coalesco into one in other vertebra: ;
and the capitular division being shorter than the tubercular,
transverse processes, like those of the nxiddlo thoraci'' region
of the crocodiles, are thus produced.
In the Peromela, there is a short capitular process, but
the tubercular process is represented by a mere facet
placed below the prezygapophysis.
In the Anura, finally, the vertebras have only a single
transverse process (possibly representing the coalesced
double transverse processes of the posterior trunk vertebras
of such Urodda as Menopoma), whicL in some of the
vertebrae, may attain a great length.
Eibs are present in a few Anura, in all Urodela, Peromela,
and Labyrinthodonta ; and, in the last-named and some Uro-
dela, they attain as great relative dimensions as in other
Yertchrata. But they are always vertebral ribs, no Amphibian
being known to possess more than rudiments of sternal ribs.
The atlas is never provided with ribs. In the Peromela, ribs
ate bome by all the other vcrtebrrc, except the very hind-
most. In the long-bodied UrodcUif on the other hand, they
are restricted to a few of the anterior vertebrae. In the
other Urodela they are usually confined to the proesacral
and sacral vertebraj ; but, in some cases, one or two of the
anterior caudal vertebra) have free ribs. The form of the
proximal end of the rib corresponds \rilh that of the
transverse processes or process. Where this is double,
the rib presents a fork, formed by the capitulum alid
tuberculum ; and when the capitular and tubercular trans-
verse processes are of equal length, the capitula and tuber-
cula of the ribs are equal ; but when either of the former
is shorter than the other, the corresponding part of the
rib is longer. The Peromda have no sternum, and that
of the Labyrinthodouta (if they possessed any) is un-
known. In the Urodela, the sternum never ossifies, and
there i." no trace of even a cirlllaginous sternum in Proteus.
In Meitobranchus, there is a very small cartilaginous sternal
plate, which sends Literal prolongations into two of the inter-
muscular ligaments, rc['roscnting rudimentary sternal ribs.
In the Newts 1 tho stcmura becomes a broad and stout
plate of cartilage, with a median, posterior, cristate, xiphoid
process, and with articular surfaces on its antero-lateral
margins for the reception of the coracoids. The sternum
attains its highest development in the raniform Anura, the
xiphoid process becoming elongated and dilated at its ex-
tremity, and more or less converted into bone, while calci-
fication of the body of the sternum itself mav also occur.
no I.— TheBnt IwOTCrtebm of ifawpcma (x -\. Fl', «tlM; TP, tcccnd
Tertetira; a, Intercondylold processor thentlftfl; b. thearticalarsurfuce&fortnc
occiritol condyles. The ribs of the secoDd vertebra are not represented. A.
dorsal ; B, ventr-al ; C, lateral view.
i^See Parker On Ihe Shoulder OirdU, pp. 63, 68.
In the Urodela, the first vertebra always presents two
slightly concave articular facets, the faces of which look
outwards and forwards to adapt themselves to the occipital
condyles. Between these facets, tho dorsal moiety of the
anterior face of the centrum gives rise to a process, which
is little more than a ridge in Proteu», but in other genera
becomes very prominent, and has a curious resemblance to
tho odontoid process of the axis vertebra of a bird. This
"intercondylold" process of tho atlas Bometimes(vlm/)Ati(j7ia,
e.g.) exhibits on each side, near its termination, an articular
facet, which plays on a corresponding facet of the adjacent
face of the occipital condyle.
Mayer (Analecten, p. 10) was misled by the form of this
process into tho supposition that the vertebra to which it
belongs is not the atlas, but the odontoid, vertebra. But
there is a similar process of tho first vertebra in the Rays,
and the relations of the vertebra to the nerves show that
it is certainly not tho homologue of the axis vertebra of
other Verteorates. The first spinal nerve, which has the
distribution of the hypo-glossal of the higher Vrrtebrala,
passes out of the spinal canal, either between the first and
second vertebra, or through a foramen in the arch of the
first, in the Amphibia, which have no proper suboccipital
nerve. This is a very curious circumstance, and requires
elucidation by the study of development.
In the Anura, the atlas has the same general form, but
tho median process is either inconspicuous, a^ in liana
escnlenta, or may be absent.
Among the Labt/rinthodonta, the atlas of Mastodonsauru*
only is known. It presents two concave facets anteriorly,
separated for about half their length by a notch, which
probably lodged a ligament.
The atlas of the Peromela has the two characteristic
facets for the occipital condyles, but the intercondyloid
process is absent, and the anterior margin of the arch of
the vertebra projects forwards towards the corresponding
margin of the occipital foramen (Epicrium).
In those Urodela which possess posterior limbs (except Pro
teus and Amphiuma), one vertebra, or sometimes two [Meno-
poma), are distinguished .\
from the rest as " sacral" '*'■•.
by having stouter ribs,
the outer ends of which
abut against, and are
united by ligaments
with, the ilia. ■
The Anura always
possess a sacral verte-
bra (sometimes anky-
losed with its predeces-
sor or successor), the
transverse processes of
which are often en-
larged, and sometimes
greatly expanded, at
their iliac ends. The
characters of the sa-
orum of the LabyrinOio-
donta are not kno^vn.
In the Urodela, the
anterior caudal verte-
bra, except the first,
have inferior
which, like the neural &«'. «acrainbs; y/.iiiam; /.. i»:iuom.
arches, are continuously ossified with the centra ; and the
same condition obtained in the caudal vertebrffi of the
Labyiinthodonts.
In the Anura, the caudal vertebrae are replaced ty a
long coccyx, consisting of an osseous style, to the dorsal
aspect of the anterior end of which two neural arches _aro
- Fio. 2. — Menripoma. Posterior (A) and ventral
arches, (H) views of the sacral vertebras (5.r.l; 5J:'.
AMPHIBIA
753
ankylosed. The anterior face of the style usually presents
two concavities (one in Bomhinator and some other genera),
which articulate with the corresponding convexities on the
posterior face of the
<;entrum of the sa-
cral vertebra. The
number of the verte-
IjrsB in the spinal
column of the Uro-
dela and Peromela
varies very much.
In the long-bodied
Urodela and P&t'O- ^'''- '■ — * caudal veitebra of Mtiiopoma. y, oeoral
^ , arch ; C, centrum ; Z, Z^, pr«- and post-zygapo-
mela th^ may be physes ; T.p. transverse proceSB ; S. K sub-veite-
very numerous. "ralorcl.. A, lateral; B, posterior .lew.
According to Cuvier, Coedlia has 230 ; Siren, 99; Amphi-
uma, 75 ; in Menobranchus there are 18 prje-sacral and 25
■caudal; in Salamandra, 15 and 26; and a similar varia-
tion appears to have obtained in the Labyrinthodonts. On
the other hand, in the Anw-a the niunber of vertebrae (ex-
cluding the coccyx) ia very constantly nine ; though this
number undergoes an apparent reduction, in some cases,
liy the ankylosis of the iirst and second vertebrae (Cera-
iophrys darsuta, Pipa, Dactylethra, Breviceps), and in others
by that of the sacral vertebra with the coccyx {Pipa,
Dactylethra, Breviceps, Pelobates).
In the carboniferous Labyrinthodont, Archegosauriu, the
notochord appears to have persisted throughout life, and
the ossification of the centra of the vertebrae to have gone
no further than the development of bony rings, such as
those with which the ossification of the centra of the verte-
br<e of a tadpole commences.
The Cranium. — The skull is always very depressed,
and is usually broad in proportion to its length, though, in
this respect, there is considerable variation, the skulls of
Proteus, Menobranchus, and Amphiuma being narrow, when
compared with those of Siredon, Menopoma, and the Anura.
The occipital foramen is situated in the middle of the
posterior face of the cranium, and there are always two
occipital condyles. The long axis of the suspensorium, or
pedicle by which the mandible is connected with the side-
walls of the brain-case, varies much in its direction —
passing obliquely downwards and forwards in the lower
Amphibia and in the larval condition of all, but swinging
lack until it stands out at right angles to the axis of the
skull, or. becomes directed downwards and backwards, in
tlie higher Amphibia. The suspensorium is almost immov-
able upon the skull, being clamped thereto by the squa-
mosal bone, besides being, as a general rule, united with
some part of the wall of the skull by Aynchondrosis.
The " primordial skull," or chondro-cranium, usually
remains, to a great extent, unossified, even in the adult.
In the Urodela, the hyoidean arch is always connected by
strong ligaments with the suspensorium; but, in the Anura
and in the Peromela, it becomes completely detached from
the suspensorium, and may be free (Peromela), or acquire a
new attachment to the periotic region of the skull in front
of iha fenestra ovalis {Anura).
The bones which are always present in the Amphibian
skull are the exoccipital, pro-otic, parasphenoid, vomer,
parietal, frontal, squamosal, premaxillary, palatine, quad-
rate, dcntary, splenial, and angular. The basi-occipital
and the basisphenoid are always absent, or are repre-
sented by mere partial calcifications of the chondro-
cranium. There is always a fenestra ovalis closed by a
stapes. The branchial arches do not exceed four pairs in
number, and, in the pcrennibranchiato Amphibia, there are
never fewer than three pairs.
The skull of the Frog (Figs. 4-7), as the most acccsBible
member of tne group, and that, the development of which
has been most carefully studied, may be taken as the
starting-point from whence to follow the various modifica-
tions of the Amphibian skulLt At the |ides of the occipi-
tal foramen,
it presents two
large exoccipi-
tal ossifica-
tions {E. 0.),
which bear the
prominent oc-
cipital con
dyles, and, in
old specimens,
may meet in
the middle
ventral line.
Dorsally, how-
ever, they re-
main sepa-
rated by a
narrow tract
of cartilage,
which may be-
come more or
less .calcified.
External, to
the condyles,
are the fora-
niina,by which
the vagus and
glosso-pharyn-
geal nerves
emerge from
the cranial
cavity; and,
beyond these,
the bones ex-
pand outwards
and forwards,
so as to em-
brace the pos-
terior half of
the fenestra
ovalis, whije
above, they
enclose the
greater part of
the posterior
vertical semi-
circular canal
The cartilage
which incloses
the summit of
the arch of
that canal,
however, ap-
pears always
to remain un-
ossified, and
its place is oc-
cupied by a
groove in the
-s^<
Fi08. 4, 5, 6, 7- — Dorsal, ventral, lateral, and posterior vlewi
or the akall of Rana esculenla. Tho letters have the sama
alRTilflcatlon throuehout. /*mT. premaxUla; i/x. maxUla;
Vo. vomer; Ifa, nasal; Sx. •phen-ethmold; /V. ftontal;
Pa. parietal; E o. exoccipital; Ep. cpiotlc process; Pr.O
pro-otic; t.t. tcjfmcn tymp&nl; S^.squamosul ; Q-/. quad-
reto-jUKal; Pt.^ ptcrycold, anicrior proceaa; A.* Internal
process: Pt.' posterior or external pioccM; C.a. columel'a
auila; St. stapes; //y. hyoidean cornu; PS. parnnphcnold;
^n. angiilare; />. dcntnle. V. foramen of exit of tho trlce-
mlnal; IL of tho optic; X. of the pncumopa-'irie and
glosso-pliaryngeiil nerves; V.' foramen by which tho
orbltu-iia-al ur tini dlviftiOQ Of Lho Qftb paascB to the
noaal cavity
diyflkull (Fig.
4, £p.) These ossifications, therefore, answer primarily
to the eioccipitals, but, in addition, represent the
opisthotic and epiotic elements. Above the fenestra
ovalisf the wall of tho otic capsule is produced out-
wards into a stout shelf, which forms the roof of the
tympanic cavity, and corresponds with the tegmen (yvtr
95
754
A 31 P }i 1 B I A
}iani in man {1.1.) Tlib is largely ossified in continuity
with the exoccipital' posteriorly, and the pro-otic (to
which in all probability it properly belongs) in front.
The outer extremity of tho tcgmen, however, remains car-
tilaginous, and, in front, it passes into a curved band
of cartilage, which, as it is continued backwards into tho
Buspensorium, may be termed tho " dorsal cms" of tho
Buspensorium (Fig. 9, c.d.) Tho T-shaped squamosal bone
(Sq.) sends a broad, flat proces.'i inwards, which rests upon
the tegtntn tympani, while its long descending process lies
external to the cartilaginous suspensorium, and tho pos-
terior half of its cross-piece, or proper squamoso-zygomatic
part, has tho same relation to the dorsal cms of the suspen-
sorium. The suspensorium has a second attachment to
the skull, by a "ventral eras" (B'ig. 9, c.v.), which diverges
from the dorsal crus at tho anterior extremity of tho sus-
pensorium, and is continued yito two branches. One of
these, passing outwards and forwards, becomes tho ptery-
goid cartilage. Tho other (Fig. 9, pd.), directed backwards
and inTards, may bo termed tho " pedicle of the suspen-
sorium ;" it becomes thickened at its inner extremity, and
articulates with a facet in front of the fenestra ovalis, and
close to the attachment of the hyoidcan comu. A thin
fibrous band extends from this inferior crus to the side
walls of the skull, passing between tho first division of tho
fifth nervo in front, and tho second and third divisions
behind. Tho space between the dorsal crus of the 8u.spen-
Borium and tho pedicle is filled, in the fresh state, with
fibrous tissue, which constitutes the anterior boundary of
the tjinpanum. It is traversed (as Dug^s long since pointed
out) by tho posterior division of the seventh nerve, which
therefore lies above the pedicle. The pro-otic ossification
(Pr. 0.) not only walls in tho anterior part of the otic
capsule, but extends for a short distance forwards in the
side walls of tho skulL Hence, the foramen of exit for
the trigeminal and portio dura (V.) is pierced in this por-
tion of tho pro-otic ; and the foramen for the sixth nerve
is seen at its lower margin. In front of the pro-otic, the
lateral walls of the skull remain cartilaginous for some
distance, and are perforated by the large optic foramen
(II.) Anteriorly to the exit of the optic nerves, the side
walls of tho skull are formed by elongated plates of bone,
which are parts of an extensive ossification of the jyiterior
moiety of the brain-case and the posterior part of tho nasal
capsules, constituting the complex structure termed by
Cuvier "os en ceinture," and by Dugis "ethmoido." As
it takes the place of the ethmoid, presphenoid, and orbito-
sphenoids, it may be termed the sphen-eihmoid {S.e.) It
may be compared to a dice-box, one-half of which is
divided by a longitudinal partition. This half is anterior,
the longitudinal partition being represented by the ossified
mesethmoid ; while the posterior, undivided, half lodges
the anterior portion of the cerebral hemispheres and the
olfactory lobes. The front wall of this posterior cavity is
perforated by the olfactory foramina ; while the outer and
l>03terior wall of each anterior, or nasal, chamber presents,
where it forms the anterior and inner boundary of the
orbit, a small aperture (V) through which the orbito-na^al
nerve-passes. The exoccipitals, pro-otics, and sphen-ethmoid
are ossifications which involve the chondrocranium,
though they largely consist of secondary bone. The supra-
occipital is represented, if at aU, by a mere calcification
of the cartilage, and the like is true of the quadrate, which
is an ossification of the distal end of the suspensorium.
The quadrate, however, very early becomes continuous with
a slender style of membrane bone, the proper jugal, which
applies itself to tho inner face of tho posterior end of the
^ Dug&a (p. 37) states that the pro-otic and the czoccipital always
remain distLDct in Rana tsculenta ; but it ia common to find them
extenfiivel^ ankylosed and inseparable in oM &ogs of this species.
ifaaxilla, and thus gives rise to the quadrato-Jngal (Q.J.)
Ligamentous fibres also connect tho anterior end of the
zygomatic process of the squamosal directly with the ptery-
goid, and indirectly with tho maxilla and jugal, and pass
from the same process to the frontoparietal bone, forming
a fascia over the levators of the mandible, and encircling
tho orbit A strong band is continued forwards, over the
ascending process of the maxilla, to the alinasal cartilage
of the chondrocranium,
Tho short prcmaxilte [Pmx.) are united suturally in the
middle line, and have Btout ascending processes, which
become closely connected with the " rhinal processes" by
means of oval nodules of cartilage adherent to their posto
rior surfaces. Tho long maxilla) unite with the premaiillas
in front, and with the jugals behind : each sends up a short
anterior ascending process towards tho alinasal cartilage,
with which it is united by ligament,' and further back,
gives off a longer ascending process which becomes con-
nected with the nasal bones. The palatine bones (PL) are
straight, slender, and flattened. They lie transversely
to the axis of tho skull, behind the posterior nares,
closely applied to the ventral surface of the sphen-ethmoid
and of the antorbital processes of the chondrocranium.
Externally they come into contact with the pter}'goids
and maxiUs ; internally and anteriorly with the vomers.
Each pterj'goid (Pt.) is a triradiato bone, with an anterior,
an inner, and a posterior, or outer, ray. The first, or
anterior, process of the pterygoid (PO) is the longest,
and lies, for a considerable distance, in contact with the
maxilla, reaching forward to tho outer extremity of the
palatine. Tho second (Pfi) underlies the pedicle of the
suspensorium, and comes into contact with the end of tho
transversely elongated, sub-auditory, portion of the jjara-
sphenoid. The third, or posterior, process of the pterygoid
(/'<') is prolonged, in correspondence with the backward
elongation of the suspensorium, along the inner side of
which it lies, as far as the articulation of the mandible.
The vomers ( Vo.) are broad triangular plates of bone, with
irregularly-notched outer edges, which are closely applied
to the ventral surface of the sphen-ethmoid. Their inner
edges are separated by a narrow interval, and each bears
numerous teeth, set along a lino which is not quite trans-
verse to the axis of the skull. On the dorsa4 aspect of the
skull two elongated flattened bones, united in a median
suture, represent the coalesced frontal and parietals (Fr.,
Pa.), which are separate in the young frog. In front of
these, also meeting in the middle line, are two triangular
bones, the apices of which extend outwards to the ascend-
ing processes of the maiillse, and which roof over the nasal
capsules (Na.) These correspond in position and relations
with the nasal and so-called "prefrontal" bones of Saurop-
sida, and perhaps with the lachrymals : for brevity's sake,
they may be termed nasals.
The parasphenoid has the form of a dagger with a very
wide guard and short handle. The latter lies beneath the
ventral junction of the exoccipitals, while the blade extends
forwards, and its point underlies the posterior moietjr of the
sphen-ethmoid, but does not reach the vomers. The "guard"
passes outwards on each side beneath the auditory capsules,
and ends by an abruptly-truncated extremity, its anterior
and external angle coming into relation with the inner
process of the pterygoid.
The slender, permanently cartilaginous, hyoidean comu
(lit/.) passes into the cartilage of the auditory capsule on
the ventral side, between the fenestra ovalis and the articu-
lar surface for the inferior crus of the suspensorium. The
fenestra pval's lies in a cartilaginous interspace between
the eioccipital and the pro-otic, and is filled by the oval
" The small ospiflcationa in this region, termed " cornets " by Du^^
were absent in the skoU figured.
AMPHIBIA
755
cartilaginous slape3 (St.) The anterior face of tliia pre-
sents a concave facet, for articulation with a corresponding
surface occupying the posterior half of the inner end of
the columella aurU (C. a.), the anterior half of which fits
into a fossa in the pro-otic bone. The columella auris
itself consists of tluee portions — a middle elongated osseous
rod, an inner swollen and enlarged cartilaginous part, which
articulates partly with the pro-otic and partlj with the stapes,
and an outer portion, which is elongated at right angles
to the rest, fixed into the tympanic membrane, and attached
by its dorsal end to the legmen tympani.
I The mandible presents one cartilaginous and tnree
osseous constituents on each side. Of the latter, one,
the " Mento-Meckelian " (Parker), ia a short curved rod of
bone, which unites with its fellow in the symphysis, and is,
in fact, the ossified symphysial end of Meckel's cartilage,
which extends thence through the length of the ramus,
becoming thicker posteriorly, and furnishing the articular
surface for the quadrate. The second, and largest, bony
constituent of the mandible is a long membrane bone,
which ensheaths the inner and under region of the outer
surface of Meckel's cartilage, rising at one part into a
low coronoid process. It obviously represents the angular,
coronary, and splenial elements, and may be termed the
angulo-splenial {An.) A small dentary element, which
bears no teeth, lies over the outer face of the anterior half
of Meckel's cartilage.
The hyoidean apparatus of the admc irog (Fig. 8) pre-
sents a body and two slender cornua. The body consists of
a broad and thin squarish plate of
cartilage, produced on each side into
three processes, which may be called
anterior, lateral, and posterior. The
anterior process (a) is slender, curves
outwards, and very soon divides in-
to two processes, one short, anterior,
forming a loop by its Ugamentary
connection with the second, or pos-
terior, branch, which passes into
the long and slender cornu of the >» '•~d-
hyoid. The lateral process (6) passes Fm. s.— vcntm yiew ot ite
outwards and shghtly dorsad-ex- ^J,''i?^://,'";ir,"rpol
panding into a broad, hatchet-shaped teiior pvoocsso; <i, ibjro-
free extremity. The posterior pro- .'
cess (c) is a mere prolongation of the postero-Iateral angles
of the body of the hyoid. Finally, from the middle of the
posterior margin of the body of the hyoid there project
two strong bony rods, wider at the ends than in the
middle, which embrace the larynx, and have been termed
the thyro-hyah {d).
The parieto-frontals, nasals, premaiilla;, maxillae, squa-
mosals, palatines, pterygoids, and parasphenoid, the dentary
and angiilo-opercular bones, may be removed from the frog's
skull without injury to the chondrocranium, the structure
of which then becomes apparent (Fig. 9).
It furnishes a floor, side walls,- and roof to the brain
case, interrupted only by a large space (fontanelle), covered
in by membrane, which lies in the interorbital region under
the parieto-frontals ; and by the foramina for the exit of the
cranial nerves. It consists entirely of cartilage, except
where the exoccipitals, the pro-otics, and the sphcn-eth-
moid invade its substance. In front of the septum of the
anterior cavity of the sphenethmoid, it is continued for-
ward, between the two nasal sacs, as the cartilaginous
septum narium, from which are given oflf, dorsally and ven-
trally, transverse alao of cartilage, which furnish a roof and
a floor, respectively, to the nasal chamber. Of these, the
floor is the wider. The dorsal and ventral aim pass into
one another where the chondrocranium ends anteriorly,
and give rise tQ a truncated terminal face, which is wide
'^••* to:' Su.j:
Fio. 9. — Chondrocranlom of Rana escvjfnta — ventral
aspect. r.p. the i hinol process ; p.nl. the praenasal pro-
cesses: a.n, the alinasal processes, shown by tbe removal
of part of I he floor of the Icfl nasal chamber; A.O- the
antorbital process; pd. the pedicle of the snspcnsoiium
continued Into c.v, the ventral cms of the euspen-
Borium ; (ji. Its dorsal cms; It. the tcgrnen tyrarani;
S.S.the sphcn-ethmold ; £.0, the exoccipitals; Qti.J. ti\o
qundratojugaL It. V. VI. foramina by which the optic,
tiif;cmlnal and portio duio, and abducena nerves leave
the skua
from side to side, narrow from above downwards, and
convex in the latter direction. The lateral angles of this
truncated face are produced outwards and forwards into
two flattened prae-nasal processes {p. nl.); these widen ex-
ternally, and end '>-—-_ ^ (7 .-.-rX.
by free edges, " ' ''"^
which support
the adjacent por-
tions of the pre-
maxilliB and
maxillae. From
the ventral face,
just behind the
truncated ante-
rior end of the
chondrocranium,
spring two slen-
der -cartilages
(r.7>., r.p.), which
do not seem to '
have been no-
ticed hitherto.
Each of these
inclines towards
the middle line,
and ends against
the middle of the posterior face of the ascending process
of the premaxilla by a vertically elongated extremity. .
These may be termed the rhinal processes. An oval
nodule of cartilage is attached to the posterior face of
the dorsal end of the ascending process of the premaxilla,
and serves to connect it with the rhinal process. On the
dorsal face of the chondrocranium, just above the point of
attachment of the rhinal processes, the external nasal aper-
tures are situated, and the outer and posterior margins of
each of these apertures is surrounded and supported by a
curious curved process of the cartilaginous ala — the
alinasal process {a.n.) Where the sphenoidal and the
ethmoidal portions of the sphen-ethmoid meet, a stout, trans-
verse, partly osseous and partly cartilaginous, bar {A.O.)
is given ofi', which is perforated, at its origin, by the canal
for the orbito-nasal nerve. It then narrows, but becoming
flattened from above downwards, rapidly -widens again,
and its axe-head-like extremity abuts against the inner fac&
of the maxilla The anterior angle of the axe-head is free;
the posterior angle is continued back into a slender cartilagin-
ous rod, whichbifurcates posteriorly; theouter division passes
into the ventral eras {cv.) of the suspensorium The inner
(prf.) is the pedicle of the suspensorium already described.
Meckel's cartilage, articulated to the free end of tha
suspensorium, is unossified throughout the greater part of
its extent, no osseous articulare being developed; but, at its-
symphysial end, each cartilage becomes ossified, and form?
the " mentoMeckelian" element of the mandible.
The slender cornu of the hyoid passes directly into tha
periotic cartilage immediately in front of, though below, the
fenestra ovaUs. It is unossified throughout its whole length. '
With many variations in detail, the skulls of the Anura
in general are readily reducible to the type of that of tha
frog. In the Aglossa, which difl"er so widely in many
respects from the other Anura. the cranium presents soma
notable peculiarities.
In Dactylelhra^ the skull is similar to that of the ordi-
nary Anura in general form, but the nasal region is small
in proportion to the orbito-temporal space. The fronto-
parietals are ankylosed together, and extend forwards as
far as a lino drawn along the anterior edge of the antorbital
' Compare Mr Parker's full account of the atructtiro of tlio skull oft
Rana Umporaria, Philosophical Transactions, 1371,
' Tills <lcscriptioa applies espocially to D. lacvia*
756
AMPHIBIA
processes. "* Here they overlap a very singular bone, consist-
ing of two broad als, wLich lio between the anterior edge of
the frontal and the external nares, and of a median portion
-which ia continued forwards, as a nanow, flat, curved process,
between the naaal chambers, being received into a sort of
groove of the chondrocranium. The bone is readily raised
,up from the subjacent chondrocranium, of which it appears
to be quite independent. At the outer end of each of its
ala;, and between the antorbital process and the nasal
capsule, is a small, transversely elongated, slender bone,
loosely connected by fibrous tissue with the foregoing.
iThe ethmoid is completely cartilaginous. The paraspheu-
loid has the ordinary sword shape, except that the " guard"
is extremely short; but its point extends along the base
of the skull, passing between the nasal sacs, underlying
their septum, and terminating close to the premaxillaj.
The vomers are represented by a transversely elongated
rhomboidal ossrous plate, devoid of teeth, which lies be-
tween the two posterior nasal apertures, and therefore
much behind the anterior end of the parasphenoid. The
side walls of the cranial cavity are ossified from the antor-
bital process to the anterior boundary of the foramen for
the fifth nerve, just in front of which they are pierced
by the optic foramen. There is no palatine bone. The.
pterygoid, in the main, resembles that of the ordinary
frogs ; but, in consequence of the shortness and little back-
ward extension of the suspensorium, the outer process
passes almost directly outwards, with hardly any back-
ward inclination. A bony plate, which extends backwards
from the posterior edge of the inner and outer branches
of the pterygoid, underlies the tympanic cavity and the audi-
tory capside, and forms the floor of the Eustachian canal
The squamosal is a short broad bone, with a long anterior
process, which becomes connected, by direct articulation,
with the pterygoid, and by ligament with the maxilla. The
premaxillse are small, and the maxillae are connected merely
by ligaments with the suspensorium, there being no jugal.
The columella aurit is remarkably strong, and is bent in
the middle, so that its two halves form an obtuse angle;
the anterior half lies against the inner face of the tympanic
membrane. The posterior half runs parallel with the
posterior edge of the tegmen tympani, towards the fenestra
ovalis. Ligamentous fibres fix the columella firmly, though
movably, to. the superior margin of the tympanic cavity,.
where it is bounded by the squamosal. The stout car-
tilaginous hyoidean cornua are attached just beneath the
anterior and inferior part of the margin of the fenestra
ovalis. The body of the hyoid is very small, but the two
" thyro-hyals" are extremely long and broad cartilages.
There is no ossified " mento-MeckeUan " element.
In Pipa, the skull ia extraordinarily depressed and
Isroad. The nasal bones are wide, flat, triangular, and
quite distinct from one another, a forward prolongation of
the coalesced fronto-parietals extending between the two.
The parasphenoid, very broad in the greater part of its ex-
tent, and having the guard rudimentary, sends a narrow
median process forwards underneath the nasal septum, as
in Dactylethra. No trace of a vomer, or palatine bone, was
to be found in the specimen examined. The pterygoid is
very like that of Dactylethra, but its inner branch is greatly
prolonged, and the floor sent under the Eustachian tube
unites much more closely wiih the produced exoccipitaL
The squamosal is very small, and the place of its zygomatic
process is taken by ligament. This ligament, however,
unites with the pterygoid in the same way as the bony
process which answers to it in Dactylethra. The columella is
less massive than in Dactylethra, and the end which abuts
against the tympanic mMnbrane is imbedded in a disk of
cartilage. The occipital condyles look outwards and back-
■cardg. instead of inwards and backwards, as in Dactylethra.
The hyoidean cornua are wanting, the thyro-hyala being
large, but not eo large proportionally as 'm Daclyldhra.
The skulls of the Ueodela present a very interesting
series of modifications, leading from a condition in which
the cranium retains, throughout life, a stijongly-marked
embryonic character, up to a structure which closely ap-
pro.ximates that found in the Anura.
In MenohraTichiu, for example, the chondrocranium of
the adult is in nearly the same statn lit that iu which it
V^.^
FlQS. 10. 11, 12.— Lateral, dorsal, and Tcntral views of the cruilum of iftno-
branchuj UitfraliL In the dorsul view, the bonea are removed from the left
half of the ekuU ; In the ventral view, the parasphenoid, palnto-ptcrycold, end
Tomcrs are given In outline. The lettera have, for the most pan, the same
signification as before, VII. p. posterior division of the sevanth nen'e; VII,
chorda tympani: V, V^, V', first, second, and third divisions qf the tri-
geminal; t.t.t. Btapcdio-suspensorial ligament; A. j.f,hyo-5U9pensor1al ligament;
m, fi. I mandibulo-hyoid ligament; a, ascending process of the suspensorium;
p, ptcrypo-palatine process; q. quadrate process; o, otic process; iV'a, posterior
nares; Utk. Meckel's canUage; OL (Fig. W), the position of tho glottia, Bb',
Jilp, hasibranchlals.
exists in a young tadpole or larval salamander (Figs. 1 0,
11. 12).
AMPHIBIA
757
Instead of there being a well-developed cartilagmjus
brain aAse, interrupted only by a dorsal fontanelle, as in
the frog, both the floor and roof of the cranial cavity are
formed by merely fibrous tissue, which underlies the
frontal and parietal bones, and overlies the pinephenoid ;
and only its sides and its anterior end are bounded by
cartilage.
The occipital region remains membranous in the middle
line, both dorsally and veutraUy, and exhibits, in the latter
aspect, the remains of the notochord. The cartilaginous
rods (-ZV.), which bound the cranial cavity laterally, and
represent the trabeculce of the embryonic vertebrate skuU,
are separated by a wide oval space, which occupies the
whole length of the floor of the cranial chamber. An-
teriorly, they converge, and, just before they do so, give
attachment to the slender antorbital processes {A. 0.) which
lie behitid the posterior nares. They then unite, and, be-
coming applied together, coalesce into a flattened narrow
mesethmoid, to the anterior extremity of which the pre-
masDlary bones are applied. They give off neither aUnasal
nor subnasal processes, and therefore furnish neither roof
ner floor to the nasal chamber. Posteriorly, they become
flattened from above downwards, and coalesce with the
auditory capsules, and with the cartilage which extends be-
neath these, and gives ri.se to the occipital condyles {E. 0.)
Each auditory capsule has a generally oval form, but is
produced posteriorly, so as to give rise to a conical epiotic
process {Ejy. 0.), which projects beyond the level of the
occipital condyle. Fitted into the outer waU of each is
the relatively large, conical, stapes, whence strong ligament-
ous fibres proceed to the posterior face of the suspensorium.
Immediately in front of the auditory capsule, the suspen-
sorium passes by a strong pedicle (shown, but not lettered
in Fig. 12) into the trabecula, and then, directed outwards,
downwards, and forwards, ends in the quadrate process
(j), with which the dorsal end of Meckel's cartilage arti-
culates. A large process (o) ascends from the posterior
face of the suspensorium, and applies itself to the outer
and anterior face of the auditory capsule. A small and
hardly perceptible elevation {p) is seen near the quadrate
process of the suspensorium. Finally, a flat process (a,
Fig. 11) ascends above the pedicle, and applies itself to the
dorsai face of the trabecula.
On comparing this with the suspensorium of the frog,
it is clear that the rudimentary process (p) answers to the
pterygoid cartilage ; and that the process o (the otic process)
answers to the dorsal eras of the suspensorium. In fact,
the posterior, or hyo-mandibular, branch of the seventh
nerve passes back beneath this, and above the stapedial
ligament, to its distribution.
The pedicle answers to the part so named (including the
ventral crus of the suspensorium) in the frog, though, it
retains the embryonic relations to the trabecula, such as
exist in the tadpole. The ascending process (a) lies be-
tween the orbito-nasal and the other branches of the trige-
minal, the orbito-nasal passing between it and the trabecula.
A similar process is very generally found in the Urodcla
(being particularly large, for example, in Menopoma), but
appears to be represented onlv by fibrous tissue in the
Anura.
Meckel's cartilage {Mch, Fig. 12) is thick and deep at
its articular end, but, after furnishing a surface of attach-
ment for the elevator muscles of the jaw, it rapidly narrows,
and ends in a point, at some distance from the symphysis
of the dentary bones.
The hyoidean apparatus (Fig. 1 3) is represented, on each
Bide, by a cartilaginous rod, subdivided into a short kypo-
hyal (U. h.) and long cerato-hi/al (C A.) A strong ligament
extends from the front face of the latter, below its free
Bummit, to the suspensorium, reaching this at the same.
place as the "tapedial b'gamont, into- which it is conSinued.
From a pcmt a little above the attachment of this hgament,
another ligamentous band arises, and, crossing the former,
on the inner side of which it passes, becomes attached to
the angle of the mandible. It answers to the inter-
operculum of a fish, and has nearly the same relations as
the stylo-maxiUary ligament of the higher Vertebrata.
In the ventral median line, the hypo-hyals are connected
only by fibrous tissue. Firmly united with this, however,
there is a median
/irst hasibranchial
cartilage (Bb^), suc-
ceeded by a second
basibranc/iial {£b^),
which is ossified, and
is the only bony con-
stituent of the hyo-
branchial apparatus.
There are only three
branchial arches.
The first consists of
a stout and long
cerato-bran chial
(Cb^), bearing an
equally well - deve-
loped epibranchial
(£pb^). The second
is represented by a Fio. 13.— Iljoid and branchial apraratns of S/tvo-
inere noauie or car- ^j,^, . ^j,^ p^,, i,„,i,ra„, hi.i ; Bb'. o.-ined
tilage {Cb'^\ with second bnslbranchial ; Ep.b\ Ep.i^,Ep.b*, first,
1 ■ , ,1 1 J eecond, and third cpibraiichiaU; (?/. gloitia.
whicn the expanded
end of the second epibranchial (Ep. 6^) articulate' . Tha
third and smallest epibranchial (Ep. b^) is articulated with
the step-like broad end of the second. There is no trace
of any fourth branchial arch, such as exists in tadpoles
and in young salamanders ; and in Siredon. Siren. Amphi
uma, and Menopoma.
The most curiousfeatureinthebonyskull,oros<«o-crant«OT,
of Menobranchus is the presence of the prominent conical
ossifications which lie external to the exoccipitals,and occupy
the place of the epiotic and opisthotic bones. In possessing
these elements of the skull, in so large and distinct a form,
Menobranchus differs from all Amphibia, save Protevs and
the extinct Labyrinthodonts. The parietal bones are sepa-
rate from the frontals, and send, as is usual in the Urodela,
a long process forwards on each ■ side of the latter. Id
Menobranchus, this process is extremely long, reaching the
olfactory foramen, the posterior margin of which it bounds.
There are no nasal nor prefrontal bones, nor any distinct aU-
sphenoidal, orbito-sphenoidal, or ethmoidal ossifications; of
the maxilla, nothing but a rudiment appears, and this is
sometimes absent. There are no jugal or quadrato-jugal
ossifications. A palato-pterygoid plate, bearing teeth on
its expanded palatine portion, extends from the antorbital
process to the inner face of the suspensorium, which, as
stated above, has a mere tubercle in the place of a pterygoid
process. The vomers are long, bear teeth along their outer
edges, and diverge backwards so as to leave an interspace
between their inner edges. Posteriorly, they articulate
with the anterior ends of the palato-pterygoida
The squamosal is a long, slender, curved bone, devoid of
any zygomatic process, which extends from the articular
end of the suspensorium, along its outer edge, to the outer
side of the epiotic From its posterior margin it sends
down a short process over the stajicdial ligament.
The parasphenoid is a I 'd thin plate of bone, which
extends from near tho ji^iiCtion of the vomers to the
occipital foramen. The distal end of the suspensorium is
incompletely ossified, as a quadrate bone ; and a dentary
and a splenial element, joth dentigerous, lie, the formo»
758
AMPHIBIA
external to and below, thd latter internal to, Meckel's
outikgo.
The ekuH of Proteus is, in its general characters, similar
to that of ifmobranchui, but is more extensively ossified.
In Siren, the skull, which has the same elongated form
And forwardly directed suspcnsoria as in Mcnolraxtchus
and Protetu, possesses, in the epiotic region, two strong
crests, which project backwards beyond the level of the
occipital condyles, but are otherwise very diiferent from
the cpiotics of the latter genera. The " exoccipitals " and
prootics are completely fused together, even in half-grown
specimens, a mere rim of cartilage being left around the
fenestra ovalis. The lateral walls of the skull present ossi-
fications extending from the exits of the orbjto-ua.sal nerves,
fonvards to the mesethmoid, or internasal portion of the
trabeculce, and completely encircling the olfactory fora-
mina. But these ossifications remain distinct for a con-
siderable time, if they ever coalesce. Each, therefore,
represents half of the sphen-ethmoid of the Frog.
The flat and wido parasphenoid extends forwards to
the space left by the divergence of the vomers. On the
roof of the skull, each broad parietal sends forward a pro-
longation along the outer edge of the frontal, which reaches
the outOrhital process. The premaxillie have very long
ascending processes, which lie upon the mesethmoid, and
are received between the ends of the frontal bones. Between
these ascending processes one or two elongated ossifica-
tions are situated. These were termed "nasals" by Cuvicr,
but their position does not accord with this determination.
The horizontal, or oral, portions of the premaxillae, on the
other hand, are very short and edentulous, each being coated
by a thin plate of horny substance. The maxiUae are rudi-
mentary or absent. The vomers are two, flat, oval, bony
plates, the ventral aspect of which is beset with parallel rows
of teeth set in obliquely-disposed curved lines, the con-
vexities of the curves being turned inwards and backwards.
The vomers are in contact anteriorly, but diverge posteriorly.
The posterior extremity of each abuts upon a plate of
similar form, but much smaller, and bearing fewer series of
teeth, which lies on the ventral side of the origin of the
antorbital process, and represents the palatine bone. The
aperture of the posterior nares lies just opposite, and ex-
ternal to, the junction of these two bones.
The suspensorium is short, thick, and completely carti-
laginous. DorsaUy and internally, it is attached by a stout
pedicle to the trabecula in front of the auditory capsule,
while its dorsal and posterior face lies against the trun-
cated anterior face of the pro-otic. The angle formed where
this face joins the outer face represents the otic process of
Menohranchus. There is no pterygoid process, nor any
trace of a pterygoid bone. Just above the suspensorium,
and seemingly connected with it, there proceeds from the
anterior face of the pro-otic region of the skull, a strong,
triangular, forwardly-directed cartilaginous process. From
the free anterior end of this, a band of fibrous tissue passes,
and, encircling the eye, is attached to the antorbital process.
The squamosal is a slender curved bone, extending from
the epiotic ridge to the ai-ticular end of the suspensorium,
where it is widest. It exhibits only a rudiment of the
well-marked process which extends towards the stapes in
Menohranchus and Proteus. The mandible presents a
dentary, an angular, and a dentigerous splenial element ;
and the proximal end of Meckel's cartilage is ossified, giving
rise to a dense nodular articulare. The dentary is tooth-
less, and supports the inferior horny beak.
The cornu of the hyoid is very stout, and its ventral
moiety is ossified. The much thicker dorsal moiety is
cartilaginous^ and its recurred dorsal end extends beyond
the extremity of the skulL At a considerable distanco
below its apex, a strong short ligament proceeds fjom ita
anterior face to the stapes. A broad sheet of ligamentoua
fibres further unites the hyoid with the lateral walls of tl^
ear capsule, and with the posterior face of the suspen-
sorium (hyo-suspensorial ligament); and a slender ligament
(mandibuio-hyoid) proceeds from near the insertion of tho
hyo-stapedial ligament to the angle of tho mandible. There
are two basibranchials, both ossified, the posterior ending
in short radiating processes; two cerato-branchiala and four
epibranchiala,
In Ampkiuma, the suspensoria are very little inclined
forwards, and their long axes make nearly a right angle
with that of the skulL Tho portion of the skull which
lies behind a lino joining the articular ends of the otaa
quadrata is very much shorter than the region in front of
it. Moreover, although tho epiotic processes are pro-
minent, the occipital condyles project far beyond them.
One bone represents the exoccipital, epiotic, and opi»-
thotic on each side. The pro-otic is large, and gives rise
to the anterior moiety of a strongly-marked temporal
ridge. Its exposed surface presents two fossa;, divided by
a nearly vertical linear elevation. Tho large parietala form
the posterior portion of the temporal ridge, and diverge
anteriorly, to be continued forwards, on each side of the
frontab, to the sphen-ethmoid. The frontals, in like man-
ner, diverge in front to receive a median ossification, which
is continuous with the coalesced median processes of the
premaxillae. The anterior half of each frontal is rugose,
as are the exposed surfaces of the sphen-ethmoid and of the
nasal bones, and the integument is firmly adherent to these
rugosities. The nasals are broad and triangular. The
truncated base of each lies over the nasal aperture ; the
inner edge articulates with the ascending process of the pre-
maxilla; the outer edge joins first the maxilla, and then the
sphen-ethmoid. The premaxilla: are so thoroughly ankylosed
that no trace of their primitive distinctness is to be seen.
The large maxilloe extend back for half tho length of the
skull, are firmly united ivith the adjacent bones, and are
connected by dense ligament with the extremity of the
quadrate bone. The greatly elongated vomers diverge but
little ; nevertheless, they come in contact only by their
anterior extremities. In the rest of their extent they are
separated, in front, by a median ossification representing
the anterior part of the sphen-ethmoid, and, behind, by
the anterior forked prolongation of the parasphenoid which
embraces this ossification. The rest of the parasphenoid is
broad and flat ; it widens a little, in front of the auditory
capsules, so as to form a rudiment of the " guard " in tho
frog's skulL
The osseous pterygoid is a curved plate of bone, convex
inwards and concave outwards, which articulates posteriorly
with the quadrate, and, in front, stops short, at little more
than half the distance from its posterior end to the internal
nostril The cartilaginous pteiygoid process of the sus-
pensorium extends some way beyond it, and, widening, ia
attached by ligament to the manlla. Posteriorly, the car-
tilaginous pterygoid is traceable, as a comparatively narrow
band, on the inner side of the bony pterygoid, to the pedicle
of the suspensorium, which is attached in front of the
fenestra ovalis, and above the rudimentary " guard" of the
parasphenoid. An ascending process passes from it be-
tween the orbitonasal and the other divisions of the
trigeminal. The otic process of the suspensorium, which
is articulated with the outer face of the auditory capsule,
is cartilaginous; but the rest of the suspensorium is ossified
as a quadrate bone. Thio is, as usual, clamped to the skull
by the squamosal, which is broad and expanded above, and
narrow below. Behind, the suspensorium is directly articttr
AMPHIBIA
7r.9
latcd with the styliform projection of the centre of the
stapes. A very strong hyo-suspensorial ligament passes
from near the distal end of the suspensorium to the cornu of
the hyoid. The mandibulo-hyoid ligament is much weaker.
The hyoidean apparatus presents a median basi-hyal, con-
nected by a rounded hypo-hyal on each side, with a long
and curved cerato-hyal, which is almost completely ossified.
The first basibranchial is elongated and cartilaginous — the
second is absent. The first branchial arch is a single elon-
gated bone, representing the similarly coalesced cerato-
branchial and epibranchial in Menopoma. The second
cerato-branchial is small and cartilaginous. The three
posterior epibranchials are simple curved cartilages ; and
the single branchial cleft is placed between the third and
fourth epibranchials.
The skulls of the four genera, MendbrancTius, Proteus,
Siren, and Amphiuma, now-described, resemble one another,
and differ from those of other Amphibia, in their elongated
form ; and, especially, in the relative narrowness of the
facial region in front of the orbits, which, as the case of
Amphiuma shows, arises, not from any want of development
of the maxillary bones, when they exist, but from their
taking a direction which but slightly diverges from paral-
lelism with the axis of the skull. Moreover, they all
possess well-marked epiotic prominences. Amphiuma differs
•widely from the other three, in the great size of its maxil-
lary bones, in the absence of palatine bones, in the pro-
jection of the occipital condyles beyond the epiotic pro-
cesses, in the ankylosis of the premaxUlis, in the presence
of well-developed nasal bones, in the coalescence of the
first cerato-branchial with the first epibranchial, and in the
transverse direction of the suspensorium.
In most of those respects, in which Amphiuma differs
from Menohranchus, Proteus, and Siren, it approaches the
Salamanders; especially if we take such forms as Anaides
into account. On the other hand, in the entire absence of
a palatine bone, and in the fusion of the first cerato-bran-
chial with its epibranchial, it agrees with Menopoma and
Cry?^tobranchus.
In Jfenopoma, the skull has a broadly-rounded snout, and
its posterior contour slopes forwards and outwards (with-
out being interrupted by conspicuous epiotic prominences),
in the manner characteristic of the higher Urodela. The
email pro-otics are separated from the exoccipitals (which
also represent the epiotics and episthotics), by a wide car-
tilaginous interspace, in which the fenestra ovaUs is situated.
The parietal sends a process forwards, along the outer edge
of the frontal, between it and the orbito-sphenoid. This
meets a curved flat bone, which bounds the orbit anteriorly
and internally, and articulates with an ascending process of
the maxillary bone. It may therefore be regarded as a
prefronto-lachrymal. The frontals unite in a long median
suture, and then, diverging, embrace the nasal bones, and
articulate externally with the fore part of the ascending
process of the maxillary bon^, whic^ is thus received be-
tween the frontal and the prefronto-lachrymal. The very
broad parasphenoid extends from the exoccipitals to the
vomers, with which it unites by a denticulated squamous
suture. The wide vomers are united by a median suture,
and expand in front, ending in arched edges, close behind
which the teeth are set. The premaxills are separate and
small, articulate with the arched edges of the vomers, and
Bend up strong ascending processes to the dorsal face of
the skull, where they firmly unite with the nasals. The
squamosal is a flattened prismatic bono, as broad at one
end as at the other, which articulates with the parietal
=6XtemaUy. and with the quadrate internally. Like tho
suspensorium, which it covers, it stand's out at right angles
with the axis of the skull. There is no palatine bone.
The pterygoid is broader and more square than in any
other Amphibian, in consequence of the great expansion of
its internal process, which articulates by its whole length
with the parasphenoid. The anterior process ends in a
free pointed cartilage, directed outwards and forwards, and
united -(vith the maxilla by ligament, as in the higher
Urodela. The external process extends to the articular
end of the quadrate, as usual, and is continued thence along
the cartilaginous suspensorium to its attached end.
The chondrocranium forms a complete ring of cartilage
round the occipital foramen, continuous at the sides with
the auditory capsules. From these the trabeculae are con-
tinued forwards, as in Menohrdnchus, leaving a very wide
ventral fontanelle. At the anterior end of this they unite
and form the mesethmoid, from which roof and floor plates
of the nasal capsules are continued. The suspensorium is
connected by a pedicle with the trabecula, in front of the
auditory capsule, and gives off a broad ascending process,
which becomes ossified continuously with the pterygoid,
over the orbito-nasal nerve.' A stout otic process is articu-
lated with a facet oh the antero-external region of the
periotic capsule, and is further connected with it by liga-]
mentous fibres. The quadrate ossification involves a small'
portion of the articular end of the suspensorium ; it thence
extends upwards, on the dorsal aspect of the suspensorium,'
gradually becoming more slender, and nearly reaches tho
point at which the otic process of the suspensorium articu-
lates with the periotic cartilage.
The osseous skull of Crypi'ohranchus is extrer"3ly like
that of Menopoma.
In Menopoma the hyo-branchial apparatus presents the
same general structure as that of Siredon, except that the
second basibranchial seems to be wanting, whQe the first
is very broad and rounded; at the same time, the epi-
branchial and the cerato-branchial of the first arch are
represented by only one continuous cartilage.
In Cryptobranchus,^ however, a considerable reduction
has taken place, the two posterior pairs of branchial arches
present in Menopoma having disappeared. The second'
arch still presents a di'vision into cerato-branchial and
epibranchial, but the dorsal end of the latter is closely
united with that of the preceding arcL It is interesting
to observe, however, that the modification thus effected is
quite different from that which occurs in the Salamanders,'
in which, in the adult state, the first branchial arch retains^
its two segments ; while the second, reduced to its cerato-
branchial, is applied against the first, at the junction of
the cerato- and epi-branchial ; and the second basibranchial
persists as the ossiculum thyroideura of Von Siebold.
Menopoma and Cryptobranchus further differ from- the
proper Salamanders in ha'ving the vomerine teeth disposed
along the anterior edges of the expanded vomers. Unfor-
tunately nothing is known of the larvae of these forms, but
it would seem as if, in them, the primitive vomers enlarge
by extension of ossification behind, and not in front of,
the originally existent teeth.
In tho remaining Urodela, tha Salamanders proper, tho skull
has tho broadly-arched snout and the shelving posteiior contour of
Menopoma, but tho vomers and pterygoids are veiy different.
Tho structure of tho skull in theso animals will be best under-
stood by commencing with that of SiretioTi, which, though i^renuo-
branchiato under ordinary circumstances, is totally unlike the
other so-called Pcrcnnibranchiata in cranial structure, and i^ in
fact, to all intents and purposes a larval Salamander.
An ossification on each sido of tlio occipital foramen represents
the exoccipitals, epiotics, and episthotics. In front of each of thesa
' See HyrtI, " Cryptobranchus jaj^onkus, Schediasma anatomlcam,"
tab. iii.
760
AMPHIBIA
\a a pro-otic, anJ au orHto sphenoid. The latter la Bometimos
united with its fuUow of the opposite side.* The ekull ia roofed ia
by pairs of parietal, frontal, prtfronto-Uchrymal, and nasal bones.
The maxillftj are short, and are unittid with the ends of the auapen-
lorium only by fibroiia tissue. There is a very broad and flat para-
sphenoid, which extends from the inferior niarcin of the occipital
foramen, and ends, anteriorly, by a wide, irregularly convex edge,
which does not reach the vomera. The latter bones ore elongated
ind curved, and their long axes diverge posteriorly, as in Meno-
hranchua ; but their anterior ends are far apart, and they lie, separ-
ated by the whole breadth of tlio pnraaphenoid, and between that
bone and the premaxillaand maxilla, adherent to the ventral face
of the subnaaal procosa of tho chondiocnmium.
The short palatine bones are situated immediately behind, and
on the inner aide of, the posterior nares, but their somewhat taper-
ing, external and posterior, ends do not articulate directly with the
pterygoids. The latter are trirudinto bones, with an inner process
which passes towards the ba.so of tho skull ; an outer, whica runs
down the suapensorium ; and a long anterior process, which gradu-
ally diminishes in breadth forwards, and ls connected only by
ligament with the palatine. Three ossifications embrace Meckel's
eartilage. The dentary covers its outer face throughout its whole
length. Tho angular lies on tho inner face of its posterior two-
thirds, and the small dentigerous splenial is also applied to its
inner face between the angular and the dentary. The chondro-
oranium is in much the same condition as that of Menopoma. There
is a broad basicranial cartilage situated between the auditory cap-
sules, and passing, at the sides and above, into a complete occi-
pital arcli. But, in front, the trabeculee, though they have in-
creased in vertical heiglit, remoln united by fibrous tissue only,
both ia the floor and in the roof of the skull, which thus presents
two great '* fonCanelles" when the parasphenoid, parifetals, and
frontals are removed. In front, they coalesce, each giving off, aa
It does so, a flat antorbital process, which is expanded at its outer
end, where it supports the maxilla. Below, this process gives at-
tachment to tho palatine. By *heir coalescence, the trabeculae give
rise to a broad mtcrnasal septum (or mesethmoid cartilage), and
they expand, on each side, below, into subnaaal plates, which are
separated, anteriorly, by a wide notch in the middle line. The
curved outer edges of these plates give attachment to the premaxillee
and maxillae, and they answer to the preenasal processes of the
chondrocranium of the frog. Between the posterior edge of each
of these and the anterior edge of the corresponding antorbital pro-
cess, the posterior nostril is situated ; and tho jjoferior surface of
the aubnasal plate gives attachment to the vomer. Superiorly, the
mesethmoid cartilage expands into a very thin (alinasal) plate,
which roofs in each nasal chamber, and supports the prefronto-
lachrymal and nasal bones.
The auspensorium is connected, above and internally, with the
trabecula of its side by a pedicle ; and it has an ascending process
which lies over the orbitonasal nerve (which ia therefore included
between the pedicle and the ascending prc^iess) immediately after
its exit from the skull. Posteriorly and superiorly, it gives off an
otic process, whifih is articulated with the outer and front part of
the auditory capsule ; while, inferiorly and externally, it famishes
an articular surface to the mandible. The pterygoid process has
the form of a style tapering forwards, and nearly reaching the ant-
orbital process, with which it is connected, however, only by liga-
mentous fibres. The posterior moiety of Meckel's cartilage is very
stout as far as the coronoid process, and then tapers rapidly to ito
free, pointed, symphysial extremity.
The hyoidean and branchial apparatus is entirely fibrous and
cartilaginous, none of its parts having undergone ossification. Each
cornu of the hyoid is connected with the upper and posterior face
of the suspensorium, and with the angle of the mandible, by liga-
mentous fibres— the hyosuspensorial and mandibulo-suspensorial
ligaments. The cornua are not subdivided, and are united in tho
median ventral line by ligament. A triangular first basibronchial
extends back from their junction, and is succeeded by a second, as
in MenobranchvrS ; but this second basibranchial is not ossified.
Two cerato-branchials are attached to the posterior extremity of the
first basibranchial on each side, and the anterior is, as usual, fol-
lowed by a long and strong epibranchial, which supports the an-
terior gill. The posterior cerato-branchial supports the second
epibranchial directly, and the third and fourth eoibranchials in-
directly.
The interesting observations of Professor A Dumeril have shown
that, under certain conditions, the ordinarily perenni- branchiate
itiTcdon passes into the caduci-hTa.nchia.te Amhlystoma ; and this
metamorphosis is accompanied by some very interesting modifica-
tions in the structure of the cranium, especially in the vomerine,
X»oIatiue, and pterygoid regions. Ossification extends forwards from
I ' See l-Viedrich and Gegeubaur — " Der Schadel des Aiolotl (Siredon
injci/armis)" in the Berichie der KUniylichen Zooloyniscken -ATtstall
«u Wilr^urfff 1849. ITiis memoir contains an excellent account of
AUe chondrocranium of tho Axolotl
the vomers beneath the prs-nosal processes, so that ths series oT
teeth, which originally lay along the anterior margins of these bones,
come to be situated at their posterior edges. At the same tims
they take up a direction at rignt angles to the axis of the skull,
instead of being greatly inclined to that axis, as they ore in Sindon,
and the two sets of vomerine teeth thus form a single transverse
row. Moreover, the anterior process of the pterygoid moves out*
wards until it comes into contact with tho inner face of the maxilla.
The one end of the palatine remaining attached to the vomer, th&
other swings outwards, in correspondence with the change of posi-
tion of the pterygoid, and thus becomes directed transversely to the
axis of tho skull, immediately behind the posterior nostril, its teeth
continuing tho transverse line of the tcetli of the vomera. Sala-
manders with the teeth thus disposed have been termed "lechrio-
dont." Tho maxillary bones ore larger than in Siredon, but the
jugal arch remains ligamentous. Tho dorsal ends of tho comua of
thu hyoid retain their ligamentous connection with tho BUBf>en-
sorium, and the ventral ends with the anterior basibranchial. The
first cerato-branchial and epibranchial persist, and retain their
articulation with one another. The second cerato-branchial re-
mains, but its dorsal or outer end becomes attached to the preced-
ing, and all the three posterior epibranchiuls disappear. The second
basibranchial becomes detached as a Y-shaped piece, which lies in
the middle line, in front of the larynx.
In all the other Salamanders, the vomers, in the adult, present
the same enlargement of the part in front of the teeth, at the ex*
penae of the region behind tbeni, as in Amblystoma, But the teeth,
rarely offer the same disposition. More commonly they form two-
series, inclined to one another at a more or less acute angle, open
forwards, and supported aptm bony plates, which appear like pro-
longations of tho vomers, extending backwards on the ventral face
of the parasphenoid. This "mecodont" arrangement is strikingly
exemplified by Salamandra maculosa, and still more remarkably
by Plei/u)don and Anaides, where these longitudinal series of teeth
beneath the parasphenoid are commonly termed "sphenoidal"
teeth. Dugfes' and other observers, however, have shown that, in
larval SalamandroB and Tritones, the vomerine and palato-pterygoid
apparatus have, at first, the same disposition as in Siredon; and
Dug^s baa described the process by which the palatine bones, be-
coming detached from the pterygoidsj which rotate outwardi?, onky*
lose with the vomers, taking up a position beneath the parasphe-
noid, and more or less parallel with the axis of the skull ; and it
can hardly be doubted that the so-called " sphenoidal '' dentigerous
plates of other genera of Salamandrida have the aame origin. If
this conclusion DO correct, it indicates a very curious morphological
difference between the "mecodont" and "lecbriodont " Salaman-
drida.
In all the Salamandrida tae parietal bones send long processes
forwards on each side of the frontals. The parasphenoid is a broad
flat plate. Very often the prcmaxillee are ankylosed into one bone,
and the bones of the periotic capsule coalesce. In some cases there
are epiotic processes or ridges. Maxillffl are always present, and
the snout is usually broadly arched. Nasal bones, distinct from
the prefronto -lachrymals, are usually present.
In the genus Anaidea the skull is comparatively long and nar-
row, and the muzzle is less arched than usual. The single pre-
moiilla, and the two well-developed maxillae, fullow the semicir
cular curve of the broad subnasal plates, to the edges of which they
are attached* The hinder free extremities of the maxillee are curved
upwards, and the jugal arch is represented only by ligament. Thus
far the skull is salamandrine ; as it is adso in the presence of dis-
tinct nasal and prefronto-lachrymal bones, in the disposition of the
vomerine and so-called "sphenoidal" teeth, in the absence of an
apparent palatine bone, and in the manner in which tho pterygoid
is produced into a long process, which becomes connected with the
inner face of the maxiUa. But, in the well-marked downward and
forward inclination of the suspensorium, and in the strong crests
into which tho epiotic processes are developed, the skull oiAnaidu
is very like that of Sireiu
In the skull of Epicrium gfuiinosum (Fig. 14), which may bo
selected as an example of the Peromela, tho strong occipital con-
dyles are continued into two ossifications, which rise on to the rouf
of the skull, where they unite in a short suture, and, spreading
out so as to embrace the parietals, are continued over the auditory
apparatus, as far as the squamosal and the quadrate bones. Vent-
rally, no indication of any suture between these bones r.nd the broad
parasphenoid is visible ; laterally, they pass forward into a coui-
tinuous ossification, which constitutes tbo side walls of the auditory
capsule, and, in front of tliis, is perforated by the wide forflmen for
the trigeminal nerve, and enters largely into the lateral wall of the
cranial cavity. The parietal bone rests on the dorsal edge of this
lateral ossification, which terminates, anteriorly, bv an irregularly
* JtecherckeSf pp. 172, 173, pi xiv. fig. 89. Rueconl, Observations,
^natomiQUCf sur la Sirtntt pl- vi- figs- 3 and 10.
AMPHIBIA
761
■excavated borJer, between which and tlie posterior margin of the
:BUhen-etbmoid the cranial wall ia unossified. Throuf^hout its whale
FlO. 14.— TTie Btull of Bpierium glutinotum. A, iJorsa] ; B, ventral j C, lateral,
rlev. The letters have the same slgniflcatlon as before.
■ extent, this large ossiBcation, which represents the exoccipitah,
the elements of the periotic Capsule, and the alisphenoids, is firmly
. ankylosed with the parasphenoid. There is a well-developed sphen-
ethmoid, similar in its general characters to that of the frog. It is
very closely united, if not ankylosed, with the vomers and pre-
maxillffl. The roof of the"skull is completed by two parietals, two
frontals, and two large nasals, which unite in a long suture, except
in front, where, for a short distance, they are separated by the
ascending processes of the premaxillae. The dentigerous oral pro-
cesses of these bones are short, and unite by suture with the maxillae.
These send up broad plates which lie in front of and below the orbit,
on the sides of the face. The canal for the suborbital tentacle per-
forates the maxilla in front of the orbit. Posteriorly, the maxilla
unites with the squamosal, which is a broad plate 6rmly fixed
to the quadrate, but somewhat loosely united with the frontal
and parietal and with the complex occipito-otic bone. A small
crescentic post-orbital bone {denoted by 1 in Fig. 14) articulates
with the maxillary and squamosal, and with another bone ^2), which
answers very nearly to the prefrontal of a reptile. Between the
nasal bone and the premaxilla, above and below, and the maxilla
behind, a small bone (3) i.<i fitted. The quadrate bone is repre-
sented by the ossification of the distal end of the suspensorium,
which is inclined a little backwards. The stapes is large and well
ossified. Two distinct ossifications, an angulo-articular and a
dentary, are discernible in the mandible ; and the second short row
of teeth, inside those of the dentary, seems to indicate the existence
of a splenial element.
In the Labtrinthodovta the skull presents the extremes of
form which are met with among the Amphibia^ from the elonga-
tion observable in Archegosaurus^ to the short and broad form of
Metopias and Brachyops. The chief characters by which the laby-
rinthodont cranium differs from that of its existing allies are the
following : —
The occipital condyles in some genera remained long, if not per-
manently, cartilaginous ; and one or two supra-occipital ossifica-
tions (probably membrane bones) very generally occur. The epiotics
are prominent, and appear to remain permanently separate from the
adjacent bones. In front of them, and articulated with the outer
edges of the parietal and frontal, are two bones, which are com-
monly identified with the "squamosal" and "post-frontal" of the
higher Vertebrata. The " post-frontal " articulates anteriorly with
a large "prefrontal " bone, which bounds tlie dorsal and anterior
contour of the orbit. The outer edgea of the "squamosal" and
"post-frontal " articulate with two bones, termed the " post-
orbital" and the "supra-temporal." The post-orbital lies in front
of the other, and contributes to the posterior margin of the orbit, —
the rest of the contour of which, between the post-orbital and the
prefrontal, ia usually completed by a large jugal. Articulated,
doraally and internally, with the "aupra-temporal," and, anteri-
orly, with the jugal, is a "quadrato-jugal," which sometimes ex-
tends into the articular surface for the lower jaw, and in some caae^,
at any rate, overlaid a quadrate ossification. There are long paired
iia-sals, between tho anterior ends of which the ascending processes
oC the prcm&xillfit aro received i and between theAfl hones, tho uu-
uBually long maxilla, and the prefrontals, distinct "Uchrymftl*
oasifications occur.
The vomers are large, meet in a long median suture, and bear
teeth. The palatine bonea, alao dentigerous, bound the posterior
nares in front, and are elongated antero-posteriorly.
The mandible presents a dentary (probably including a splenial)
element, an angular and an articular ossification.
Those surfaces of the cranial bones which were covered by the
skin are usually rugose, and sculptured much in the same way as
those of the crocodiles, and they frequently present symmetrically,
disposed grooves, the so-called "mucous canals," which, very pro-
bably, lodged sensory apparatuses resembling the similarly-named
structures in fishes — the nomologues of which are found in existing
Urodela.
The hyoid is unknot i, ana what appears to be traces of a branchial
apparatus have been observed only in young specimens of Arckego-
saurus. Hence it is- probable, not only that no known Labyrinth-
odontswere perennibr'.nchiate, but that the air-breathing condition
supervened early in the course of their development.
The LabyrinthodoLts doubtless possessed a well-developed chon-
drocranium, but suci a structure would necessarily perish in. tho
course of fossilisatioi-. The singular resemblance of the labyrinth-
odont skull to that of the Peroniela, in the arrangement of tho
bones which bound zhe cavity of the mouth, and the disposition of
the teeth upon 'the.i, suggests a comparison of the other cranial
bones in the two g_oups. Starting from the nasals of Fpicrium,
which may tie safely identified with those of the Labyrinthodonts,
the bone marked (2) in Epicrium corresponds very closely with the
labjrrinthodont "p.-efrontal ; " and that numbered (1),- with the
"post-orbital." No. 3 in Epicrium, in some respects answers to
the so-called "lachrymal" of the Labyrinthodonts; while the
maxilla of the Csecilian may be taken to represent both maxilla and
jugal of the Labyrinthodont. But if this be so, the squamosal of
Epicrium corresponds with the supra- temporal of the Labyrinth-
odont ; and a question arises as to the true nature of the "squa-
mosal " and "post-frontal " of the latter.^
The Lim^s. — The pectoral arch in the Amphibia is distinguish-
able into a scapular, a coracoidal, and a prEcoracoidal region,
although the extent to which these parts of the primitive cartilagin-
ous arch become separately ossified varies very much in the diflferent
members of the group.
In Proteus, MenobranckvrS, Cnjptobranckus, ana Menopomaf
ossification occurs only in the scapular region. In Siren and
Amphiuma an additional broad coracoidal ossification occurs, but it
does not meet the scapular ossification in the glenoidal cavity. The
junction, however, takes place in Siredon and the Salamanders. In
none of the Urodela does any ossification appear in or uuon the
preecoracoidal or supra-scapular cartilage.
A supra-scapular ossification exists in all known Anura. All but
Microps and ffylcEdactyltcs* have a praecoracoid, which acquires a
sheath of bony matter. The glenoidal cavity is bounded by the
praecoracoid, coracoid, and scapula ; and in some cases (e.y., Dacty'
Ictkra) the ossified ends of the three unite and give rise to a tri-
radiate suture in the glenoidal cavity, just as the pubis, ischixim,
and ilium of most Vertebrata unite in the acetabulum. In Systoma
gibbosum, contrary to the usual rule, the prcecoracoid is far broadei
than the oracoid (Parker).
In the higher Anura, a median piece, of very variable size, form,
and consistency, extends forwards from the junction of th« pra-
coracoids. Mr Parker considers it to be an outgrowth from these
and terms it the omoslernum,.
The long bones, both in the fore and hind limbs, consist of an
axis of cartilage, sheathed in, and more or less replaced by, a dia-
physis of membrane bone. The extremities of the cartilages fre-
quently undergo calcification, and axe thus converted into epiphyses.
A strong crest characterises the humerus in many male Anura.
In the latter, the radius and ulna coalesce into one bone, while in
all other Amphibia they remain distinct.
In Siredon, Cryptobranchus, and Menopoma, the carpus contains
eight separate cartilages, of which th.-ee — the radiale^ intcrmediuin,
ani ulnare — form a proximal row ; and four distalia, a distal row.
Between these two series lies a single ccntrah.
In Men>obranchu3, there are only six carpal cartilages — the ulnnre
and intermedium, and the radiale and radial distale, rcsnectively,
having apparently, as Gegenbaur suggests, coalesced.
In Amphiuma didactylum, the number of carpal cartiluges is
reduced to four, and In Proteus to three. . In both these cases the
two largest cartilages form a proximal row.
* On the structure of the akull, as of whatever else is known of the
organisation of the LabyrinthodontB, the reader will find full, ex-
cellently arranged, and well-digested infomi.ition in the " Report of the
Commlttoo of tho British Association on tho Labyrinthodonts of the
Coal Measures," drawn up by Mr iilia\\,,Jiritish A^ocvatiim JieportSt
1S73.
' Parker On the Shoulder iiirdle, p. 67.
I. — 9G
702
AIMPHIBIA
Tbo Salamandrida Tieuall; have seren carpal elemoDt^. In the
proximal row there are two — a radiale and a coalesced intermedium
aad uluare. There is a single ccotrale and four distalia. These are
variously ossified until, inrWten criitaliu and alpestrit,a.\l are ossified.
No nrodcle amphibian has more tlian four digits in the nianus,
and the number may bo reduced to three, or even two (Amphiuma
didactylum). When four digit* are present tlie number of the
phalanges is osually 2, 2, 3, 2.
Among the Anura, Dug&s and Oegcnbaur have shown tnat Bom-
binalor and Pelobatea have eight distinct carnal bones— two iilrtho
proximal row (radiale, iiitermedium-ulnare), five in the distal, and
one between these two rows. This last, wliich is the centrale, lies
on the radial side of the manus, and articulate* with the three
radial distalia, much as the navicular bone articulates with tlie
three cunciformia in the mammalian tarsus. In Raria aculenta,
there are also two bones in the proximal row, and the centrale lies
on the radial side of the caqius. IJut there are only three bones in
the distal row ; one largo, on the ulnar side, which bears the third,
fourth, and fifth metacarpals, and two small ossicles on the radial
side, which articulate with the first and second metacarpals.
There are five digits in the manus of the Anura ; but the pollex
is rudimentary, being represented only by a cartilaginous or more
or less ossified style, 'i'ho second and third digits usually have two
phalanges each, and the fourth ond fifth, three (2, 2, 3, 3).
The pectoral arch of the Labyrinthodonts is best known in
ArchigosauruB, where it presents three ossified elements, which pro-
bably answer to the coracoid, priecoracoid, and scapula. The bones
of the fore-limb in the Labyrinthodonts are always weak relatively
to the size of the body. There appear to have been five digits, the
carpus remaining unossified.
In Proteus^ Menobran^hris^ and Amphiunuit the pelvic arch is not
connected with any distinctly modified sacral vertebra, and the
ilium is very small. The pubos and ischia are represented by broad
cartilaginous plates, which unite, and may become fused together
in the middle line.
In Mcnoin-a7ichu9, the pubic portion of the pelvis ia continued for-
wards into a broad triangular median process. In Siredon^ Meno-
foma, Cryplobranehus, and the Salamanders, there is a similar
median process,, reminding one of the omostemum in the pectoral
arch of the Anura. It becomes bifurcated anteriorly. The ilium
is always ossified ; and there are ischial ossifications in all but
Proteus. On the other hand, the pubio region always remains
cartilaginous in the Urodcla.
Hyrtl has shown that Cnjptohranchus has no proper knee-joint, the
femur being united with the tibia and fibula by a solid fibrous mass ;
and that, in Menopoma, the cavity of the knee-joint is very small.
The tibia and fibula in the Urodela are always separate, and the
proximal elements/ of the tarsus are not elongated. The greatest
number of tarsal elements is found in Cryplobranehus and ileno-
foma, which, according to Hyrtl, have three cartilages in the proxi-
loal, and five in the distal, row, while two are central. In Siredon,
the tarsus completely resembles the carpus, but there is one more
distal cartilage. The tarsus therefore consists of three proximal
cartilages {tibiale, intermediam, fibulare), one central (centrale), and
five distal (distalia). In the Salamanders, there is usually the same
number and disposition of the tarsal cartilages ; but more or fewer
are ossified, and it is interesting to remark that the two fibular
distalia sometimes become united into a "cuboid."
Menobrar.ehus has two (or three) proximal, one central, and three
distal tarsal cartilages ; Amphiuma, three proximal and two distal ;
Proteus, two cartilages on the fibular, and one on the tibial side.
Siredon, Cryplobranehus, Menopomet, and most Salamanders have
five digits in the pes ; Menobranchua, four ; Amphiuma, three ;
and Proteus, two. The number of the phalanges in the pentadactyle
foot ia usually 2, 2, 3, 3, 2. In Siredon, Hyrtl found 1, 2, 3, 4, 2.
In the Anura, the ilium is greatly elongated, and the pubes and
iachia are flattened, discoidal, and applied together by their inner
BUrfacea. The ilium and the ischium, alone, become completely
ossified, and there is no praepubic process.
The tibia and fibula coalesce into one bone. Two elongated bones
form a proximal row in the tarsus, and are commonly united by
their epiphysial ends (e.g., Rana ; they remain separate in Bom-
binaior). In Sana esculenia, the distal confluent ends of these
bones (which possibly answer to the astragalus and calcaneum) pre-
sent a transversely elongated articular surface, which is convex from
the dorsal to the plantar side. Between this and the proximal end
of the second and third metatarsals lies a discoidal, more or less
calcified, cartilage. The convex distal face of this cartilage articu-
lates with . these two metatarsals. From its fibular side a strong
ligamentous band passes to the proximal end oC the fifth metatarsal,
and a fibrous plate to the fibular and plantar edge of the fourth
metatarsal, so that the band and plate are interposed between these
metatarsals and the coalesced astragalus and calcaneum. On the
tibial side of the discoidal cartilage Ues another, which is elongated
from the dorsal to the plantar side, and concave proximally, to
articulate with tho tibial side of the distal end of the coalesced
•atragolos ?Jid calcaneum The inner or tibial face of this cartilage
articulates with the proximal end of the elongated Srat joint of the
calear. Its distal end is connected by a strong band of li^ameutnua
fibres, within which a nodule of cartilage may be enclosed, with the
proximal ends of the first and second metatarsals. The second joint
of tho calear has the form of an ungual phalanx.
In Bufo and Bombinaior, according to Gcgcnbaur, the calear con-
sists of only a single piece.
The pelvic arch of the Labyrinthodonts appears to have contained
a well-ossified pubic element, in which respect it difi'ers from that
of all other Amphibia. Tho hind-limb, like the foreJimb, wu
rolotively weak. The tibia and fibula are distinct. In tho few
cases in which the pes is preserved it is pentadactjle, with a short
cartilaginous tarsus.
The Integumentary Organs. — In all recent Amphibia, theintegn-
ment is remarkable for the great abundance of simple follicular
glands which are distributed through it, and fii'e sometimes all of
one kind (e.g., Proteus), though in other cases two sorts of such
plandrf can be distinguished (liana). In many Anura and Urodcla,
these glandular structures attain a greater complication of structure,
especially near the angle of the jaw, and constitute what are termed
the "parotoid" glands. In some cases, the secretion of these glanda
is extremely acrid and irritating. In some Urodela (Proteus and
Siredon), and in the tadpole, tno epidermis becomes modified in
relation with the termination of sensory nerves, in the head and
along the body, in the region of the nerve of tho lateral line, and
gives rise to sensory organs of the same nature as those which are
found in the lateral line and the so-called mucous sacs and canals
of fishes-'
In a few Anura, ossification takes place in the dorsal integument,'
and this process may go so far as to give rise to bony plates, which
may become closely connected with the spineB of tne subjacent
vertebrae (Brachycephalus, Ceralophrys). in the majority of the
Peromela, oval, cycloid scales are imbedded in the transverse folds
of the integument, and constitute another point of resemblance be-
tween the members of this group and the Labyrinthodonts. But the
rows of scales are not confined to the ventral surface, and the scales
themselves diff"er in structure from those of the Labyrinthodonts.
In the Urodela and Anura, the epidermis is periodically ezuri-
ated.
T/u Alimentary Oryans. — Tho teeth of the recent Amphibia
vary a good deal in form. In the Urodela, they are usually
conical and pointed ; frequently more or less curved ; some-
times, as in Anaides, lancet-shaped. Siren has the surfaces
of the vomers and palatines covered with parallel series of
small dents en broste. In Ceratophrys, the base^ of the
teeth are slightly grooved longitudinally. In Archega-
saurus, similar grooves are more marked, and give rise to
folds of the ■wall of the tooth. These, extending inwards
and ramifying, give rise to the complicated or " labjrrin-
thic '' structure exhibited by transverse sections of the
teeth of tho typical Labyrinthodonts. Very generally, the
teeth become ankylosed with the subjacent bones, and are
replaced by others developed at their bases. In the Laby-
rinthodonts, some of the anterior teeth frequently become
much larger than the rest. The Anura are remarkable
for the total absence of teeth in tho mandibles, in all but
one or two genera, while many have no premaiillary oi
maxillary teeth. The Toads have no teeth in the upper
jaw. Pipa is altogether edentulous. Siren alone presents
plates of horn upon the gingivel surfaces of the premaxillae
and of the dentary elements of the mandible.
Teeth may be developed upon the premaxillae and_
maxillae, the palatines, and the dentary and the spleniaJ
elements of the mandible ; but they do not occur ebe;
where, — the so-called sphenoidal teeth of some Salaman-
ders being really borne, as has been seen, on the peculiarly
modified palatines.
The buccal cavity is usually spacious, and the widely-separated
posterior nares open into the anterior part of it. In the lower CVo^
dela, the branchial clefts lie at the sides of the pharynx, and the
median aperture of the glottis is situated far bock. In the Urodela,
and some .^nura, there are no Eustachian passages ; but, in moat
Anura, these passages have the form of wide recesses leading out
of the pharynx. \n Pipa and DactyUthra alone, <the "recessea"
are converted into EuGtachian "tabes," which open by a common
* Pecherches sur tea organs sensiti/s, qui ee Irouvent dans fcpidcfm^
da Protie et de VAxolotl, by K Bugnion. Lausanne, 1873.
AMPHIBIA
763
ta&ii&n aperrure ; tnis !3 relatively wider in Dactylethra, Two
grooves in the mucous membrane of the roof of the mouth pass
from the Eustachian to the posterior nasal apertures, and enclose a
lyrate space, in these genera.
The tongue is rudimentary in the lower Urodela ; but, in the
Salamanders, it may be free, fleshy, and even mushroom-shaped.
In Pipa and Dacti/Uthra, no trace of a tongue is to be observed.
In Jiana, as in most Anura^ the anterior end of the tongue is com-
paratively small and little elevated above the mucous membrane of
the floor of the mouth, but the posterior end ia produced into a
free fleshy mass, bifurcated at its extremity. It ia this free end
which ia thrown forward in the act of prehension, the tongue turn-
ing on ita anterior end as on a hinge. Mhinophripius is the only
Anuran in which the anterior end of the tongue alone ia free.
In the males of many Anura the mucous membrane of the mouth
ia produced outwards, on each aide, between the mandible and the
hyoid, into a aac, which becoraea filled with air, and gives rise to a
conapicuous projection of the integument of the throat. In some
cases these two sacs coalesce into one.
Salivary glands have not been discovered in any Amphibia.
Except in the Peromela, the gullet ia abort. It passes into an
elongated atomach, the long axis of which coincides with that of
the body in the ^rodela and Peromela, but becomes oblique, or
transverse, in thc^wura. The*intestine ia never very long, and,
consequently, its convolutions are few and simple. There is always
a marked distinction between the small and the large intestine. Tne
latter opens into a cloaca, which reoeives the ducts of the urinary
and gemtal apparatus. The stomach and intestine are enclosed in
p-eritoneum, and suspended to the roof of the abdominal cavity by
a mesenteric fold. Tne liver ia always provided with a gall-bladder.
It is distinctly bilobed^in most Anura; and, in Pipa and Daciy-
lethra, the two lobea are completely separate, the gall-bladder being
attached to the right lobe. In the Peromela, the liver baa an ex-
ceptional form, being divided into a great number of small lobes,
arranged in a longitudinal aeries so as to overlap one another.
A pancreas ia always preaent ; but sometimes, as in Rana, it is
email, and its glandular substance surrounds the hepatic duct. The
spleen, enclosed in the mesentery, is elongated Ln the Urodela and
Peromela, rounded in tbe Anura,
— The heart is contained within
of which generally exhibit
L.s.v.f.
The Organs of Circulation.
pericardium, the walls
numerous scat-
tered pigment
cella.'^nd though
delicate in the
fresh state, are
apt to become
tough and almost
pergamentaceoua
ia spirit speci-
mens. The heart
(if we apply that
name to the
whole apparatus
enclosed within
the pericardium,
except the ven^
cavae), presents a
series of five
segments, to
whicli, enumera-
ting them from
behind forwards, the following terms may be applied: — 1,
The Jjnw venosus ; 2, the atrium; 3, the ventriculua; 4, tlie
pylangivm (from ttuKuiv, a gateway, and dyytioi', a vessel);
and 5, the eynanijium. Atrium here denotes the auricular
division of the heart, comprising the right and left
auricles. Pylangium and synangium, together, are the
equivalonta of that portion of the heart which lies between
the ventricle and the anterior wall of the pericardium, and
which has been Tariously named hulbia, cavue, and truncus,
arteriosus.
These five segments of the heart are so arranged, that
the sinus and atrium lie on the dorsal and posterior aspect
of the organ, while the others occupy its ventral and anterior
legjon- Vipwcd sideways, ib fact, the htfart has the shape
' finlS.-^ThtiiitLrtot StredonmeTuanta. Diterftl view of
the heart contained within the peilcardiatn, the left
wall of tho siDua venoaua and of the aurlcleB being
removed ; S. sinus venoaus; /. ». c. Infei^pr vena cava;
L. I. V. e. left superior vena cava; L.A. left auricle ;
R. A. right auricle ; Spt. aeptum anriciSlorutn ; V.
ventricle; T. a. truncna arterioaua ; 1. 2, 8, 4, tlie
aortic arohea. The arrow traveraea the Binu-aurlcular
aperture. The auricolo-ventricalar aperture lies to
the right of the arch formed by tife free edge of the
aeptum.
ot a S, of wtuch the sinus and atnum occnpy the upper,
and the other segments the lower half. But It also
always presents.
a ^
.-Spt.
-tt
more or less, a
lateral flexure,
between its an-
terior and poste-
rior pouits of
adherence to the
middle line of
the pericar-
dium ; so that,
viewed from
above, it ap-
proximates the
form of an N, of
which the right
half is repre-
sented by the
synangium, py- it
langium, and Fiq. is— Vemral view of the name heart contained In the'
vpntriplfl a n H pericardium, Ri^.c. right supfcrl&r vena cava. The
ventricle, ana pylangium i»id open to aliow the two tiansverse row*
the left half by °^ valvea, n. r^. The commencement of the ajnaji-
,, . . , giam (5?.), cut acrosa
the atnum and
sinus. The pylangium, in fact, always arises from the
right side of the ventricle, while a large part of the atrium
and of the sinus very often lies to the left of the ventricle,
the auriculo-ventricu- Tt.
lar aperture of the ven- jr „ ^ f^^L
tricle looking to the
left side and forwards.
There is an interest-
ing difference to be
observed in the relative
position of these seg-
ments of the heart in
the lower and the
higher Amphibia. In
Siredon, for example,
the greater part of the
sinus lies completely
behind the ventricle,
and the sinu-auricular '
aperture is situated on
the posterior face of the atrium, on a level with the posterior
part of the ventricle ; but, in the Frogs, the sinus lies
altogether above the ventricle, without sensibly projecting
behind it, and the sinu- .3.
auricular opening lies in
the dorsal face of the
atrium, in front of the
level of the auricula-
ventricular aperture. In
other words, the seg-
ments of the heart have
a less marked vertical
flexure in the lower,
than in the higher Am-
phibia, and more nearly
approach the condition
of tho embryonic heart.
Tn rnn-PinonHpnCB with f""- 18— The atrium of the same heart lal»
in COrreSponaenCB wuu „pj„ ^„j ,„„„„» spread o;il. so as to show
this, the superior cavse the opening of the pulmonary vein, i'.f-.M"'
.1 ■ J- _ the Biuu-auriculur aperture, 5.0
traverse the pericardium
to enter tho sinus near its posterior end in Siredtm. but
about its middle in the Frog.
The siiius venosus is a thin walled sac, which is relatively
largest in the lower Amphibia and smallest in the Frogs
Anteriorly, it usually receives, on each side, one of tht
two superior ven.-c cavae ; posteriorly, the single vena cav>
Hit.
Fia. 17. — Posterior view of the aaroe h?art, re-
moved from the pericardium; P.v. pulmonary
vein.
Jl'A-.
764
AMPHIBIA
ately after they
have traversed
the pericardi-
um, as in Meno-
hranchus ; or,
they may be
8hort trunks, as
infcrisi opens into it. But, in some cases (as in Meno-
branchtit and Pipa, according to Meyer) the inferior vena
cava divides in-
to two branches, ^ '*"''• ,,, \ J,,
each of which
coalesces with
the superior
vena cava of its
eidobcf ore open-
ing into the
sinus. The supe-
rior cavae may
open into the
sinus immedi-^"'' *^' — "^^ '^*'"* °' Rana cfcu/mia — Lateral view of the
heart oontalniMl wlthlo tbe perlcardlain. (The heart baa
buen caraf oUy drawti Ic scale in tilu, and the parV Dhowrr
by dieaoction put In aa If the organ wer« traneparent)
J3. Blnas vcDosua; /.r. lufurlor vena cava; S.vjct. kft
superior cava; ^'iv.c.r. opening ol th^ right aupcrtur
cava; F.V. pulnionary vein (lt« dotted contovr la seen
through the left euporlor caTS) ; c, style Introduced Into
the pulmonary vein and passing Into the left auricle ;
fr, style Introduced Into the elnu-aurlcjlar aperloro and
passing Into the right auricle (RJ.), where Ita end la
vialhlo to the right of the septum, Spt. Ve. rentricular
cavity. T.a. truncus artorlosua Ao. aortic arch ; a,
IntheFrOfTS' or Heament pualng from tho wall of the pcrlcardluu to the
fP ' , ' Teuttlda
as in btreaon
and the Salamanders, the right cava may De long and the
left short.
The sinu-auricular aperture, by which the sinus and tlie
right auricle communicate, is small, relatively to the size of
these two cavities, and
Las an oval form. Its
lips may be slightly
prolonged towards
the cavity of the
auricle, but do not
give rise to very de-
finite sinu - auricular
dives.
The auricular seg-
ment of the heart, or
atrium,, is always
more or less bi-lobed,
the truncua arteriosus
being embraced by
the two lobeSj one of
•which projects on its
right side and the
other on the left. The
right and left lobes are equal in Proteus ; both lobes are
large and sacculated in Siren ; in Menohranchus', the left
lobe seems to be large, in Epicrium, the right ; but many
-if these diiTerences are pro-
bably accidental. In the
Bullfrog {Rana pipiens) the
two lobes of the atrial
segment of the heart com-
pletely envelop the truncus
arteriosus, and become
anited together by fibrous
tissue, which connects their
walls on the ventral side of
the truncus. The atrium
is usually divided into two
cavities, of which the left
is smaller than the right,
by ^ septum, which ex- ^''^^- — The heart or /lana Mcu^nfa, view.
i J f ,, , -. ,, , ed from above and behind. The aortic
tenas trom tne lettWallOf arches seen through the aurlclea L.p.t,
the atrium towards the ''■''■°- '"" ""^ '^^'" poi™"d'"7 'eini
auriculo-ventricular aperture. The cavity of the auricular
segment thus becomes divided into a smaller, left, auricle,
which lies behind and to the left of the septum, and a
larger, light, S'mcle, to the right and in front of the
Fin. 20.— Ventral view qf tlie neart of Bona fttu-
Ifnla, ribtalned In the same way. A stylo Is
parsed through the sperturo which leads (rom
the ventricle Into the pylangium ; L.A. left
auitcle; Ao. Ao^. aortic hiches; U.S. v. c. right,
BDtl L.i. v.e. left superior cava.
Ct.v.i
still com- *"'**■ 22.— The left aarlde of thehollfrog (Jtanaptpuiuy
laid open In such a manner as to show the ieptiuD
with Its nerves (n) and ganglia (^), and the manner
In wh^ch It descends opon the free iurfaces of the
anrlculo-veotrlcular valves, V^, F*. f.v. opening ef
the pulmonary vein; L.ae.e. left nperlor Tesa
cava ; V. ventricular cavity.
septum. In the Frogs, the leptum aunculorum is a com-
plete partition, contaimng muscular fibres, and the septal
branches, with their ganglia, of the cardiac nerves of tho
pneumogastric j^
It divides the
auricnlo - ventricu -
lar aperture, pass-
ing from one au-
ricnlo - ventricular
valve to the other,
and ending be-
tween them by a
free edge, which
might almost bo
said to lie in the
cavity of the ven-
tricle (Fig. 23).
In Lissotriton
punctatus, and in
Siredon, the sep-
tum,
plete, ends in the
cavity of the au-
ricular segment by
a free edge, which
arches over the auriculo-ventricular aperture." In Meno-
bromcku3, the septum is reduced to little more than a
wide-meshed network of branched muscular bands, and, in
Proteus, the existence of a septum is doubtful
The auriculo-ventricular aperture is always situated at
the left side of the posterior end of the auricular segment,
where the latter joins the ventricle. In Rana esculenta
and pipiens it possesses distinct, though short, membrane-
ous valves, the free edges of which, directed towards the
ventricular cavity, are kept down by fine tendinous filaments.
The common trunk, formed by the union of the two
pulmonary veins, runs over the dorsal wall of the sinut
venosut, passes between the two superior cavje, and, usually
dilating, opens into the cavity of the left auricle, close
to the sinu-auricular aperture ; and, in fact> separated
from it only by the septum, which continues the direction
of the right wall of the pulmonary vein.
The ventricular segment always has thick walls and a
comparatively small cavity, which lies in the anterior half
or base of the ventricle, and takes a direction from left to
right, or from the auriculo-ventricular aperture to that of
the truncus arteriosus. In consequence of the loose and
spongy texture of the greater part of the thickness of the
ventricular wall, it must be recollected that ita apparent
cavity by no means represents its capacity.
The truncus arteriosus of Menohranchus is subcylindrical,"
in that half which is nearest the ventricle, but, in the other
half, has a dilated and ovoid form. The latter, in reality,'
consists of the origins of the aortic arches, closely united
together (synangium), while the former subdivision is the
gateway between the ventricle and the great vesseb, or the
pylangium. It presents two transverse rows of semilunarj
valves, three in each row; the lower or posterior row being
close to the opening of communication between the pylan-|
gium and the ventricle, while the other row is near tha'
anterior end of the pylangium.
IniS'iVcrfon(Fig3. 15 and 16)there is the same aivi;.on into
a pylangium proper and a large oval bulb-like synangiumj
formed by the united aortic arches. Three valves in al
transverse row are situated at each end of the pylangium.'
An oblique ridge projects from the dorsal wall of the
pylangium, beginning low ou the left side, and gradually
increasing in size, until it passes into the dorsal valve of
the anterior row. There is ^ small space in front of the
anterior row of valves, into which projects the posterioi.
AMPHIBIA.
765
ree end of an oblique, but nearly horizontal septum, which
Sivides the cavity of the synangium. From this thick parti-
tion thinner septa radiate to the walls of the synangium,
which they thus divide into five longitudinal canals, of which
that which lies to the right is twice as large as any of
the others. In fact, it also becomes subdivided, further
forwards, by a longitudinal septum, and then there are six
canals answering to the six aortic arches which spring from
^e synangium, where it reaches the anterior end of the
J)fericardium. According to Hyrtl's account, the pylan-
^um of Cryptobranchus has a very similar structure; but
the synangium is completely split into two trunks, each of
which contains three canals.
This leads to the structure of the truncus arteriostts
observed in the Frogs, which consists almost wholly of the
pylangium. Three thick semilunar valves are placed at
the ventricular
end of this re- '*<'.
gion, and three
others, also of un-
equal dimensions,
at its synangial
end. Alongitudi^
nal ridge, with a
rounded, free, ven-
tral edge, projects
from the dorsal
Vail of the py-
langium. It is
thicker anteriorly
than posteriorly,
and is directed
obliquely, so that
its anterior end
passes into the
right anterior
valve, while its
posterior extre-
mity is close to Fia 23.— The heart of flano pfp/pfw. The yentricle (T),
thpi Ipff rtnqfpnnp the truncus arteriosus, and ihe aortic trunks (.40.) arc
valve. The ante-
rior valves of the
pylangium (v-)
are much larger
than the posterior valves; and, of the three anterior valves,
that which lies on the dorsal side is the smallest. Imme-
diately beyond it is situated the aperture (p), which leads
into the pulmonary trunks. In front of the pulmonary
aperture is a wide cavity, whence the two great aortic trunks
(Ao, Ao^) spring. A tongue-like projection springs from
the dorsal wall, and divides the cavity imperfectly. On the
ventral side of the base of this tongue are the two open-
ings (Ca) which lead into the carotid trunks. The three
trunks — carotid, aortic, and pulmonary — pass out of the
pericardium together, so closely united that they appear
one. It is only at some distance beyond the pericardium
that they separate, — the anterior ending in the rete mirabile,
which has received the name of the "carotid gland;"
the middle becoming the arch of the aorta; the posterior,
the pulmo-cutaneous artery.^
In the Percmela {e.g. Epicrium), the heart presents many
singular peculiarities (Fig. 24). In the first place, it is
moved back to a distance which is relatively far greater
than in any ot'hcr Amphibia and in most lizards. Next, it is
extremely elongated, and the truncxis arteriosus is relatively
more prolonged than any other part of the heart. But
' Tho Rtnicture of Uie heart in the Amphibia haa been recently dis-
raaaed with great ability, by M. Anuand Sabatier in hia Elnda sur le
mar MontpelUer, 1878.
Ky
laid open from the ventral aide. Spt. free edge of
the septum aiirlculorum; »'. eemilunar valvcB at tfie
Tcntricular end of the pylatipitim ; «^. valvea nt lis
fiyiiangial end; S, the eeptum of the pylangium;
P, tho ajierture of the puJmonary trunks; Ci*, the
apertujua of the carotid trunks.
nrl
%'
i-Tl*
the relative proportions of the pylangium and Synangium
are the reverse of those which obtain in the Anura, The
two transverse rows of valves which mark the boundaries
of the pylangium are situated close to one another, near
the origin of the truncus, all the rest of which is made up
of the synangium. A longitudinal partition, at first, divides,
the cavity of the synangium into two
unequal passages; but, towards its
anterior end, it contains four equal
canals. Having reached the anterior
extremity of the pericardium, the
synangium divides, and the two pairs
of canals become independent, but
closely united, trunks, which run, on
each side of the trachea, to about the
level of the glottis. Here the two
trunks join, and pass into the single
arch of the aorta, which turns sharply
back beneath the vertebral column.
The carotid artery is given off from
the junction of the two trunks with
the single dorsal aortic arch. Shortly
before the two trunks join, that upon
the dorsal side gives off the pulmon-
ary artery. A single pulmonary vein
opens into the left auricle; and it is
worthy of notice, that the auricles
and sinus are situated as far forwards
on tho dorsal aspect of tiie heart as in
the Frogs.
As regarcls the numher and destination
of the great vessels which arise from the
synangium, great differences obtain in the
different groups of the Amphibia.
In the perennibranchiate Urodela^ each
of the three, or four, branchial arches has its
appropriate aortic trunk, which springs
mediately, or immediately, from the synan-
gium. The three anterior aortic trunks
supply the gills, but are not wholly distri-
buted to them; so that the trunks which
unite to form the dorsal aorta are derived
partly from the giUs and partly come di-
rectly from the ventral aorta. The anterior
aortic arch gives off, on its ventral side,
a hyomandibular artery to the walls of the
oral cavity, which appears to represent the
remains of the hyoidean and mEtndibular
aortic arches, while, dorsally, it supplies
the internal carotid The pulmonary artery ^^^ j4._v„„p,i .ic, o( th.
IS given ou from the fourth aortic arch, or head ami trunk o( .fjn
from the common trunk, which is formed
by the union of this with, those which pre-
cede it.
In CryptobraTichiLSj according to Hyrtl,
three trunks are given off on each side from
the synangium. The most anterior cor*
responds with the hyom \ndibular artery of
the perennibranchiate fonna. The second
belongs to the first branchial arch. It
gives off no branch, but unites with tho
third and largest vessel to form a common
trunk, which unites with its fellow beneath
the vertebral column, and giv°3 rise to the
dorsal aorta. The posterior aortic arch gives off tho pulmonary
artery (which supplies a branch to the alimentary canal). From
tho common trunk a maxillary and an internal carotid artery
are supplied ; while a third branch passes to the ventral side of the
atlas, and, turning backwards, passes between tho transverse process
of the second and succeeding vertebrw aa a collateral vertebral artery.
In Salamandra, there are four aortic arches. The most anterior
of these belongs to the first branchial arch. It gives off a hyoman-
dibular branch, then breaks up into a rete mirabile, whence the
internal carotid artery is continued, and ia connected by a mere
ductus Botalli with the second arch. Tho eecond and third archoa
give off no branches ; but, along with the slender ductus Botalli
of tho fourth arch, coalesce into tho trunk which unites with its
[ fpllow to form the dorsal aorta. The fourth arch gives off thf'
/l^C
crtum glutinosum. Afn.
inandiMe ; Hy. hyold ;
Jir\ Br^, Br*, t>ranchial
arches; 01. gloltlB ; Tr.
trachea ; I.v.c Inferior
Vena cava; V, ventricle;
Au, auriclea ; R.s.v.c,,
L^.Vjc. right and left
BiiperioT cavm. T.a. trun-
cuB aricrloBUs; Ao. left
aortic arch; P.A. riRht
polmonary artery. Tli«
pericardium (lightly
shaded) extends as far
aa the bifurcation of the
aynanffluin.
766
A M P H I P I A
pulmonary artory, «nil A iBftllcf dort&l (mtancoui branch (Hyrti).
The pulmonary urteiy givoa twigB to llio stomach.
' It ia clear that tno posterior trunk of Cryptobranchiu repi'e*
flcnta the second, third, and fourth aortic arches of Satamandra; ujid
that tlio first aortic orch of Satamandra answers to the first and
second trunks which spring frpm the syuangiura of Cryplobranchus.
In the Anura there aro apparently only two aortic arches; hut,
as has already been obscrvea, each of them is divided into three
canals. The anterior canal ends in a reU mirabiU, whence tlie
internal carotid artery proceeds, and it gives off the hyomandibular
or lingual artery. It therefore answers to the first arch of the
Salamanders. 1 he second or middle canal is the largest, and pa«.scs
into a trunk which runs along the sides of the guUet; and curving
backwards, uiiitea with that of the opposite side in the dorsal aorta.
The tliird canal ends in a trunk which divides into the pulmonary
and tile great cutaneous arteries, which latter is distributed to the
dorsal intcgiimnnt. It answers to the third and fourth arches
in tho Salamanders.
iFlo- 36.— nie heart, (n'ent srttTlal tn^nk^ and the Adjacent principal nervea oj
fttina etrutertta. drawn to acalc. The positions of the auditory capsnlo lAu),
Eustachian tubo (Ett >, and hyoldeaa corna (ITv-)i are ledlcated dla^atn-
ma'lcallr. i, root of the loft long; S.V. sinus venosus; vt. ventric.o. Au.
anrldo ; 3V. A. truncus aitorlo^ua ; CO. carotid gland; /j7, llngaal artery;
Or. carotid artery: Oph. ophthalmic artery. 2. Left arch of the aorta, pass-
lug through the Tnascular diaphragm to the aorta (Ao.) beneath; tr. Hi. the
tran«erso process of the third vertebra , 6r. tho brachial artery. 8. Pulmo-
culoneoas artery ; et. Its cutu^eou^ p. its pulmonary division. Nerves: — V,
V, V, first, second, and third dUUlons of the trigeminal ; VIIo, VIIp.
anterior and posterior dlWslons of the portlo dura; IX.. the glOBsopharj'ngcnl ;
X', the cutaneous branch of the vagus; X', tho visceral trunk, giving off
X', tho cardiac, X*, the pulmonic, and X", the gastric branihes; X*, the
laryngeal branch. Sp.f. the first spinal (hypoglosaal) nerve; Sp.II. the cut
trunjE of the second spinal nerra
In the Peromela {Epicrium) the two aortic trunks which spring
from the truncus arteriosus would seem to correspond with tho
second and third of the fror^, the first having become absorbed into
the second. This is a point which can bo cleared up satisfactorily
only by the stiidy of development; but it is obvious that the heart
and its arches have undergone greater changes in this group than
in any of the others.
With respect to the veilous system, it is worthy of notice that
the blood returning from the hinder part of tho body and the pos-
terior extremities is, in part, carried to tho kidneys, and in pnrt.
poured into a vein which runs in the anterior wall of the abdom: ' 1
cavity,— the anterior ahdmninat vein. Of the branches in which
this vein terminates anteriorly, one communicates with the portal
vein, and one is distributed to the liver directly. In the Anura^
venous radicles in the integument covering the back of the head
and shotalders, nnite to form a great cutaneous vein, which passes
backwards, perforates the external oblioue muscle, and then turn-
ing abruptly forwards, ends in the subclavian vein. This vein
carries away a large part of the blood of the cutaneous artery,
which accompanies it m a great part of its course.
The lymphatic eyitem has been most carefully studied in
the frog, where itconsistsof (1.) widely-dLitributed lymphatic
capillaries, andsinuses which ensheath the blood-vessels; (2.)
subcutaneous lymph sacs; (3.) a large subvertebral cistema,
enclosed between tho diverging lamellae of the mesentery,
and placed in communication with the peritoneal cavity by
minute openings or stomata; (4.) four lymph hearts, two
situated close to the transverse process of the third ver-
tebra and two at the sides of the coccygeal style. Ihese
hearts puBip th4 Ijmph into the adjacent veins. As the
two pairs of lymph hearts have been discovered in Triton
and Satamandra as well as in Hana, it is probable that
they are present in the 'Urodela generally. No Amphibia
possess lymphatic glands.
The Thymus gland in tho Ufodela lies behind the angle
of tho mandible (Triton, Satamandra), or close to tho
dorsal ends of the branchial arches {J'ro'eui, Menotiranchut,
Siredon, Ampfiiuma, Menopoma). In tho Peromela it has
tho same position as in tho abranchiate Urodela. In the
tadpole the thymus occupies a place similar to that which
it possesses in the branchiate Urodeta. In the adult frog it
Is to be found just behind the suspensorium. The Thyroid
gland, usually double, but single (according to Leydig)
in Proteus, always lies in the immediate vicinity of tho
lingual vessels.'
7'he liespiratory Organs. — Tho glottis in the Amphibia
is situated in the middle line of the floor of tho pharj-nx.
In the perennibranchiato Urodeta, it is a very small longi-
tudinal slit leading into a narrow passage, which widens
into a chamber into which the elongated pulmonary sacs
bpen. The Urodela and the Peromela present mere car-
tilaginous rudiments of a larynx; but, in the Anura, thli
structure attains a great development, and becomes tho
instrument of the powerful voice with which many of these
animals are provided. The larynx is lodged in the angle
between tho two thyro-hyals, with which it is closely con-
nected. The chief part of the larynx is an annular cricoid
cartilage, with which two arytenoid cartilages aro articu-
lated. Membranous folds, or freely projecting cartilagin-
ous processes of the arytrenoid cartilages (Pipa), play tho
part of vocal ligaments. In Pipa the larynx is extensively
ossified. In Proteus, the lungs are long tubes, dilated at their
posterior blind ends, and fixed to the dorsal walls of tho
abdominal cavity by folds of tho peritoneum. In Triton
they aro somewhat wider sacs, but, in both, the inner sur-
faces of the pulmonary sacs are smooth. In Siren and
Satamandra, the walls of the sacs become cellular, and in
Amphiuma, Menopoma, Cryptobranchus, and the Anura,
the ccUulation acquires a considerable development.
In Amphiuma, Menopoma, Cryptobranchus, and in the
Peromela, there is a distinct trachea, which is of great
length in the Peromela, In Pipa and Dactyteltira there is
no trachea, but each lung is connected with the laryngeal
cavity by a bronchus.
The Penal Organs. — The kidney is a iflorO or less
elongated organ — longer in the Urodela and Peromela,
shorter in the Anura — which lies on each side of the
vertebral column, its posterior end being close to, or even
extending back on the dorsal side of, the cloaca.
In the female the efferent ducts of each kidney tinito
into' a longer or shorter common trunk, which appears
always to open into the cloaca by an aperture distinct
from that of the oviduct, though the contrary statement
is very generally received.' In Rana esculenta, there can
be no doubt as to the distinctness of the minute urinary
apertures from the large and conspicuous oviducal openings,
close to which they are situated. Hyrtl says of Crypto-
branctius — "Ureter .... super latera cloacse descendens
in coUum allantoidis exoneratur " (op. cit., p. 84).
In the male Amphibia, on the other hand, there is s
longer or shorter duct common to both the renal and
the genital products, which opens into the cloaca. In
the Urodela, the duct is continued forwards along the
outer side of the kidney to the anterior end of the ab-
' See Leydig, Anatojnisch-hutolofitctie Untersucli^ngen ihtrFistht
und RepHlien, 1853.
■ See, for example, Stannlus, RandhucA der Amphibien, pp. 250,
251. On the other side. comp. Milne-EJVatds, Lc^s, t vii. p. 330.
AMPHIBIA
707
•dominal cavity, and clearly represents the Wolffian duct
of the embryo. Both the urinary tubuli and the vasa
effercntia of the testis open into this duct. In Crypto-
hranchus the kidney is divided by a constriction into
two portions — a slender, anterior, and a much thicker and
longer, posterior, division. From the latter the efferent
urinary canals proceed, and, curving outwards and back-
wards, join the posterior part of the Wolffian duct. The
former is traversed by the vasa efferentia of the testes,
which pass from its outer edge to the anterior portion of
the Wolffian duct, so that it resembles an epididymis.'
In Proteus, according to Leydig, the anterior end of the
Wolffian duct' is infundibuliform and open ; th6 vasa effer-
entia of the testes open into the anterior moiety of the duct,
the renal ducts, into its posterior moiety. The numerous
arcuated renal ducts of the Salamanders and Tritons unite
together, and open into the Wolffian duct near its cloacal end.
The Wolffian duct persists in Bombinator igneus and Disco-
gloiius pictus^ ; but, in most Anura, it becomes obliterated
for the greater part of its extent, and the same canals
serve to convey both the urinary and the spermatic fluids
to the persistent cloacal end of the Wolffian duct, which
ordinarily receives the name of ureter. The urinary bladder
is always large, and is often bifurcated anteriorly.
The Nervous System. — The amphibian brain is remark-
able for the rudimentary condition of the cerebellum, which
has the form of a mere band arching over the anterior part
of the fourth ventricle. The mesencephalon is divided
above, more or less distinctly, into two optic lobes. The
cerebral hemispheres are always relatively large, subcylin-
drical in the JJrodela, but wider behind than in front in
the Anura, and they are generally closely united together
by their inner faces.
Fio. 2fl. — niacram of the clilef cranial nerrca of Rana tiruhnta. IT. optic; IV.
iiallietic; v. orhlto-nasal ; V, Buperior maxillary; V^, Inferior maxillary;
Vila, VIIp. anterior and posterior divi-lona of the portio dura; IX. t.'io
Rloaao-pharyngeal ; X. the pneumocastric ; X', ita dorsal branch. Sp. I. The
tirat spinal neiTe (hypoclossal). 01. ol/actory nerve; Tg. tongue; liy. comu
ot thebyold; Ud. 11 ai dorian glaad.
Ten pairs of cranial nerves are always found — ?fe., 1,
The olfactory; 2, optic; 3, oculomotor; 4, pathetic; 5,
trigeminal; 6, abducens; 7, portio dura; 8, auditory; 9,
glossopharyngeal; 10, pneumogastric. The hypoglossal is
always an extracranial nerve.
1. The olfactory is usually a rounded cord, not dilated
at its anterior end. Fischer has observed it to arise by
two roots in Pipa.
2. The optic nerves are attached, as usual, to the floor of
the thalamencephalon. Fischer' found no chiasma in
Siredon or Menobranchuf. Dr Humphrey found none in
• Schmidt, Goddnrd, and Van der Hoeven, Aanteekningm over de
Anatomie van den Cri/ptobranchus japcmicus.
' According to Von Wittich. " Beitrage zur morphologischen ttnd his-
tologischen Entwickelung der Ham und Oeachlechtawerkzeugo der nacli-
ton Amphibion," Zcitschri/t far JVisscnschaftliche ZoQtogig,hd, iv.
' Artatomisch^ A^hatidlungen, p. 123, et seq.
Cryptohranchus ; but sections of the brain are needful
before the actual absence of the chiasma can {)e considered
to be satisfactorily proved.
3. The oculomotor nerve remains distinct from the
trigeminal in most Amphibia, but its branch to the superior
rectus muscle appears to coalesce with the orbito-nasal
division of the fifth in Salamancbra terrestria (Fischer).
4. The pathetic nerve remains distinct in Siredon and
I Cryptohranchus, and in ihe Anura; but in Salamandra ter-
restris, Fischer found that the superior obUque muscle was
supplied by a branch from the orbito-nasal, with which,
therefore, the pathetic had probably coalesced.
5. The trigeminal gives rise, as usual, to a Gasserian
ganglion ; and this ganglion remains distinct from that of
the seventh nerve in all the Urodela, though united with
it by a commissural band, which appears to answer to the
nervus petrosus siiperficialis minor of the higher Yertebrata.
In the Anura, on the contrary, the two ganglia are closely
approximated (Pelobates, BombinatorY, or confounded
together {Rana, Eyla, Bvfo) in the adult, though they are
distinct in the tadpole. The orbito-nasal, or first division
of the trigeminal, is always separated from the second and
third divisions by the ascending process of the suspen-
sorium, when this structure is present. It supplies the
tentacles of the Peromela. In the tadpole, and in ' some
Urodela, a cutaneous branch to the dorsum of the head is
given off from the fifth.
6. The abducens is distinct from the trigeminal in Sal(i-
mandra and Bufo, but coalesces with the Gasserian gan
gUon in i?a?!a, Pipa, and most Anura.
7 and 8. The portio dura and portio mollis arise by a
common trunk, from which the portio dura soon separates,
and either forms a distinct ganglion, as in the Urodela
and Peromela, or fuses with the trigeminal
9. The gangUon of the glossojiharyngeal nerve appears
to coalesce with that of the vagus, and the roots of the
two nerves pass out of the same foramen in all the.Amphibia
except Siren, where, according to Fischer (op. ci'i., p. 147), the
nerve leaves the skull by a distinct aperture, close in front of
that for the pneumogastric, and forms a ganglion of its own.
10. The vagus or pneumogastric, in the perennibranchiate
Amphibia, supplies the second and third branchia, and the
cucullaris muscle ; gives off cutaneous, laryngeal, cardiac,
pulmonic, and gastric branches, and sometimes as many as
three cutaneous branches, one of which runs along tie
junction of the dorsal and ventral muscles to the hinder
part of the body. These lateral nerves of the pneumo-
gastric exist also in Menopoma, Amphiuma, and Triton, and
in tadpoles ; but appear to be absent in Salamandra ter-
restris and in the adult Anura (Fischer, I.e.) These,
however, possess a cutaneous branch of the vagus, which
accompanies the cutaneous branch of the pulmo-cutaneous
artery, and is distributed more or less widely to the dorsal
integument of the head and trunk.
Fischer considers that a fine nerve, arising lower down
than the vagus, and distributed to the abductors of the
head in Pipa, is to be regarded as an acccssorius. But, seeing
that, in the Amphibia generally, the motor nerves of the
larynx, and, where a cucullaris exists, the nerv'cs of that
muscle also, are supplied from the pneumogastric, th«
question pf the presence or absence of an accessorius seems
to reduce itself to this : Does the pneumogastric receive
nerve fibres arising from the sides of the medulla oblongata
and spinal cord between the roots of the spinal nerves ?
And, as it certainly does not, the accessorius, as it exists
in the Inghor Vertebrata, must be admitted to be absent in
Amp.Mbia.
In most Amphibia, the first cervical nerve has the dis-
' Aocordljig to Statmius, Bandbuch, p. 160.
768
A ]\l r H 1 13 1 A
tribation of the hypoglossal; in Menohrancliut, however,
the corresponding nervous supply ia furnished by the
second and third cervical nerves, — the first spinal nerve,
in this genus, perforating the sides of the body of the
atlas, and being distributed to a muscle which passes from
this vertebra to the occiput (FLicher, I.e., p. 158). In
Pipa the hypoglossal is furnished by the second cervical
nerve ; in Salamandra, by the first and second. There is
no trace of any suboccipital nerve in the Amphibia ; and
as, in the absence of this nerve, the first spinal would
appear to answer to the second cervical of the higher Verte-
brata, the fact that it takes the place of the hypoglossal
becomes very pcrplcving.
In the Anura {liana) the sympathetic is represented by
a double chain of ganglia, situated at the sides of tho aorta,
and receiving branches from tho anterior divisions of the
spinal nerves. It appears to be continued in the skull by
commissural cords which pass forwards on tho inner side of
tho auditory capsule; and connect the ganglion of tho
Tagufl with that of tho trigeminal.
Tlie Organs of the Iliglt^ Senses. — The nasal sacs are
elongated in Proteus, Mcnohranchut, and Siren, and not
covered by na-sal bones or alinasal cartiLages. In tho other
Amphibia they are broader, and enclosed by cranial carti-
lages and os.sifications. The olfactory mucous membrane
is variously folded; and, in Jiana, some of these folds are
supported by ingrowths of the anterior cartilaginous wall
of the nasal chamber.
In Proteus tho eye is completely bidden by tho continuar
tion of tho unaltered integument over it, and the organ of
vision is almost as much obscured in tho Peromela. In
the other pefenuibranchiate Urodela, and in Pipa, the in-
tegument covering the eye forms a transparent cornea, but
there are no eyelids The abranchiate Urodela have an
upper and a lower lid; and, in the higher Anura, the lower
lid becomes transparent, and is usually regarded as a
membrana niditans, as it is provided with a peculiar motor
apparatus. In the Anura, the eye possesses not only the
ordinary four recti muscles and the two obliqui, but there
is i retractor bulbi. The Frogs and probably olher Anura,
possess a Harderian gland ; but no lachrymal gland has
been observed. The sclerotic may be chondrified, but it is
not ossified- There is no pecten.
With regard to tho organ of hearing, the membranous
labyrinth is enclosed between the pro-otic bone, in front,
and the representatives of the opisthotic and epiotic (usually
confounded with the exoccipital), behind. The fenestra ovalis
always occupies a space in the line of junction of the pro-
otic with the posterior ossification, whether it be occupied by
a broad unossified space, as in Menopoma, or the two bones
be ankylosed together, as in Siren, Triton, and old Frogs.
The stapes is more or less ossified, and its outer face is
frequently provided with a styliform appendage, in the
Urodela. In the Urodela (which have no tympanic cavity),
a ligament passes from the stapes to the suspensorium, and
there is no columella auris. The like absence of columella
auris and of a tympanum obtains in several Anura. Dugcs
states that the columella is wanting in Bombinator and
Pelobales^ (Recherches, p. 41), and the absence of the colu-
mella auris, as of the tympanum and Eustachian tubes,
has since been noticed in Telmatobius, Phryniscus, Atelopus
varius, and Brachycephalus ephippium (Stannius, op. cit.,
p. 61). In the higher Anura, there is a complete tym-
panum, with Eustachian tubes, and a columella auris,
which extends from the stapes to the membrana tympani.
The tympanic membrane is either quite similar to the rest
Pelolnla. howeTer, lias an extremely minate, osaifled, columella
aurii.
of the integument or markedly dilTetout from it. lu acme
gcncfa (e.g. Sana), tho tympanic membrane ia set in a
frame of cartilage. In Pipa and Dactylethra, the Eusta-
chian tubes, as already remarked, have a common opening,
and the columella is very peculiar. Recent investigations
make it probable that tho Amphibia possess a rudimentary
cochlea.' Whether tho opening, which in the Frogs has been
described as a. fenestra rotunda, ia really of that nature, ia
doubtful
The Reproductive Organs. — The ovana and testes are
attached to tho dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity, in the
immediate vicinity of the kidneys, by the mesoarial and
mesorchial folds of the peritoneum, which invest them.
Tho ovaria, when fully developed, become, hollow, and in
the Anura their internal cavities may be divided by septa.
The oviducts are long, usually more or less convoluted,
tubes, which open posteriorly into the cloaca ; while, ante-
riorly, their funnel-shaped apertures lie in tho anterior
l>art of the abdomen, sometimes, as in the Frogs, as far
forward as the root of the lung. Their walls are glandular,
and secrete a viscid substance which invests the ova in their
passage down the oviduct
In the male Urodela, the persistent Wolffian duct, al-
ready mentioned, occupies the position of the onduct in
tho female, and the vasa efferentia, after traversing tho
kidney, open into it This duct persists in B'/mbinator
igneus and Discoglossus pictus ; but in the male Anura, in
general, the greater part of it is obliterated, only bo much
remaining as plays the part of ureter and vas deferens.
In the Urodela accessory glands open into the cloaca, and
in Triton there is a rudimentary copulatory papilla. Some
female Urodela arc provided with receptacula seminis. In
the terrestrial Salamanders and in the anurous Rhinoderma
Oayi the young are develojied within the dilated uterine
terminations of the oviducts. In Pipa the eggs are deposited
on the back of the female, and the integument grows up
round each, and encloses it in a cell, in which it undergoes
its development. In some tree-frogs {Nototrema and Opis-
thodelphys) the eggs are received into a sort of marsupial
pouch formed by an up-growth of the margins of the dorsal
integument, which, when complete, has a small posterior aper-
ture. On the other hand, it is the male Alytes obstetricani
which twists the strings of eggs laid by the female round
his hind-legs, and, thus cross-gartered, retires into seclusion
until the young are ready to be hatched, when he resorts
to the water in which the tadpoles are to perform their
further metamorphoses.
Development of the Amphibia. — The yelk of the ovnm undergoes
complete division, in which respect the Amphibia agree with the
Pharynqobranchii, Marsipobranchii, and Mammalia, and dilTer
from other I'cricbrata ; though it mnat bo remembered that the
process of yelk division in the Ganoidci and Dipnoi is not yet
known.
Excopt in Bomo viviparous species, the emhrye, when hatched, ift
pisciform and apodal ; and three pairs of external gills, which become
more or less branched, are developed from the first, second, and
third branchial arches. In the larval Triton a verv sin^hlar elongated
appendage ina'kes its appearance on each aide of the head, in front
or the branchiee ;' and in the tadpole two eminences of the ventral
integument, with glandular terminal faces, are developed — one on
each side of the middle line, behind the mouth. The larvse of
Dc\ciijlrthra have two long tentacles attached near the angle of the
mouth. An opercular fold of the integument grows back from each
hyoidean arch, and the two are connected by a free fold of the sub-
gular integument. The limbs make their appearance as buds from
the sides of the body, the anterior pair appearing first. The anterior
limbs attain a considerable size before the posterior pairare developed
in Triton ; bat, in the Frogs, the posterior limbs grow much fatter
than the anterior, which long remain inconspicuous and hidden.
In the Urodele larvEe, teeth are very early developed in 'the pre-
maxillaiy, maxillary, vomerine, palatine, spleoial, and dentary
' See Hassc, IHe vergltichende Anatomiedei kautigin OthSrorgata,
Leipsic, 1873.
' The larval Siredon bu no such bfoidean (!) (ppendige.
AMPHIBIA
769
■remons ; and, indeed, in Triton and Siredcn, tne teath precede the
corresponding bones, whieh arise by the ossification of the mucous
membrane about the bases of the teeth ; and there are no labial
cartilages, -and no homy labial papiUa, or beak-like armature of the
jaw The abdomen is alender, in accordance with the brevity of the
intestine, and the Uttle animal is altogether camiTorous
In the Anura,, on the other hand, teeth are not developed unti.
s later stage. A pair of cartilages appear in ihe roof of the mouth
in front of the ends of the trabeculas ("rostraux supineurs,
Doeb ; "upper labials," Parker), and another pair opposite them
("rostraux infirkurs," Dugte ; "lower labiaK Parker) ; and the
epithelium of the mucous membrane covering them becomes con-
verted into an upper and a lower brown homy toothed plate, having
some resemblance to the beaks of a Chelonian. The curtam-liko
Ups, which surround the oral aperture, are also beset with homy
papiUs, which caU to mind the corneous teetn of the Marsipo-
branchii The abdomen is swoUen and almost globular, and lodges
a long and spiraUv-coaed intestine. The animal is herbivorous,
though it does not despise animal food, even in the shape of the
weaker members of its own famUy. ,^ . , ., , ^v
The space allotted to this article does not allow the details of the
development of the AmphUna to be even sketched ; but attention
may be directed to one or two of the more important points.
The skull presents some singular differences in the course of its
development in the Urodela (Triton, Siredon) and the Anura (Rana,
AlyUs) respectively. In the former, the mandibular and trabecular
arches become connected only at their dorsal ends, by the pedicle of
the mandibular arch ; the pterygoid arch is developed late ; and the
mandibular arch appears to give rise to no orbital process. In the
latter the mandibular and trabecular arches not only unite at their
iorsai ends by the pedicle, but, at a very early penod, the mandi-
bular arch is united with the antorbital process of the trabecula ;
and the pterygoid grows pari passu- with the subsequent divergence
of the mandibular and the trabecular arches. A large orbital pro-
cess is developed from the mandibular arch.
In the Urodeta, the hyoidean and branchial apparatus consists, at
first, of elongated cartilaginous hyoidean comua, united with a
median chondrification, which represents the basihyal and basi-
branchial pieces, to which last two cerato-branchials are attached.
The first cerato- branchial is continued dorsally mto the first
epibranchisJ, while the second cerato-branchial supports the other
three epibranchials. As the development of the TrUon proceeds
the hyoidean arch becomes connected with the siispensonnm, and
with the stapes, by ligament The second basi-branchial ossifies
detaches itself from the first, and lies as a forked bone in front of
the larynx ; and only the two cerato-branchials, with the first epi-
branchial, remain— the rest of the branchial apparatus disappearing.
In the Anura, the hyoide4n arches are, at an early period, very
thick, and relatively short, and are articulated with the-suspensona.
A rektively broad and short cartilage represents the basihyal and
basibranchial, and at the sides of this are two very broad cartUages,
which correspond with the two cerato-branchials, inasmuch as their
dorsal edges bear the four epibranchial cartilages. As the tadpole
grows older, the hyo-branchial apparatus becomes more like that of
the Urodele Urva, the hyoid arch elonrating into a slender rod, and
the two cerato-branchials becoming distinct The basibranchial
region of the median cartilage, which unites the cerato-branchials
ventrally, becomes forked, and the processes which form the fork
ossify and become the thyro-hyals, which therefore would seem to
correspond with the os ypsilmies of the Urodela. Finally, the
extreme dorsal end of the hyoidean arch detaches itself from the
BUspensorium, and enters into close union with the periotio capsule,
from the outer wall of which the coluTnella auris La developed.'
The Disiriiutum of the Amphibia. — Darwin has pointed out
(Origin of Specits, p. 850) that Amphibia are met with on no islan'ls
but New Zealand, New Caledonia, the Andaman Islands, and
perhaps the Solomon Islands and the Seychelles. "This general
absence of frogs, toads, and newts In so many true oceanic islands
cannot be accounted for by their physical conditions; indeed, it
seeins that these are peculiarly fitted for those animals, for frogs
have been introduced into Madeira, the Azores, and Mauritiu-s, and
have muItipUcd so as to become a nuisance. But as these animals
and their spawn are immediately killed (with the exception, so far
as is known, of one Indian species) by sea-water, there would be
great difficulty in their transportal across the sea, and therefore we
can SCO why they do not exist in strictly oceanic islands."
Leaving the oceanic islands aside, the distribution of the Arri-
• See the Memoirs of DugJa and Parker, already cited, for the
details of these metamorphoses. The account given by Mr Parker of
the modifications of the dorsal extremity of the hyoidean arch, how-
ever, does not accord with the results of the present writer's later
Investigationa, No coalescence of the hyoidean with the mandibular
Breh takes place ; and the " «upr»-hyo-mandibular " has nothing to
do with the colxm^Ua auris.
1— :;r,
pUlia is world-wide, but the different groups are rery remarliaDly
localised. '
The Urodela, for example, are limited not only to the arctogxal
■province, but to the temperate parts of that province; and, in curi-
ous correspondence with the G^oid fishes, their headquarters are
in North America. Siren, Mmobranchus, A mphiuma, Mawpoma,
Dicamptodon, Uendia, Anaiics, Dcsm/jgnathus, Bairadwscps, Hemi-
dactylus, and Plethodon are exclusively North American ; and the
majority of species of Amblystoma and Spelerpes appertain to that
rcion, — Amblystmna being represented in North Asia, and Spelerpes
in°the circum-Mediterranean area. Triion alone is spread over
the whole temperate arctogeeal area. Salamandra, Pleurodeles,
Bradybates, Chioglos.ia, and Salaviandrina are coniined to Europe
and North Africa. The singular Salamandra alra is limited to the
Swiss and Austrian Alps, Proteus to Camiola and Carinthia. Four
genera Ellipsoglossa, Isodadylium, Onydwdactylus, and Ba'M>d<m —
are confined to North Asia ; and Cryptobranchus. if it be a distinct
genua, is limited to Japan. , . «
If the distribution of the Urodela calls to mmd that of the Ganoid
fishes, that of the Peromela is rather comparable to the distribution
of the Tapirs. Of the four genera, Siphonops and Rhinatrema are
exclusively inhabitants of the hotter part of the Austro-Colnmbian
province as are the great number of the species of Caxilia; hut
the remaining species of that genus are East Indian, and Epicrium
is confined to Java and Ceylon.
In strong contrast with the foregoing, the Anura' are of world-
wide distribution, being abundantly represented in all the great
provinces. A great preponderance of the genera and species, how-
ever are Austro-Columbian, the Anura having their headquarters
in South America, as markedly as the Urodeta have theirs m the
northern division of that continent North America, m fact, is poor
In ^Tturo, having only three peculiar genera, viz., Scaphiopus,
Acris, and Pseudacris ; while the rest of northern ArctogKa has five,
viz., 'Pelodytes, Discoglossus, Alytes, Pelobates, and Bmnhincterr.
The genus Eana itself; however, is characteristically arctogcsal,
having only a single species in the Mexican border-land of Austro-
Columbia, and none in Australia. Eana esculenta extends from
France to China and Japan, and from North Europe to Tunis.
Rana Umporaria covers even a larger area, as it occurs in the
British Islands and in North America, as well as in North Asia and
The Austro-Columbian region not only presents the greatest
number of species, but among them are some of the most singular
forms, such as Pseudis, Ceratophrys, Erachycephalus, Ehinoderma,
Engystonui, Otilophus, Nototrenm, Opislhodelphys, Ehtnophrynus,
and Pipa; in which respect the South American Anura run parallel
with the birds of the same region. And, as is seen in other cases,
the nearest allies of many of these singular forms are to be found
in mtra-Saharal (iEthiopic) Africa, e.g., Bemisns (BrathyeJ^h/ilus),
Breviceps (Engystoma), Dactyleihra (Pipa). It is remarkable that
Pseudophryne, which is closely allied with the .ffithiopic Eemtsus
and the Austro-Columbian Erachycephalus; and Chelydobalrackus,
which is sinulariy reUted to the jEthiopio Breviceps oRd. the Austro-
Columbian Engystoma, are Australian.
The Australian region is remarkable for the absence of tne genera
Rana and Bufo, which occur everywhere else ; and for the occurrence
of Cystignathus, which is an Austro-Columbian, North American,
and ^Ethiopian form, but does not occur in India. If it were not for
its tree-frogs, Australia would be poorer in Anura than Europe is.
These Anura, modified for arboreal life, or " tree-frogs," are repre-
sented in all the distributional provinces— the genus ffyla having
its chief seat in Austro-Columbia, and extending thence over ^ orth
America, Europe, North Africa, Western and Eastern Asia, and
Australia, but not into India or Ultra-Saharttl Africa, in wh^ch
other forms of the same group are met with.
The British Islands tiossess the following species of A mphilia:
—Rana Umporaria, Bufo vulgaris, B. calamita, Triton criUatus, T.
Bibronii, Lissatriton punciatus, L. palmipcs.
Oeological DistribiUim.—Jf!o fossil Peromela are known, .^ttura
oicur in the Miocene deposits of France and Germany. The best
preserved forms belong to the genera Palceobalrachus and Lafonia,
and occur in the schists of OEningen along with theu- tadpoles.
They possess maxiUary teeth, and present no important differences
from existing Anura, except that, in Pala:obatrachus, the sacral
vertebra has coalesced with the two preceding vertebnc, while, m
existing forms, only one of the prae-sacral vertcbrje is known to
become confluent with the sacral, Urodela also occur in the same
Miocene deposits. Of these the famous Andrias Scheuchzen is very
closely allied to Menopoma and CrypUibranchus, whUe other forms
appear to be generically identical with Triion and Salamandra.
The singular genus Orthophysis presents a good deal of resemblance
to Proteus, but appears to have possessed no limbs.
The older Cainozoio and the upper and middle Mcsozoic forma-
tions have yieUed no Amphibia. A doubtful form. E\inosaurus.
-- iee Dr Gttntbat'* T»la»ble Cataiogut </ IM Bairachia taUcntia.
770
occarBinthcIiM of Simbirsk. In the earliest HesoMicdoDoaiU-H,.
Tr,a3.-and m the later Pal«ozoic_the PermiT^d thTc^n^
ferous formations, ^moAiWa occur Bometiin.. in ^». J t^ftwm-
illfeMrart^""™ •?"" """"^ '"^^"n u^C'uT'cirr^r-
AMPHIBIA
anothef Non„ o^ .'J!' p^",'^'"""'"'"' "'^ isolation from one
of fl„^A f '^*™''"'""' ^P"""' "nd the pecnliarsporaatoz^
of £omi,n^ior, aro so many indications of an approach towSd. Z
ty™ of structure observed in the higher UradZ °
But, withorut underestimating the force of these consideration, it
must be admitted that thoy coiit for very little wwf„!^i,^' 1
consideration the fixity of 'the numW„7 ;"':orUb.i"Ld o'f'^l
characteraof the pelvis and of the limbs, in the" nu™' *^'
'» ll be regretted that nothing is.lmown of the develoomant ^r
.u^sror:nbr.t'/s:^-d*tt^!iTtw^^^^^^^
from the modification of some one primitive fo™ ^. .S
at present seemingly insoluble, presents itself' wh™herties6<^rr'
«nces m structure and habit .f t^e Urva, of the^r^«Ta7„T Z^^
.nd-cate that the caudate ancestor of the /lit w^lcXU^M
Jpotsr/e^f-ittrria^^^^r^^^^
\hat group came into existence. ^ ^""™' """
the homy sheaths in Sirm rest dir^^tw „™ " &"'^' ^""'.f; '''"
the dentiries, and not oT labial^rtiU^? ° ^^ P'-^""^!^ a°d
of preservation, as far blck L the midcLb ^f th, T 1- "' '^'^
.Now, these fossils show that the luou^^d U^.^t^'^'^^
'ZZ rotTer^'^^ct '''"' " "» '^-' ^ ^-?' t^eir^^LerblL-f
but here their history breaks off nn .„,!(, [• ^"^ ^'"^'ia'7 epoch ;
UWu^^ou^havi^g^enlt-^WrinX"^^^^
rntt;e%^lb;^d:^pL^^r^^^^^^
tion towards the Anura; but elonS and aT,„ M ''PP'°°"»-
mandroid forms occur • and in tlT.V ■, ^ ^' " "«" »« »»1»-
truj- l.rn^1:i::f ^^^^:— 'y^veloppement ^- f'-bat.
The Labyrinthodonts present a few characters-roch as the n»i»rf
and perhaps some Ganoiifi. 4. The only fishes inwi'l^VT . iT'^'
Th "o".rfirh'^'''"l,-7 -l""" iA^r^^ZS- l^d'^^tS^'T
esrUest forms were marked off from t),n=/. „f ,v »v "■" """
remote ponod of the earth's history. ™i. as lar aa ujat
Taxonomio Synopsis of the Ampiiibi*.
I. The Urodela.
A. Branchia persistent throughoat life. (P^tnnibranckiaia.)
I. rra^ys,omata.~SkMn elongated ; pnemaxills! anddSi.
tary piece of the mandible provided with homy pUte8 •
premaxiUffl not ankylosed ; no nasal tones, tut oari-
fccations between the ascending processes of the pre-
tnaxillBB; maxillae rudimentary or absent; palatmen
BmaU, oval, and beset with "d^^Us m ftro^, " pterv?
eoid absent; four persistent branchial arches; pelvia
arch and limbs absent. ^^
Siren.
2. /Vo^. -Skull elongated; premarilla and dentarie.
derhgerous ; maxilte rudimentary or absent ; pr».
maxilla, not ankylosed; no nssal bones; palktme.
bearing a sinde row of teeth, and coalescent Vith the
pterygoids ; tf.ree persistent branchial arches ; both ti«
pectoral and the pelvic arches and limbs developed.
Prottua ilenohranchut.
B. Branchisa caducous ;gil]H:Iefts persistent (D^rotrmata )
3. Ar^ph,um,da.Skm elongaud ; premaxill« ,^en.
tanes dentigerous ; maxiUa Urge; premaxilla ank^-
losed; larp nasal bones ; palatines aVnt; pterygoid
present, efongated ; a basihyal cartilage; fo^ ^i;.
tent bmnchial arches ; both (he pectoXid the^vic
limbs developed, though very s^
■Amphiuma.
hyVrot'^^U^ t'^V^T^'"'' ^"'^' fr°» "=e Jarrow Colliery.-
AMPHIBIA
71
I
4 Menoponnida. — Skull broad; premaxillEB and dentarius
dentigeroufl ; maxilliB large ; promaxill^ not anky-
loaed,; large nasal bones; pajatinea absent; pterygoid
present and very broad ; a baaihyal cartilage ; per-
bisteot branchial arches may be reduced to the first
and second ; the cerato-hyal and epibranchial are
confluent iu the first, distinct in the second bran-
chial arch; both pectoral and pelvic limbs well de-
veloped.
Menopoma^ Cryptobranchus.
C Branchi» caducous, ana gill-ciefta ciosed in the adult condi-
tion, {Mydodera.)
6. Salamandrida. — Skull broad ; premaxillffl and dentanes
dentigerous ; maxilhe large ; premaxillaa separate or
ankylosed ; nasal bones present, and usually large ;
palatines present in the young state, and situated as
m the Trachystomata and Proteidea, but changing their
relations in the adult; pterygoids present; the first
and second branchial arehes peraistont, — the first two-
iointed, the seoond a single piece,
[The latest writer on the claesification of the Urodda,' Professor
Strauch (*' Revision der Salamaudrinon-gattungen," Mern. de I'Acad.
\fmp. des Sciences de St Petoraboii/rg, se. vii. tome xvi.), divides the
Salamandrida into two tribes, — Mecodonta and Lechriodonta ; the
brat comprising all those species, the vomero -palatine teeth of which
tire disposed along the inner edges of two backwardly diverging pro-
peases of the bones, and therefore form two longitudinal series
divergent posteriorly ; and the second, those which have the teeth
disposed along the posterior edges of the vomero-palatine bones,
which are sometimes truncated posteriorly, sometiraes produced
Into a longer or shorter median process, and on which, therefore,
the teeth are either directed transversely, or form two oblique series,
knore or less rapidly converging backwards.!
a. Mecodonta —
Salaayiandra, Pleurodeles, Bradybates^ Triton,
Chioglo9sa, Salamandrina,
h. Lcchriodonta —
EUipsoglossa^ IsodactyHwm, Onychodadylus, Am-
blysComa, Ranodon, Dicamptodon, Plethodon,
VcsTTiognatkus, Anaides, Semidcctylium,
HeTcdia, Spelerpes^ Batrackoscps.
II. The Anfea.
[For the classification of tho Aniwa, consult Dr Giinther's valu-
able Catalogue of the Batrachia saliontiia ; Mr Cope's papers In the
Natural History Review, 1865, and in the Journal of the Academy
of Natural Scieiice of Philadelphia, N.S., vol. vi. ; and Mr MJvart's
essay **0n the Classification of the Anurous Batrachians, " in the
Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1869. Far more minute in-
vestigation of the structure of the Anura than has yet been carried
out seems to be requisite before their classification can be placed
apon more than a provisional footing. The phases through which
the Frog passes in the course of its development, show that those
Anura which ars devoid of a tympanic cavity are of a more em-
bryonic character than those which possess one. The arboreal habit
is so evidently adaptive, that it can hardly be regarded as a safe
basis for classification. Even Rana temporaria, at a year old, will
climb up the vertical side of a glass vessel, tlattening out the ends
of its toes, and applying its belly agatast the surface of the glass,
like a Tree-frog.]
A, The tympanic cavity, with its Eustachian passage of com-
munication with the mouth, may be present or absent.
"Wlien present, the oral apertures of the Eustachian tubes
arc separate, and the pterygoid bones do not furnish a
floor to them.
a. No teeth in the premaxillro or maxilla) ; tongue
free, either in front or behind, but usually be-
hind.
a. No tympanic cavity. Eustachian recesses
sometimes present.
Iihinophrynus{\), Phryniscus, Pseudophryne,
lirachyccphalus (2), HcminLs{Z), Micro-
hyla.
C. A tympanic cavity and Eustachian tvibcs.
ilylaplcsia, Kalophrynus, Bufo, Otiloph\ts,
Pcltaphryne, Pseudobufo, Schismadcrma,
Xenorhina (i), Engynt&ma (4), Diplo-
pelma (4), Cacnpus {Systoma) (4), Oly-
phoglos.iiis (i), Callula (4), Brachy-
tnerits (4j, Adcnomera (4), Pachyba-
trachu3(1), Breviceps, CJiclydobatrachus^
Hypopachus, Rkinodcrma-, Atelopus,
Copca, Paludicola.
(1) Trarnn frM In front, (3) Dorsal dcmial os^kldcalioiiB. (3) Tootruu r«lnic-
tilo. <4J No DrKconcolda.
bt Teeth in the premaxillse and maxillfe; the tongui-
may be fijced by its whole circumference, but u
usually free behind.
a. No tympanic cavity ; Eustachian recesses
sometimes present.
BoTixbiiiator {"i), Pclobatos, Dtdocus, Alsodes,
TcPmaiohius, Cacotus, Liopclma.
fi. A tympanic cavity and Eustachian tubes.
PUctromantis, Alytes (1), Scaphioptcs, Hy-
pcroHus, ffelioporus, Nattcreria^ Phyl
lojJiedusa, Pelodryas, Chirodryas, Hyla,
Eylella^ Otohjgon, Pseudacris, Pohlia,
Litoria, Triprion, Opisthoddpihys,
Trachycephalus, Nototrcma, Ixalus,
Mcgalixalu3y ffylarana, Leptomantia,
Sylambates, Platymantis, Cornufer,
Hemimantis, Rhacopkorus, Chiromantis,
Polypcdatcs, Thelodcr^nxt, Rappia, Acris,
Leiyla, Elosia, Epirhexis, Pkyllobates,
Hylodes, Crosaodactylus, Slrabomaniis,
CalpaCctkuSf Rana, Odonlophrynua,
JHcroglossus, Qxyglossus, Phrynoba-
trachus, Hoplohatrachus, Phrynoglossus,
Clinotarsus, Pscudis, IHthecopsis, Mixo-
phyes, Pyxic':phalus, Ceratophrys (2),
Zachcenus, Platyplectrum, Ncobatrachun,
Cyclorhamphus, Limnodynasies, Crinia,
Eusophleus, Plcurodcinay Lciupcrus^
Jfylorhdna, Limnocharis, Cystignathus,
Uemiphracius (3), Chiroleptcs, Calypto-
ccphalus, Cryptotis (i), Asterophrys {i),
Xenophrys{i)^ Megalophrys{i), N'p^-no-
phrys{i), Pelodytes, Leptobrachium, Dis-
coglossus (I), Zaphrissa{\), Latonia(\),
PalcEobatrachus, ArthrolcptiSf Grypia-
cus (3).
(1) Oplathrtcmtlan verteorse ; rodlrncntary rlba attached to the anterior vertebrw.
(2) Dorsal det caol osslflcatlona, (3) Mandibular teeth. (4) OplsthocceUan yertebrED.
B. The Eustachian tubes of the well-developed tympanic cavity
have a common mecjian aperture in the roof of the mouth,
and the pterygoid bones extend beneath and form a
floor to them. The tongue is wanting. The luDffs are
attached to bronchial tubes ; and the vertebra are ojnstho-
cgbIous.
a. No teeth.
Pipa.
b. Teeth in the premaxillse and nkaxillA.
Dactylethra,
III. The Pebomela.
a. With a tentaculiferous fossa on the fore part of the
face.
CcEcilia, SiphoibopB {1), Epicrium.
h. With no tentaculiferous fossa,
Rhinatrema.
(1) Stptionops arTMtlatu* has no scales
\V. TbE LABVaiNTHODONTA.
Amphibamus, Anthracosaurus,* Apatcon,
Archegosaurus,^ Baphetes,* Batrachider-
petoTiy Bothriceps,f Brachydectes, Brachy-
ops, • Capitosaurus, * Chalcosaunis, *
Cocytinus, Colosteu^,\ Dasycrps,* Den*
drerpeto^t,,* Dictyoccphalus, Volichoaojna,
Erpctocephaluji, * Eupclor, * Eu rythorax, '
Oonioglyptus,* Eylerpeton, HylonomuSt
Jchthyerpeton* Ichthyocampsa, Keratcr
pfton,* iMbyrinthodon,* Lepidotosaurus,
Leptcrpcton.,* Leptophractus, Loxomma,*
Mastodonsaurus, * Mclosaurus, * 3fe(o-
pias,* Micropholii,* Molgophis,f (Esto-
ccphalus {f)t Ophiderpeton,-\ Osteo*
phonis* Pachygonia,* Pariostegus,Pholi'
derpeton, * Phlegethoniior,f Pteroplax.
Plyonius,\ Raniccp8,\ Rhinosaurus,
SauropleurcL,* Trematosauru3,\ Tudi-
tuiius,f Urocordylujtf Xestorrhytiaa,*
Zyjosaurus. *
[A satisfactory grouping of tlmae genera has not yet been effected ;
and it is posniblo that some of the forms hero enumerated may not
bo true Labyrinthodonta. To those alxiut the truly Labyrinthodont
character of Which there seems no doubt a * or a + is attached —
the + denoting the sorpentiform genera. Batrachiderpcton, Pario-
stcgus, and Pieroplax arc remarkable for tho incomnletenoss of the
jugul arch, and some other characters by which tnoy appear to
rfproaont the Proteidea, Tho true position of Hylerpeton and
ilylo^unnua is alill doublfuH (T. H D.J
772
AMFHIOTYONY
AMPHICTTONY, in Greek Antiquity, was an aasociar
ta'on of several tribes for the purpose of protecting some
temple common to them all, and for maintaining worship
within it The members were called <i/i</>otTio>'cs or <l/i(^«-
rvov-c!, a word which means " the dwellers around." The
second form of the word Benfey supposes to have arisen
from a digammatod ifupucnfovr;. Out of the rjime the
Athenians, according to their habit, easily discovered the
founder of the Delphic Amphictyony, with which thoy were
connected ; and hence in later times, by an inverse process,
the iftimo was derived from Amphictyon, one of the fabulous
Idngs of Attica.
Similar religious confederations existed in Greece at a
very early period, and there is reason to believe that at their
stated assemblies they discussed questions of international
law and matters affecting their political union as wgU as
religious subjects. Gradually, however, the political influ-
ence of the Amphictyonies died away. As states of great
power stood on an equality with insignificant tribes in the
number of votes, thoy naturally prevented the settlement
of important political matters in such an assembly.
Accordingly, during the flourishing period of Greek his-
tory the Amphictyonies almost disappear. They are not
mentioned in Thucydides and Xenophon. But thoy appear
again in vigour in the time of Philip, aud become engines
by which political parties, under pretence of religious zeal
for the interests of the gods, wreak their vengeance on
their rivals and antagonists.
This is especially true of the Amphictyony of Delphi,
the most important of all these associations. Though we
know better about this confederation than about any other,
yet many particulars are hidden in obscurity, and consider-
able doubts gather around others of which we know some-
thing. The Amphictyony existed in very early times, and
./Eschinea states that it arose when the temple at Delphi
was first built. It is more likely, however, that it was
originally connected with Thermopylae and the temple of
Demeter Amphictyonis which was there. The Amphic-
tyony consisted of a uliion of twelve tribes, each of which
had a right to two votes. These tribes were for the most
part ThessaKan or bordering on Thessaly ; and it is probable
that the others, as the Dorians and lonians, gained admis-
sion in consequence of colonies that came to them from
Thessaly.
There are nine lists of the tribes tnai. constituted the
Delphic Amphictyony in the classical writers and in in-
scriptions. Of these only one is complete, and the rest
differ from each other in some particulars. The one that
is complete was found on a Delphic stone containing a
decree of the Amphictyonio council in regard to money due
to the Delphic treasury. On this stone are given the votes
of each tribe, and the final decision of the council in har-
mony with the majority of votes for one of the opinions
held. The list is as follows : — The Delphians, two votes ;
Thessalians, two votes; Phocians, two votes; Dorians from
Metropolis, one vote; the Dorians from Peloponnesus, one
vote; the Athenians, one vote; the Eubceans, one vote; the
Boeotians, two votes ; the Achsean Phthiots, two votes ; the
Malians, one vote; the (Eteans, one vote; the Dolopians,
one vote; the Perrhsbians, one vote; the Magnetes, two
votes; the jEnianes, two votes; the Locri Hypocnemidii,
one vote; the Locri Hesperii, one vote. The exact date
of the decree recorded on the Delphic stone is matter of
dispute, but the most probable conjecture places it about
the year 130 B.c. We have therefore clear testimony as
to the constitution of the Amphictyonic council at this
date ; and, starting from this, we can form some idea of the
changes which took olace in the members of the council
It is generally believed that no change took place in the
tribes forming the len^nia till the time of the second sacred
war, 345 ro. Of these tribes iCechines gives us a list, will
the omission of one. They are the Thessalians, Boeotian;,
Dorians, lonians, Perrhaebians, Magnetes, Locri, CEteans,
Phthiots, Malians, Phocians; and there can be Uttle doubt
that it is the Dolopians who have been by some mistake
omitted. The confusions in some of the other lists have
arisen probably from the ignorance of transcribers, who did
not know that the ^nianes and OCteans lived close to each
other, and were often comprehended under the same name,
and who made two tribes of the Acluean Phthiots, Achteans
and Phthiots. .£scliincs says that all thdse tribes had
equal right of voting; but the inscription on the Delphic
stone shows that the two votes of one tribe might be
divided among two different portions of it At the con-
clusion of the Phocian war the Phocians were excluded,
and the Macedonians received their votes; and the vote of
the Lacedaemonians was given to the other Doric tribes of
Peloponnesus. The Delphians also obtained votes, either
at this time or after the third sacred war, 338 B.C., by
some of the smaller tribes that had two votes being
restricted to one. In the same way, and also by the ei-
clnsioni of the Locri Ozolse, the yEtolians secured a place
in the council in 338 B.C., and gradually took possession
of a great number of votes. The Phocians were restored
to their place in 279 B.O., on account of their gallant
resistance to the Gauls. Finally, the .ditolians and Mace-
donians were excluded from the council, and the constitu-
tion of the council as given in the Delphic stone was
formed. The last change mentioned in classical writers is
detailed by Pausanias, but the passage is evidently corrupt
Augustus wished to give votes to Nicopolis, and for this
purpose 80 altered the constitution of the council as to
make the votes thirty in number.
The objects of the league are distinctly expressed in the
oath which the Amphictyona had to take, and which is
preserved in ^schines's oration " De FaLa Legatione." This
oath bound the Amphictyons not to destroy any of the
Amphictyonic towns, not to turn away its running waters
either in time of war or in time of peace ; and if any ont
should attempt to rob the temple of Delphi (the common
centre of the confederacy), to employ their hands, feet,
tongue, and their whole power to bring him to punishment
The humanising influence which this and other enactments
of the confederacy were intended to exercise, is perceptible
in the part relating to war. The framer of the law evi-
dently regarded war only as an unavoidable means of
settling disputes between two states; but it was to be
carried on only for the purpose of bringing the dispute to
a decision, and not for destruction and devastation. An-
other enactment probably was that the inhabitants of a
conquered city should not be sold as slaves. But the
chief care of the Amphictyons appears to have been to
watch over the temple, to punish those who were guilty of
a crime against it, and to reward those who did anything
to increase its splendour and glory.
There is difficulty in determining now often the Am-
phictyons met But the most likely inference from the
somewhat indefinite statements of ancient writers is, that
they went twice every year both to Delphi and Ther-
mopylae, in spring and in autumn. There is also some
difficulty in determining the relative positions of the two
sets of ofllcials named in connection with the Amphictyony,
the EUeromnemolies and the Pylagoroi or Pylagorai. But
there can scarcely be a doubt that the Hieromnemon was
the principal official. There were as many Hieromnemones
as there were votes; and the Hieromnemones were alone
entitled to vote. The assembly proper consisted therefore
only of the ffieromnemones. It is most likely that the
Hieromnemones were elected annually by lot In the case
of the smaller states it is probable that the right to elect
AMPHICTYONY
773
•rent round by turns, while the more important states sent
their representatives every year. There might be several
Pj'lagoroi frdin each state. iEschines mentious that there
were on one occasion three from Athens. They were elected
by vote. Their function seems to have been to advise
with the Hieronmemon, to address the assembly when any-
thing relating to their own state was discussed, and to "bring
all tEeir influence to bear on the assembly on behalf of their
own state. The office of Hieronmemon remained in high
honour till a late period. When the Dionysiac theatre in
Athena was excavated in 1862, a chair of honour was
found with the inscription Upo/ivTjjoovos, and as it is certain
that dramatic exhibitions took place in this theatre in the
time of the Antonines, the office of Hieromnemon must
have existed at that period.
The meetings, however, were attended not only by the
deputies, but by thousands of others who flocked to Delphi
or Thermopylae for religious and mercantile purposes, or
only for the sake of amusement. This occasioned popular
meetings (ticKXi^o-iot) distinct from those of the regular
deputies. But we cannot suppose that all the Greeks
indiscriminately were allowed to take part in those popular
assemblies, which must have consisted of visitors from the
states which were members of the Amphictyony.
Wise and humane as were the objects of the Amphic-
tyons, yet wherever they attively interfered in the affairs
of Greece during the historical period, we find that they
were more powerful for evil than for good; and the holy
wars which were carried oil by them in the defence of the
Delphic temple and the honour of its god, contributed not
a little to the demoralisation of the Greeks.
The very first time that the Amphictyons interfered in
the affairs of Greece we find them acting in direct oppo-
sition to the spirit of their institution. We allude to the
CrissKan or first sacred war, which broke out in 594,
and lasted tiU 585 Rc. The inhabitants of Crissa (or
Cirrha), on the Corinthian Gulf, were charged with extor-
tion and violence towards the strangers who landed at
their port, or passed through their territory on their way
to Delphi For this the Amphictyons declared war
against Crissa, and it was vigorously carried on by the
Thessalians and Cleisthenes, the tyrant of Sicyon. They
even pretended to have the sanction of Apollo to dedicate
the CrissEeans and their territory to the god, to enslave
them, and make their land a waste for ever. The war is
said to have been terminated by a stratagem of Solon, who
poisoned the waters of the river Pleistos, from which the
town was supplied. When the town was taken, the vow
of the Amphictyons was literally carried into effect : Crissa
was razed to the ground, its harbour choked up> and its
fertile plain changed into a wilderness. Stich was the
terrible vengeance taken by a body of confederates, whose
original object was to prevent those very things which they
now perpetrated to uphold the honour of the deity presid-
ing over them. The second sacred wiar, which likewise
lasted for ten years, from 355 to 346 B.C., was carried
on with unparalleled exasperation for aU that period,
and nearly all the Greeks took part in it. The Thebans
had set their hearts upon conquering Phocis, but screened
their designs behind a charge preferred against the Locrians,
alleging that they had robbed the temple of Delphi, because
they had taken into cultivation a tract of land belonging to
the Delphic temple. The Amphictyonic council, before
which the charge was brought, condemned the Phocians to
pay a heavy fine, and to destroy the crops of the sacred
fielda No sooner was this verdict pronounced than the
Thebans, Thessalians, Locrians, and CEteans took up arms
to execute it. The Phocians were joined by Athens and
Sparta, and took possession of the temple of Delphi and its
treaaureB, which they were obliged to employ in defraying
the expenses of tii^war. The var was carried on with
unexampled cruelty, for even the surrender of the dead for
burial was refused, and all Phocian captives were put to
death. This war also afforded Philip of Macedonia an
opportunity to interfere in the affairs of Greece. Being
invited by the Thessalians to co-operate with them against
the Phocians, Philip and his Macedonians acted as the
champions of the god, and defeated the Phocians in a bloody
battle near Magnesia. Three thousand captive Phocians
were put to death. The latter, however, remained un-
daunted until at length they were compelled by treachery
to surrender. The Amphictyons now excluded them for
ever from the league, their arms and horses were to be
delivered up, their towns to be destroyed, and the people
were henceforth to live in small villages, and to pay annu-
ally to the god sixty talents (about £15,000) until the
temple should be completely indemnified. Macedonian
and Theban troops carried the judgment into execution;
twenty-two towns disappeared from the face of the earth,
and the otherwise fertile country remained for many years
a wilderness. A third sacred war was decreed against tho
town of AmphiEsa, because its inhabitants had taken into
cultivation the plain of Crissa; but in reality the war was
brought about by the venal creatures who endeavoured to
promote the ambitious schemes of PhUip of Macedon, who
was bent upon making himself master of Greece. This
war broke out in 338 B.C., and its unfortunate conse-
quences led to the catastrophe which deprived Greece of
her independence in the battle of Chaeronea. Such is a
brief outline of the history of the Delphic Amphictyony,
which not only itself violated its first principles, but is not
known to have ever raised its voice to condemn the wanton
destruction of other Amphictyonic towns, such as Platses
and Thebes.
There were many other confederations of a similar kind,
some of which, however, do not bear the name of Amphic-
tyonies in the authorities from which we derive our infor-
mation regarding them. The following were among the
most noted : —
1. The Amphictyony of Calauria, an island near Trcezen,
consisted of the seven states of Hennione, Epidaurus,
yEgina, Athens, Prasise, Nanplia, and the Minyan Orcho-
menos. These states took part in the sacrifices which were
offered up in the temple of Poseidon, situated on the island,
Sparta and Argos displaced NaupUa and Prasi® when these
lost their independence. It is diflScult to see what object
could unite states so widely apart. Some suppose that the
t ibes forming the league were originally Ionian ; others,
that they all were interested in the defence of seaports
against inland states.
2. Amphictyony of Onchestos, in the territory of Hali-
artus in Bceotia, was likewise connected with the temple of
Poseidon. As at all other Amphictyonies, the meetings of
the members were celebrated with various religious rites,
solemnities, and public games. We do not know the
nations that constituted this league.
3. Amphict>j07iy of Amarynthos, in Euboea, connected
with the temple of Artemis. We know that the two towns
of Eretria and Chalcis were members of it, and that there
existed an ancient treaty by which these two cities pledged
themselves not to use against each other any missiles thrown
from afar.
4. Amphictyony of Delos, connected with the temple of
Apollo, was a league formed among the inhabitants of the
Cyclades and the lonians in the neighbourhood. Its insti-
tution was ascribed to Theseus. The solemnities connected
with its meetings gradually fell into disuse, until they were
revived and increased in 426 B.C., when the island of
Delos was purified by the Athenians. . The Athenians, after
this time, regularly sent an annual embassy to Delos, and
774
A M P — A M P
they also retaineJTor themselves the superintendence of the
temple and the administration of ita treasuresr
AMPHION, in Greek MytKology, the son' of Zeus by
Antiopo, and the husband of Niobe, wajs a musician of
such wonderful power, that at the sounds of his lyre the
stones began to move, and forme^ themselves into walls
around Thebos, after his conquest of that city. He was
killed by Apollo for assaulting his temple ; or, as some
report, ho destroyed himself in despair at the slaughter of
his children by that god. The famous Famese bull,
discovered in 1546, represents Amphiou punishing Dirco
for her treatment of his mother. There are' four other
mythical personages of this name.
AMPHIOXUS, a species of fish, differing widely from
all other known animals. See Lancelet.
AMPHIPOLIS, a city of Macedonia, situated on the east
bank of the river Stryinon, about three miles from the sea.
It was originally a Thracian town, known as the 'Enia
oSoi (Nino Roads), and was colonised by the Athenians
in 437 "B.O., two previous attempts (497 and 4G5 B.C.)
having been unsuccessful. In 424 B.o. it surrendered to the
Lacedcemonians without resistance, and the Athenians never
afterwards recovered possession of it. For his failure to pre-
vent this disaster Thucydides was banished from Athens.
The site of Amphipolis is occupied by the modem Jeni JCeui.
AMPHISr!.ii£NA (from d/i(^i5, on both sides, and /JaiVw,
to go), a genus of animals, found only in South America
and the West Indies, which, though they have the general
appearance of snakes or worms, belong to the order Lacer-
iilia, or Lizards. .The best known species are the sooty
or dusky amphisbaena {A. fuliginosa), and the rarer A.
alba. The body of the amphisbsna, from 18 to 24 inches
long, is of nearly the same thickness throughout. The
head is small, and there can scarcely bo said to be a tail,
the vent being close to the extremity of the body. The
animal lives mostly underground, burrowing in soft earth,
and feeds on ants and other small animals. From its
appearance, and the ease with which it moves backwards,
the popular belief in the countries where it prevails' has
been that the amphisbsna Las two heads, and that when
the body is cut in two the parts seek each other out and
reunite. From this has arisen another popular error, which
attributes extraordinary curative properties to its flesh
when dried and pulverised.
AMPHITHEATRE (from i/ii^i and Olarpov) denotes a
theatre in which the spectators were placed " all round"
the stage. Though the word is of Greek formation, the
thing itself is distinctively Roman, being designed for those
cruel shows of gladiators and wild beasts in which that people
took great pleasure, an J which in modern times are only re-
presented by the barbarous buU-fights still popular in Spain.
In the present article we do not -enter on the considera-
tion of the spectacles themjelves, But shaU confine our-
selves to the buildings, which were devised to allow as
large a number of spectators as possible to enjoy the sight
of the show. In a dramatic representation it is necessary
that the actors should be heard, and also that their faces
should be seen, and the audience has therefore to be
arranged in a semicircle in front of them; but when men
fought with other men or with beasts, they could be seen
equally well from all sides.
In Italy, combats of gladiators at first took place in the
forums, where temporary wooden scaffoldings were erected
for the spectators; and Vitruvius gives this as the reason
why in that country the forums were in the shape of a
parallelogram instead of being squares as inOreece. Wild
beasts were also hunted in the circus. But towards the
end of the Roman republic, when the shows increased both
in frequency and in costliness as the city grew in power,
special buildings began to be provided for them ; and when
the consolidation of peace under tht empire had secured
great material prosperity for the provinces, such as they
had never enjoyed when separated into small states and
often at war with each other, the example of the sapital
was followed by many other towns in the West; so that
nearly a hundred amphillicatrcs have been identified, either
'by the existence of their ruins or by being mentioned by
old writers. There were even a few in the East, althougli
such cruel games were quite alien to the elegance and re
finement of the Hellenia mind.
From their being so admirably adapted for enabling tht
greatest possible number of people to bel.old a spectacle, it
is natural to suppose that they would be occasionally used
for purposes different from those usually intended by them;
and accordingly Suetonius relates how Caligula had an
impertinent poet burnt alive in the amphitheatre, and how
Titus ordered the informers, after having been whipped io
the forum, to be led through the arena, apparently that
they might be exposed to the execrations of the people.
Criminals were also sometimes exposed in them to bo de-
voured by wild beasts, and many of the Christian martyri
died in this way.
The first amphitheatre was that constructed, 59 B.C.,
by C. Scribonius Curio. The only author by whom it is
described is Pliny, whose account of it rather taxes our
credulity. He tells that Scribonius built two wooden
theatres, which were placed back to back, and that after thg
dramatic representations were finished, they were turned
round, with all the spectators in them, so as to make one
circular theatre, in -^the centre of which gladiators fought
And this was repeated more than once. Thirteen years
later, Ca;sar built (also of wood) the first regular amphi-
theatre, and exhibited wild beasts in it; and sixteen years
after, C. Statilius Taurus built the first one of stone, which
was burnt in the great fire of Rome during the reign of
Nero. Probably the outside walls only were of stone.
Several others were constructed under the early em-
perors, but they were entirely superseded and eclipsed by
that of Vespasian and Titus, the vast ruins of which strike
the traveller with awe. Set on fire by lightning under
the emperor Macrinus, it was restored by Alexander
Severus, the shows during the interval being held (as of
old) in the circus. The latest record of its being used is
in the 6th century, when Cassiodorus was present ; but
Bede in the 8th century speaks of the edifice as still entire.
During the Middle Ages many of the stones of this, as
of many other ancient buildings, were carried away for
building purposes; and among the plunderers we regret to
have to reckon the great Michel Angelo, who worked
up a large number of its stones into a palace for one of
the Roman noble families. As, however, the Colosseum
had been the scene of many of the Christian martyrdoms,
Benedict XIV., whose name ought never to be mentioned
without an expression of admiration and gratitude for his
enlightened patronage of learning and antiquities, took
advantage of this to consfecrato the interior by the erec-
tion of crosses and oratories, thereby preserving it from
further depredations. Of late years considerable excava-
tions have been made to examine its substructures. Itf
name is variously written, but on the whole it would
seem that the most correct orthography is Colosseum (not
Coliseum), and that it is derived from its colossal size,
which far surpassed any former edifice of the sort Many
of its minor arrangements are uncertain, but the main
features and general plah are eufiiciently intelligible.
The external elevation of the Colosseum consisted ol
four stages, each adorned with engaged columns of th«
three orders of Greek architecture. The lowest three ww
arcaded, having each eighty columns and as many arches
Those of the basement story served as entrances; seventy
AMPHITHEATKE
775
six l>eing numbered and allotted to the general body of
spectators, while four, at the extremities of the axes of the
«llipse, were the principal entrances. The higher arcades
had a low parapet with (apparently) a statue in each arch,
and gave light and air to the passages which surrounded
the building. The openings of the arcades above the
principal entrances were larger than the rest, and were
adorned with figures of chariots. The highest stage was
much more soHd, being composed of a continuous wall
of masonry, only pierced by forty small square windows.
The object of this may have been to obtain the necessary
solidity and weight for steadying the poles which supported
the awning, and must have had to carry a severe inward
strain. The alternate arcades were Ornamented with metal
shields. There was also a series of brackets to support
the .poles on which the awning was stretched.
The interior may bo naturally divided into the arena
and the cavea, with their' respective appendages.
The arena was the portion assigned to the combatants,
and derived its name from the sand with which it was
strewn, to absorb the blood and prevent it from becoming
slippery. Some of the emperors showed their prodigality
by substituting precious powders, and even gold dust, for
sand. The arena was generally of the same shape as the
amphitheatre itself, and was separated from the spectators
by a wall built perfectly smooth, that the wild beasts
might not by any possibility climb it At Rome it was
faced inside with polished marble, but at Pompeii it was
simply painted. For further security, it was surrounded
by a metal railing or network, and the arena was some-
times surrounded also by a ditch {euripus), especially on
account of the elephants. Connected with the arena were
the dens from which the beasts came, and the rooms where
the gladiators met before the show began. In spite of the
excavations which have been jnade, it is not very easy to
understand how all the effects described by ancient authors
were produced; for after the regular shows were over, the
arena was sometimes filled with water, and sea-fights were
exhibited with ships.
The part assigned to the spectators was called cavea.
In the different amphitheatres whose ruins have been
examined, there are some differences in the arrangements,
but the general features are nearly the same in all The
cavea was divided into several galleries, concentric with the
outer walls, and therefore, like them, of an elliptic form.
The place of honour was the lowest of these, nearest to the
arena, and called the podium. The divisions in it were
larger, so as to be able to contain movable seats. At
Rome it was hero that the emperor sat, his seat bearing
the name of suggestum. The senators, principal magis-
trates, vestal virgins, the provider (editor) of the show,
and other persons of note, occupied .the rest of the
podium. At Nismes, besides the nigh oflScials of the
town, the podium had places assigned to the principal
guilds, whose names are stiU seen inscribed upon it, with
the number of places reserved for each. In the Colosseum
there were three mceniana or galleries above the podium,
separated from each other by terraces (prwcincticnes) and
waUa (baltei). The lowest was appropriated to the eques-
trian order. Numerous passages (vomiloria) and small
stairs gave access to them; while long covered corridors,
behind and below them, served for shelter in the event of
rain. At Pompeii each place was numbered; and elsewhere
theii' extent is defined by little marks cut in the stona.
The spectators were admitted by tickets (tesserce), and order
preserved by a staff of officers appointed for the purpose.
The height of the Colosseum is given as from 160 to
1 80 feet. The seats in the interior do not rise higher than
the level of the third order of the exterior, that is, about
half the entire height of the building; and this apparent
excess of height beyond what was made avaDable, ha3 led
some to suppose that there were upper seats and galleries,
of which no trace now exists. The height, however,
appears to have been necessary for the ventilation of' the
building. When such enormous crowds were packed
closely together for several hours at a time on an Italian
summer day, with an awning drawn over them, the atmo-
sphere would have become quite pestilential if there had
not been a considerable space overhead, and at least one
range di open arcades, unencumbered by any gaUeries to
prevent the free circulation of air. Scented liquids were
at times squirted over the spectators from concealed tubes ;
but no aroma would have compensated for the want of air,
which the arcade all round the building, above the highest
spectators, would supply. There may also have been
another series of openings serving the. same purpose be-
tween the top of the wall and the edge of the awning, which
was supported upon poles. It has been calculated that the
Colosseum contained 87,000 places, and that besides these,
15,000 more spectators could be admitted. The greatest
length is about 612 feet, and the length of the shortest
axis of the eUipse about 515 feet. The dimensions of the
arena are variously stated by different writers, some making
it 247 feet by 150, and others' 281 by 176.
With regai'd to the provincial amphitheatres, Maffei, in
his account of that of Yerona, appears to have unduly
restricted their number, with the object of exalting the
honour of the one he describes. Besides the Colosseum,
he would hardly allow any ruins to be entitled to this
name except those at Verona and Capua. But subsequent
writers have not followed him in this rigorism; and Fried-
l.ander, who is the latest and most complete authority on
the subject, gives the measurements and description of
fifty-two. Naturally, the early ones would I>e of ^ood,
like that erected by Atilius at Fidenas in the time of
Tiberius, which gave way while shows were being exhibited,
on which occason 50,000 persons were killed or injured.
One at Placentia is also mentioned, which is said to have
been the most spacious then in Italy, and to have been
burned in the wars between Otho and Vitellius by the
inhabitants of a neighbouring town whose envy it had
excited. Such disasters, coupled with the growing scarcity
of wood and the greater facilities for quarrying stone,
would nat orally lead to the construction of more solid
buildings. At the same time, the progress of this im-
provement must have been slow, and "the building of at
least the great majority of the provincial amphitheatres of
stone may be ascribed to the period between the reign of
Vespasian and that of Constantino, when the establish-
ment of Christianity threw a discredit on tho cru^ and
bloody shows for which these vast structures were designed.
Hadrian is esiiecially commemorated for the nuiutiruu*
77G
A M P - A M P
buildings he caused to be erected almost everywhere, and
this is mentioned in connection with games being held.
In constructing many of the amphitheatres in the pro-
vincial to\vn8, advantage was taken of the natural slopo of
a hill to lessen the labour of conMruction ; and in some
cases a narrow ravine between two hiUs allowed of both
sides being formed on the natural elopes, and of the stream
at thoir feet being dammed up for combats on the water.
The conformation of the ground and the caprices of local
authorities have produced sliglit minor differences of plan,
but the general description of the Colosseum will suffice
for all. For details regarding others the reader may con-
sult, in addition to other authorities, th§ descriptions given
in this work of the difTeront towns where their remains are
still found. Here it may be sufficient to name that at
Pompeii, which is probably better known to most persons
by the graphic description in Lord Lytton's novel than by
any of .the illustrated accounts that have been published
of that wonderful town; that at Verona, whifch served as
a basis to Maffoi's carefnl investigation of the whole sub-
ject; those at Capua and Pozzuoli, which almost rival the
Colosseum in dimensions; those at Nismcs, Aries, and
Frejus in France; that at Italica, near Seville in Spain,
remarkable for the thickness of its walls and the strength
of its masonry — leading Florez to remark that its ruin is
due not to the injuries of time and the weather, but to the
hand of man; that at the ancient Thysdrus, in the province
of Carthage, now called El-Djemm, which alone resembles
the Colosseum in having five gaUories or corridors in the
first storey; and that at Pola in Istria, whose external shell
— the internal fittings, which were probably aU of wood,
having qtfito disappeared — forms a striking object as seen
from the sea.
A very fair summary of the whole subject will be found
in Smith's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities ; and a much
more minute and elaborate account, by C. Thierry, with
pood illustrations, in the Dictionnaire des Antiquitea of
Daromberg and Saglio, which has the further advantage of
giving numerous references to larger works on the subject,
— its chief defect being one too common in French books,
the almost complete ignoring of everything published in
this country, where Taylor and Cresy's Architectural Anti-
quities of Jiome, of which a second edition has recently
appeared, is entitled to special mention. Nor does it
notice that treasure of information about Spanish history
and antiqmties, the Espana Saffrada, where (voL xiL
p. 228) will be found the most careful account of the
amphitheatre at Italica, with several drawings. The fol-
lowing table, abridged from Friedlander's Darstellung aits
der Sittengeschichte Roms (1865, 2d ed. 1867), gives the
dimensions, in English feet, of a few of the principal
amphitheatres that have been examined: —
Puzzuoli
Rome (Colosseum),
Falerii,
Capua,
Julia Csesarea, .....
Italica (Seville), ...
Verona
Tarraco
Thysdrus
Pola,
Aries,
Pompeii,
Tours,
^ismei,
Entire Bulldinff.
Arena.
Greater
Shorter
Greater
Shorter
AslH.
Axis.
Axla.
Axil.
Feet.
Feot.
I Jeet.
Feet
626i
476
367
216
616
610J
281
176
686i
843
E57
458
250
160
651
2S9
459
197
£13
439i
5054
403
248
1464
486
390
277
181
467
392
2634
188
462
3694
230
147
448
352
228
129
446
841
2184
115
443
8934
223
984
4334
8324
227
1264
(o. H. r.)
AMPHITRITE, in Greek Mythology, the supreme god-
dess of the sea, and as such the wife of Poseidon (Neptune),
but, unliko him, so entirely confined in her authority to the
sea and the creatures in it, that not ^nly was her name
(from ijj.<t>l-Tplw, the same root as rpvw) sometimes used
as an equivalent for that elcn)£nt, but she was never
associated with her husband either for purposes of worship
or in works of art, except when bo was to be distinctly re-
garded as the god who controlled the sea, though generally
his functions extended to the whole watery element. She
was one of the nereids, and distinguishable from the others
only by her queenly attributes. It was said that Neptune
saw her first dancing at Naxus among the other nereids,
and carried her off. But in another version of the myth,
she then fled from him to the farthest ends of the sea,
where the dolphin of Neptune found her out. In works
of art she is represented either enthroned beside him, or
driving with him in a chariot drawn by hippocamps or
other fabulous creatures of the deep, and attended by
trilons and nereids.
AMPUORA (from ifntfiC and </>/p<o), a large vessel used
by the ancient Greelcs and Komanj for preserving wine,
oil, fruits, (fee, and so named from its usually having an
ear or handle on each side of the neck, whence it was also
called dioia. It was commonly made of earthenware, but
sometimes of stone, glass, or even more costly materials;
its usual form was tall and narrow, diminishing below to
a point. A number of specimens of the various kinds
of amphorae are to be seen in the Elgin collection in the
British Museum. Homer and Sophocles mention amphorse
used as cinerary urns; and a discovery made in 1825 at
Salona shows that they were sometimes used as coffins.
The amphora was divided lengthwise to receive the corpse,
then closs4 and deposited in the earth, thus preserving
the skeletons entire (Steinbiichel, Alfp-thum, p. 67). The '
amphora was a standard measure of capacity among both
Greeks and Romans. The Attic amphora contained nearly
nine gallons, and the Roman amphora about sin
AMPLITUDE, in Astronomy, is the amount of deviation
towards the north or south of a celestial object from the
true east at rising, and the true west at setting. For the
fixed stars it is constant; for the sun and planets it variea
with the declination. At the equinoxes the sun rises
exactly in the ea?t, and sets in the west point, — the am-
plitude then is zero; at the soktices it amounts at London
to 39° 44'.
AMPTHILL, a small neatly -built market town ia
Bedfordshire, situated about 8 miles south of Bedford.
Besides the old parish church, it contains various dissent-
ing chapels, a county court-house, a savings bank, several
schools, and an almshouse. Near the town ifl Ampthill
house, a mansion of the late Lord Holland, containing a
valuable collection of paintings, a library, and a museum.
The site of the old castle in which Catherine of Aragon
resided while her divorce from Henry VIII was pending,
is marked by a cross within the grounds. The district is
chiefly agricultural, but in Ampthill there is a large brewery,
and a considerable amount of straw-plaiting and lace-making.
Population in 1871, 2220.
AMPULLA, a Latin word denoting a small jar or fla.°,k
for holding liquids. In mediaeval church Latin it usually
signifies the vessels that contained the consecrated oils, of
T^ich the three principal — for the catechumens, for the
sick, and for confirmation — were hallowed by the bishop
on the Thursday before Easter. The word has passed into
our language in connection with the coronation of the kings
of England, and occurs repeatedly in the coronation service.
Thus, in that used for Queen Victoria, we read : — " The
anthem being concluded, the Dean of Westminster, taking
the amrmlla and spoon from off the altar, holdeth them
A xM R — i\ M R
777
ready, pouring some of the holy oil into the spoon, and
with it the archbishop auointeth the Queen in the form of
a cross. . . . Then the Dean of Westminster layeth the
ampulla, and spoon upon the altar." Gildas mentions its
use as established among the Britons in his time, and St
Columba is said to have employed it in the coronation of
K.ing Aidan. The most celebrated ampulla in history is
that known as la tainte ampoule at Rheims, from, which
the kings of France were anointed. According to the
legend, which gained for itself a secure place in the national
belief, it had been, brought from heaven by an angel for
the coronation of Clovis, and at one period the kings
of France claimed precedence over all other sovereigns
on account of it. It seems, however, that Pepin in the
8th century was the first French king who was anointed,
and this in connection with his baptism rather than
his coronation. (See the preface to the 3d volume of
Maskell's Manumenta Eituaiia and the authorities there
referred to.)
AMRAOTI, a district and city of India, in the com-
missionership of East Berar, within the Haidar4b4d
assigned districts. The district lies between 20° 23' and
21° r N. lat., and between 77° 24' and 78° 13' E. long. It
is bounded on the N. by the Elichpur district; on the
E. by the Wardhi river, separating it from the central
provinces; on the S. by the B4sim and Wiin districts; and
on the W. by AkolA district. The area is estimated at
2566 square miles, but the survey has not yet been com-
pleted. The population in 1867 was returned at 407,276
souls, which, taking the ansa as given above, would show
an average density of 158 persons per square mile; num-
ber of males, 212,575; females, 194,701; the proportion
of males to the total population being 5 2 '19 per cent. The
district consists of an extensive plain, about 800 feet above
sea-level, the general flatness being only broken by a small
chain of hills, running in a north-westerly direction, be-
tween Amr4otl and Chdndor, with an average height of
from 400 to 500 feet above the level of the lowlands.
Four towns are returned as containing a population ex-
ceeding 5000 souls — namely, Amrioti, population 23,410;
Karinji, a considerable commercial town, population
11,750; Badnerd, a town on the Great Indian Peninsula
Railway, which intersects the district, population 6876,
KoUpur, population 6169.
AMRll'SAR, a division, district, and city of British
India, under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor
of the Panjib, The Amritsar Division comprises the dis-
tricts^ of Amritsar, SiAlkot, and Qurdispur. It is bounded
on thel^.E. by the Himalayas; on the S.W. by the Qujrdn-
wilA and Labor districts; on the N.W. by the river
ChenAb; and on the S.E. by the river BiAs. The total
population of the division is returned at 2,743,880 souls,
divided into the following classes: — Hindus, 659,905 ;
Mahometans, 1,401,290; Sikhs, 352,885; others, 329,800.
The number of males was returned at 1,512,480, and the
females at 1,231,400, the proportion of males to the entire
population of the division being 55 per cent.
A*iKiTB,«» District lies between 30° 40' and 32° 10'
N. lat, and between 74° 40' and 75° 40' E. long. It is
bounded on the N.W. by the river RAvf, on the S.E.
by the river BiAs, on the N.E. by the district of GurdAs-
pur, and on the S.W. by the district of Labor. Amritsar
district is a nearly level plain, with a very slight slope
from east to west. The banks of the BlAs are high, and
on this side of the district well-water is not found ex-
cept at 50 feet below the surface; while towards the
RAvi weBs are less than 20 feet in depth. The only
stream passing through the district is the Kimi or Sakl,
which takes its rise in a marsh in the GurdAspur district,
and after traversing part of thf district empties itself into
1— 2(!»
the RAvt Numerous canals intersect the district, affording
ampl6 means of irrigation. The Sind, PanjAb, and Dehfi
Railway, and Grand Trunk Road, which runs parallel with
it, afford the principal means of land communication and
traffic. Total popidation of Amritsar district, 832,750,
divided into the following classes:— Hindus, 138,027;
Mahometans, 377,135; Sikhs, 223,219; others, 94,369.
The males number 465,074, and the females 367,676;
the proportion of males to the total population being 55-84
pel cent. The principal tribes and castes in point of Aum-
bers are as follow:— -(1.) JAts, viz., Hindus and Sikhs,
189,065; Mahometans, 65,964: total, 255,029. (2.) BrAh-
mans, 43,846. (3.) Kshattriyas, 39,892. (4.) KAshmiris,
37,456. (5.) ArorAs, 29,103. The total agricultural popu,
lation is returned at 417,747. Area of the district, 2036-23
square miles, or 1,303,188 acres, of which 927,730 acres
are under cultivation, 178,939 acres are cultivable, but
not actually under tillage, and 196,519 acres are uncul-
tivable and waste. This result gives 156 acres (of which
111 acres are cultivated and -21 cultivable) per head of the
population, or 3-12 acres (222 cultivated and '42 culti-
vable) per head of the agricultural population.
The principal agricultural products of Amritaar are wheat, barley,
and grain for the spring crop ; and rice, joAr (spiked miUet), Indian
cord, moth {Fhaseolus actmiti/oHics)^ and mash {Phaseolus radiatus)
for the autumn crop. The current settlement of the district expires
in 1875-76, Five towns are returned aa containing a population of
upwards of 6000 souls — namely, Amritsar, population 136,813;
Jandrala, 6975 ; Majitha, 6600 ; Ram £>ia, 5855 ; Bundali, 5287.
Of the foregoing toivns Amritsar has heen constituted a first-class,
and JandraU, Majitha, and Kam Das third-class municipalities.
Besides the regularly-constituted municipalities, however, a muni-
cipal income is also realised at the following ten places : — Tarn Taran,
FathiAbad, Govindwal, NaushahrA Pannian, Verowal, Jalalabad.
Attari, Chamiari, Vanniki, and Bhallar. Mxinicipal revenue is in
aU caaes levied by means of octroi duties, supplemented in some
instances by house rates and other direct taxation. The total
revenue of Amritsar district in 1871-72 amounted to £113,785, of
which £85,727, ISs., or 75 percent., was derived irom the land.
The other principal- items of revenue were as follows : — DistiUeriea,
£3677, 14s, ; drugs and opium, £3548, 6s, ; income tax, £1724, 8s ;
stamps, £13,621, ISs, ; local rates levied under the provisions of
Act 20 of 1871, £5208, lOs. The staple manufacture of Amritaar
is wooUeu shawls, in imitation of those of -Kashmir, The value of
this manufacture in 1871-72 was estimated at £91,742.
Ameitsae City, the divisional headquarters and capital
of the district of the same name, is situated in 31° 40' N,
lat, and 74° 45' E, long. It lies at an equal distance ,be-
tween the BiAs and RAvf rivers, is about 8 miles in cir-
cumference, and forms at once the great trading centre of
the PanjAb, and a celebrated seat of the Sikh religion and
learning. The following description of the town is ex-
tracted from Thornton's Gazetteer (ed. 1862): —
** Amritsar owes its importance to a talaoor reservoir which KAm
DAs, the fourth guru or spiritual guide of the Sikhs, caused to br
made here in 1581, and which he termed Amrita Sai-oa, or the Fount
of Immortality, It thenceforward became a place of pilgiimace.
Nearly two centuries afterwards, Ahmad Shdh, the founder of the
Duranf empire, alarmed and enraged at the progi-ess of the Sikhs,
blew up the shrine with gunpowder, 'filled up the holy tank, and
caused kine to be slaughtered npon the site, thus desecrating the
spot. On his return to Kabul, the Sikhs repaired the shrine and
reservoir, and commenced the overthrow of Maliometan sway in
Hindustan. The sacred tank is a square of 150 paces, containing a
groat body of water, pure as crystal, notwithstantoig Uie multituaea
that bathe iu it, -and supplied apparently by natural springa. In
the middle, on a small island, is a temple of Hari .or Vishnu ; and
on the bank a diminutive st^cture, whore, the founder, Ram Das,
is said to have spent his life in a sitting posture. The templo on
the island is richly adorned with gold and other costly embellish,
mcnts,- and in it sits the sovereign guru of the Sikhs to receive the
presents and homage of his followers. There are five or six hundred
akdlis or priests attached to the temple, who have erected for them-
selves good houses from the contributions of the visitors. Amritsar
is a very populous and extensive place. The streets ore narrow,
but the houses in general are tolerably lofty, and built of burnt
brick. On the whole. Amritsar may claim some little architectural
778
A ]\1 K — A M S
euporlority ovor ttio towns of HintluetAn. Boaidoa considorablo
inanufacturofi of ahawla and aitka io imitation of tlio Kdahmir
labric, Amritaar carrloa op a vory extoDsivo traiiMft trade, aa wtll
aa coDaidorablo moiiolary trariHaptions, with HinduHtan and C'cutral
Alia. Proriiion iu niauo for ao uinplo aujiply of wator to tlia town
from tho Hiirf Podb canal. A atriking object at AmritJmr ii tho
bilge fortroMs of Oovindgarh, built by lUnjit Sinh in 1809, ost^aisibly
to protect tlio pilgrims viaiting the ploco, bat in roalitv to overawe
their vast and dai^ueroua auiiumblugo,
Amritsar was the first mission station of the Church of
England in the Pnnjiib. Tho census of 18C8 gives a
population within municipal limits of 43,931. The total
jiopulation, however, of tho city and soburbs is returned at
135,813, of whom 3477 are agriculturista, tho rest being
engaged in trade or other non-agricultural pursuits. The
town has been constituted a first-class municipality, the
affairs of which are conducted by a committoo of twenty-
eight members. The municipal income is derived from
octroi duties, local taxes, house tax, iic, and amounted in
1871-72 to £19,800, or 98. per head of the population
within municipal limits. Since the opening of tho PanjAb
railway Amritsar has rapidly become tho great centre of
trido in that province. Its position on the line and tho
enterprise of its merchants promise also to give it the com-
mand of the trade vid Leh to Central Asia, which is now
(1874) being opened up. It is the chief entrepdt in the
Panj.^b for Manchester goods, in return for which it ex-
ports to other parts of India food-grains, the local manu-
factures in imitation of tho KAshmlr fabrics, and the costly
shawls and stufi's which form the staole of the Kdshmlr
trade.
AMEU-IBN-EL-ASS, or "Amu, one of tho most famous
of the first race of Saracen leaders, was descended of Aasi,
of the tribe of KoreisL In hia youth he wrote satirical
verses against tho person and doctrine of Mahomet His
zeal in opposing the new religion prompted him to under-
take an embassy to the king of Ethiopia, in order to stimu-
late him against the converts whom ha had taken under
his protection, but he' returned a convert to tho Mahometan
faith, and, along with Khaled, joined the fugitive prophet
at Medina. When Abu-Bekr resolved to make a new attack
upon Syria, he entrusted Amru with a high command.
In this he was so successful that he rose to the elevated
station of chief in Irak, when Khaled requested the attend-
ance of all the Arabian generals before Damascus. During
the caliphate of Omar he also served in Palestine under
Abu-Obeldah, taking the command in the siege of Caesarea,
which yielded to him in July 638 a.d. After the death of
Obeidah, Amru assumed the chief command in Syria, in
which he was confirmed by the caliph, notwithstanding the
opposition of Othman. Soon afterwards (639) he led an
army of 4000 Arabs into Egypt. During tho progress of
his march a messenger from Omar arrived with a letter
containing directions to return, if he should receive this
letter in the territories of Syria; but if he should receive
it in those of Egypt, he might advance, and all needful
assistance would be instantly sent to him. The contents
of tho letter were not made known to his officers until he
was assured that the army was on Egyptian soil, so that
tho .expedition might be continued under the sanction of
Omar's orders. Having taken Pharma, he advanced to
Misrah, the ancient Memphis, and besieged it for sevBn
months. Although numerous reinforcements arrived, he
would have fotmd it very difficult to storm the place pre-
vious to the inundation of tho Nile, but for a treacherous
lessening of the forces of the citadel, which was consequently
taken by storm; and the Greeks who remained there were
either made prisoners or put to the sword. On the same
r.pot Amru erected a city named Fostat, the ruins of which
are known by the name of Old Caito. Amxu pursued the
Greeks to Alexandria, and after an obstinate and bloody
siege of fourteen mouths, the city was taken, 640 A.D. To
Amru has generally been attributed the burning of the
famous Alexandrian library, by command of tho caliph
Omar. But with this act of barbarism, so inconsistent
with the character of Omar and his general, Ijo is for the
first time charged by Abul-Faragius, a Christian writer,
who lived six centuries later. It is highly probable that
few of the 700,000 volumes collected by the Ptolemies
remained at tho time of the Arab conquest, when we con-
sider the various calamities of Alexandria from the time of
Cicsar to those of Caracalla and Diocletian, and the dis-
graceful pillage of the library in 389 A.D. under the rule of
a ChriBtiaD bishop, Theophilus (see Gibbon, c. 61). Amru
died 663 a.d. In a pathetic oration to his children on his
deathbed ho bitterly lamented his youthful offence in
satirising the prophet, although Mahomet had forgiven him,
and had frequently aflSrmed thilt " there was no Mussulman
wore sincere and steadfast in tho faith than Amni."
AMRU-EL-KAIS, an Arabian poet, contemporary with
Mahomet He wrote one of the seven iloatlakai (Sus-
pended), or poems, composed before the promulgation of
Mahometanism, which derived their name from the fact
that they were suspended in the Kaaba at Mecca. He was
hostile to tho claims of the prophet, and wrote verses
against him. It is said that his death was occasioned by
his wearing a poisoned shirt presented to him by the Greek
emperor Heraclius, to whom he had gone to ask aid against
the Beni-Asad, his own tribe. The story is, however, dis-
credited by Abulfeda. The Moallakat of Amru, in tho
original text, wSls published by Lette at Lcyden in 1848,
and an English translation by Sir AVilliam Jones appeared
in 1782. The edition of Hengstenberg (Bonn, 1823) con-
tains a Latin version. Another edition, by Arnold, appeared
at Leipsic in 1850. The edition of Baron MacGuckin Slane
(Paris, 1837) includes the miscellaneous poems, a translation,
notes, and a life of the poet.
AMSANCTI (or AMPSANCTI) VALLIS, a vaUey with
a small sulphureous lake and cavern in the territory of the
Hirpini, or Principato Ultra (east of Naples), about four
mUes from the town of Frigento (Cicero, Pliny), or eight
from Gesualdo. The spot can most easily be visited by
railway from Ariano, on the Naples and Benevento line.
It is described by Virgil (Jin. vii 563-71) as an outlet from
a cave giving access to the infernal regions : —
'* Hie specua horrendum, B«vi epiracula Ditie,
Monstratur, ruptoque ingens Acheronte vorago
Pestiferaa eperit fauces ; quin condita Erinnya,
Invisum numen, teriBS ccelumque levabat"
The modem name is Le ilofete, after the goddess Mephitis,
who, according to Pliny (N.H. iL 95), had a temple here,
of which there are no remains. The lake is considered by
Dr C. T. Eamage (who made a special visit to it) as of
volcanic character, and appears to lie on the edge of a
crater-shaped valley. " The water," he says, " had a dark,
pitchy appearance, and was thrown up occasionally in
several places to the height of 4 or 5 feet, At the edge
(of the crater) we weae possibly 40 feet above the water,
and we did not dare to descend, as the exhalations of
sulphur were so strong that we should have been suffocated
long before we reached the water. .... In fact, the whole
of this country seems to bo volcanic, and is constantly
subject to earthquakes." (See Nookt and Byways of Italy,
by C. T. Eamage, LL.D., 1868; Swinburne'a Travels, voL i j
Murray's Handbook for South Italy, 1873.)
AMSDORF, NicoLAUS, a Protestant reformer of the
16th century, was bom, Dec 3, 1483, at Gross-Zschopa,
near Wurzen, on the Mulde. He was educated at Leipsic,
and then at Wittenberg, where he was one of the first who
matriculated (1502) in the recently-fotinded university.
He soon obtained viiious academical honours, and bet-ame
A M S — A M S
i r.
prufesaor of th'ology in 1511. He joined Lutner at the
very beginning of his great struggle (1517) ; continued all
;Jong ona of hi3 most admiring and determined supporters;
was with kim at the Leipsic conference (1519), and the
Diet of Worms (1521) ; and was in the secret of his Wart-
burg seclusion. He assisted the firgt eflforts of the Refor-
. mation at jNIagJeburg (1524), at Goslar (1531), and at
Eiiibeck (1534) ; took an active part in the debates at
Schmalkald (1537), where he defended the use of the
sacrament by the unbelieving; and (1539) spoke out
strongly ugaintt the bigamy of the Elector of Hesse After
the ileath of the Count Palatine, bishop of Naumburg-
Zeiz, he was installed there (Jan. 20, 1542), though in
opposition to the chapter, by the elector of Saxony and
Luther. His position was a painful one, and he longed to
get back to Magdeburg, but was persuaded by Luther to
stay. After Luther's death (1546) and the .battle of
Miihlberg (1547) he had to yield to his rival Pnug, and
retire to the protection of the young duke of Weimar.
Here he took part in founding Jena university (1548);
opposed the "Augsburg Interim" (1548); superintended the
pubhcatiou of the Jena edition of Luther's works ; and
debated on the freedom of the will, original sin, and, more
noticeably, on the Christian value of good works, in regard
to which he held that they were not only useless, but pre-
juJicia'.. He urged the separation of the High Lutheran
party from Jlehmchthon (I'l")"), got the Sa-xon dukes to
ojipose the Frankfurt Ref, ..t (1553), and continued to
fight for the purity of Lutheran doctrine. He died at
Eiaenach, May 14, 1565, and was buried in the high church
there, where his elBgy shows a well-''nit frame and sharp-
cut features. He was a man of strong will, of great apti-
tude for controversy, and considerable learning, and thus
exercised a decided influence on the Reformation. !Many
letters and other short productions of his pen are extant in
MS., especially five thick volumes of AnUdorfiana, in the
Weimar library. A small sect, which adopted his opinion
on good works, was called after him ; but it is now of mere
historical interest.
AMSLER, Samuel, one of the most distinguisned of
modern engravers, was born at Schinznach, in the canton
of Aargau, in 1791. He studied his art under Lips and
Hess, and from 1816 pursued it in Italy, and chiefly at
Rome, till in 1829 he succeeded his former master Hess as
professor of copper engraving in the Munich academy. The
works he designed and engraved are remarkable for the
grace of the figures, and for the wonderful skill with which
he retains and expresses the characteristics of the original
paintings and statues. He was a passionate admirer of
Raphael, and had great success in reproducing his works.
Amsler's principal engravings are — " The Triumphal March
of Alexander the Great," and a full-length " Christ," after
the sculptures of Thorwaldsen and Dannecker ; the "Burial
of Christ," and two " Jfadonnas," after the pictures of
Raphael ; and the " Triumph of Religion in the Arts,"
after Overbeck, his last work, on which he spent six years.
He died May 18, 1849.
AMSTERDAM, or Amsteldam, formerly called Amstel-
redam, capital of the Netherlands, situated in the province
of North Holland, is built somewhat in the form of a half-
moon, on the Y or Ij, an arm of the Zuyder Zee, in 52°
22' N. lat., and 4° 53' E. long. The name Amsterdam
means " the dam or dyke of the Amstel," from a river
80 called which passes in a north-easterly direction through
tha city, — the " dam" referring to the extensive and costly
system of embankments, canals, and sluices necessary to
secure this low-lying city against the encroachments of the
tide. ■• Towards the land Amsterdam was at one time sur-
rounded by a fosse or canal, and regularly fortified; but
its ramparts have been demolished, and the twenty-eight
bastions that formed part of the defences are now used 83
promenades^ or covered with buildings. Within the city,
four canals — the Prinsen £iracht, Keizer's Gracht, Ueereu
Gracht, and the Singel — extend, in the form of polygonal
crescents, nearly parallel to each other and to the former
fosse; while numerous smaller canals intersect the city in
every direction, dividing it into about 90 islands, with
nearly 290 bridges. Some of these are of stone, but the
majority are of iron and wood, and constructed so as to
allow vessels for inland navigation to pass through. « The
site of Amsterdam was originally a peat bog, and all its
buildings rest upon piles that are driven some 40 or 50
feet through a mass of loose sand and mud until they reach
a solid stratum of firm clay. This foundation is perfectly
secure as long as the piles remain under water. In 1822,
however, an overladen corn magazine sank into the mud.'
The piles are liable to the ravages of wood-worms that are
supposed to have been brought by vessels from foreign
ports. The streets in the oldest parts of the town are
narrov/ and irregular, but are nowhere without pavements
or footways. The houses frequently present a picturesque
sky-Hue, broken by fantastic gables, roofs, chimneys, towers,
and turrets of all forms and dimensions. Four of the
principal of those towers have exterior galleries very near
the top, running round them, from which, an alarm used
to be blown in case of fire, and a light shown to indicate'
the locality of the fire to the citizens, who from the age_of
twenty to fifty are all enrolled in the fire-brigade and civic
guard. This mode of signalling is now, however, super-
seded by a system of telegraphic communication embrac-
ing tlie whole city. Westward of the Amstel, which passes
almost through the centre of the city, is the more modern
part, where the houses are often exceedingly handsome,
and the streets broad, and planted with rows of large trees
between the houses and the canals. The chief promenades
are the Vondelspark, laid out and maintained by private
individuals, with the design of its being ultimately pre-
sented to the city ; and the Plantaadje or Plantation, part
of which is occupied by the botanic and the zoological
gardens, and wliich is also supported by private contribu-
tions. Of the pubhc buildings, the principal is tha palace,
an imposing structure, built in 1648, by the architect Jacob
van Kampen, and adorned with stone carvings by the cele-
brated artist Artus Quellinus of Antwerp. It is supported
on 13,659 piles, and is 282 feet long, with a breadth of
235 feet and a height of IIG, exclusive of a turreted
cupola, which rises 66 feet above the main building. : It
was originally the Stadhuis, but was apjiropriated as a
palace by King Louis Napoleon in 1808. The most niajj^
780
A M S T E R D A ]\I
nifict-nt apartment iu it is the great hall, measunng 120
feet by 57, and 90 in height, with walls iucnisted with
white Italian marble. On the opposite side from the palace
of the square called the Dam, stands the Beurs or Exchange,
a fine tetraprostyle Ionic building, serving as a front to a
large quadrangle with a handsome peristyle of the same
order. The Oude Kerk, built about the year 1300, has
some beautiful stained windows and a fine organ, as well
OS monunienta to various celebrated Dutchmen, including
the naval heroes Van Ileemskerk and Sweerts. The Niewe
Kerk, a much finer edifice, where the kings of Holland are
crowned, dating from 1408, is remarkable for the carving
of its pulpit, for the elaborate bronze castings of its choir,
and for the monuments to the famous Admiral Do Euyter
and Holland's greatest poet, Vondel, whose statue stands
in the park wliich bears his name. There are many other
places of worship in Amsterdam, including those belonging
to the Dutch Reformed Church, the English Episcopalians,
the Scotch Presbyterians, the Lutherans, the Jansenists, the
Koman Catholics, the Greeks, <fcc., and also several Jcwi.'^h
synagogues; but, as a rule, the church architecture of the
town is bald and uninteresting. Ve may except, however,
the synagogue of the Shophardim Jews, the equal of which
is only to be foiind at Leghorn; the Moses and Aaron's
Church (U.C.) ; and the new Lutheran place of worship,
which has a green copper cupola. The I'aleis voor Volks-
vlijt is a building of iron and glass, 440 feet long by 280
broad, with a dome 200 feet high, erected between 1855
and 1864. It is used for industrial exhibitions, the per-
fonnance of operas, <kc., and possesses a collection of
pictures (copies and some originals), as well as a fine
garden. The Schreijerstoren, or " crier's tower," at the
end of the Geldersche Kade, where vessels left for all
parts of the globe, was built about 1482, and got its name
from the tears of the sailors who here bid their friends
farewell. The chief literary institutions of Amsterdam
are the Atheu^um, the society called " Felix Meritis," from
the first words of the inscription on their place of meet-
ing ; the society " Natura Artis Magislra," to whom the
zoological gardens belong; the Royal Academy of the
Fine Arts, and
the Seaman's In-
stitute. The
galleries of pic-
tures in the city
are of great
value. '■ The
museimi iu the
Trippenhuis con-
tains over 400
works, chiefly of
the Flemish and
Dutch BchoolB,
including the City Arms of Amsterdam.
" Night Guard" of Rembrandt, whose statue may bo seen
on the Kaasplein, opposite the house he occupied, and the
" Banquet of the Civic Guard," by Van der Heist; besides
nearly 4000 engravings, and a magnificent numismatic col-
lection, considered one o{ the finest in the world. Among
the other collections are those in the Museum Van der Hoop
and in the Fodor Museum, that belonging to the "Arti et
AmicitifB " Society, as well as several private galleries.
Amsterdam is also remarkable for the number and high
character of its benevolent institutions, wliich are to a large
extent supported by voluntary contributions. Among others
may be mentioned hospitals for the sict, the aged, the infirm,
the blind, the deaf, the dumb, the insane, widows, orphans,
and foundlings. There is a noble institution, the Society
for the Public Welfare, whose object is to promote the
education and improvement of i>" classes. It has branche*.
in nearly every town and village in Holland. There IB aluo
an admirable sailors' home.
Amsterdam is now capitally supplied with water foi
drinking and culinary purposes from the Haarlem dimes.
Formerly the inhabitants were dependent on the rain-water
collected in cisterns, and the supply brought from Weesp
in large flat-bottomed barges. This, added to the gcucr&l
humidity of the atmosphere caused by the canals, made
Amsterdam an unpleasant place of residence in summer,
but the exertions of the inliabitants have done much of
late to counteract these noxious influences. The people
usually have a robust appearance, and the death-rate of the
city is low.
The population (1874) is estimatcaat 285,000, of whoni
about 60,000 are Roman Catholics, and 30,000 Jews, the
rest being mostly Protestants of various sects.
The accompanying j Ian indicates the extent ana position
of the docks of Amsterdam. The araenal and the admiralty
ofliies are situated on the island of Kattcnburg, between thu
Dijk Gracht and the Niewe Vaart. The approach to the city
from the Zuyder Zee is intricate and dangerous, owing
to the numerous shallows ; and a bar at the entrance to
the Y compels vessels to unload part of their cargo in the
roadstead. These delays and dangers were to a large
extent provided against in 1825, by the opening of a canal
across North Holland from the Niewe Diep, opposite the
Texel, to Am.sterdam ; and a more direct and capaciou*
canal to the North Sea is at present in process of con
struction. The following table gives the chief shipping
statistics for the five years ending December 1870: —
Vow.
Arrivals.
Dcpanurca.
VCMCl..
Tonnage.
VexcU.
Totinaga. '
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1604
1466
1465
1374
1297
420,094
392,975
430,799
425,329
405,109
1662
1660
1508
1443
1341
423,623 !
404,717 (
421,666
448,891 1
402,933 j
The principal imports of Amsterdam are — coffee, amount-
ing in 1870 to 1,147,240 bags and 1499 casks; tea, in
the same year, 79,573 chests; sugar, in the same year,
273,750,000 lb; tobacco, rice, cotton, indigo, timber, tiu,
hemp, and grain. The exports comprise cheese, butter,
madder, clover, rape, linseed oU, gin, and other products of
Holland, besides general goods and manufactures from
various European countries. There is also a large export
trade in the produce of the East and West Indies. There
are two lines of railway, the one connecting Amsterdam
with Haarlem, Leyden, and Rotterdam; and the other
vrith Utrecht, Arnheim, and Prussia. Amsterdam has
■•gar refineries ; soap, oil, glass, iron, dye, and chemical
v;orks; distilleries, breweries, tanneries ; tobacco and suuff
factories. The cutting of diamonds has long been exten-
sively practised in the city by the Jews. Although no
longer the centre of the banking transactions of the world,
Amsterdam is still a place of considerable importance in
this respect. The celebrated bank of Atnsterdam, founded
in 1609, was dissolved in 1796; and the present bank of
the Netherlands was established on the model of the Bank
of England in 1814.
About the year 1200 Amsterdam was a small fishing
village, held in fief by the lords of Amstel, together with
the surrounding district, called Amstellani Towards the
close of the 13th century it reverted, in consequence of the
complicity of Gysbrecht Van Amstel in the murder of
Count Floris V., to the counts of Holland, who gave it a
charter and other privileges. It was fortified in 1 482, and
soon rose to be the most important commercial city of the
Netherlands. The early voyages to India, and the union
of the seven nrovinces in 1579, added greatly to the
A M S— A M U
781
prosperity of Amsterdam — so much so, that it excited the
•upidity of the earl of Leicester, who made a futile at-
tempt to surprise it in 1587 ; aud its position was still
further improved by the peace of Westphalia in 1648,
rhich closed the navigation of the Scheldt, and conse-
quently mined the trade of Antwerp. Two years later,
the stadtholder WiUiam IL intended to surprise it, but the
bold attitude of the inhabitants obliged him to give up his
project Amsterdam suffered so severely from the war in
the time of Cromwell, that more than 4000 houses stood
tenaLtless; and the French occupation during the First
Empire inflicted a more permanent injiuy upon the city.
Since 1813, however, much of its former commercial
influence has returned ; and the completion of the above-
mentioned canal will, no doubt, confirm its position as the
chief commercial city of the kingdom, its secondary place
as a seaport lately having been due to the difficulty of
access to it from the sea. Among the many eminent men
who saw the light in Amsterdam may be mentioned the
celebrated philosopher Barucb Spinosa (1632), the flower
painter Van Huysum (1682), the natTiralist Swammerdam
(1637), and the poet Bilderdyk (1750). (See Caspar Com-
meUns, Beachryving van Amsterdam, and J. Wagenaar's work
bearing the same title.)
AMSTERDAM, an uninhabited and almost inaccessible
island in the Indian Ocean, in 37° 58' S. lat, and 70° 34' E.
long., about 60 miles S. of St Paul's Island, and nearly mid-
way between the Cape of Good Hope and Tasmania. It
was discovered by Van Diemen in 1633.
AMULET (in late Latin amuletum, probably from the
Arabic haTnalet, a pendant), anything worn as a charm,
generally, but not invariably, hung from the neck, to pro-
tect the wearer against witchcraft, sickness, accidents, and
other evils, or to deliver him from ills under which he
labours. Amulets have been of many different kinds, and
formed of different substances, — stones, metals, and strips
of parchment being the most common, with or without
characters or legends engraved or written on them. Grems
have often been employed and greatly prized, serving for
ornaments as well as for charms. Certain herbs, too, and
animal preparations have been use^l in the same way. In
setting them apart
to their use as am u-
lets, great precau-
tions have been
taken that fitting
times be selected,
stellar and other
magic influences _
propitious, and 'EEEoSEsEE
everything avoided that might be supposed to destroy or
weaken the force of the charm. From the earliest ages the
Oriental races have had a firm belief in the prevalence of
occult evil influences, and a superstitious trust in amulets
and HJtnilar preservatives against them. There are refer-
ences to, and apparently correctives of, these customs in
the Mosaic injunctions to bind portions of the law upon the
hand and as frontletSj between the eyes, as well as write
them upon the door-posts and the gates ; but, among the
later Jews especially, the original design and meaning of
these usages were lost sight of ; and though it has been
said that the phylacteries were not strictly amulets, there
is no doubt that they were held in superstitious regard.
Amuleta were much used by the ancient Egyptians, and
also among the Greeks and Romans. We find traces of
them too in the early Christian church, in the emphatic
protests of Chrysostom, Augustine, and others against
them. The fish was a favourite symbol on these charms,
frotn the word i^Ov: being the initials of 'Iij<rov9 Xpurru^
9<ov vuK crunr^p A firm faith in amuleta still prevails
widely among Asiatic nations. The accompanymg wood-
cut represents the boxes employed to hold written charms
worn by Arab women at the present day. Talisman, also
from the Arabic, is a word of similar mean Tug and use,
but some distinguish it as importing a more powerful
charm. A talisman, whose "virtues are still applied to
for stopping blood and in cases of canine madness," figures
prominently in, and gives name to, one of Scott's Tales of
the Crusaders. A measure of beUef in amulets or charms
exists, but appears to be diminishing, among the unedu
cated of our own country and time. (See Arpe, De ProdigiU
Naiuras et Artis Operibus Talismanes et Amuleta dictis,
Hamburg, 1717; Ewele, Ueber Amulete, 1827; and Kopp's
Palosographica CriMca, vols. iiL and iv., 1829.)
AMUEATH or Mukad I. was bom in 1326 a.d.
(7^6 A.H.), succeeded his father Orkhau as sultan of the
Ottoman 'Iiirks in 1360, and died in 1389. He is entitled
to notice as being the first who led the Tiirkish arms into
Europe, which he quickly overran as far as the Balkan.
In 1361 he made himself master of Adrianople, where he
fixed his residence, built a splendid mosque, and otherwise
added to the architectural adornment of the city. "The
first treaty of peace between a Christian people and this
formidable neighbour was struck in 1365, when the little
republic of Ragusa put itself under his protection. His
power becoming more and more formidable, Urban V.
preached a crusade — disastrous, as it proved, for the
crusaders — against him ; and John Paleeologus, the Greek
emperor, entered into an alliance with him. He had seve-
ral rebellions to contend against, but he was invariably
successful One of his sons persuaded a son of Palseologus,
who had been sent by his father to learn the art of war
under Amurath, to join him in a revolt ; but the youthful
conspirators were defeated. Immediate revenge was taken
by the sultan on his own son, and the young Palseologus
was sent back to his father with an imperious demand that
he too should be punished. Like aU great conquerors,
Amurath was active in military reform ; he perfected the
discipline of the spahis (or cavalry) and woinaks (or baggage
corps), snd gave statility to the janissaries, a body of
troops that had been first incorporated by his father. Of
literary culture he was altogether destitute, signing his
treaties by dipping his hand in ink, and impressing the
mark of three fingers together, with the thumb and fourth
finger at a slight distance on each side. He lost his life
at the close of a great battle at Kossova, which he had
successfully fought against Lazarus, despot of Servia, and
was succeeded by his son Bajazet.
Ail U RATH BL, the tenth emperor of the Turks, was
born about 1404, and died February 9, 1451. He suc-
ceeded Mohammed L in 1422. At fij^t he had to contend
against a pretender, the pseudo-Mustapha, who was sup-
ported by the Greek emperor and others ; but through the
assistance of an astute state prisoner, Mohammed Bey
(Michael Ogli), he obtained a bloodless victory over him.
He then turned his arms against the Greek emperor him-
self, but failed in the siege of Constantinople. Against
his younger brother Mustapha he was successful by bribes.
In April 1429 he besieged and took Saloniki (Thessalonica),
which was under Venetian rule, thus opening up the
way for the fiinal subjugation of Greece. He continued
almost without any reverses of fortune till 1442, when
Uunniades defeated his forces in the battle of Vasag, and
obliged him to make peace with the Christian piinces.
The treaty was hardly concluded when his son Ala-Eddiu
died. In his grief he abdicated in favour of his sod
Mohammed, a boy of fourteen, while he retired to Mag-
nesia in search of reposa But the Christian princes took
advantage of his abdication to renew their attacks, and he
was called to oppose them, which he did with terrible auo
782
A M U — A M Y
cess ill the battle of Varna, Nov. 10, 14 41, when the king
of Hungary, Ladislaus, feU. Having saved his country,
be again gave up the reins to his son, and ritumed to
Magnesitt. But the janissaries revolted, and his presence
was demanded. Again on his throne, he invaded Albania
and Peloponnesus, but was repulsed by Gporge Castriot
or Scanderbeg. • He retreated, however, only to gain a
great victory over his former adversary Hunniadcs at
Cassova (Oct. 17, 1448), the battle lasting three days.
He died at Adrianople, Feb. 11, 1451, from a stroke of
apoplexy, according to the most probable account His
Mussulman biographers tell that whenever he took a town
be was careful to build in it ajami (or cathedral), a mosriue,
an imaret, a medrhseh (or ecclesiastical school), and a kJtan.
The mosque of Adrianople is especially rcnjarkijble. He
was the first Ottoman emperor who caused bridges of great
length to bo built ; and during his reign, poetry, juris-
prudence, and theology began to flouriA with promise of
the Augustan luxuriance which they attained under his
son and successor, Sultan Mohammed-Elfatyh.
AMURATH llL, sultan of the Turks, born about 1545,
succeeded in 1574 his father Selim II. Tiie first words
he addressed to his courtiers were — "I am hungry: give
rae something to eat ;" and the evil omen was fulfilled in
the famines and disasters that marked his reign. In 1579
Queen EUzabeth of England managed to gain his friend-
ship, and obtained a favourable commercial treaty for Great
Britain. It was under him that the janissaries began to
feel their power, and to hasten the ruin of the state by
their revolt. He was superstitious, feeble, and irritable,
as well as extremely addicted to the pleasures of the haretn.
He was fond of daricisg and music, and has left a few
literary trifles. He died Jan. 16, 1595.
AMURATH rV. was bom about 1611, and succeeded
his uncle Mustapha in 1623. The chief event of his reign
was the recovery in 1638, after thirty days of unremitting
assault, of the city of Baghdad which had fallen into the
hands of the Persians. He disgraced his victory by re-
volting cruelties, slaughtering 30,000 Persians in cold
blood. So numerous and horrible are the atrocities recorded
of him, that he stands pre-eminent even among Turkish
Neroes. Some historians ascribe this feature of his cha-
racter to his almost perpetual inebriation. Be this as it
may, he soon enfeebled his constitution, and falling at the
same time under a superstitious anticipation of death, he
died in 1640, at the early age of twenty-nine.
AM WELL, a village of Hertfordshire, in the parish of
Great Amwell, on a lull overlooking the Lea, 3 miles
from Hertford and 20 from London. Near it are the
sources of the New River, formed between 1606 and 1612
in order to supply London with water ; and on a small
island in the stream there is a monument to Sir Hugh
Myddleton, through whose exertions this work was carried
out. Haileybury college, formerly the property of the
East India Company, is also in this parish, which has a
population of 2245.
AMYMONE {'Ajxvixuiyri), in Greek Legend, a daughter of
Danaiis, by whom, with her sisters, she had been sent to
look for water, the district of Argus being then parched
through the anger of Neptune. Amymone having thrown
her spear at a stag, missed it, but hit a satyr asleep in the
brake. The 8at3rr pursued her, and she called on Neptune
for help, who appeared, and for love of her beauty caused
a spring to well up, which received her name. By Neptune
she became the mother of NaupHus, the wrecker. Amymone
at the spring is represented on ancient engraved gems,
AilYOT, Jacques, a famous French writer, was bom,
of poor parents, at Melun, October 30, 1513; found his
way — a pale-faced, bare-footed, ill-clad boy — to the " Col-
lege de France " in Paris, and there picked up a know-
ledge of the classical languages, serving some of the richer
students 08 valet and composer of Latin, to enable him to
continue his studies. He became M.A. at Paris, and
doctor of civil law at Bourges ; obtained, through Jacquca
Colure (or Colin), abbot of St Ambrose ia the latter city,
a tutorship in the family of a secretary of state ; by the
secretary was recommended to the duchess of Berry, only
sister of Francis L ; and, through her influence, was made
professor of Greek and Latin at Bourges. Here he trans-
bted the Thecgeiut and Cliariclea of Heliodoms (1547,
fol.), for which he was rewarded by Francis L with the
abbey of Bellozane, and thereby enabled to go to Italy to
study the Vatican text of Plutarch, on whose Livet he
had been some time engaged. On the way he turned
aside on a mission to the council of Trent Returning
home, he was selected as tutor to the sons of Henry IL,
by one of whom (Charles IX.) he was afterwards made
grand almoner, and by the other (Henry III.) was ap-
pointed commander of the order of the Holy Ghost
Pius I. promoted him to the bishopric of Auxerre, and
here he continued to Uve in comparati-ve quiet, repairing
his cathedral and perfecting his translations, for the rest of
his days, ^hough troubled towards the close by the insub-
ordination and revolts of his clergy. He died February 6,
1593, bequeathing, it is said, 1200 crowns to the hospital at
Orleans for the twelve " deniers " he received there when
" poor and naked " on his way to Paris. His fame rests
on his vigorous and idiomatic version of Plutarch's Livei
(1559, 2 vols.), which was translated into English by North,
and supplied Shakespeare with materials for his Roman
plays. His style was greatly admired by Racine and
Rousseau, and Montaigne said of him, " I give the palm,
and rightly, methinks, to Jacques Amyot over all oui
French writers."
AMYRAUT, Moses, a pre-eminent French Protestant
theologian and metaphysician, was bom at Bourgueil, in
the valley of Anjou, in 1596. His family was an ancient
and illustrious one from Hagenau, Alsace. They migrated
to Orleans in the 13th or 14th century. His father was a
lawyer of local note, and designing Moses for his own pro-
fession, on the completion of his studies at Orleans of
humanity and phOosophy, he sent him to the university of
Poictiers. It is recorded that there the youth studied
fourteen hours a day, and made such swift progress that
lie was able to maintain theses and disputations, and to
take the degree of licentiate (B.A.) of laws. On his way
home from the university he passed through Saumur, and
having visited Mens. Bonchereau, pastor of the Protestant
church there, he introduced him to the renowned lord of
Plessis-Mornay, governor of the city. Both were struck
with young Amyraut'a ability and culture, and both urged
him to change from law to theology. Plessis-Mornay, who
was chary of laudations, pronounced that " there was
nothing abov^ the gnisp of his great parts." Returned
home, his father, after considerable hesitation, gave consent
to the change from law to divinity, with a proviso that he
should revise his philological and philosophical studies, and
read over Mons, Calvin's Instiintions, before finally deter-
mining. He did so, and, as might have been anticipated,
decided for theology. He thereupon removed to Saumur
— destined to be for ever associated with his nams — and
"sat at the feet of the great Cameron," who ultimately
regarded him as his greatest scholar. He had a brilliant
course, and was in due time licensed as a minister of the
French Protestant ChurcL The contemporary civil wars
and excitements hindered his advancement His first
church was in St Aignau, in the province of Maine. There
he remained two years. The celebrated Daille, being then
removed to Paris, advised the church at Saumur to secure
Amyraut as his succe.'^or. praising bim ** as above himself."
A N A — A N A
783
The university of Saumur at the same tune had fixed its
eyes on him as professor of theology. The great churches
of Paris and Eouen also contended for him, and sent thoir
deputies to win him, to the provincial synod of Anjou.
Amyraut had left the choice to the synod. He was
appointed to Saumur, and to the professor's chair along Tvith
the pastorate. On the occasion of his inauguration he
maintained for thesis De Sacerdotiu Christi. His co-
professors were Lewis Capell and Josua de la Place, who
were also Cameron's pupils. Very beautiful was the life-
long friendship of these three remarkable men. They
remain associated stUl as the joint authors of a body of
divinity entitled Tlieses Salmurienses. Full of energy in
every atom of him, Amyraut devoted himself to his labour
of love with a fine enthusiasm of love of labour. He
very speedily gave French Protestantism a potentiality it
had never possessed before. In 1631 he published his
Traite des Religions, a book that stQl lives ; and from this
year onward he was a foremost man in the church, especi-
ally at the national and provincial synods. One incident
in his synodical services stands out, as the like do in the
story of Luther and of John Knox. Chosen to represent
the provincial synod of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine at
the national synod held in 1631 at Chareuton, that
assembly appointed him their orator to address the king,
and to present to him " The Copy of their Complaints and
Grievances for the Infractions and Violations of the Edict
of Nantes." Previous deputies had addressed the king on
their bended knees, whereas the representatives of the
Roman Catholics had been permitted to stand. Amyraut
consented to be orator only if the assembly authorised him
to stand. There was intense resistance. Richelieu himself,
preceded by lesser dignitaries, condescended to visit Amy-
raut privately, to draw him over to kneel ; but the
stout-hearted orator held resolutely to eqjiality with the
Roman Catholics, and carried his point. Standing in the
presence of king and court, he recounted the complaints
and grievances of his church, and charmed even his adver-
saries with hia mingled dignity of manner and suavity of
address. Long afterwards RicheHeu recalled the memorable
incident ; and the " Oration," which was immediately
published in the French Mercury, remains a historic land-
mark in the history of French Protestantism. During his
absence on this matter the assembly debated " Whether
the Lutherans who desired it, might be admitted into
communion with the Reformed Churches of France at the
Lord's Table 1 " It was decided in the affirmative previou"
to his return ; but he approved with astonishing eloquence,
and thereafter was ever in the front rank in maintaining
intercommunication between all churches holding the main
doctrines of the Reformation. His defence against many
adversaries on the question was published in 1647 — De
Seceseione ah Ecdesid Jiomand de<iue Eatione Pads, inter
Evangelitos in Rdigionis Negotio constituendcB. Bayle [s.v.)
recounts the title-pages of no fewer than thirty-two books
of which Ajnyraut was the author. These show that he
took part in all the great controversies on Predestination
and Arminianism which then so agitated and harassed all
Europe. Substantially he held fast the Calvinism of his
preceptor Cameron ; but, like Richard Bister in England,
by his breadth and charity exposed himself to all manner
of misconstruction from Peter du Moulin and others ultra-
orthodox. His La Defense de Calvin never was answered,
although superabundantly replied to. The university of
tjaumur became the university of French Protestantism.
Amyraut had as many as a hundred students in attendance
upon his prelections. Another historic part filled by
Amyraut waa in the negotiations originated with Mons.
le Goux, lord of Berchere, first president of the parliament
of Bureund^- when exiled to Saumur, for a reconciliation
and reunion of the Roman Cathoacs of France with t3i«s
French Protestants. Very largo were the concessions
made by Richelieu in his personal interviews with Amy-
raut ; but, as with the Worcester House negotiations
in England between the Church of England and Non-
conformists, they inevitably fell through. On all sides
,the statesmanship and eloquence of Amyraut were con-
ceded. When the king visited Saumur in 1651, Amyraut
declined to close his church on the Sunday, but preached
a sermon that rang through Europe on the text, " Fear
God, honour the king." Amyraut remained to the end
one of the most promineat names of French Protestantism;
and his De FElevation de la Foy et de I' Abaissement de Ut
liaison en la Crcance des ilysliires de la Religion (1641)
gave him early a high place as a metaphysician, which was
sustained by after works. Exclusive of hia controversial
writings, he left behind him a very voluminous series of
practical evangelical books, which remain the fireside
favourites of the peasantry of French Protestantism stilL
Ilis Eslat des Fideles apres la Mort has comforted many
mourners ; his Sur FOraison Dominicale is striking and
rich ; his DuMerite des (Euvres andTcar'^e de laJusiiJica:,on,
weighty and powerful; his Paraphrases on Old Testa-
ment and New Testament books of Holy Scripture, judicious
and suggestive-^sometimes penetrative. His closing years
were weakened by a severe fall he met with in 1657. He
died on 18th January 1664. His portrait was published
by his son, but with no name or inscription underneath.
(Bayle, s.v. ; £iog. Univ., s.v. ; John Quick's Synod, in
Call. Reform., pp. 352-7; ibid. JIS. Iconcs SacrcB C lili-
cana: ; Life of Cameron.) (a. b. g.)
ANA, a Latin plural termination appropriated to various
collections of the observations and criticisms of eminent
men, delivered in conversation and recorded by their
friends, or discovered among their papers after their de-
cease. Though the term Ana is of comparatively modem
origin, the introduction of this species of composition is
not of recent date. It appears, from D'Herbelot's Bihlia-
thhjue Orientale, that from the earliest periods the Eastern
nations were in the habit of preserving the maxims of
their sages. From them the practice passed to the Greeks
and Romans. Plato and Xenophon treasured up and re-
corded the sayings of their master Socrates ; and Arrian,
in the concluding books of his Enchiridion, now lost, col-
lected the casual observations of Epictetus. The numerous
apopTithegms scattered in Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius, and
other writers, show that it was customary in Greece to pre-
serve the colloquially expressed ideas of illustrious men. It
appears that Julius Caesar compiled a book of apophthegms,
in which he related the bon mots of Cicero ; and Quintilian
informs us that a freedman of that celebrated wit and
orator composed three books of a work entitled De Jocis
Ciceronis. We are told by Suetonius that Caius Melissua,
originally the slave but afterwards the freedman and
librarian of M^cenas, collected the 6a}'ings of his master;
and Aulus Gellius has filled his Koctes Atticce with anec-
dotes which he heard from the eminent scholars and critics
whose society he frequented in Rome.
But though vestiges of Ana may be traced in the classi-
cal ages, it is only in modem times that they have come to
be regarded as constituting a distinct species of composi-
tion, comprising literary anecdotes, critical reflections, and
historical incidents, mingled with the detail of bon mols
and ludicrous tales. The term Ana seems to have been
applied to such collections as far back as the beginning
of the 15th century. Francesco Barbaro, in a letter to
Poggio, says that the information and anecdotes which
Poggio and Barthelemi Montepolitiano had picked up dur-
ing a literary excursion through Germany will be called
Ami : " QuemaduiiKium mala ab Appio n Claudia gentf
784
ANA
Applana, et pira a Ifallio Matliana cognominata sunt,
sic hoic literaruin quoj vostra ope et opera Geruiania in
Italiam deferentur, aliquando et I'oggiana et Monte-
politiana vocabuntur."
Poggio Bracciolini, to whom this letter is addressed,
and to whom the world ia indebted for the preservation of
so many classical remains, is the first eminent person of
modern times whoso jests and opinions have been trans-
mitted to posterity. Poggio was secretary to fi"e succes-
sive popes. During the pontificate of Martin V., who was
chosen in 1417, Poggio and other members of the Roman
chancery were in the habit, of assembling in a common
hall adjoining the Vatican, in order to converse freely on
all subjects. Being more studious oi wit than of tnith,
they termed this apartment Buggiale, a word which Poggio
himself interprets Mendaciorum Officina. Here Poggio and
his friends discussed the news and scandal of the day ;
communicated entertaining anecdotes ; attacked what they
did not approve (and they approved of little) ; and in-
dulged in the utmost latitude of satiric remark, not sparing
even the pope and cardinals. The jests and stories which
occurred in these unrestrained conversations were collected
by Poggio, and formed the chief materials of his Faceticc,
first printed, according to De Bure, in 1170. This collec-
tion, which forms a principal part of the Poggiana, is
chiefly valuable as recording interesting anecdotes of
eminent men of the 14th and 15th centuries. It also
contains a number of quibbles or jeux de mots, and a still
greater number of idle and licentious stories. Many of
these are not original, some of them being taken from
ancient authors, and a still greater number from the
Fabliaux of the Trouveurs. On the other hand, Poggio
has suggested much to succeeding writers. Prior's Hans
Carvel and several of Fontaine's fables are from stories
originally related by Poggio. The Facetice forms, upon
the whole, the most amusing and interesting part of the
Poggiarux printed at Amsterdam in 1720; but this collec-
tion also comprehends additional anecdotes of Poggio's life,
and a few extracts from his graver compositions.
Though Poggio was the first person whose remarks and
bon, mots were collected under the name of Ana, the Sca-
ligerana, which contains the opinions of Joseph Scalige)-,
was the first work published under that appellation, and
accordingly may be regarded as having led the way to
that class of publications. There are two collections of
Scaligerana — the Prima and Secunda. The first was com-
piled by a physician named Francis Vertunien, Sieur de
Lavau, who attended a family with whom Joseph Scaliger
resided. He, in consequence, had frequent opportunities
of meeting the celebrated critic, and was in the custom of
committing to writing the observations which dropped
from him in ' the course of conversation, to which he
occasionally added remarks of his bwu. This collection,
which was chiefly Latin, remained in manuscript many
years after the death of the compiler. It was at length
purchased by M. de Sigogne, who published it in 1669,
under the title of Prima Scaligerana, nusjuam' antehac
edita, calling it prima in order to preserve its claim of
priority over another Scaligerana, which, though published
three years before, had been more recently compiled. This
jecond work, known as Secunda Scaligerana, was collected
hy two brothers of the name- of Vaasan, students of the
university of Leyden, of which Scaliger was one of the
professors. Being particularly recommended to Scaliger,
they were received in his house, and enjoyed his conversa-
tion. Writing down what they had heard, particularly on
historical and critical subjects, they soon made up a large
manuscript volume, in which, however, there was neither
connection nor arrangement of any description. After pass-
iai? through various hands, this manuscript came into the
possession of M. Daill^, who for his own use arrungcd ir
alphabetical order the articles which it contained. Isaao
Vossius, obtaining the manuscript in loan from M. Daill6,
transcribed it, and afterwards publish^xi it at the Hague,
under the title of Scaligerana, rive Excerpta ex Ore Joseph*
Scaligeri. This edition was full of inaccuracies and
blunders, and a more correct impression was afterwards
published by M. Dailld, with a preface complaining of the
use that Vossius had made of the manuscript, which be
declares was never intended for pubUoation, and was not
of a nature to bo given to the world. Indeed, most literary
men in that age conceived that the Scaligerana, particu-
larly the second, detracted considerably from the reputa^
tion of the great scholar. Joseph Scaliger, with more
extensive erudition, but, as some think, less genius than
his father Julius Cajsar Scaliger, had inherited his vanity
and dogmatical spirit. Conversing with two young students,
he would probably be but little cautious in the opinions he
expressed, as his literary errors could not be detected or
exposed. Unfortunately the blind admiration of his pupik
led them to regard his opinions as the responses of an
oracle, and his most unmerited censures as just condemna-
tions. The Scaligerana, accordingly, contains many false-
hoods, with much unworthy personal abuse' of the most
distinguished characters of the age.
In imitation of the Scaligerana, a prodigious number of
similar works appeared in France towards the end of the
1 7th and beginning of the 18th century. At first these
collections were confined to what had fallen from eminent
men in conversation ; but they were afterwards made to
embrace fragments found among their papers, and even
passages extracted from their works and correspondence.
Of those which merely record the conversations of eminent
men, the best known and most Valuable is the Menagiana.
Gilles Manage was a person of good sense, of various and
extensive information, and of a most communicative dis-
position. For a long period an assembly of literary
men met once a week at his house ; and during his later
years he daily received critics and scholars as visitors.
Much of hia time was thus spent in conversation ; and his
habitual associates were at pains to record his opinions,
which were generally founded on a correct taste and judg-
ment, and were always delivered in an interesting and
lively manner. A collection of his oral opinions was pub-
lished in 1693, soon after his death; and this collection,
which was entitled Menagiana, was afterwards corrected
and enlarged by M. la Monnoye, in an edition published
by hJTn in 1715.
The Perroniana, which exhibits the opinions of Cardinal
du Perron, was compiled from his conversation by M. du
Puy, and published by Vossius, by the same contrivance
which put him in possession of -the Scaligerana. Soma
parts of this collection are useful in illustrating the literary
and ecclesiastical history of the age in which Du Perron
lived ; but it contains many puerile, imprudent, and absurd
remarks, many of them the interpolations of his friends.
The Thuana, or observations of the president De Thou,
have usually been published along with the Perroniana.
This collection is not extensive, and by no means of such
value as might have been expected from a man so able and
distinguished.
The YaUsiana is a collection of the literary opinions of
the. historiographer Adrian de Valois, published by his
son. M. de Valois was a great student of history, and the
Valesiana accordingly comprehends many valuable histori
cal observations, particularly on the works of Du Cange.
The Fvreteriana (1696) contains the bon mots of M.
Furetifere Of the French Academy, the stories which he was
in the habit of telling, and a number of anecdotes and
remarks found in his papers after his decease. This piOi
ANA
78^
duction, however, comprehends but few thoughts, opinions,
or criticisms on books, consisting chiefly of short stories,
and containing numerous allusions to a violent quarrel he
had with the French Academy, of which he was a member,
concerning his Dictionnaire Universel de la Langue
Fran^aise.
The Clievrceana (2 vols. 8vo, 1700), so called from M.
Chevreau, exhibits more research than most works of a
similar description, and is probably more accurate, as it
differs from the Ana proper, of which the works described
above are instances, in having been published during the
life of the author, and revised by himself. Among other
interesting articles, it contains a learned and ingenious
commentary on the works of Malherbe, to whom the French
language and poetry were greatly indebted for their per-
fection.
Parrhasiana (Amst., 2 vols. 8vo, 1C99-1701) is the
work of Jean lo Clerc, a professor of Amsterdam, who
bestowed this appellation on his miscellaneous productions
with the view of discussing various topics of philosophy
and politics with more freedom than he could have em-
ployed under his own name. This work is not of the light
and unconnected description of most of the Ana which
have been above enumerated, as it contains much learned
philological disquisition, and a long dissertation on poetry
and eloquence. In the first volume there is a list of his
published works, and a bitter reply to all who had censured
them.
The Huetiana contains the detached thoughts and criti-
cisms of Huet, bishop of Avranches, which he himself
committed to writing when he was far advanced in Life.
Huet was bom in 1630, and in 1712 he was attacked by
a malady which impaired his memory, and rendered him
incapable of the sustained attention necessary for the com-
pletion of a long or laborious work. In this situation he
employed himself in putting his detached observations on
paper. These were published by the Abb^ d'OUvet the year
after his death (1722), under the name of Huetiana, — a
work which is not, Like some other Ana, a succession of
hon mots or anecdotes, but forms a series of thoughts and
criticisms on various topics of morals, philosophy, and
literature. One of the most instructive discussions to a
scholar, in this collection, is that on the Latinisation of
names and surnames. His critical judgments on Mon-
taigne, Rochefoucauld, and Tacitus are valuable. But
were there no other Literary memorials of the bishop of
Avranches, he certainly would not derive high reputation
from the Huetiana. It was not, indeed, to be expected'
from the circumstances in which the articles were com-
posed, that they should always display that correct judg-
ment which distinguishes many of the other works of this
learned writer.
The Casauboniana presents us with the miscellaneous
observations, chiefly philological, of the celebrated Isaac
Casaubon. During the course of a long life that eminent
commentator was in the daily practice of committing to
paper anything remarkable which he heard in conversa-
tion with his friends, especially if it bore on the studies in
which he was engaged. -He also made annotations from
day to day on the works he read, with which he connected
his judgments concerning the authors and their writings.
This compilation, which was styled Ephemerides, together
with his Adversaria, and materials amassed for a refutation
of the Ecclesiastical Annals of Baronius, were bequeathed
by his son Meric Casaubon to the Bodleian library at
Oxford. These wore shown to Christopher Wolfius during
a visit which ho paid to that university; and having been
transcribed by him, were publislied in 1710 under the title
of Casauboniana. This collection consists of opinions cen-
eeming varioua eminent writers, illustrations of passages |
of Scripture, and philological observations and animadver-
sions on the first thirty-four .years^f the Annals of Baron-
ius. The materials and information which it contains are
probably more accurate than is usually the case in works of
the same description, as they were not reported by others,
but were committed to writing by Casaubon himself while
the works on which he commented remained' fresh in his
recollection.
Besides the above a great many works, under the title
of Ana, appeared in France about the same period. Thus,
the opinions and conversation of Charpentier, Colomesjus,
and St Evremond were recorded in the ' Carpenteriana,
Colomesiana, and iS"* Evremoniana ; and those of Segrais
in the Segraisiana, — a collection formed by a person
stationed behind the tapestry in a hoase where Segrais
was accustomed to visit, of which Voltaire declared, " que
de tons les Ana c'est celui qui merite le plus d'etre mis au
rang des mensouges imprimis, et surtout des mensonges
insipides." The Ana, indeed, from the popularity which
they now enjoyed, were compiled in such numbers and
with so little care that they became almost proverbial for
inaccuracy. About the middle of the 18th century, too,
they were sometimes made the vehicles of revolutionary
and heretical opinions. Thus the evil naturally began to
cure itself, and by a reaction the French Ana sunk in
public esteem as much below their intrinsic value as they
had formerly been exalted above it.
Of the examples England has produced of this species
of composition, perhaps the most interesting is the WaU
poliana, a transcript of the Literary conversation of Horace
Walpole, Earl of Orford. That multifarious author spent
a great portion of his time in conversation, and, possess-
ing opportunities of information enjoyed by few, was dis-
tinguished for his resources of anecdote, wit, and judicious
remark. It was suggested to him that he ought to form
a coUectiou of anecdotes and observations, but this he
declined, furnishing, however, the editor of the Walpoliana
with many anecdotes in his own handwriting. After his
death several specimens of this miscellany were published
in the Morithly Magazine; and being afterwards enlarged
by the recollections of the editor and the communicationa
of others, were published in t-wo volumes under the title
of Walpoliana. Most other works which in this country
have been published under the name of Ana, as Baconiana,
Atterhuryana, &.O., are rather extracts from the 'writings
and correspondence' of eminent men than memorials of
their conversation.
There are some works which, though they do not bear
the title, belong more strictly to the class of Ana than many
of the coUectiona which are known under that appella-
tion. Such are the Melanges d'Histoire et de Litterature,
published under the name of Vigneul Marville, though the
work of a Benedictine, D'Argonne; and the Locorum Com-
munium Collectanea, ex Lectionibus Philippi Melanchthonii,
— a work of considerable reputation on account of its
theological learning, and the information it communicates
concerning the early state of the Reformed Church. But
of those productions 'which belong to the class, though
they do not bear the name, of Ana, the most celebrated
are the Colloquia Mensalia of Luther and Selden's Table-
Talk. The former, 'which comprehends the conversation
of Luther with his friends and coadjutors in the great work
of the Reformation, was first published in 1566. Captain
Bell, who translated it into English in the time of the
Commonwealth, informs us that, an edict having been pro-
mulgated commanding the works of Luther to be destroyed,
it was for some timq. supposed that all the copies of the
Colloquia Mensalia had been burned; but in 1G26, on the
foundation of a house being removed, a printed copy was
fooiid lying in a deep hole, and wrapped up in a linen
I. — 00
786
A N A — A N A
cloth. The book translated by Bell, and again by the
younger Hazlitt in 1847, is said to have been originally
collected by Dr Anthony Lauterbach, "out of the holy
mouth of Luthur." It consists chiefly of observations and
discussions on idolatry, auricular confession, the mass,
excommunication, clerical jurisdiction, general councils,
and all tho poiuts agitated by the Reformed Church in those
early periods. The TabU-Talh of Selden contains a more
genuine and undisguised expression of tho sentiments of
that eminent man than wo find in his more studied pro-
ductions. It was published after his dentli by Richard
Mdward, his amanuensis, who affirms that for twenty
years he enjoyed tlie opportunity of daily hearing his dis-
course, and made it his practice faithfully to commit to
\vriting " tho excellent things that usually fell from him."
'I'lio work contains, along with much of a lighter kind,
many curious facts and opinions concerning the political
and ecclesiastical history of tho interesting period during
which Selden lived, and in the important events of which
he bore a considerable share. The style of Selden, in most
of the works published under his own ' care, is harsh and
obscure ; but Clarendon describes him as " a clear dis-
courser, possessed of tho faculty of making diflicult things
easy, and presenting them clearly to the understanding."
This t?(ent for elucidation shines chiefly in his Table-Talk,
which 13 filled v/ith the stores of his extensive reading, de-
livered without any pretensions to that order and method
the v/aut of which has been attributed to his other pro-
ductions. Many more recent works, under such titles as
Literary Remains, Table-Talk, &.C., partake more or less of
tlie nature of Ana, but do not call for separate notice.
The most remarkable collection of Ana in the Engli.sh
language — and, indeed, in any language — is to be found
in -a work which does not correspond to the normal type
cither in name or in form. In his Life of Samuel John-
son, LL.D., Boswell relates that to his remark, d propot of
French literature, "Their Ana are good," Johnson replied,
" A few of them are good; but we have one book of that
kind better than any of them — Selden's Table-Talk." Bos-
well's own work is incomparably superior to all. In worth
as a book this has been rated, on the high authority of
Carlyle, beyond any other product of the 18th century,
and the value it has depends mainly on its Ana. Its
interest arises, not from the details it furnishes of the
events of Dr Johnson's career, still loss from any attempt
at a discriminating estimate of his work and character, but
from the graphic representation it gives of his habitual
manner of life and speech. ■ Tho innate greatness of
Johnson appears, more than .,in all his writings, in his
portrait, delineated with the exactness of a sharply-defined
photograph, as he appeared to the eyes of his admiring
biographer in his daily dishabille.
■Wolfiua has given a history of the Ana in a prelinunary discourse
to his edition of the Casauboniana, published in 1710. In the
Jifpcrtoire de Bibliographic-^ Spiciales, Curicuses, ci Jnstructives, by
Peignot, there is a Notice Bihliographiqtu of these collections ; but
many of the books there enumei-ated consist of mere extracts from
the writings of popular authors.
ANABAPTISTS (re-haptisers, from oi/a and /JoTrri^w),
a name sometimes applied indiscriminately to all denomi-
nations of Christiana that deny the validity of in/antbaptism,
but restricted in general usage to certain sects which became
prominent in Germany and elsewhere at the period of the
Reformation. In both cases the designation originates
with opponents, and is repudiated by the great majority of
those to whom it is applied. Believing, as they do, that
the baptism of infanta is no baptism, they naturaUy object
to a name which implies that their baptism of such persons
as may have been baptised in infancy is a second adminis-
tration of the rite. It is therefore desirable to avoid the
UBo 01 lue term as descriptive of tho«o who hold what aro
otherwise known as antipaidobaptist yiewu. In ita u.oro
limited sense the word has been too long in use, and is
too well known to be now discarded, though it is open to
the further objection, in addition to that already stated,
that it describes a sect by one of the least important of its
distinctive doctrines and practices. The Anabaptists of
Germany are historically noteworthy, not because they
insisted on re-baptism as the condition of admission to
their communion, but be'causc the enthusiasm of the Refor-
mation manifested itself in them in a form and manner
altogether peculiar. .Their views as to the true conatitution
of the church and its relation to the state, and the efforts
they made to realise these views, furnish a problem, partly
theological, partly historical, of which a satisfactory
solution is not easy. To one who looks pierely at the
extravagance and lawlessness which appear on the surface,
fanaticism and madness may furnish a sufficient explana-
tion of the whole Anabaptist movement, but a deeper in-
sight will find many elements in it that are quite incon-
sistent with the supposition of nothing more than bare-
faced imposture in the leaders, and blind delusion in the
followers. There is an obvious genetic, though not histori-
cal connection between the Anabaptists and those earlier
sects (Novatians, Donatists, Albigenses, Waldenses) which
did not practise infant baptism. It is more important,
however, to trace the relation between the Anabaptists and
the great body of the Reformers. Anabaptism, as a system,
may be defined as the Reformation doctrine carried to its
utmost limit; the Anabaptists were the extreme left in the
army of Ihe Reformers. It is true that they regarded each
other as in different camps ; but their mutual denunciations
cannot conceal tho fact that even the most peculiar doctrines
of the Anabaptists were to them only corollaries, illegiti-
mately drawn, as the more orthodox Reformers thought,
from tho fundamental principle, common to both, of the
independence of the individual judgment, and the supreme
importance of the subjective element, personal faith, in
religion. The connection of this principle with their theory
of the church and its relation to the state, their doctrine
of the sacraments, and even their political rising, is so
obvious that it need not be dwelt upon. The history of
tho Anabaptist movement in its outward development is
brief but eventful In 1521 their first rising took place
at Zwickau, under the leadership of Thomas Miinzer, the
Lutheran pastor of that place. (SeeMtrNZEB.) Compelled
to leave Zwickau, Miinzer visited Bohemia, resided two
years at Altstadt and Thuringia, and in 1524 spent some
time in Switzerland. During this period he proclaimed his
revolutionary doctrines in religion and politics with grow-
ing vehemence, and, so far as the lower orders were con-
cerned, with growing success. The crisis came in the so-
called Pea-sants' War in South Germany, in 1525. In its
origin a revolt against feudal oppression, it became, under
the leadership of Miinzer, a war against all constituted
authorities, and an attempt to establish by force his ideal
Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality and the
community of goods. The total defeat of the insurgents
at Frankeuhausen (May 15, 1525), followed as it was by
the execution of Miinzer and several other leaders, proved
only a temporary check to the Anabaptist movement.
Here and there throughout Gennany, Switzerland, and the
Netherlands there were zealous propagandists, through
whose teaching many were prepared to follow as soon as
another leader should arise, A second and more deter-
mined attempt to establish a theocracy was made at Miin-
ster, in Westphalia (1532-5). Here the sect had gained
considerable influence, through the adhesion of Rothmann,
the Lutheran pastor, and several prominent citizens ; and
the leaders, Johann Matthyszoon or Matthiesen, a baker of
N A — A N A
787
Haarlem, and Joliann Bockhold, a ti»iJor of Leyden, Lad
iittlo difficulty in obtaining possession of the town and
deposing the magistrates. Vigorous preparations were at
once made, not only to hold what had been gained, but to
proceed from Miinster aa a centre to the conquest of the
world. The town being besieged by Count Waldeck, its ex-
pelled bishop (Apiil 1534),Matthiesen, who was first in com-
mand, ma Jo a sally with only thirty followers, under the
fanatical idea that he was a second Gideon, and was cut
oif with his entire band. Bockhold, better known in
history as John of Leyden, was now supreme. Giving
himself out aa the successor of David, he claimed royal
honours and absolute power ih the new " Zion." He
justified the most arbitraiy and extravagant measures by the
authority of visions from heaven, as others have done in
similar circuraatances. With this pretended sanction he
legalised polygamy, and himself took four wives, one of
whom he beheaded with his own hand in the market-place
in a fit of frenzy. As a natural consequence of such licence,
Miinster was for twelve months a scene of unbridled pro-
fligacy. After an obstinate resistance the town was taken
by the besiegers on the 24th June 1535, and in January of
the following year Bockhold and some of his more pro-
minent followers, after being cruelly tortured, were executed
in the market-place. The outbreak at Miinster was the
crisis of the Anabaptist movement. It never again had the
opportunity of assuming political importance, the civil
powers naturally adopting the most stringent measures to
suppress an agitation whose avowed object was to suppress
them. It is difficult to trace the subsequent history of the
sect aa a religious body. The fact that, after the Miinster
insurrection, the very name Anabaptist was proscribed in
Europe, is a, source of twofold confusion. The enforced
adoption of new names makes it easy to lose the. historical
identity of many who really'belonged to the Miinster Ana-
baptists, and, on the other hand; has led to the classifica-
tion of many with the Miinster sect who had no real
connection with it. The latter mistake, it is to be noted,
has been much more common than the former. The Men-
nonites, for example, have been identified with the earlier
Anabaptists, on the ground that they included among their
number many of the fanatics of Miinster. But the con-
tinuity of a sect ia to be traced in its principles and not in
its adherents, and it must "he remembered that Menno and
his followers expressly repudiated the distinctive doctrines
of the Miinster Anabaptists. They have never aimed at
any social or political revolution, and have been as remark-
able for sobriety of conduct as the Miinster sect was for
ita fanaticism. (See MEinfONiTES.) In English history
frequent reference is made to the Anabaptists during
the 16th and 17th centuriea, but there is no evidence
that any considerable number of native Engliahmen ever
adopted the principlea of the Miinster sect. Many of the
followers of Miinzer and Bockhold seem to have fled from
persecution in Germany and the Netherlands to be sub-
jected to a peraecution scarcely less severe in England.
The mildest measure adopted towards these refugees was
baniahment from the kingdom, and a large number suffered
at the stake. It has already been explained that the appli-
cation of the term Anabaptist to those English sects that
had nothing in common with the German Anabaptists
except the practice of adult baptism, ia unjustifiable. (See
Baptists.)
ANABASIS (dva/3ao-i9, a march into the interior; from
avafiaivui, to ascend), the title given by Xenophon to his
narrative of the expedition of Cyrus the younger against
hia brother, Artaxerxea of Persia, 401 B.C., and adopted by
Arriah for hia history of the expedition of Alexander the
Great. (See Ainsworth's Trav. in Track of Ten, Thousand
Grttks: Journal of Hoy. Gear;. Soc. 1870. p. 463.)
ANACHAESIS, a Scythian philosopher, who Lved
about 600 B.C. His father was one of the chiefs of h'ta
nation, and married a woman of Greece. Instructed in
the Greek language by his mother, he prevailed upon the
king to intrust him with an embassy to Athens. On his
arrival in that renowned city he became acquainted with
Solon, from whom he rapidly acquired a knowledge of the
wisdom and learning of Greece. By the influence of Solon
he was introduced to the principal persons in Athens, and
was the first stranger who received the privileges of citizen-
ship. After he had resided several years at Athens, he
travelled through different countries in quest of knowledge,
and then returned home fLUed with the desire of instruct-
ing hia countrymen in the laws and the reb'gion of the
Gjeeka. According to Herodotus, he was killed by hia
brother Saulius while he was performing sacrifice to the
goddess Cyljele. His simple and forcible mode of expressing
himself gave birth to the proverbial expression, " Scythian
eloquence." (Herodot. iv. 76 ; Luciau, Scylha.)
ANACHRONISM, a neglect or falsification, whether
wilful or undesigned, of chronological relation. Its com-
monest use restricts it (agreeably to its etymology, ava,
back, and y^povo^, time) to the ante-dating of events, cir-
cumstances, or customs; in other words, to the introduction,
especially in works of imagination that rest on a historical
basis, of details borrowed from a later age. Anachronisms
may be committed in many ways, originating, for instance,
in disregard of the different modes of life and thought
that characterise different periods, or in ignorance of the
progresii of the arts and sciences and the other ascertained
facts of history, and may vary from glaring inconsistency
to scarcely perceptible misrepresentatioiL Much of the
thought entertained about the past ia so deficient in his-
torical perspective as to be little better than a continuous
anachronism. It is only since the close of the 18th cen-
tury that this kind of untruthfulness has jarred on the
general intelligence. Anachronisms abound in the works
of Raphael and Shakespeare, aa well aa in those of the
meanest daubers and playwrights of earlier times. In par-
ticular, the artists, on the stage and on the canvas, in story
and in song, assimilated their dramatis persona; to their
own nationality and their own time. The Virgin was
represented here as an Italian contadina, and there as a
Flemish frow ; Alexander the Great appeared on the
French stage in the full costume of Louis Quatorze down
to the time of Voltaire ; and in our own country the con-
temporaries of Addison could behold, without any suspicion
of burlesque,
" Cato'a long wig, fiower'd gown, and lacquer'd chair.*
Considerable difference of opinion Ijaa been expressed
regarding the legitimacy of anachronism, especially when
it ia introduced designedly into historical novels. The
safe and the just course here appears to be to " regard the
writer's end," and not to hold an author responsible for
historical accuracy or verisimilitude who does not profess
to write history.
ANACOLUTHON is the lack of grammatical sjTnmetry
in a sentence, either through the consequent taking an un-
expected form or being altogether suppressed, the writer
or speaker desiring to present his thought in another
aspect, or feeling that ho has already made hia meaning
sufficiently plain. In the case of a man who is full of his
subject, or who ia carried along by the passion of the
moment, such inconsequcnta are very apt to occur. Of
Niebuhr it ia told that hia oral lectures consisted almost
entirely of anacoluthio constructions. To this kind of
licence some languages, as Greek and English, readily lend
themselves ; while the grammatical rigidity of others, as
Latin and French admits of it but sparingly. - In Hero
788
A N A - A N A
dolus, Thucydides, ^achylus, I'indar, and Plato, abundant
epecimens are to be found; and the Bamo is true of tlio
writers of the Elizabethan age in our own language. The
following is an exam])le : — " And he charged him to tell
no man ; but go show thyself ," ikc. (Luke v. 11).
ANACONDA, a gigantic snake of South America,
sometimes over 30 feet in length, called the water-serpent.
from frequenting swamps and rivers, and preying on water
aniraab. Its colour is a rich brown, wth bright golden
rings on each side, and two rows of large black spots along
the back. The natives kill it for an oil they obtain from
its carcase. It is not venomous, and is said to be harmless.
ANACREON, an Ionian Oieek, born at Teos, on the
coast of Asia Minor, probably about 562 B.C. Ilis repu-
tation as a lyric poet stood very high both in his own age
and in those that followed. " The charming " — " the
honcy-tongued " — " the swan of Teos " — " the glory of
Ionia," are some of the epithets constantly given him by
ancient Avritcrs. " Sing us one of the songs of AlcEeus or
Auacreon," cries one of the guests in a comedy of Aristo-
phanes. " \VTien I hear the verses of Sappho or Anacreon,"
says the poet to his friends, in the Symposium of Plato,
" I set down my cup for very shame of my own perform-
ances." But though he has given his name to that class
of light and free lyric eflflsions which celebrate the joys of
love and wine, he is to us moderns little more than a name.
Via can no longer say of him, as Horace could, that " time
has not droivned Ids sportive lays ; " and wo have to judge
uf his merits as a poet cliiefly from the warm praises of
those who had his poems in their hands. Of the five
books of IjTioal pieces by Anacreon which Suidas and
AthenEus mention as e-^ktant in their time, wo have now
but the merest fragments, collected from the citations of
later writers. Those graceful little poems (most of them
iirst printed from the MSS. by Henry Stephens in 1554),
which long passed among the learned for the songs of
Anacreon, and which are well known to many English
readers in the translations of Cowley and Moore, are really
of much later date, though possibly here and there geniune
fragments of the poet have been woven up in them. They
will always retain a certain popularity from their lightness
and elegance, and some of them are fair copies of Ana-
creon's style, which would lend itself readily enough to a
clever imitator. But an almost conclusive argument
against their genuineness lies in the fact that the peculiar
forms of the Ionic Greek, in which Anacreon wrote, are
not to be found in these reputed odes, while the frag-
ments of his poems quoted by ancient WTiters are full of
lonicisms. Of the poet's life little is known beyond a
few scattered notices, not in all cases certainly authentic.
Ho probably shared the voluntary exile of the mass of his
fellow-townsmen, who, when Cjtus the Great was .laying
siege to the Greek cities of Asia, took ship, and founded
a colony at Abdera in Thrace, rather than surrender their
city to his general Ilarpagus. From Thrace he soon
removed to the island of Samos, ruled at that time by Poly-
crates, oue of the grandest of those old " tyrants " who by
no means deserved the name in its worst sense. It is said
that he acted as Polycrates's tutor; that he stood very high
in his confidence we learn from so good an authority as
Herodotus, who represents the poet as sitting in the royal
chamber when audience was given to the Persian herald.
In return for such favour and protection, he wrote many
complimentary odes upon Polycrates and his favourites.
But if an anecdote found in Stobsus is true, he wsfe no
mercenary flatterer. On one occasion the " tyrant " pre-
sented him with the sum of five talents. He spent two
wakeful nights in thinking of his money, and then re-
turned it to the giver, saying that it " was not worth the
care it cost him." A cursory remark in the writings of
Maxiinus of Tyre shows at least the high estimation in
which the poet was supposed to have been held by his
royal patron. That WTiter says that not even the warning
given to Polycrates by Ainasis, king of Egypt, that his too
great prosperity would surely arouse the jealousy of the
gods, could make a man doubt the stability of his happi-
ness, who had, like Polycrates, the command of the Ionian
sea, a navy so powerful, and such a friend as Anacreon.
The same authority tells us that this companionship exer-
cised a beneficial influence over the stern temper of the
tyrant. Like his fellow-lyrist, Horace, who was one of
his great admirers, and in many respect of a kindred
spirit, Anacreon seems to iave been made for the society
of courts. On the death of Polycrates, Hipparchus, who
was then in power at Athens, and who inherited the
literary tastes of his father Pisistratus, sent a special em-
bassy to fetch the popular poet to Athens in a galley of
fifty oars. He must have fully enjoyed and contributed
much to the enjoyment of the brilliant circle with which
Hipparchus had surrounded himself, and there he made
acquaintance, amongst others, with the poet Simonides.
When this circle was broken up by the assassination of
Hipparchus, Anacreon seems to have returned to his
native town of Teos. There, according to a metrical
epitaph ascribed to his friend Simonides, he died and was
buried. Lucian mentions him amongst his instances
of- the longevity of eminent men, as having completed
eighty-five years. If an anecdote given by Pliny (Nat.
Ulsl. vii. 7) is to be trusted, he was choked at last by a
grape-stone ; but the story has an air of mythical adapta-
tion to the poet's habits, which makes it somewhat apocry-
phal Anacreon had a reputation as a composer of hymns,
as well as of those bacchanalian and amatory lyrics which
are commonly associated with his name. Two short hymns
to Diana and Bacchus, consisting of eight and eleven lines
respectively, stand first amongst his few undisputed re-
mains, as printed by recent editors. But pagan hymns,
especially when addressed to such deities as Venus, Eros,
and Bacchus, are not so very unlike what we call " Ana-
creontic " poetry as to make the contrast of style so great
as the word might seem to imply. The tone of Anacreon's
lyric effusions has probably led to an unjust estimate, both
by ancients and moderns, of the poet's personal character.
As Homer was accused of bibulous propensities by some
because he makes frequent and kindly mention of " the
purple wine," so Anacreon was held to have been a
thorough sensualist because he sang so persistently of
wine and love. But a poet must not always be judged by
the flights of his fancy. The " triple worship " of the
Muses, Wine, and Love, ascribed to him as his religion
in an old Greek epigram (Anthol. iu. 25, 51), may have
been as purely professional in the two last cases as in the
first, and his private character on si^ch points was probably
neither much better nor worse than that of his contem-
poraries. Athensus remarks acutely that he seems at
least to have been sober when he \*Tote ; and he himself
strongly repudiates, as Horace does, the brutal character-
istics of intoxication as fit only for " barbarians " and
" Scythians " (Fragm. 64, Bergk). His own excuse,
when charged with hj-mning the reigning beauties of the
day rather than the orthodox gods and goddesses, is said
to have been made in these words—
*' But are not these also lesser divinities ?*
The best editions of Anacreon are those of J. F. Fischer,
Leipsic, 1703, and L Bergk, Leipsic, 1854. (w. L. c.)
ANADYOMENE ('AmSuo/i^), an epithet of Aphrodite
(Venus), expressive of her having risen {i.e., been bom)
from the foam of the sea. In works of ancient art — e.g.,
in many existing bronze statuettes; — Venus was represented
A N A — A N ^
789
UDcler this title as if just emerged from the sea, and in the
act of wringing her tresses. This was the subject of *
painting by Apelles, one of the most celebrated pictures of
antiquity, the conception having been, it was said, sug-
gested to him by seeing Phryne bathing. This painting
belonged first to the people of Cos, from whom it was taken
to Rome by Augustus in part payment of tribute IcTried by
him. By the time of Nero it had become almost entirely
ruined by decay.
ANADYR, the name of a gulf and of a river in the
north-east of Siberia. The gulf extends from Capo
Tchutotskoi, on the north, to Cape St Thadeus, on the
south, forming part of the Behring Sea ; while the river,
taking its rise from a lake in the Stanovoi mountains,
caUed Ivashki or Ivachno, about 67' N. lat., and 173° E.
long., flows through the Tchutchee country, at first to the
west and then to the east, entering the gulf of Anadyrsk-
aia, a branch of the gulf of Anadyr, after a course of
about 600 miles. Anadjrrsk is the only tovm on its banks,
and the country through -which it p£\sses is thinly popu-
lated, barren, and desolate. For nine months of the year
the ground is covered with enow, and there is not sufiBcient
pasturage for cattle. Reindeer, upon which the inhabit-
ants feed, are found in considerable numbers.
ANAESTHESIA (a privative, a'a-Orjcn';, sensation), a
term in medicine used to describe a state of insensibility
to external impressions, either as the result of disease or
as induced artificially by the employment of certdin sub-
stances known as anaesthetics.
In diseases of the brain or spinal cord anaesthesia is an
occasional symptom, but in such cases it is usually limited
in extent, involving a limb or a definite area of the surface
of the body. Complete anesthesia has been observed in
persons who were in a state of catalepsy or trance.
The artificial induction of anaesthesia by the use of
drugs or the inhalation of vapours is a subject of great
interest, both historically and from its practical application
to the relief of suffering and the treatment of disease.
Although it is mainly owing to the researches of distin-
guished chemists and physicians of the present century
that the employment of anaesthesia has come to occupy a
foremost place among remedies, there is abundant evidence
to show that it is a practice of great antiquity. Besides
the mention by Homer of the anaesthetic effects of
nepenthe, and the reference by Herodotus to the practice
of the Scythians of inhaling the vapours of a certain kind
of hemp to produce intoxication, the employment of
anaesthetics in surgery by the use of mandragora is par-
ticularly alluded to by Dioscorides and Pliny. It also
appears, from an old Chinese manuscript laid before the
French Academy by M. Julien, that a physician named
Hoa-tho, who lived in the 3d century, gave his patients a
preparation of hemp, whereby they were rendered in-
sensible during the performance of surgical operations.
Mandragora was extensively used as an anassthetic by
Hugo de Lucca, who practised in the 13th century. The
soporific effects of mandrake are alluded to by Shake-
speare, who also makes frequent mention of anaesthetising
draughts, the composition of which is not specified.
In the Medical Gazette, vol xii. p. 515, Dr Sylvester,
quoting from a German work by Meissner, published in
1782, mentions the case of Augustus, king of Poland,
who underwent amputation while rendered insensible by a
narcotic. But the practice of anaesthesia had never
become general, and surgeons appear to have usually
regarded it with disfavour. When, towards the close of
last century, the brilliant discoveries of Priestley gave an
impetus to chemical research, the properties of gases and
vapours began to bo more closely investigated, and the
.belief waa then entertained that manv of them would
become of great medicinal value. In 1800, Sir Humphrey
Davy, experimenting on nitrous oxide gas, discovered its
anaasthetic properties, and described the effects it had on
himself when inhaled, with the view of relieving local
pain. He suggested its employment in surgery in the fol-
lowing words : — " As nitrous oxide, in its extensive opera-
tion, seems capable of destroying physical pain, it may
probably be used with advantage in surgical operations in
which no great effusion of blood'takes place." His sug-
gestion, however, remained unheeded for nearly half a
century. The inhalation of sulphuric ether for the relief
of asthma and other lung affections had been employed by
Dr Pearson, of Birmingham, as early as 1785 ; and in ISCi
Dr Warren, of Boston, U.S., used this treatment in the
later stages of pulmonary consumption.
In 1818 Faraday showed that the inhalation of the
vapour of sulphuric ether produced anaesthetic effects
similar to those of nitrous oxide gas ; and this property of
ether was also shown by the American physicians, Godman
(1822), Jackson (1833), Wood and Bach& (1834).
These observations, however, appear to have been re-
garded in the Ught of mere scientific curiosities and sub-
jects for lecture-room experiment, rather than as facts
capable of being applied practically in the treatment of
disease, till December 1844, when Dr Horace WeUa, a
dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, underwent in his own
person the operation of tooth extraction while rendered
insensible by nitrous oxide gas. Satisfied, from further
experience, that teeth could be extracted in this way
without pain, Dr Wells proposed to establish the practice
of painless dentistry under the influence of the gas; but
in consequence of an unfortunate failure in an experiment
at Boston, he abandoned the project. On 30th September
1846, Dr Morton, a dentist of Boston, employed the
vapour of sulphuric ether to procure general anassthesia
in a case of tooth extraction, and thereafter administered
it in cases requiring surgical operation with complete
success. This great achievement marked a new era in
surgery. Operations were performed in America in nume-
rous instances under ether inhalation, the result being
only to establish more firmly its value as a successful
anaesthetic. The news of the discovery reached England
on 17th December 1846. On 19th December, Mr Robinson,
a dentist in London, and on the 21st, Mr Liston, the emi-
nent surgeon, operated on patients ansesthetised by ether ;
and the practice soon became general both in Great Britain
and on the Continent.
The late Sir James Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, was the
first to apply anesthesia by ether in midwifery practice.
This he did on 19th January 1847, and he subsequently
e"mp]oyed ether inhalation in numerous cases of both easy
and difiicult parturition, an account of which he published,
containing much important information. The" results of
his trials showed that while the anaesthesia annulled the
conscious sufferings of the patient, it in no way interfered
with the muscular contractions of the uterus and the pro-
gress of the laboar, and that it did not iniuriously affect
the child.
These observations excited great interest in the medical
world, and led to the extensive employment of ether inhala-
tion till November 1847, when Simpson announced his
discovery of the anaesthetic properties of chloroform (the
trial of which had been suggested to him by Mr Waldie, a
chemist of Liverpool), and proposed it as a substitute for
sulphuric ether. So convincingly did he demonstrate the
great advantages of chloroform, that this substance speedily
superseded the use of ether as an anaesthetic, and continues
to the present time probably the most widely-used of all
the agents employed in medicine for the relief of humao
Bufforiup'
790
A N A - A N A
As the result of further investigations in this depart-
ment of scientific research, in which the labours of Dr
Snow, Mr Nuuucioy, and Dr Richardson have been con-
6[>icnoufl, numerous other volatile organic fluids have been
found to possess ansBsthetic properties. Several of these
have been used in surgical practice, but as yet none of
them have been found to possess such superiority as would
entitle them to supersede chloroform.*
There are many who prefer ether as being a safer anoes-
thetic than chloroform, less apt to depress the circulation,
and leas apt to excite vomiting ; but any advantage it has
in these respects appears, in the estimation of surgeons,
to be practically counterbalanced by the greater efficiency
and facility of application of the latter substance. Ether,
however, continues to be largely used in America.
AVhcn introduced by inhalation into the system, anaes-
thetic vapours act upon the brain and sensory nerves in
such a manner as more or less completely to abolish their
natural sensibility. The degree in which they do this can
be in large measure regulated by the quantity administered.
Thus, taking the familiar instance of chloroform, the
effect of the inhalation of a small quantity (say less than
half a drachm) is a feeling of exhilaration or semi-intoxica-
tion, accompanied with diminished sensibility to pain, but
without entire loss of consciousness. By continuing the
inhalation and increasing the quantity, profound stupor,
stertorous breathing, fixing of the eyes, and ' muscular
relaxation mark the occurrence of complete antesthesia. In
many cases it is desirable to produce merely the former of
these conditions, yiz., that of imperfect anesthesia; and this
is the extent to which chloroform is usually applied in un-
complicated labour. On the other hand, in surgical opera-
tions requiring absolute stillness on the part of the patient
the inhalation must be carried to the extent of producing
total unconsciousness. The state of anaesthesia can be
safely kept up for long periods by continuing to apply,
with due caution, the anaasthetic vapour. Whenever the
inhalation is stopped, consciousness begins to return, and,
in most cases, is soon completely restored.
The importance to the science of medicine of the intro-
duction of anaesthesia can scarcely be over-estimated. By
the employment of anaesthetics in surgery, not only is the
work, of the surgeon relieved of a source of embarrass-
ment, and operations the most difficult and delicate under-
taken which otherwise would have been impossible, but
the death-rate in the worst cases has by universal testi-
mony been greatly diminished. In no department of
medicine has the vise of anaesthetics been so extensive, or
their value so manifest, as in midwifery. The power of
chloroform in mitigating the pain attendant on ordinary
labour, and in facilitating operative interference in cases of
difficulty, is a matter of evgry-day experience in the practice
of the accoucheur. In short, there is almost no condition
of great physical suffering which may not be alleviated by
the employment, under proper precautions, of ancesthetics.
But if the boon has been greA to medical science, it has
been greater still to mankind ; for not merely is an incal-
culable amount of actual pain prevented, but the dread of
submitting to surgical operations is beyond measure lessened
by the thought that they can be performed while the sufferer
is kept in a state of tranquil sleep.
Unfortunately, there is no known method of artificially
producing insensibility which is entirely free from risk,
and deaths^liave occasionally occurred imder the adminis-
tration of anaesthetic vapours. Like all medicinal sub-
stances of a poisonous nature, the utmost care and watch-
fulness are requisite in their administration. The danger.
' Nitrons oiide ga-s has beiu remtroduced, and ig now extensively
TTUfioved iu dentistry.
caUrU paribus, is in proportion to the dosa. ft is mora
than probable that many of the fatal instances of anaes-
thetic inhalation have been the result of carelessness; and
it is certain that by a better acquaintance with the physio-
logical action of the agents employed, and a closer observa-
tion of the indications of danger in their use, the deaths
may be greatly diminished. The importance of this has
been recognised in many large hospitals, where the adminis-
tration o! anaesthetics is entrusted to one individual skilled
in their properties and uses.
But it is doubtful whether many of the deaths occurring
under anaesthesia can justly be ascribed to that cause.
Sudden deaths occurring in the course of operations were
by no means unheard of before anaesthetics came to be
employed in surgery at all Even, however, admitting
that all the reported cases of death from anesthesia are
correct, it must be acknowledged that they are insignificant
in amount, considering the enormous extent to which the
use of chloroform and other anaesthetic agents prevails in
all departments of medical practice.
The employment of local anaesthesia in surgery has the
obvious advantage of being free from risk to life. Many
means of accomplishing this have been suggested, the best
known of which b the method of Dr Richardson, of the
application of ether spray to the part of the body which it
is desired to tender insensible. By the rapid evaporation
of the rther the tissues become frozen, and insensibility of
the part is produced. Since, however, the anaesthesia
merely affects the superficial textures, this plan is only
available in the minor operations of surgery. (j. o. A.)
ANAQNI, a town of Italy, in the province of Roma,
situated on a hill 37 miles E.S.E. of Rome. It is iU-built,
but contains a cathedral, of the 11th century, and several
ruins. Ajiagni is the ancient Ana^ia, at one time the
capital of the Hemici, and a place of considerable im-
portance both under the Empire and under the popes. It
is still the seat of a bishop. Population, 8220.
A-NAGRAM, the transposition of the letters ot a word
or words, is derived from the Greek avaypajiixa, which
was used in precisely the same sense. But the number of
different ways in which even a few letters can be arranged
being very great (with eight different letters, for instance,
it is Ix2x3,x 4x5x6x7x8 = 40,320), the term ana-
gram is generaUy restricted to such rearrangements of the
letters" as form other words, and these usually words which
express a meaning. Camden {Remaiiu, 7th ed., 1674)
defines " Anagrammatisme " as " a dissolution of a name
truly written into his letters, as his elements, ai/d a new
connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition,
substraction, or change of any letter, into different words,
making some perfect seuce applyable to the person named."
Considering the amount of labour that has been spent (or
misspent) in transpositions of this kind, — in "torturing
one poor word ten thousand ways," — the anagrams that
display a felicitous perfection of '■' applyable sence" are
remarkably few. Among the best are the anagrammatic
answer to Pilate's question, "Quid est Veritas f" — namely,
" £st vir qui adest;" and the transposition of "Horatio
Nelson" into " Honor eet a Nilo;" and of " Florence Night-
ingale" into "Flit on, cheering angel."- James I.'s courtiers
discovered in " James Stuart " " A just master," and con-
verted " Charles James Stuart " into " Claimea Arthur's
seat." " Eleanor Audeley," wife of Sir John Davies, -as
said to have been brought before the High Commission in
1634 for extravagances, stimulated by the discovery that
her name could be transposed to " Reveale, O Daniel," and
to have been laughed out of court by another anagram sul>
mitted by the Dean of the Arches, " Dame Eleanor Davies,"
" Never soe mad a ladie." There must be few names that
could furnish so many anagrams as that of " Augustus dq
A N A — A K A
791
Morgan," who tolls that a friend had constructed about 800
on his name, Bpecimena of which are given in his Budget of
Paradoxes, p. 82. The pseudonyms adopted by authors
are often transposed forms, more or less exact, of their
names; thjis " Calvinus" becomes " Alcuinus;" " Franjois
llabelais," " Alcofribas Nasier;" " Bryan Waller Proctor,"
" Barry Cornwall, poet;" " Henry Rogers," " R. R H.
Greyson," tfec. It is to be noted that the last two are
impure anagrams, an " r" being left out in both cases.
" Telliamed," a simple rfeversal, is the title of a well-known
work by " De MaUlet." The most remarkable pseudonym
of this class is the name " Voltaire," which the celebrated
philosopher assumed instead of his family name, " Francois
Marie Arouet," and which is now generally allowed to be
an anagram of "Arouet, Lj.," that is, Arouet the younger.
Perhaps the only practical use to which anagrams have
been turned is to be found in the transpositions in which
some of the astronomers of the 17th century embodied
their discoveries, with the design apparently of avoiding
the risk that, while they were engaged in further veri6ca-
tion, the credit of what they had found out might be
claimed by others. Thus Galileo announced his discovery
that Venus had phases like the moon in the form, " Hoec
imniatura a me jam frustra leguntur — oy," that is,
" Cynthias jiguras aeniulatur Mater Amorum."
, ANAHUAC, the name of the great central plateau of
Mexico, lying between 15° and 30° N. lat., and 95° and.
110° W. long., at an elevation of from 6000 to 9000 feet
above the sea. Anahuac comprises three-fourths of the
tonitory of Mexico, including the capital ; and although
much of its surface is level, many lofty mountains rise out
of the table-land, the highest of which is Popocatepetl
(17,720 feet), an active volcano. The name Anahuao is
also used to designate a much less extensive part of the
table-land, as well aa that portion of the Rocky Mountains
which lies to the south of 40° N. lat. The word itself is
said to signify " near tho water " in the old Mexican lan-
guage, and seems to have been at one time the name of
several other places in the ancient empire of Mexico.
!■ ANALOGY is the name in logic for a mode of real or
material inference, proceeding upon the resemblance be-
tween particulars : speaking generally, it is that process
whereby, from the known agreement of two or more things
in certain respects, we infer agreement in some other point
known to be present in one or more, but not known to be
prese'at in the other or others. It was signalised already
by Aristotle under the different name of Example (Trapa-
Sciyij.a), the word Analogy (avaXoyta) having with him the
special sense of mathematical proportion or resemblance
(fequaHty) of ratios. The earliest use of the name in its
current logical sense is to be found apparently in Galen.
While, in popular language, the word has come to be
▼aguely used as a synonym for resemblance, the logical
authorities, though having generally the same kind of
inference in view, are by no means agreed is to its exact
nature and ground. It has chiefly to be distinguished
from the related process of Induction, in their conception
of which logicians are notoriously at variance. (See
Induction.)
Aristotle, distinguishing Syllogism and Induction as
passing the one from whole to part (any part), and the
other from part (all the parts) to whole, notes under
each a loose or rhetorical form — Enthymemo under
Syllogism, and Paradigm, or Example, under Induction.
Thus, to giv9 his own instance, it is an inference by
way of example — if a war to come of Athens against
Thebes is condemned because a past war of Thebes against
Phocis is known to have been disastrous. Here the reason-
ing, which may be said to pass from part to part, is
reaolved by Aristotle as compounded of an imperfect in-
duction and a syUogisra ; the particular case of Thebea
against Phocis started from being first inductively widened
into war between neighbours generally, and the particular
case of Athens against Thebes arrived at being then drawn
out by regular syllogism from that major. Example, or,
to speak of it by its later name, the inference from analogy,
is thus presented by Aristotle as directly related to induc-
tion : it differs from an imperfect induction — what, is now
often called real or material induction from particulars
incompletely enumerated — only in having its conclusion
particular instead of general, and its datum singular in-
stead of pluraL
Kant and his followers, while maintaining a relation
between induction and analogy, mark the difference other-
wise than Aristotle. By induction, it is said, we seek to
prove that some attribute belongs (or not) to all the mem-
bers of a class, because it belongs (or not) to many of that
class ; by analogy, that all the attributes of a thing belong
(or not) to another thing, because many of the attributes
belong (or not) to this other. In this country Sir William
Hamilton has adopted this view (Lectures on Logic, vol ii
pp. 165-174), though he differs from Kant in understand-
ing it only of the process called applied or modified induc-
tion,— not of the pure form of reasoning from all the parts
to the whole, which, in the manner of Aristotle, he puts
on a level with pure syUogistio deduction. The relation
and difference of the two processes may be formulated in
the short expressions : One in many, therefore one in all
(Induction) ; Many in one, therefore all in one (Analogy).
For instance, it would be an analogical inference — to con-
clude that a disease corresponding in many symptoms with
those observed in typhus corresponds in all, or, in other
Words, is typhus ; whereas it would be an induction — to
infer that a particular symptom appearing in a number of
typhus patients will appear in all.
The view of Kant and Hamilton does not reach below
the surface of the matter, if it can be maintained at all
In the first of the examples just given the inference might
weU be a good induction, all depending upon the kind of
symptoms that are made the ground of the conclusion ; on
the other hand, the second might be a case of mere analogy,
not to be called induction. Neither, again, is Aristotle's
view satisfactory, which practicaUy makes the difference to
depend upon the mere quantity of the conclusion, worked
out as particular for . analogy by appending to the induc-
tion involved a syllogism of application. Since the univer-
sal always carries with it the particular, and cannot be
affirmed unless the particular can, the two processes be-
come to all intents and purposes one and the same. If
the particular or analogical conclusion is justifiable, it is
because there was ground for a good induction (only not
of the pure sort) ; if there was no ground for a good
induction, then, upon Aristotle's resolution, there can be
no ground for the particular inference either. Should it
be said, indeed, that the peculiarity of the case lies not
so much in the conclusion, as In tho start being made from
one particular instance, whence the process gets its name
Example, that undoubtedly will distinguish it from any-
thing that can seriously be called induction ; but theu
what becomes of the resolution that Aristotle makes of- it ?
That resolution can be upheld only at the cost of the
character of the inductive process.
The logician who has done most to elaborate the theory
of real or material induction, John Stuart Mill, has also
been able to give an interpretation of analogy, which,
without in the least severing its connection with induction,
leaves it as a process for which a distinct name is neces-
sary. According to him, the two kinds of argument, while
homogeneous in the type of their inference, which holds
for all reasoning from exporience,^-nameIy, that thii.^
792
ANALOGY
ttgreeing whU one onothcr in certain respects agreo also in
certain other respects, — yet differ in respect of their iepee
of evidence. In both the argument is from known points
of agreement to unknown ; but, whereas in induction the
knovm points of agreement are supposed by due compari-
sod of instances to have been ascertained as the material
ones for the case in hand or conclusion in view, — in other
words, to be invariably connected by way of causation with
the inferred properties, — it is otherwise in analogy, where
it is only supposed that there is no incompatibility between
the inferred properties and the common properties, or
known points of resemblance, that are taken as the ground
of inference. Thus, if by comparison of instances it had
been ascertained, or otherwise it were known, that organic
life is dependent on the bare possession of an atmosphere
in planetary bodies rotating upon an axis, tbcn it would
be an induction to infer the presence of life upon any
heavenly body, known or as yet imdiscovered, in which
these conditions should be detected. With our actual
knowledge, confined to the case of the Earth, and only
enabling ns to say that the absence of an atmosphere must
destroy life, the inference to such a planet as Mars, where
the conditions stated seem to bo present, is but analogical;
while to the Moon, which seems to have no atmosphere,
the inference has not even this amount of force, but there
is rather ground for inductively concluding against the
possibility of organic lifa Upon this view it ceases to be
characteristic of analogy that the inference should be to a
particular case only ; for the inductive conclusion, when
the evidence is of a kind to admit of such being drawn,
may as well te particular; and, "again, it may equally
well happen that the analogical inference, where nothing
stronger canibe drawn, should have universal application.
Notwithstanding, it will be found in general that, where
the evidence, consisting of bare similarity of attributes in
tW'jr or more particular instances, permits only of an ana-
logical inference being made, the extension in thought
takes place to particular cases only which have a special
interest, and the mind hesitates to commit itself to a
general law or rule. Mill, therefore, though he does not
raise the point, is practically at one with Aristotle and all
others who make example or analogy to consist in the
passage from one or more particular cases to a particular
new case bearing resemblance to the former. It is his
peculiar merit to have determined the specific conditions
under which the passage in thought, whether to a particular
or a general, acquires the authority of an effective induction.
Analogy is so much resorted to in science in default of
induction, either provisionally till induction can be made,
or as itj substitute where the appropriate evidence cannot
be obtained, — it is also much relied upon in practical life
for the guidance of conduct, — that it becomes a matter of
great importance to determine its conditions. Whether in
science or in the affairs of life, the abuse of the process, or
■what. is technically called False Analogy, is one of the most
besetting snares set for the human mind. It is obvious
that, as the argxunent from analogy proceeds upon bare
resemblance, its strength increases with the amount of
similarity ; so that, though no connection is, or can be, in-
ductively made out between any of the agreeing properties
and the additional property which is the subject of infer-
ence, yet (in Mill's words), " where the resemblance is very
great, the ascertained difference very small, and our know-
ledge of the subject-matter very extensive, the argument
from analogy may approach in strength veiy near to a
valid induction. If (ho continues), after much observa-
tion of B, we find that it agrees with A in nine out of ten
of its known properties, we may conclude, with a pro-
bability of nine to one, that it will possess any given deriva-
tive property of A " (Logic, b. iii. c. xx, § 3) But it is
equally obvious that against the resemblances the ascertain-
able differences should be told oS. For bare analogy, the
differences in the two (or more) cases must as little as the
resemblances be known to have any connection, one way or
the other, with the point in question ; both alike must
only not bo known to be immaterial, else they should fall
quite out of the reckoning. As regards the differences,
however, this is what can least easily be discovered, or
is, by the mind in its eagerness to bnng things together,
most easily overlooked ; and, accordingly, the error of
false analogy arises chiefly from neglecting so to con-
sider them. Thus, if the inference is to the presence of
orgam'clifo of the terrestrial type on other planetary bo<lieR,
any agreements, even when ^extending to the details of
chemical constitution, are of small account in the positive
ecnse, compared with the negative import of such facts as
absence of atmosphere in the Moon, and excess of heat or
cold in the inmost or outermost planets. To neglect such
points will not simply make the analogy loose ; but, as the
very point in question is concerned in them, the analogy
becomes false and positively misleading. Still greater is
the danger when the things analogically brought together
belong not at all to the same natural clas-scs, but the
resemblance is only in some internal relation of each to
another thing of its own kind; as when, for example, under
the name of motives, particular states of pund (feelings,
&c.) are supposed to determine the action of a man, as the
motion of a body may be determined by a composition of
forces. In such cases there may be nothing to prevent the
drawing of a good analogy upon a strictly limited issue ;
nay, there may even sometimes, in special circumstances,
bo ground for drawing an inductive conclusion ; but gene-
rally the elements of difference are so nnmerons, and their
import either so hard to appreciate, or, when appreci-
able, so decisive in a sense opposite to the conclusion
aimed at, that to leave them out of sight and argue with-
out reference to them, as the mind is tempted to do, vitiates
the whole proceeding. What is not' sufficient for analogy
may, however, be good as metaphor, and metaphor is of
no small use for expository purposes; while (as Mill says),
though it is not an argument, it may imply that an argu-
ment exists.
■ The sense just mentioned of a resemblance of relations
suggests the question how far the common argument from
analogy and mathematically determinate proportion, which
was originally called by the name, are cognate processes.
Undoubtedly the common argument, proceeding npon
resemblance in the properties of things, can be made to
assume roughly the guise of a proportion, — e.^., Earth :
Mars : : Men : Mars-dwellers, or Earth : Men = Mars : Mars-
dwellers, thefact of planetary nature, or other resembling
attributes gone upon, being regarded as common exponent.
Less easy is it to interpret a determinate proportion, with
numerical equality of ratios, as analogy in the common
sense; for here the very detorminateness makes all the
difference.
The name analogy is so suggestive to English readers of
Bishop Butler's famous treatise, that a word, in conclusion,
seems called for on the nature and scope of the particidar
application of the process made by him. His work is
entitled T?ie Analogy of Religion, Natitral a,nd lleveaUd,
to the Gonstitution and Course of Nature, and consists in
an attempt to convince deists that there are no difficulties
urged against revelation, or the system of natural religion,
which do not bear with equal force against the order of
nature as determined by Providenca "The argtunent is a
perfectly fair one within the limits assigned, and Butlet
must be allowed the credit of very well apprehending the
logical coaditiozis involved in it. In his introduction he
understates rather than overstates the strength of his pos^
A N A — A N A
793
tion; for, on the assumption that the system of nature and
the system of religion must both spring from one causal
source, his argument acquires rather an inductive cha-
racter. Accordingly, it is interesting to see how, in con-
nection with his sense of analogy, he practically raises, in
h'w Introduction, the question which the general theory of
inductive logic, as now understood, has first to consider,
—the question, namely, "whence it proceeds that likeness
thould beget that presumptive opinion and full conviction
which the human mind is formed to receive from it ; "
though ho would not take it upon him to say " how far
the extent, compass, and force of analogical reasoning can
be reduced to general heads and rules, and the whole be
formed into a system." (g. c. e.)
ANALOGY, in Comparative Anatomy, is equivalent to
" similarity of function." See Anatomy.
ANALYSIS means literally, in the Greek, an unloosen-
ing or breaking-np, understood of anything complex in
which simpler constituents or elements may thus be brought
to view. It is this general sense that must be supposed to
have been present to the mind of Aristotle when he gave
the name of Analytica to the great logical work in which
he sought to break up into its elements the complex pro-
cess of reasoning ; as, accordingly, in the body of the work
{Anal. Prior. L 32), we find him once using the verb
" analyse " of arguments, when they are to bo presented in
" figure," or brought to the ultimate formal expression in
which they can best be tested or understood. Obviously
any more special sense that may be ascribed to the process
of analysis must vary with the kind of complex to be
resolved. Mental states, material substances, motions of
bodies, relations of figures, are but a few examples of the
complex things or subjects that fall to be analysed, if there
is to be any scientific comprehension of them. Nor is it
only that the analysis will be into constituents differing
from each other as much as the complex subjects differ ;
fur the same subject may be analysed in different ways,
and with very different results, according to the particular
aspect in which it is considered. Hence it becomes im-
possible,- or at least very difficult, to describe the process in
any terms fitting equally all the variety of its applications.
It is from taking stand by some particular application, and
either overlooking all others, or trying to force them within
the frame of the one, that different writei's have given such
discrepant accounts of the process — discrepant often to the
extent of being mutually exclusive. The express object of
the present article will, on the contrary, be to give an un-
prejudiced view of the diflferent appUcaiions of analysis in
science, that one being first and most prominently put for-
ward which was earliest recognised and practised, namely,
mathematical analysis. The other applications, selected
for their representative character, will, as they follow,
naturally suggest the consideration how far the difference
of matter in the various sciences tends to modify the nature
of the process which is called analysis in alL
By the side of Analysis, at the different stages, we shall
at the same time treat of the related process called, after
the Greek, Synthesis, which means a putting together or
Compounding. If analysis and synthesis were merely re-
Lited to each other as mutually inverse processes, exposi-
tory convenience alone might be pleaded in favour of the
parallel treatment; but the two are in practice often em-
Liloyed as strictly complementary processes, in support of
each other on the same occasion ; or, in other words, the com-
position in synthesis may bo a direct re-composition of the
principles or elements then and there got out by analysis.
As a matter of course, therefore, the foregoing general
remarks apply also to synthesis, especially the remark as
to the modifying effect of difference in the subject-matter
worked with.
L Mathematical Analysis and Synthesis. — In the Ele-
ments of Euclid, containing so many examples of geometri-
cal propositions variously established, there is a scholion
near the beginning of Book XIIL which distinguishes,
two general methods for the treatment of particular
questions, under the names of Analysis and Synthesis. In
analysis, it is said, the thing sought is taken ior granted,
and consequences are deduced from it which lead to some
truth recognised; synthesis, on the other hand, starts from
that which is recognised, and deduces consequences there-
from, till the thing sought is arrived at. With more detail,
but some wavering in his use of terms. Pappus of Alex
andria (about 380 A.D.) describes the two processes at the
beginiung of Book \LL of his Matliematical ColUclions.
He appears, however, to regard synthesis not at all as an in-
dependent process to be applied alternatively with analysis
for the solution of particular questions (which is the view
suggested by Euclid), but rather as a complementary pro-
cess bound up with the use of analysis. These are his
words : " In synthesis, pjitting forward as done the thing
arrived at as ultimate result in the way of analysis, and
disposing now in a natural order as antecedents what were
consequents in the analysis, we put them together, and
finaUy come at the construction of the thing sought." The
two processes are involved together in what he calls the
To'iros dyoAvo/itvos, or, as we may call it, one general Method
of Analysis, the use of which for the solution of problems,
he says, has to be learned after the Elements, having been
developed by Euclid himself, ApoUonius of Perga, and
Aristjeus the elder. In a similar sense, Robert Simson,
its modern editor, speaking of the Euclidean book of Data,
calls it " the first in order of the books written by the
ancient geometers to facilitate and promote the method of
resolution or analysis." Beyond Euclid, however, the
invention of the method was carried back by the tradition
of antiquity to Plato. The philosopher, whom we know
to have been an ardent student of geometry, and otherwise
a discoverer in the science, is said by Diogenes Laertius
(III. i. 19), to have devised the method for one Leodamas,
and is further said by Proclus {Comm. in EucL, ed. Basil,
p. 58) to have made much use of it himself. Though the
report is a loose one, it may well be that this method of
analysis was first expressly formulated by the theoretic
genius of Plato, especially in view of a passage (Eih.
yicom. iii 5) in Aristotle, which has not been sufficiently
noticed, showing that in lus time, before Euclid was born,
it was cnrrently employed by geometricians. Aristotle
there compares the gradually regressive process of thought,
whereby the means of effecting a practical end is discovered,
to the? mathematical way of inquiry upon a diagram, re-
marking of both that the last stage in the analysis (avaXicru)
is the first in the production or construction (yneorii).
However surprising it may be thought that Aristotle in
his logical works makes so little of a process which thus
must have been familiar to him, the fact that it waa
familiar carries it back at least to the time 9f Plato. In
truth it must have been practised earlier stiU, from the
very beginnings of scientific geometry, though it may have
had to wait some time to be formulated.
Taking analysis and synthesis, thus defined, either as
distinct processes or as conjoined in one method, called
analyticiJ, we have next to see how they were brought to
bear by the ancients in treating geometrical questions.
Propositions such as those contained in the Elements fall
into two classes with respect to the form of their enuncia-
tion, namely, theorems and problems. The distinction was
not marked by Euclid himself, nor is it in any sense radi- .
cal, for either kind of proposition may easily be trans-
formed into the expression of the other; but, as commonly
accepted, it amounts to this — that a tbeoreoi.is given cut
L — loo
794
ANALYSIS
as an aasertiou to be accepted, and has to be shown true ;
a problem ia given out as an act to bo done, and has to la
shown possible. In the case of a theorem, Euclid accord-
ingly, after enunciating the proposition, proceeds generaUy
to show, with more or less of construction on a particular
diagram, and working always with fixed definitions, that
the assertion follows deductively from certain truths, either
assumed as evident (axioms), or formerly proved therefrom,
and seen to bo applicable to the present case by inspection
of the figure as constructed. The grounding propositions
are allowed by the reader as they are brought forward,
though he may for the moment have not the least idea
whither the author is tending, and at the end the con-
clusion is accepted, because the auccessivo premises,
being allowed, have been combined logically. In the ca.te
of a problem, after an express construction for which no
reason is given, the object is to show that what has been
brought to pass really supplies what was sought ; but the
procedure is not different from what it was in the case of a
theorem, because the object is attained by showing again
that certain truths allowed, in their particular application
to the figure constructed, involve as a conclusion some
relation which the figure is seen to exhibit. Now if this
18 Euclid's procedure in general — there is an exception,
afterwards to be noted, where he proves his point in-
directly— it is undeniably synthetic, in any meaning that
can be ascribed to that term, the result being obtained by
a massing or combining of elements or conditions. But
on Euclid's part the process ia one of demonstration, not of
discovery. StilJ less is the reader's mind La the attitude of
discovery: he is led on to a result which is indeed indicated,
but by a way which he does not know, and, as it were, blind-
fold. There must, however, have been discovery before there
could be such demonstration -, or how should the proposi-
tion admit of definite enunciation at the beginning? Thus
there is, in the background, an earlier question of procedure
ur method, and it is this that the ancient geometricians had
chiefly in view when speaking of analysis and synthesis.
No\f, some propositions are so simple that they must
have been seen into almost as soon as conceived, and con-
ceived as soon as the human mind began to bo directed
to the consideration of forms or figures ; in which case
no method of discovery, to speak of, can have been
necessary. There is, again, another class of propositions,
more complex though still simple, which probably were
established by a process of straightforward synthesis. An
inquirer must have in his head some knowledge in the
shape of principles more or less fixed, or he would not be
an inquirer ; and either the accidental combination of such
principles may lead in his mind to particular results, or
the first time a particular question suggests itself to him, it
may be seen at once to involve, or to follow from, certain of
the principles. Many propositions in the Ulements, giving
the most apparent properties of triangles, circles, ifec, it
can hardly be doubted, were arrived at by this way of dis-
lovery, even when a more elaborate process of synthesis
was employed for their formal demonstration ; as, for ex-
ample, in the case of the famous fifth proposition of Book
I. But the same process of direct composition (understood
always as joined with inspection) is no longer applicable,
or is not effective, when the question is of less obvious
properties, or of construction to be made under special
conditions. To discover the fact or the feasibiUty in such
cases is so much the real difficulty, that the question of
demonstration becomes of merely secondary importance.
And there is even a still prior question of discovery; for it
has to be determined that some points' rather than others
should be made the subject of express inquiry. This, how-
ever, may be left aside. To aoy one engaged in geometri-
cal inquiry, in the constant inspection of figures for the
understanding of their properties and mutual relations,
questions must incessantly be occurring — eo incfissantly and
inevitably that it is needless, if it were not vain, to seek
oul a reason for the particular suggestions. As in all
discovery to the last, so more especially at the firtt
stages, there is an element of instinctive tact in the mind's
action which eludes expression ; and there is also as
element of what might be called chance, were it not thjt
those only get the benefit of it who arc consciously on the
look-out, cither generally or in some special direction. A
particular question being started by whatsoever suggestion,
bow shall the mind arrive at certain knowledge regarding
it ? Such, practically, is the form which is assumed ty
geometrical inquiry
Besides the thing souglit there is nothing else given, or it
least there is nothing else immediately given or suggestco'.
But the mind is supposed to have some knowledge pertain-
ing to the matter — though not extending to the particolai
aspect of it — in question, also some knowledge of such mat-
ters generally. In such circumstances the aim of the inquirer
must bo to bring what is sought into some definite relation
with what is known. Direct composition or aynthssia of
the known, with more or less of construction, if it led to
that which is sought as a result, would determine the re-
lation for the inquirer, and determine it in like manner for
all who allow the principles whence the conclusion is logi-
cally deduced, being thus at one stroke both discovery and
demonstration. But synthesis, arbitrarily made, as it must
be where the question is at all difficult, may fail, however
often it is attempted. Without a proper start it avails
nothing ; and what is to determine the start 1 There
is always one course open. Let the objective itself
be made the starting-point, and let it be seen whether
thence it may not be possible by some continuous route to
get upon known ground. In other words, a thing sought,
when itself assumed, may admit of being brought into re-
lation, upon some aide or other, with the body of ascertained
knowledge. If it can be so brought, through whatever
number of steps, there is then attained as a result what
before it was impossible to light upon as a beginning ; and
now nothing hinders from making the start originally
desired, and from reaching as a proper conclusion the
assumed beginning, if the path struck out before is mea-
sured over again in the opposite direction. The course
thus becomes once more synthetic, but only because of
what was first accomplished. Till the point in question
was made to yield up its own secret by a process fitly
celled analysis or resolution, nothing certain could be
determined. At the analytic stage, however, the line taken
m.ay be twofold. The proposition, assumed at starting aa
something definite to work from, cither may be held aa
following deductively from soma other, which again ia
dependent on still another or others, till one is worked up
to that is known to be true ; or it may be taken as itseU
a premiss leading deductively to some other proposition,
which in turn, by one or more steps, leads to a true pro-
position as conclusion. In either case the implication is
that a proposition must itself be true, if by any line of
formally correct logic it leads to a proposition known to be
true. And though the expression must bo modified for
questions in the form Of problems, requiring something to be
done — to which form of question, indeed, the analytic pro-
cess is peculiarly applicable — »lie point of logical principle
remains there exactly the same.
But is the process, thus stated aa it was understood by
the ancient geometricians, logically valid J In the first of
the two alternative forms, it is valid : the proposition
assumed at starting will undoubtedly be true, if a proposi-
tion on which it ia shown to be ultimately dependent ia
true. At the same time, there is in this case no guarantee
ANALYSIS
795
that the most effective line for establishing it has been taken,
in view of the well-known logical principle that the same
conclusion may follow from dififerent premisses. In the other
form of the process, where the proposition assumed is itself
used as a premiss, the case as to validity is otherwise. As
Aristotle first clearly apprehended and showed, it is quite
possible to reach a (materially) true conclusion by strict
logical deduction from premisses either one or both false ;
and thus the mere fact that the proposition assumed is
found, in combination with others, to lead to a conclusion
known to be true, does nothing to establish its own char-
acter. Yet although the process of analysis thus carried
out by way of deduction, as formulated by Euclid and (in
one of his expressions) by Pappus, is theoretically faulty,
through neglect or ignorance of Aristotle's observation, the
practice of Euclid is not therefore invalidated. It was his
habit, as Pappus also enjoins, to follow up the analysis by
a synthesis consisting in a reversal of it, and this would
effectively get rid of error ; since the result of the analysis,
if it did not follow from the assumed premiss by true im-
plication, but only accidentally, could not itself, when in
turn used as a premiss for the synthesis, be made to yield
the original proposition as a legitimate conclusion. In
order, however, to validate this form of analysis it is not
necessary to resort to the laborious expedient of retracing
the whole path synthetically. As Duhamel, in his treatise
Dm Mkhodes dans les Sciences de Raisonnement (pt. L c. 5),
has pointed out, it is enough if, at the different stages of
the deduction, the inquirer assures himself, as he easily
may do where it is the fact, that there is perfedt " reci-
procity " among the propositions successively obtained from
the one first assumed ; meaning that, in the circumstances
of the deduction, each may as well follow from the one
coming after as it is fitted to yield that. And the same
simple expedient suffices equally to obviate the less grave
defect above noted in analysis carried out by regression
from consequents to conditions, or conclusions to premises ;
reciprocity, if it can be made out here . at the different
stages, will guarantee the exclusive validity of the line of
reasoning taken. So may analysis become perfectly inde-
pendent as a method of discovery, and give as much in-
sight as synthesis, where this is directly applicable, does ;
while it is — what synthesis is not directly — applicable to
every kind of question, however complex.
It is unnecessary, for the purposes of the present article,
to enter further into details respecting the methods anciently
practised in geometry. Let it suffice to mention only the
method of indirect proof known as reductio ad absurdum,
employed sometimes by Euclid in the Elements. This con-
forms to the type of analysis in that it starts from the
question to be determined, though it is peculiar in follow-
ing out, not the assumption itself, but what is thereby sug-
gested as excluded, with the final result that the point in
question is established upon the ruin of every other sup-
Jiosition. It is a method of discovery as well as a method
of demonstration ; while the previous argument has shown
that analysis, directly practised, may be made a method of
demonstration by itself, besides being the most potent
and unfailing instrument of discovery. Also it was seen
before that synthesis may be a method of discovery, though
it is more frequently employed as a method of demonstra-
tion in sequence upon discovery by analysis. To insist
thus upon the double character alike of analysis and syn-
thesis, as practised in geometry, is of vital importance, be-
cause of the change in application which the terms have
undergone among mathematicians. In modem times
analysis has come to mean the employment of the alge-
bfaical and higher calculus, and synthesis any direct treat-
ment of the properties of geometrical figures, in the manner
of the ancients, without the use of algebraical notation and
transformations. The excuse for the change lies in the
fact that, while the Greeks had only extremely undeveloped
means of analysis, they gave the highest possible finish and
exactness to their synthetic demonstrations of geometrical
propositions, seldom being «ontent to let their discoveries
rest upon the ground of that analysis by which they were
made. But though it has this excuse or motive, the change
involves a misunderstanding, as all mathematicians allow
who have turned their minds seriously to consider the
rationale of their practice. It is, in the first place, clear
that only by the process described above, rightly called
analysis, can anything be determined about the more com-
plex properties and relations of geometrical figures ; hap-
hazard synthesis is of no avail The ancients therefore,
in their geometry, had an analysis. It is next to be re-
marked that the algebraical solution of problems is not so
exclusively analytic in character that it may not in simplo
cases assume the form of direct (algebraical) synthesis ; and
in all cases, for verification, it admits of being followed
up by an exposition that is truly synthetic. The moderns,
therefore, in their calculus, are not without their synthesis.
Furthermore, the ancients, however little progress they
made, comparatively speaking, in the general science of
calculation, and however their special methods for the
resolution of geometrical questions, even as involving direct
figured construction, still more as applying calculation, fell
short of the variety and pUabiUty of modern devices, yet
had their own analytical weapons, though they cannot be
specified here. For our present purpose it is equally un-
necessary to enter into details as regards the modem
devices; whether belonging to the lower or higher ana-
lysis, or as regards the principle for applying them de-
veloped by Descartes and his successors ; but to arrogate
for these exclusively the name of analysis, it cannot be
too pointedly declared, is to lose sight of the end in the
means.
n. Chemical Analysis and Synthesis. — After mathe-
matics, chemistry is the science in which application has
most expressly been made of processes termed analysis
and synthesis. In physics, regarded as the science of
motion, whether abstractly taken or as manifested actually
in natural bodies, the application is universal ; the resolu-
tion and composition of velocities, motions, and forces
being fundamental processes pervading the whole science
uiider all variety of circumstances. There is nothing,
however, in such an employment of analysis and synthesis
that is not easily intelligible in the light of the processes
as practised either in the more general science of mathe-
matics, dealing with relations of quantity in number and
form, or in the more special science of chemistry, which
deals with those characteristic qualities of actual bodies for
which no definite expression in terms of motion can be
found.'
The concrete substances in nature are found to be such
that some by no means in our power can be brought to
anything simpler, wldle others can be broken up into con-
stituents differing in character from the original substanoos
and also among themselves. Hence a division is made of
bodies into elements and compounds; elements being all
such bodies, not farther reducible, as are either actually
found in nature, or, though not so found, have emerged in
the manipulation of actual bodies; compounds, all such as,
being actually found, are reducible to two or more different
elements, or have by artificial combination been constituted.
The process of reduction to elements is called analysis;
the process of re-combination or free combination is called
synthesis. When the analysis is carried out simply with
the view of detecting what elements are present in a sub-
stance, it is called qualitative; and quantitative, if with
the further view of dcterminini' the definite proportions
796
ANALYSIS
Sjy weight) in wliicli the constituents are present in a
efinite quantity of the aubstanco. There are corrcsuoud-
ing varieliea of ayiitliesis.
Now here the subject-matter is so manifestly diiTeront
from what it is in mathematics, that it is idle to look for
exact correspondence in the processes practised under tlie.
same names within the two sciences. In fact, however, the
correspondence is greater than may at first sight appear.
Chemical analysis of a given substance is a process of dis-
loovcry real and actual, like the analysis of a mathematical
problem, and proceeds similarly by taking what is given,
and working with it in relation to other substances, to see
whether it can bo made to yield up aught that is hlready
known, or may be regarded as fixed and certain. Again,
just as mathematical synthesis may be a process of inven-
tion, either generally, by way of combination of principles,
or sometimes specially, in reference to particular questions,
80 does chemical synthesis give a knowledge of new forms
of matter, or haply solve the question as to the constitution
of particular substances in hand. Once more, the relation
of analysis and synthesis as two complementary phases
of one process (instead of their being regarded as two
processes) ia exhibited as plainly in chemistry as in mathe-
matics. It may seem to be exliibited even more impres-
sively, when the very constituents got out by analysis of a
substance are used in the synthesis to give it being again.
This circumstance, however, b far from giving to the
science of chemistry a character of evidence superior to
that of mathematics: its inferiority in this respect is but
too well marked, and has a reason that at the' same time
explains what else is peculiar in its application of analysis
aijd synthesis. The chemist deals with things, known
only by experience, and connected by way of physical
causation ; true, they are things with which he can freely
experiment — and this gives to chemistry a prerogative
character among the natural sciences — but the things are
taken as they are found, and experience is constantly dis-
closing in each new attributes which have simply to be
accepted, at least in the present state of our knowledge,
by the side of the others. On the contrary, the mathe-
matician deals with things over which he has full power
of construction, and whose relations in. the fact of con-
structing ho constitutes, whether they are internal or ex-
ternal relations. But positive construction carries with it
an insight which is wanting in experiment, be the physical
conditions ever so favourable ; and thus analysis and
synthesis have in mathematics, along with perfect freedom
of scope, a determinateness far surpassing anything that is
attainable in chemistry.
III. Psychological Analysis and Synthesis. — Passing for
the next signal application of analysis from the world
of matter to mind, we have here a subject which more
perhaps than any other calls for an exercise of the pro-
cess in order to be scientifically understood. Physical
things in their superficial relations lie to a great extent
oj-en to direct apprehension, and, whatever deeper connec-
tions there may be to be traced out among things the most
remote in their nature as apprehended, yet the fact of their
separation in space involved in our perception of them
is already something done, leaving the scientific function
(analytic and synthetic) to be exercised chiefly in the
attempt to comprehend them. Very different is the state
of affairs ju mind, where everything, as it were, runs
or melts into everything else. Even to lay hold of par-
ticular mental phenomena, with a view to the explanation
of them, implies already an express scientific attitude,
which must be called analytic.
Particular mental states being supposed to be got, with
such definiteness of apprehension (always mora or less
uuporfect) as the si'bject-matter admits of, the business of
the psychologist becomes mibstantially one with that of iht
physical inquirer. Accordingly, it is often urged that com-
plex mental states conform to the two types of mechanical
and chemical composition, in the sense that some are to
be resolved after the manner of complex phenomena of
motion, and others by a process analogous to that cm-
ployed in chemistry for the qualities of concrete substances.
The analogy, however, especially in the second class of
states, is decidedly loose. Psychological phenomena of
cognition or emotion, held to bo developed, under general
mental laws, out of simpler states of sense, resemble chemi-
cal compounds only in having a character unlike that of
any of the elements that go to make tliem; in particular,
they do not admit of that actual resolution into their
elements which lends so much evidence to the processes of
chemistry. The realm of nature supplies a far apter ana-
logy in the phenomena of organic growth, more especially
as mental states do, in fact, stand in direct relation with
states of the bodily organism. It is as impossible lo make
an actual analysis or synthesis of the physiological complex
of life as of the p.sychological complex of mind; and it
is only more difficult (the phenomena being undoubtedly
more recondite and fluctuating^ to i>ractise experiments in
psychology than in physiology. But, at all events, there
is no new principle involved in the scientific treatment
of mind; nor again in the treatment of moral and social
questions, for an insight into which psychological know-
ledge is indispen.sable.
IV. Lofjical Analysis and Synthesis. — To logic, taken
in its widest sense as the methodology of all science, it
belongs to appreciate the general import of all such applica-
tions of analysis and synthesis as have now been considered.
There remains, however, a special variety which is itself
entitled logical analysis and synthesis, and which has the
more carefully to be distinguished from the other heads,
because it stands in an opposition to them all.
Logical analysis is the same process as that which is
otherwise caOed metaphysical division. {The process called
logical division is different. See LoGicand Division.) Given,
say, a concrete subject like man, this may be divided
physically into a number of parts in space, or, as a concept,
metaphysically into a number of qualities or attributes, —
metaphysically, because none of these has an independent
subsisttnce or physical existence apart. They are distin-
gviished in the way of mental consideration, or, as it is
technically called, abstraction; and, this being a thoughts
process or logical act, the resolution of the given complex
into such conceptual elements gets the name also of
logical analysis. The corresponding act of synthesis pro-
ceeds by the way that is technically called determination;
thus the general concept man, to take the traditional
example, has the attribute of rational joined to the attri-
butes of animal, or is determined by that addition, and
much else has to be added in a similar way before the par-
ticular concrete can be determined.
Now it is evident that such analysis and synthesis have
an application to any kind of thought that the mind can
conceive; and thus logicians, in meaning, as they have
commonly done, nothing more by the names, have sig-
nalised processes that are in truth of no small "account for
knowledge in general. There is no kind of scientific
inquiry, strictly so called, and whatever be its scope and
method, that does not involve at all stages from the first
such analysis or abstract mental consideration. Nay, it
may be said that science, as opposed to the natural experi-
ence of things, or to the artistic interest which centres
upon fully bodied-out concretes, is analysis in this pre-
sent sense, everywhere breaking up to find community of
character iinder the mask of superficial diiTerenee, and sift-
ing oat the one from the many. But when logicians, not
A N A — A N A
797
disregarding the various applied metbodr. of the real
sciences, or consciously escluding them as lying beyond the
province of pure logic, would seek to reduce all scientific
procedure to this kind of mental action, the attempt implies
a deep misapprehension. It is one thing for the mind to
have its subject of inquiry dearly and sharply defined
apart from what else is given therewith, or again to have
its existing knowledge always well in hand and sifted out
to the uttermost; it is another thing for the mind to be
making advances, to be passing out from the known to the
unknown, or labouring to bring the unknown into relation
with that which is known already. Condillac is the thinker
who has most expressly made the attempt to bring all
scientific method back to the conception of mere logical
analysis, repeating it everywhere throughout his works.
The sixteenth chapter o* his unfinished treatise, the
Langue des Calculs, may especially be noted in this
respect; the more because he there endeavours to justify
his developed expression for the procedure of all science —
that it consists in a continued substitution of identical pro-
positions— by the actual solution of an algebraical problem.
Simple, however, though the instance chosen is, he fails
to make good his view, appearing to Drove it only by
leaving out the step of critical moment
To analysis and synthesis in the specially logical sense
is undoubtedly related the distinction that logicians have
made of analytic and synthetic method. Without stepping
beyond the bounds of logic conceived as a formal doctrine,
a fourth department, under the name of Method or Dis-
posing, may be added to the three departments regularly
assigned — Conceiving (Simple Apprehension), Judging,
Reasoning; and this would consider how reasonings, when
employed continuously upon any matter whatever, should
bg set forth to produce their combined effect upon the mind.
The question is formal, being one of mere exposition, and
concerns the teacher in relation to the learner. How
should results, attained by continuous reasoning, be set
before the mind of a learner 1 .Upon a line representing
the course by which they were actually wrought out 1 Or
always in the fixed order of following from express prin-
ciples to which preliminary assent is required 1 If the
latter, all teaching becomes synthetic, and follows a pro-
jjressive route from principles to conclusions, even when
discovei-y (supposing discovery foregone) was made by
analysis or regression to principles; of which expository
inethod no better illustration could be given than the
practice of Euclid in the demonstrations of his Elements.
On the other hand, it may be said that the line of dis-
covery is itself the line upon which the truth about any
question can best be expounded or understood, for the
same reason that was found successful in discovery,
namely, that the mind (now of the learner) has before it
something quite definite and specific .to start from ; upon
which view, the method of exposition should be analytic
or regressive to principles, at least wherever the discovery
took that route. The blending of both methods, where
possible, is doubtless most effective; otherwise it depends
upon circumstances — chiefly the character of the learner,
but also the nature of the subject in respect of com-
plexity— which should be preferred, when one alone is
followed.
The question of prime logical, or general, importance
remaining is to determine the relation of . Analysis and
Synthesis as methods of real science, to the ground-processes
of all reasoning, known since the days of Aristotle under
the names of Induction and Deduction. Much difference
of opinion has been expressed on this subject, not only
because of the want of agreement as to what should bo
called analvais and synthesis, but alio because of mora
fundamental disagreement regarding tha nature cf the
inductive and deductive processes.
It was remarked before as somewhat surprising, that
Aristotle himself did not more expressly consider the
relation, when we have seen that he was famihar with the
process of geometrical analysis, under the very name. The
distinction, however, upon which he lays so much stress
throughout his works, between knowledge from principles,
prior or better known by nature, and knowledge of or from
facts, prior in experience or relatively to us, has generally
been understood to imply a connection of synthesis with
deduction, of analysis with induction; so much so indeed,
that synthetic and deductive method, analytic and induc-
tive method, have come to bo used respectively almost as
interchangeable terms. Nor, although Sir William
Hamilton seems to wish to reverse the usual association of
the terms, when he calls induction a purely synthetic pro-
cess, and declares it to be erroneously viewed as analytic
(Metaphysks, i. p. 102), is he really at variance with the
other authorities ; his observation having a special reference
which the others also might allow. But any such asso-
ciation seems to rest upon a misconception, not to be
laid to the charge of Aristotle himself. In the sense of
analysis and synthesis for which it is important to deter-
mine the relation, namely, when they are taken as the
means of real discovery in science, the true view rather is
that they are the different methods in which reasoning,
whether inductive or deductive, must be applied for dis-
covering truth in the form of special or particular ques-
tions. Analysis, as well as synthesis, may proceed by way
of deduction, as we have seen in the process of mathe-
matics; on the other hand, synthesis as applied in chemistry
is as much an inductive act, being strictly experimental,
as anything could well be. Induction and deduction are
concerned about the relation of the particular and general
in thought; analysis and synthesis about the relation of
the knoivn and the unknown. The two points of view are
of course related to each other : analysis and synthesia,
as practised by the human mind, either for purposes ci
science or in the affairs of life, cannot be worked 'excect
under those highest laws of the relation between the par-
ticular and general in thought which Aristotle's genius ur:,t
was able to extract from the instinctive practice of humaa
reason. But whether the proces.ses are applied singly, or,
for greater assurance, conjointly, it depends upon tho
matter of the inquiry under which laws — those of induc-
tion or those of deduction — they shall be worked; and in
any case there is implied a peculiar intellectual attitude
different from that of mere formal reasoning- It is the
difference between the act of finding out and proving. If
it should ever become possible to develop a logic of Dis-
covery, it must consist in the formulation of the processes
of Analysis and Synthesis, conceived in the general sense
attributed to them in the foregoing article. (o. c. E.)
ANALYTIC JUDGMENTS have been distinguished
under that name, in opposition to Synthetic, since the time
of Kant. It was necessary, for the purposes of his critical
inquiry into the principles of human knowledge, that he
should carefuUy determine the character of those assertions
which metaphysicians had so freely made respecting the
supernatural, and he found them to bo such that, while
the predicate was added on to the subject, not involved in
it, the connection was affirmed as necessary and universal.
He therefore called them, as well as other assertions of like
character in mathematics and pure physics, synthetic judg-
ments (X priori, and the aim of his critical inquiry came to
be tho determining of the conditions under which such
judgments were possible. Now, as differing from these, he
noted two classes of judgments: (1), such as in the predi-
cate added indeed to the ci^ntxint of the subject, but only
798
A N A — A N A
empirically, a.s, for example, Bodiea have weight, and thew
ho called synthetic d poiCeriori; (2), such as were indeed
necessary and universal, but added nothing to the content
of the subject, as, fur example, Bodies are extended, and
these ho called analytic.
The general distinction of analytic and synthetic judg-
ments has a value apart from the specific character of those
(synthetic) judgments in which Kaut was most interested,
and for the sake of which mainly it was fixed by him.
Trained in the metaphysics of the Leibnitzo-WolfEan school,
which marked off necessary judgments from ihose of simple
fact without considering the kinds of necessity, Kant, when
he came, by the route that can bo traced in his earlier
works, to apprehend the difference between merely logical
analysis and real synthesis in thought, applied it almost
exclusively to those judgments for which a character of
necessity was claimed. ■ He therefore noticed traces of the
distinction in other thinkers, as Locke, only in so far as
there was a suggestion also of this special reference. In
truth, tho general distinction, under a variety of expres-
sions, was familiar to both Ilume and Locke, and it had
already been drawn by the ancienta Tho old doctrine of
the Predicables, in distinguishing the essential predication
of genus, species, and difference from the non-essential
predication of property and accident, plainly involves it;
making besides, as between tho last two predicables, a
distinction which is very closely related to that drawn
by Kant between the a priori and a posteriori synthetic.
From the nominalistic point of view it is expressed by the
difference of Verbal and Real propositions, as in Mill's
Logic, and also often in Locke.
While tho synthetic judgment, as the name implies,
brings together in thought two distinct concepts, each of
which may be thought apart, the analytic judgment is
merely the explication of a single concept in the form of a
propositiotL It is disputed what may be the ground of
synthesis in different cases, but on all hands it is agreed
that the logical Law of Contradiction is the controlling prin-
ciple for the explication of concepts already in the mind,
however they may have come there. Now the explication
may be made either completely or partially, according as
the whole or part only of the inteosion of the concept is set
forth: in other words, the aim may be to give tho definition
(where, in tho full sense, that is possible), or simply to
express any one or more of the contained attributes. Pro-
positions giving such partial explication are spoken of by
Locke as " trifling;" and it is true that, if the concept is
Bupposed already in tho mind, no increase of knowledge is
thereby obtained. This word, however, is unfortunate.
Not to say that it is equally applicable to definitions, where
the explication is only more complete, it tends to keep out
of view the fact that analytic judgments, when not arbi-
trarily formed, are themselves — or rather the concepts, of
which they are the explications, are — the permanent result
or deposit of foregone real synthesis. So much, indeed, is
this the tase with concepts of things in nature — what Mill
calls natural kinds — that in them a constant process -of
accretion is going on ; new attributes, as they are discovered,
being taken up into the essence, if they are at the same
time characteristic and underived. Much also that is
mere explication to one mind is real information to another.
The terms Analytic and Synthetic, thus applied to judg-
ments, are so expressive in themselves that they have now
come into general use. It is, however, a serious drawback
to such an association of the terms, that it traverses what
is otherwise the consistent use of tho words analysis and
synthesis in relation to each other. As the article Ajjalysis
has shown, there is a synthesis which, as much as any
analysis, is purely logical, and there is an analysis which,
as much as any synthesis, is a means of real advance in
knowledge. The terms Explicative (Erlduterungiurtheile)
and Ampliative (Erweittrungturtkeile), also employed by
Kant, while not less expressive, are open to no such objec-
tion, (o. o, E.)
A NAM, oir Annam, also caUed Cochin China, a large
empire of Asia, forming tho eastern portion of the Indo-
Chinese peninsula. See Cochin China.
ANASTASIUS I., Emperor of Constantinople, wax
born at Dyrrhachium not later than 430 a.d. At the
time of the death of Zeno (491), Anastasius, though only
one of the guards (silenliarii) in the palace, held a very
high character, and was raised to the throne of the Roman
empire of the East, mainly through the influence of Ariadne,
Zeno's widow, whom ho married shortly after his accession.
His reign, though afterwards disturbed by foreign and
intestine wars and religious distractions, commenced aus-
piciously. He gained the popular favour by a judicious
remission of taxation, and displayed great vigour and
energy in administering the affairs of the empire. Tho
principal wars in which Anastasius was engaged were
those known as the Isaurian and the Persian. The former
(492-8) was stirred up by the supporters of Longinus,
tho brother of Zeno, and resulted in Anastasius's favour;
in the latter (502-5) he was signally defeated, but tho
provinces the Persians had won from him were restored
on payment of a ransom. He also suffered defeat at tho
hands of th« Goths of Italy, to check whose incursions he
built tho " Anaatasian wall," extending from the Propontis
to the Euxine. For the support he gave to the Eutychians,
Anastasius was anathematised by Pope Symmachus. The
latter years of his reign were troubled by revolts in Con-
stantinople, excited by his avarice and by his reputed
heretical tendencies. He died in 518.
ANASTASIUS II., Emperor, whose original name was
Artemius, was raised to the throne of Constantinople by
tho voice of tho senate and people in 713 a.d., on the
deposition of Philippicus, whom ho had served in tho
capacity of secretary. His territories being threatened
both by sea and land, ho sent an army under Leo tho
Isaurian, afterwards emperor, to defend Syria ; adopted
wise and resolute measures for the defence of his capital;
and equipped and despatched a formidable naval force,
with orders not only to resist the approach of the enemy,
but to destroy their naval stores. The fleet mutinied at
Rhodes, and proclaimed Theodosius, a person of low ex-
traction, emperor. After a six months' reign, Constanti-
nople was taken by Theodosius; and Anastasius, who had
fled to Nicaea, was compelled to submjt to the new emperor,
and, retiring to Thessalonica, became a monk (716). In 721
ho headed a revolt against Leo, who had succeeded Theodo-
sius, and receivingaconsiderableamountof support, laid siege
to Constantinople; but the enterprise failed, and Anastasius
falling into Leo's hands, was put to death by his orders.
ANATHEMA (dvafle/ia, from avaTiB-qin, lit. anything
offered up) is frequently used in classic Greek (in tho form
aydBrjfjia) to denote things consecrated to the gods, and
deposited in a temple. In the LXX. it is the equivalent of
the Hebrew o-in^ which denotes an offering devoted to God
absolutely, and therefore, in the case of a living creature,
put to death. The idea of destruction or perdition thus
became associated with the word, which gradually lost its
primary sense of consecration. In the New Testament it
signifies separated from the church and accorsed, and it
became the technical term for a form of excommunication
at an early date.
ANATOLIA (from afaroXij, the east;, a name first
used under tho Byzantine empire for the country east
of tho Bosphorus. In the form Ajiadoti, it denotes a
modem Turkish division almost coincident with Asia
MiNOB, j.w.
799
ANATOMY
ANATOMY fAiaTo/iij) means in its literal sense the dis-
section or separation of parts by cutting, but in its
usual acceptation it is employed to denote the science the
province of which is to determine the construction, the form,
and the structure of organised bodies, i.e., of bodies which
either are or have been living. It is therefore a depart-
ment of the science of Biology. It resolves itself into
two great divisions — AimtAL Anatomy or Zootomy, the
object of which is to investigate the structure of animals ;
and Vegetable Anatomy or Phytotomy, the object of
which is to elucidate the structure of plants. As Vege-
table Anatomy will be treated of in the article Botany, it
does not require to be considered here. Animal Ana-
tomy, again, naturally re-^olves itself into two divisions : one
in which the construction, form, and structure of two or
more animals are compared with each other, so as to bring
out their features of resemblance or dissimilarity, — this is
called CompasatiVe Anatomy; the other, in which the
construction, form, and structure of parts in a single ani-
mal are considered, which is termed Special Anatomy.
The special anatomy of an animal may be studied from
various points of view : (a) with reference to the succession
of forms which it exhibits at various periods from its first
appearance as an embryo to the assumption of its adult
characters ; this is termed Developmental or Embeyo-
looical Anatomy ; (i), with reference either to its form
and structure, or to the investigation of the laws by which
these are determined, termed Moephological Anatomy ;
(c) with reference to the function, use, or purpose per-
formed by a part or structure in an animal, termed
Teleological or Physiological Anatomy ; (d) with re-
ference merely to the relative position of different parts or
structures, termed Topogeaphical Anatomy ; (c) with
reference to the structure and general properties of the
tissues or textures which enter into the construction of the
parts or organs of animals ; to this branch of study have
been applied the terms General Anatomy, Anatomy of
Textuhes, Histology, and, from the microscope being so
largely employed in the examination of the textures,
MiCEOSOOPlc or Minute Anatomy ; (/) with reference to
the changes induced by disease in the organs or tissues,
termed Moebid or Pathological Anatomy. From its
manifold aspects anatomy forms the basis of the Biological
Sciences. As a knowledge of the laws of motion is essen-
tial, and must be constantly recurred to at every step
before any true progress can be made in the investigation
of the physical sciences, so must the structure of auimal
bodies be constantly appealed to by the Z9ologist in all
attempts at classification ; by the physiologist in aU in-
quiries into the functions performed by the organs and
textures in a state of health, and into the special adapta^
tion of parts to particular uses; and by the physician in
considermg the alterations or disturbance of the functions
of parts in the course of disease. To describe the anatomy
of the multitudinous fonns of animal life from these dif-
ferent points of view would require, not one, but several
voluminous treatises, and would much exceed the compass
of a single article. Moreover, it is advisable that the
anatomy of the different classes of the animal kingdom
should be considered under their respective heads, — e.g.,
that of the Crabs under Ceustaoea, that of Reptiles under
Reptilia, Ac It is intended to devote this article more
particularly to the description of the Special Anatomy of
the Human Body in a state of health ; in other words, to
make it a short treatise on Human Anatomy or Anthro-
POTOMY, which, as forming a department of the general
science of Comparative Anatomy, is interesting not only
to men of science generally, but, from its intimate con-
nection with the several divisions of the art of healing,
and v/ith the study of the functions of the'hupian b(xiy,
possesses the highest importance to the physician, surgeon,
and phj-siolugist.
Previous to entering on the consideration of the Anatomy
of the Human Body, it may be well to take a historical
view of the progress of the science from its origin to the
present time.
HISTORY OF ANATOMY.
In tracing the history of the origin of anatomy, it may
be justly said that more learning than judgment has been
displayed. Some writers claim for it the highest antiquity,
and pretend to find its first rudiments alternately in the
animal sacrifices of the shepherd kings,, the Jews, and
other ancient nations, and in the art of embalming as
practised by the Egyptian priests. Even the descriptions
of wounds in the Iliad have been supposed adequate to
prove that in the time of Homer mankind hid distinct
notions of the structure of the human body. Of the trst
it may be said that the rude information obtained by the
slaughter of animals for sacrifice does not imply profound
anatomical knowledge ; and those who adduce the second
as evidence are deceived by the language of the poet of
the Trojan war, which, distinguishing certain parts by
their ordinary Greek epithets, as afterwards used by
Hippocrates, Galen, and aU anatomists, has been rather
too easily supposed to prove that the poet had studied
systematically the structure of the human frame.
With not much greater justice has the cultivation of
anatomical knowledge been ascribed to Hippocrates, who, Hippo-
because he is universally allowed to be the father of catas.
medicine, has also been thought to be the creator of the
science of anatomy.' Of the seven individuals of the family 460-377
of the Heracleidae who bore this celebrated name, the second, s.c.
who was son of Heraclides and Phenarita, and grandson
of the first Hippocrates, was indeed distinguished as a
physician of great observation and experience, and th»
first who appreciated the value of studying accurately the
phenomena, effects, and terminations of disease. It does
not appear, however, notwithstanding the vague and general
panegyrics of Riolan, Bartholin, Le Clerc, and Portal, that
the anatomical knowledge of this illustrious person was
either accurate or profound. Of the works ascribed to
Hippocrates, five only are -genuine. Most of them were
written either by subsequent authors of the same name, or
by one or other of the numerous impostors who took
advantage of the zealous munificence of the Ptolemies, by
fabricating works under that illustrious name. Of the few
which are genuine, there is none expressly devoted to
anatomy ; and of his knowledge on this subject the only
proofs are to be found in the exposition of his physiological
opinions, and his medical or surgical instnjctions. From
these it appears that Hippocrates had some accurate notions
on osteology, but that of the structure of the human body
in general his ideas were at once superficial and erroneou-s.
In hi? book on injuries of the head, and in that on fi^ctures,
he shows that he knew the sutures of the cranium and
the relative situation of the bones, and that he had some
notion of the shape of the bones in general, and of their
mutual connections. • Of the muscles, of the soft parts iu
general, and of the internal organs, his ideas are confused,
indistinct, and erroneous. The term i^Xc'/St he seems, in
imitation of the colloquial Greek, to have used generally
800
ANA T O U Y
[niSTORy.
Polybus.
374.
to BJgni/y a blood-vessel, without being aware of the
(lijtinctioa of vein and artery; and the term iprqploL, or
air-bolder, is restricted to the windpipe. Ho appears to
have been unaware of the existence of the nervous chords ;
and the term nen>e is used by him, as by Grecian authors
in general, to signify a sinsw or tendon. On other points
his views are bo much combined with peculiar phy8iologic;iI
doctrines, that it ia impossible to assign them the character
of anatomical facts ; and even the works in which these
doctrines are contained are with liltlo probabiUty to be
ascribed to tha secoud Hippocrates. H, however, wo over-
look this difficulty, and admit what is contained in the
genuine Hippocratic writings to represent at least the sum
of knowledge possessed by Hippocrates and his immediate
descendants, wb find that ho represents the brain as a
gland, from which exudes a viscid fluid ; that the heart is
muscular and of pjxamidal shape, and has two ventricles
separated by a partition, the fountains of life — and two
auricles, receptacles of air; that the lungs consist of five
ash-coloured lubes, the substance of which is cellular and
spongy, naturally dry, but refreshed by the air ; and that
the kidneys are glands, but possess an attractive faculty,
by virtue of which the moisture of the drink is separated,
and descends iuto the bladder. He distinguishes the
bowels into colon and rectum (o apx^s)-
The knowledge possessed by the second Hippocrates
was transmitted in various degrees of purity to the descend-
ants and pupils, chiefly of the family of the HeracleidiE,
who succeeded him. Several of these, with feelings of
grateful affection, appear to have studied to preserve the
written memory of his instructions, and in this manner to
have contributed to form part of that collection of treatises
which have long been known to the learned world under
the general name of the llippocralic writings. Though
composed, like the genuine remains of the physician of
Cos, in the Ionian dialect, all of them diiTer from these in
being more dilTuso in style, more elaborate in form, and in
studying to invest their anatomical and medical matter
with the fanciful ornaments of the Platonic phOosophy.
Hippocrates had the merit of early recognising the value
of facts apart from opinions, and of those facts especially
which lead to general results ; and in the few genuine
writings which are now extant it is easy to perceive that
he has recourse to the simplest language, expresses himself
in terms which, though short and pithy, arc always precise
and perspicuous, and is averse to the introduction of
philosophical dogmas. Of the greater part of the writings
collected under his name, on the contrary, the general
character is verboscness, prolixity, and a great tendency
to speculative opinions. For these reasons, as well as for
others derived from internal evidence, while the Aphorisms,
the Epidemics, and the works above mentioned, bear
distinct marks of being the genuine remains of Hippocrates,
it is impossible to regard the book ircpi 4>i;Vio9 AvBpunrov
as entirely tha composition of that physician ; and it
appears more reasonable to view it as the work of some
one of the numerous disciples to whom the author had
communicated the results of his observation, which they
iiuwisely attempted to combine with the philosophy of the
Platonic school and their own mysterious opinions.
Among those who aimed at this distinction, the most
fortunate in the preservation of his name is Polybus, the
Bon-in-law of the physician of Cos. ■ This person, who must
not be confounded with the monarch of Corinth immor-
talised by Sophocles in the tragic story of ffidipus, is
represented as a recluse, severed from the world and its
enjoyments, and devoting himself to the study of anatomy
and physiology, and to the composition of works on these
subjects. To him has been ascribed the whole of the book
e« the Nature of the Child and most of thjit On Man ;
both physiological treatises inteiBpersed with anatomicsl
sketches. His anatomical information, with which we
are specially concerned, appears to have been rude and
inaccurate, like that of his preceptor. He represents tlw
large vessels of the body as consisting of four pairs ; ths
first proceeding from the head by the back of the neck anA
spinal chord to the hips, lower extremities, and outer ankle ;
the second, consisting of the jugular vessels (ai ir<j>ayiTi&(<;),
proceeding to the loins, thighs, hams, and inner ankle ;
the third proceeding from the temples by the neck to the
scapula and lungs, and thence by mutual intercrossings to
the spleen and left kidney, and the liver and right kidney,
and finally to the rectum ; and the fourth from the fore-
part of the neck to the upper extremities, the fore-part of
the trunk, and the organs of generation.
This specimen of the anatomical knowledge of one of 363.
the most illustrious of the Hippocratic disciples differs not
essentially from that of Syennesis, the physician of Cyjirue,
and Diogenes, the philosopher of Apollonia, two authors
for the preservation of whose opinions we are indebted to
Aristotle. They may be admitted as representing the
state of anatomical knowledge among the most enlightened
men at that time, and they only show how rude and
erroneous were their ideas on the stnicture of the animal
body. It may indeed, without injustice, be said that the
anatomy of the Hippocratic school is not only erroneous,
but fanciful and imaginary, in often substituting mere
supposition and assertion for what ought to be matter of
fact. From this censure it is impossibla to exempt even
the name of Plato himself, for whom some notices in the
Timceiu on the structure of the animal body, as taught by
Hippocrates and Polybus, have procured a place in tha
history of the science.
Amidst the general obscunty in which the early history Aristotl^.
of anatomy is involved, only two leading facts may be
admitted with certainty. The first is, that previous to
the time of Aristotle there was no accurate knowledge of
anatomy ; and the second, That all that was known was
derived from the dissection of the lower animab only. By
the appearance of Aristotle this species of knowledge,
which was hitherto acquired in a desultory and irregular
manner, began to be cultivated systematically and with a
definite object ; and among the services which the philo-
sopher of Stagira rendered to mankind, one of the greatest
and most substantial is, that he was the founder of Com-
parative Anatomy, and was the first to apply its facts to
the elucidation of zoology. The works of this ardent and
original naturalist show that his zootomical knowledge
was extensive and often accurate ; and from several of his
descript'jns it is impossible to doubt that they wero
derived from frequent personal dissection. Aristotle, who
was bom 384 years before the Christian era, or in the first 384.
year of the 99tii Olympiad, was, at the age of 39, requested
by Philip to undertake the education of his son Alexander.
During this period it is said he composed several works on
anatomy, which, however, are now lost. The military
expedition of his royal pupU into Asia, by laying open the
animal stores of that vast and little knoivn continent,
furnished Aristotle with the means of extending his know-
ledge, not oidy of the animal tribes, but of their structure,
and of communicating more accurate and distinct notions
than were yet accessible to the world. A sum of 800
talents, aiyl the concurrent aid of numerous intelligent
assistants in Greece and Asia, were inteuded to facilitate
his researches in composing a system of zoological know-
ledge ; but it has been observed that the number of
instances in which he was thus compelled to trust to the
testimony of other observers led him to commit errors in
description which personal observation might have enabled
him to avoid.
HISTORY.]
ANATOMY
801
The first three boots of the llUlory of Animals, a
treatise consisting of ten books, and the four books on the
farts of Animals, constitute the great monument of the
Aristotelian Anatomj. From these we find that Aristotle
was the first who corrected the erroneous statements of
Polybus, Syennesis, and Diogenes regarding the blood-
vessels, which they made, as we have seen, to arise from
the head and brain. These he represents to be two in
number, placed before the spinal column, the larger on
the right, the smaller on the left, which, he also remarks,
is by some called aorta (Aoprrj), the first time we observe
that this epithet occurs in the history. Both he repre-
sents to arise from the heart, the larger from the largest
upper cavity, the smaller or aorta from the middle cavity,
but in a different manner and forming a narrower canal.
He also distinguishes the thick, firm, and more tendinous
structure of the aorta from the thin and membranous
structure of vein. In describing the distribution of the
latter, however, he confounds the vena cava and pulmonary
artery, and, as might be expected, he confounds the
raniifications of the former with those of the arterial tubes
in general. While he represents the lurig to be liberally
supplied with blocd, he describes the brain as an organ
almost destitute of t'lis fluid. His account of the distribu-
tion of the aorta is wonderfully correct. Though he does
not notice the cceliac, and remarks that the aorta sends no
direct branches to the liver and spleen, he had observed
the mesenteric, the renal, and the common Uiac arteries.
It is nevertheless singular that though he remarks parti-
cularly that the renal branches of the aorta go to the
substance and not the pelvis (xoiXia) of the kidney, he
appears to mist ',ke the ureters for branches of the aoiia.
Of the nerves {I'cvpd) he appears to have the most confused
notions. Making them arise from the heart, which he
says has nerves (tendons) in its largest cavity, he represents
the aorta to be a nervous or tendinous vein (vivpuiSij';
(^AcySs). By and by, afterwards saying that all the articu-
lated bunes are connected by nerves, he makes them the
same as ligaments.
He distinguishes the windpipe or air-holder (aprqpla)
from the cesophagus, because it is placed before the latter,
because food or drink passing into it causes distressing
cough and suffocation, and because there is no passage
from the lung to the stomach. He knew the situation and
use of the epiglottis, seems to have had some indistinct
notions of the larynx, represents the windpipe to bo neces-
sary to. convey air to and from the lungs, and appears to
have a tolerable understanding of the structure of the
lungs. He repeatedly represents the heart, the shape and
site of which he describes accurately, to be the origin of
the blood-vessels, in opposition to those who made them
descend from the head ; yet, though he represents it as
full of blood and the source and fountain of that fluid,
and even speaks of the blood flowing from the heart to the
veins, and thence to every part of the Jf dy, he says
nothing of the circular motion of the blood, .^rlie diaphragm
he distinguishes by the name Sia^oi/u,a, and iwd^w/xa. With
the liver and spleen, and the whole alimentary canal, ho
seems well acquainted. The several parts of the quadruple
stomach of the niminating animals are disti.'iguished and
named ; and ho even traces the relations between the teeth
and the several forms of stomach, and the length or brevity,
the simplicity or complication, of the intestinal tube.
Upon the same principle he distinguishes the jijunum
(y r^iTTi?), or the empty portion of the small intestines in
animals (to tio-cpoy XcTrrdv), the Cacum {rvt^Xov Tt koX oyKwScs),
the colon (to k!uXov), and the sigmoid flexure ( anvumpov
rtai eiXiy/icVoi'). The modern epithet of rectum is the literal
translation of his description of the straight progress (liOv)
of the bowel to the anus (itoiuktos). He knew the nasal
1—1' 7
cavities and the pas.'sage from the t3'mpanai cavity of the
ear to the palate, afterwarda described by Eustachius.
Ho distinguishes as " partes similares " those structures,
such as bone, cartilage, vessels, sinews, blood, lymph, fat,
flesh, which, not confined to one locality, but distributed
throughout the body generally, we now term the tissues or
textures, whilst he appUes the term " partes dissimilares"
to the regions of the head, neck, trunk, and extremities.
Next to Aristotle occur the names of Diodes of Car}'stu3, 3;^.
and Prajxagoras of Cos, the last of the family of the
Asclepiadae. The latter is remarkable for being the first Zil.
who disting-uished the arteries from the veins, and the
author of the opinion that the former were air-vessels.
Hitherto anatomical inquiry was confined to the examina-
tion of the bodies of brute animals. AVe have, indeed, no
testimony of the himian body being submitted to examina-
tion previous to the time of Erasistratus and Herophilus ;
and it is vain to look for authentic facts on this point
before the foundation of the Ptolemaic dynasty of sovereigns
in Egypt. This event, which, as is generally known,
succeeded the death of Alexander, 320 years before the
Christian era, collected Into one spot the scattered embers
of literature and science, which were beginning to languish
in Greece under a weak and distracted government and an Alexr.rj*
unsettled state of society. The children of her divided drian
states, whom domestic discord and the uncertainties ofsctc^I.
war rendered unhappy at home, wandered into Egypt,
and found, under the fostering hand of the Alexandiian
monarchs, the means of cultivating the sciences, and
repaying with interest to the country of Thoth and Osiris
the benefits which had been conferred on the infancy of
Greece by Thales and Pythagoras. Alexandria became in
this manner the repository of all the learning and know-
ledge of the civilised world ; and while other nations were
sinking under the effects of internal animosities and mutual
dissensions, or ravaging the earth with the evUs of war,
the Egyptian Greeks kept aliva the sacred flame of
science, and preserved mankind from relapsing Into their
original barbarism. These happy effects are to be ascribed
in an eminent degree to the enlightened government and
liberal opinions of Ptolemy Soler, and his immediate 285|
successors Phlladelphus and Euergetes. The two latteri
princes, whose authority was equalled only by the zeal with
which they patronised science an'd Its professors, were the
first who enabled physicians to dissect the human body,
and prevented the prejudices of Ignorance and superstition
from compromising the welfare of the human race. To
this happy circumstance Herophilus and Erasistratus are
Indebted for the distinction of being known to posterity as
the first anatomists who dissected and described the parts
of the himian body. Both thesa physicians flourished
under Ptolemy Soter, and probably Ptolemy Phlladelphus,
and were Indeed the principal supports of what has been
named in medical history the Alexandrian School, to which
their reputation seems to have attracted numerous pupibi
But though the concurrent testimony of antiquity assigns
to these physicjans the merit of dissecting the human body,
time, which wages endless war with the vanity and
ambition of man, has dealt hardly with the monuments of
their labours. As the works of neither have been preserved,'
great uncertainty prevails as to the res])cctive merits of
these ancient anatomists ; and all that is now known of
their anatomical researches is obtained from tho occasional
noticesof Galen, Oribaslus, and some other writers. From ^_
these it appeiirs that Erasistratus recognised tho valves of Emsis-
the heart, and distinguished them by the names of tricuspid '™'"'"
and sigmoid ; that ho studied particularly the shape and '
structure of tho brain, and its divisions, and cavities, and
membranes, and Mcncd the convolutions to the folds of
tho jejunum ; ihaPlio first formed a distinct idea of the
301.
802
ANATOMY
[hisioet.
Lature of the nerves, ■which ho made issue from the braiu ;
and that he discovered lymphatic vciauU in the meaentery,
first in brute animals, and afterwarda, it is said, in man.
Ho appears also to have distinguished the nerves into
those of sensation and those of motion.
Hero- Of Herophilus it'Ls said that he had extensive anatomical
^hilui knowledge, acquired by dissecting not only brutes but
human bodies. Of these he probably dissected more than
any of his predecessors or contemporaries. Devoted to
the assiduous cultivation of anatomy, ho appears to have
studied with particular attention those parts which were
least understood, lie recognised the nature of the pul-
monary artery, which he denominates arterioiu vein ; he
know the vessels of the mesentery, and showed that they
did not go to the vena portce, but to certain glandular
bodies ; and he fii^t applied the name of twelva-inch or
duodenum (SoiScKaSaicTvXos) to that part of the alimentary
canal whicli is next to the stomach. Like Erasistratus, ho
appears to have studied carefully the configuration of the
brain ; and though, like him, he distinguishes the nerves
into those of sensation and those of voluntary motion, he
adds to them the ligaments and tendons. A tolerable
description of the liver by this anatomist is preserved in
the writing^ of Galeii. He first applied the name of
choroid or vascular membrane to that wliich is found in
the cerebral ventricles ; he knew the straight venous sinus
which still bears his name ; and to him the linear furrow
at the bottom of tho Tourth ventricle is indebted for its
name of calamus scriptoriiis.
The celebrity of those two great anatomists appears to
have thrown into the shade for a long period the' natocs
of all other inquirers ; for, among their numerous and
.ather celebrated successors in the Alexandrian school, it is
impossible to recognise a name which is entitled to dis
tinction in tho history of anatomy. In a chasm so wide
it is not uninteresting to find, in ono who combined the
characters of the greatest orator and philosopher of Rome,
the most distinct traces of attention to anatomical know-
ledge. Cicero, in hia treatise De datura Deorum, in a
H. short sketch of physiology, such as it was taught by
Ariototle and his disciples, introduces various anatomical
notices, from which the classical reader may form some
idea of the state of anatomy at that time. The Roman
orator appears to hava formed a pretty distinct idea of the
shape and connections of the windpipe and lungs; and
chough he ijiXorms his readers that he knows the alimentary
canal, he omits the details through motives of delicacy.
In imitation of Aristotle, he talks of the blood being con-
veyed by tho veins (venos), that is, blood-vessels, through
the body at largo ; and, like Praxagora-s, of the air inhaled
by the lungs being conveyed through the arteries.
Aretseus, though chiefly known as a medical author,
makes some observations on -the lung and the pleura,
maintains tho glandular structure of tho kidney, and
describes the anastomosis or communications of the capil-
lary extremities of the vena cava with those of the
portal vein.
Celscs. The most valuable depository of the anatomical know-
S3 B.C. — ledge of these times is the work of Celsus, one of the
7 A.D. njogt judicious medical authors of antiquity. He left,
indeed, no express anatomical treatise ; but from the
introductions to the 4th and 8th books of his work, De
Medicina, with incidental remarks in the 7th, the modem
reader may form very just ideas of his anatomical attain-
ments. From these it appears that Celsus was well
acquainted with the windpipe and lungs and the heart;
with the difference between the windpipe and oeso-
j)hagu3 (stomackus), which leads to the stomach (ventri-
cidus) ; and with the shape, situation, and relations of the
diaphragm. Ho enumerates ahw the principal facts relating
to the uiiuation of the liver, the spleen, tho kidneys, and
the stomacL He appears, however, to have been unaware
of the distinction of duodenum or twelvo-inch bowel,
already admitted by Herophilus, and represents the stomach
as directly connected by means of the pylorus with the
jejunum or upper part of the small intestine.
The 7th and 8th books, which are devoted to the
consideration of those diseases which are troated by manual
operation, contain sundry anatomical notices necessary to
explain the nature of the diseases or mode of treatment.
Of these, indeed, the merit is unequal ; and it is not
wonderful that the ignorance of the day prevented Celsus
from understanding rightly the mechacism of the pathology
of hernia. He appears, however, to have formed a
tolerably just idea of the mode of cutting into the urinary .
bladder ; and even his obstetrical instructions show that
his knowledge of tho uterus, vagjna, and appendages waa
not contemptible. It is in osteology, however, that tho
information of CelsuS is chiefly conspicuous. He enume-
rates tho^sutures and several of the holes of the cranium,
and describes at great length tho superior and inferior
maxillary bones and tho teeth. With a good deal of care
ho describes the vertebra and the ribs, and gives very
briefly the situation and shape of the scapula, humerus,
radius, and ulna, and even of the carpal and metacarpal
bones, and then of the different bones of the pelvis and
lower extremities. He had formed a just idea of the
articular connections, and is desirous to impress tho fact
that none is formed without cartilage. From hia mention
of' many minute holes (mulia ei tenuia foramina), in the
recess of tho nasal cavities, it is evident that ho was
acquainted with the perforated plate of the ethmoid bone ;
and from saying that the straight part of the auditory
canal becomes ilcxuous, and terminates in nurjerous minute
cavities (mulUi et tenuia foramina diducitur), it is inferred
by Portal that he knew the semicircular canals.
Though tho writings of Celsus show that he cultivated
anatomical knov;ledge, it does not appear that tho science
was much studied by the Romans ; and there is reason to
believe that, after the decay of the school of Alexandria,
it languished in neglect and obscurity. It is at least
certain that tho appearance of Marinus diuing the reign of
Nero 13 mentioned by authors as an era remarkable fof
anatomical inquiry, and that this person is distinguished
by Galen as the restorer of a branch of knowledge which
had been before him suffered to fall into undeserved
neglect From Galen also we loam that Marinus gave an
accurate account of the muscles, that he studied particularly
the glands, and that ho discovered those of the. mesentery.
He fixed the number of nerves at seven ; he observed the
palatine nerves, •rhich' ho rated as the fourth pair; and
described as the fifth the auditory and facial, which he
regards as one pair, and the hypoglossal as the sixth.
Not long after Marinus appeared Ruffus of Ephesna, a RoCaS,
Greek physician, who in tho reign of Trajan was much
attached to physiology, and as a means of cultivating this
science studied Comparative Anatomy, and made sundry
experiments on living animals. Of the anatomical writings
of this author there remains only a list or catalogue of
names of different regions and parts of the animal body.
He appears, however, to' have directed attention particu-
larly to the tortuous course of the nterias vessels, and to
have recognised even at this early period tls Fallopiau
tube. He distinguishes the nerves into those of sensation
and those of motion. He knew the recurrent nerve. Hia
name is further associated with the ancient experiment of
compressing in the situation of the carotid arteries the
pneumogastric nerve, and thereby inducing insensibility
and loss of voice.
Of all the authors of antiquity, however, none poase^es
flISTORV.]
SO jast a cl:um to t'ae titlo of aar.tnraist as Ckndiiis Galeuus,
the cel'^-brated physician oi Pergamus, who vrai born about
the 130th year of the Christian era, and livsd under the
reigns of Hadrian, the Antonines, Commodus, and Severus.
He was trained by his father Nicon (whose memory he
embalms as an eminent mathematician, architect, and
astronomer) in aU the leaming of the day, and initiated
pai'ticularly into the mysteries of the Aristotelian philo-
sophy. In an order somewhat whimsical he aftetTrards
studied philosophy successively in the schools of the Stoics,
the Academics, the Peripatetics, and the Epicureans. When
lie was seventeen years of age, his father, he informs us, was
admonished by a dream to devote -his eon to the study of
medicine; but it was fuUy two years after that Galen
entered on this pursuit, under the auspices of an instractor
whose name he has thought proper to conceal Shortly
after he betook himself to the study of anatomy under
Satyrus, a pupil of Quintus, and of medicine under Strar
tonicus, a Hippocratic physician, and .iEschrion, an empiric.
He had scarce!/ attained the 8ge of twenty when he had
occasion to deplore the loss of the first and most affectionate
guide of his studies ; and soon after he proceeded to
Smyrna to obtain the anatomical instructions of Pelops,
who, though mystified by some of the errors of Hippocrates,
is commemorated by his pupil as & skilful anatomist.
After this he appears to have visited various cities dis-
tinguished for philosophical or medical teachers ; and,
fintUy, to have gone to Alexandria with the view of
culiivating more accurately and intimately the study of
ana;omy under Heraclianus. Here he remained tiU his
twenty-eighth year, when he regarded himself as possessed
of all the knov/ledge then attainable through the medium
of teachers. He now returned to Pergamus to exercise
the art which he had so anxiously studied, and received,
in his twenty-ninth year, an unequivocal testimony of the
confidence which his fellow-citizena reposed in his skill, by
being intrusted with the treatment of the wounded gladia-
tors ; and in this capacity he is said to have treated wounds
with success which were fatal under former treatment. A
seditious tumult appears to have caused him to form the
resolution of quitting Pergamus and proceeding to Rome, at
the age of thirty-two. Here, however, he remained only five
years; and returaing once more to Pergamus, after travelling
for some timo, finally settled in Rome as physician to the
Emperor Commodus. The anatomical writings ascribed to
Galen, which are numerous, are to be viewed not merely
83 the result of personal research and information, but as
the common depository of the anatomical knowledge of
the day, and as combiidng all that he had learnt from the
several teachers under whom he successively studied with
whatever personal investigation enabled him to acquire.
It is on this account not always easy to distinguish what
Galen had himself ascertained by personal research from
that which was known by other aaatomists. This, however,
though of moment to the history of Galen as an anatomist,
ia of little consequence to the science itself ; and from the
anatomical remains of this author a pretty just idea may
be formed both of the progress and of the actual state of
the science at that time.
Tho osteology of Galen is undoubtedly the most perfect
of the departments of the anatomy of tho ancients. He
names and^ distinguishes the bones and sutures of the
cranium nearly in the same manner as at present. Thus,
h" notices the quadrilateral shape of the parietal bones' ;
he distinguishes the squamous, the styloid, the mastoid,
and the petrous portions of the temporal bones ; and he
remarks the peculiar situation and shape of tho sphenoid
bone. Of tho ethmoid, which ho omits at first, he after-
wards speaks more at largo in another treatise. The malar
he notices under the name of zygomatic bone ; ami ho
ANATOMY
803
describes at length the upj)er maxillary and nasal bones,
and the connection of tho former witi the sphenoid. He
gives the first clear account of the number and situation
of tho vertebrae, which ho divides into cei-vkal, donal, and
lu/rtbar, and dktinguishcs from the sacrum and coccyx.
Under the head Bcnes of tlte Thorax, he eniunerates the
sternum, the ribs (a! vXtvpoi), and the dorsal vertebrse, the
connection of which with the former he designates as a
variety of diarthrosis. The description of the bones of the
extremities and their articulations concludes the treatise.
Though in myology Galen appears to less advantage
than in osteology, he nevertheless had carried this part of
anatomical knowledge to greater perfection than any of his
predecessors. He descri.bes a frontal muscle, the six
muscles of the eye, and a seventh propsi. to animals ; a
muscle to each ala nim, four tn.u^cles of the lips, the thin
cutaneous muscle of the neck, which he first termed
platysma mt/aides, or muscular expansion, two muscles of
the eyelids, and four pairs of muscles of the lower jaw — the
temporal tb raise, the mssseter to draw to one side, and
two depressors, corresponding to the digastric and internal
pterygoid muscles. After speaking of the muscles which
move the head and the scapula, he adverts to those by
which the windpipe is opened and shut, and the intrinsic
or proper muscles of the- larynx and hyoiu bone. Then
follow those of the tongue, pharynx, and neck, those of the
upper extremities, the trunk, and the lower extremities
successively ; and in tho course of this description he
swerves so little from the actual facts that most of the
names by which he distinguishes the principal muscles
have been retained by the best modem anatomists. It is
chiefly in tbe minute account of these organs, and especially
in reference to the minuter muscles, that he appears
inferior to the moderns.
The angiological knowledge of Galen, tuough vitiated
by the erroneous physiology of the times and ignorance of
the separate uses of the arteries and veins, exhibits, never-
theless, some accurate facts v/hich show the diligence of
the author in dissection. Though, in opposition to the
opinions of Praxagoras and Erasistratus, he proved that
the arteries in the living animal contain not air but blood,
it does not appear to have occurred to him to determine in
what direction the blood flows, or whether it was movable
or stationary. Representing the left ventricle of the heart
as the common origin of aU the arteries, though he is
misled by the pulmonary artery, he nevertheless traces the
distribution of the branches of the aorta with some accuracy.
The veTia azygos also, and the jugular veins, have concri-
buted to add to the confusion of his description, and to
render his angiology the most imperfect of his works.
In neurology we find him to be the author of the dogma
that the brain is the origin of the nerves of sensation, and
the spinal chord of those of motion ; and he disdnguishes
the former from the latter by their greater softness or less
consistence. Though he admits only seven cerebral pairs,
he has the merit of distinguishing and tracing the distribu-
tion of the greater part of both classes of nerves with great
accuracy. His description of the brain is derived from
dissection of the lower animals, and his distinctions of the
several parts of the organ have been retained by modem
anatomists. His mode of demonstrating this organ, which
indeed is clearly described, consists of five different steps.
In the first the bisecting membrane — i.e. the fall (/t^nyj
Si;(OTo/ioCo-a)— and theconnectingblood-vessels are removed;
and the dissector, commencing at the anterior extremity
of the great fissure, separates the hemispheres gently as far
as the tarcular, and exposes a smooth surface {■n]v xiipav
Tv\t!t&ri ir<u5 olcrai'), tho mesolobo of tho moderns, or the
middle band. In tho second he exposes by successive sections
the ventricles, tho choroid plexus, and tho iiriddle partition.
804
ANATOMY
[histort;
The tbird exhibits the pineal body (auifui Kwvod&U) or
cunarium, concealed by i membrane with numerous veioB,
meaning that part of the plexus which ia now Icnown
by the name of velum interposilum, and a complete view
of the ventricles. The fourth unfolda the third ventricle
(ti5 oAAtj rplrri KOikta), the communication between the
two lateral ones, the arch-liko body (awfia tjiaXiSoftSk)
fornix, and the passage from the third to the fourth
ventricle. Ia the fifth he gives an accurate description of
the relations of the third and fourth ventricle, of the
situation of the two pairs of eminences, Tiate^ (yXovra) and
testes (SiSu/xta or o/);(tis), the scolecoid or worm-like process,
anterior and posterior, and lastly the linear furrow, called
by Herophilus calamus scriptorium.
In the account of the thoracic organs equal accuracy
may be recognised. He distinguishes the pleura by the
name of inclosing membrane (t/J-^v i7r({<oKw9, membrana
succiru/ens), and remarks its similitude in structure to that
of the peritoneum, and the covering which it affords to all
the organs. The pericardium also he describes as a membran-
ous sac with a circular basis corresponding to the base of
the heart, and a conical apex ; and after an account of the
tunics of the arteries and veins, ho speaks shortly of the
lung, and more at length of the heart, which, however, ho
takes some pains to prove not to be muscular, because it is
harder, its fibres are differently arranged, and its action ia
incessant, whereas that of muscle alternates with the state
of rest ; he gives a good account of the valves and of the
vessels ; and notices especially the bony ring formed in the
heart of the horse, elephant, and other largo animals.
The description of the abdominal organs, and of the
kidneys and urinary apparatus, is still more minute, and
in general accurate. Our limits, however, do not permit
us to give any abstract of them ; and it is sufficient in
general to say that Galen gives correct views of the
arrangement of the peritoneum and omentum, and distin-
guishes accurately the several divisions of the alimentary
canal and its component tissue.1. In the liver, which he
allows to receive an envelope from tho peritoneum, he
admits, in imitation of Erasistratus, a proper substance or
pareMhyma, interposed between the vessels, and capable
of removal by suitable dissection.' His description of the
organs of generation is rather brief, and is, Hke most of his
anatomical sketches, too much blended with physiological
dogmas.
This short sketch may communicate some idea of the
londition of anatomical knowledge in the days of Galen,
who indeed is justly entitled to the character of rectifying
and digesting, if not of creating, tho science of anatomy
among tho ancients. Though evidently confined, perhaps
entirely by the circumstances of the times, to the dissection
of brute animals, so indefatigable and judicious was he in
the mode of acquiring knowledge, that many of his names
and distinctions are still retained with advantage in the
writings of the modems. Galen was a practical anatomist,
and not only describes the organs of the animal body from
actual dissection, but gives ample instructions for the
proper mode of exposition. His language is in general
clear, hi» style as correct as in most of the authors of
the same period, and his manner is animated. Few
passages in early science are indeed so interesting as the
description of the process for demonstrating the brain and
other internal organs which is given by this patient 'and
enthusiastic observer of nature. To some it may appear
absurd to speak of anything like good anatomical descrip-
tion in an author who writes in the Greek language, or
anything like an interesting and correct manner in a
writer who flourished at a period when taste was depraved
or extinct and literature corrupted, — when the philosophy
of Antoninus and the mild virtues of Aurelius could do •
little .to soften the iron sway of Lucius Venis and Com-
modus; but the habit of faithful observat: n in Galen
seems to have been so powerful that, in tho d- acription of
material objects, his genius invariably risc.i above tho
circumstances of his age. Though not so directly con-
nected with this subject, it is nevertheless proper to
mention that he appears to have been the first anatomist
who can be said, on authentic grounds, to have attec ptcd
to discover the uses of organs by vivisection and ei:peri-
ments on living animals. In this manner he ascertained
the position and demonstrated the action of the heart ; and
he mentions two instances in which, in consequence of disease
or injury, he had an opportunity of observing the moiic^na
of this organ in the human body. In short, without eulogis-
ing an ancient author at tho expense of critical justice, or
commending his aiiatomical descriptions as superior to those
of the modems, it must be admitted that the anatomical
writings of the physician of Pergamus form a remarkable
era in the history of the science ; and that by diligence ;n
dissection and accuracy in description he gave the scieica
a degree of importance and stability which it has retained
through tho lapse of many centuries.
The death of Galen, which took place at Pergamus in
the ninetieth year of his age and the 193d of the Christici!!
era, may bo regarded as the downfall of anatomy in ancier.t
times. After this period we recognise only two names of
any celebrity in the history of the science — those of
Soranus and Oribasius, with the more obscure ones of
Meletius and Theophilus, the latter the chief of the
imperial guard of Heraclius.
Soranus, who was an Ephesian, and flourished under
the emperors Trajan and Hadrian, distinguished himself
by his researches on the female organs of generation. Ho
appears to have dissected the human subject ; and this
perhaps is one reason why his descriptions of these parts
are more copious and more accurate tlian those of Galen,
who derived his knowledge from the bodies of the lower
animals. He denies the existence of the hymen, but
describes accurately the clitoris. Soranus the anatomist
must be distinguished from the physician of that name,
who was also a native of Ephesus.
Oribasius, who was born at Pergamus, is said to have Oribaaiis,
been at once the friend and physician of the Emperor
Jidian, and to have contributed to the elevation of S6l. -HZ.
that apostate to the imperial throne. For this he appears
to have suffered the punishment of a temporary exile
under Valens and Valentinian ; but was soon recalled, and
lived in great honour till the period of his death. By
Le Clerc, Oribasius is regarded as a compiler ; and indeed 357
his anatomical writings bear so close a correspondence with
those of Galen that the character is not altogether ground-
less. In various points, nevertheless, he has rendered the
Galenian anatomy more accurate ; and he has distinguished
himself by a good account of the salivary glands, which
were overlooked by Galen.
To the same period generally is referred the Anatomical
Introduction of an anonymous author, first published in
1618 by Lauremberg, and more recently by Bernard. It
is to be regarded as a compilation formed on the model of
Galen and Oribasius. The same character is applicable to
the treatises of Meletius and Theophilus.
The decline indicated by these languid efforts soon sunk
into a state of total inactivity; and the unsettled state
of society during the latter ages of the Roman empire
was extremely unfavourable to the successful cultivation
of science. The sanguinary conflicts in which the southern
countries of Europe were repeatedly engaged with their
northern neighbours, between the second and eighth cen-
turies, tended gradually to estrange their minds from
<^;ientific pursuits ; and the hordes of barbarians by which
piaTOEY.J
ANATOMY
805
khe Roman empire was latterly OTerrun, while they urged
them to the necessity of making hostile resistance, and
adopting means of self-defence, introduced such habits of
ignorance and barbarism, that science was almost univer-
sally forgotten. A'^hile the art of healing was professed
only by some few ecclesiastics or by itinerant practitioners,
anatomy was utterly neglected ; and no name of anatomical
celebrity crccurs to diversify the long and uninteresting
period commonly distinguished as the Dark Ages.
Arabian Anat^piical learning, thu^ neglected by European nations,
Miysicians. is believed t» have received a temporary cultivation from
the Asiatics. Of these, several nomadic tribes, known to
Europeans under the general denomination of Arabs and
Saracens, had gradually coalesced under various leaders ;
and by their habits of endurance, as well as of enthusiastic
Talour in successive expeditions against the eastern division
of the Roman empire, had acquired such mihtary reputation
as to render them formidable wherever they appeared.
After a century and a half of foreign warfare or internal
animosity, under the successive dynasties of the Ommiads
and Abbassides, in which the propagation of Islamism was
the pretext for the extiiKition of learning and civilisation,
And the most remorseless system of rapine and destruction,
the Saracens began, under the latter dynasty of princes, to
recognise the value of science, and especially of that which
prolongs life, heals disease, and alleviates the pain of
wounds and injuries. The caliph Almansor combined with
his ofBcial knowledge of Moslem law the successful cultiva-
tion of astronomy ; but to his grandson Almamun, the
(Seventh prince of the line of the Abbassides, belongs the
merit of undertaking to render his subjects philosophers and
physicians. By the directions of this prince the works of
*he Gr6ek and Roman authors were translated into Arabic ;
and the favour and munificence with which literature and
its professors were patronised speedUy raised a succession
of learned Arabians. The residue of the rival family of
the Ommiads, already settled in Spain, was prompted by
motives of rivalry or honourable ambition to adopt the
same course ; and while the academy, hospitals, and library
■of Baghdad bore testimony to the zeal and liberality of the
Abbassides, the munificence of the Ommiades was not less
conspicuous in the literary institutions of Cordcfva, Seville,
jnd Toledo.
Notwithstanding the efforts of the Arabian princes,
however, and the diligence of the Arabian physicians, little
was done for anatomy, and the science made no substantial
acquisition. The Koran denounces as unclean the per-
• son who touches a corpse; the rules .of Islamism forbid
dissection ; and whatever their instructors taught was
oorrowed from the Greeks. Abu-Bekr Al-Rasi, Abu-Ali
Ibn-Sina, Abul-Cassem, and Abu-Walid Ibn-Roshd, the
Rhazes, Avicenna, Abulcasis, and Averrhoes of European
authors, are their most celebrated names in medicine ; yet
to none of these can the historian with justice ascribe any
anatomical merit. Al-Rasi has indeed left descriptions of
the eye, of the ear and its meatus, and of the heart ; and
Ibn-Sina, Abul-Cassem, and Ibn-Roshd give anatomical
descriptions of the parts of the human body. But of these
the general character is, that they are copies from Galen,
sometimes not very just, and in all instances mystified
with a large proportion of the fancif'J and absurd imagery
and inflated stylo of the Arabian writers. The chief
reason of their obtaining a place in anatomical history is,
that by the influence which their medical authority enabled
them to exercise in the European schools, the nomenclature
which they employed was adopted by European anatomists,
•*nd continued till the revival of ancient learning restored
the original nomenclature of the Greek physicians. Thus,
the cervix, or nape of the neck, is nucha ; the oesophagus
.is meri ; the umbilical region ia suintn or sumac y the
abdomen is myrach, ; the peritoneum is lipluic; and the
omentum, zirbus.
From the general character now given justice requires
that we except Abdallatif, the annalist of Egyptian
affairs. This author, who maintains that it is impossible
to learn anatomy from books, and that the authority of
Galen must yield to personal inspection, informs us that
the Moslem doctors did not neglect opportunities of study-
ing the bones of the human body in cemeteries ; and that
he himself, by once examining a collection of bones in this
manner, ascertained that the lower jaw is formed of one
piece; that the sacrum, though sometimes composed of
several, is most generally of one ; and that Galen is
mistaken when he asserts that these bones are not single.
The' era of Saracen learning extends to the 1 3th century ; School of
and after this we begin to approach happier times. ITie Bologna,
university of Bologna, which, as a school of Uterature and
law, was already celebrated in the twelfth century, became,
in the course of the following one, not less distingmshed
for its medical teachers. Though the misgovernment of 1222-24.
the municipal rulers of Bologna had disgusted both teachers
and students, and given rise to the foundation of similar
institutions in Padua and Naples, — and though the school
of Salerno, in the territory of the latter, was stiU in high I24i-7L
repute, — it appears, from the testimony of Sarti, that
medicine was in the highest esteem in Bologna, and that
it was in such perfection as to require a division of its
professors into physicians, surgeons, physicians for wounds,
barber-surgeoos, oculists, and even some others. Notwith-
standing these indications of refinement, however, anatomy
was manifestly cultivated rather as an appendage of .surgery
than a branch of medical science ; and, according to the
testimony of Guy de Chauliac, the cultivation of anatomical
knowledge was confined to R'^ger, Roland, Jamerio, Bruno,
and Lanfranc ; and this they borrowed chiefly from Galen.
In this state matters appear to have proceeded with the
medical school of Bologna tUl the commencement of the
fourteenth century, when the circumstance of possessing a
teacher of originality enabled this university to be the
agent of as great an improvement in medical science as she
had already effected in jurisprudence. This era, indeed, is
distinguished for the appearance of Mondino, under whose Mondinoi
zealous cultivation the science first began to rise from the
ashes in which it had been buried. This father of modem
anatomy, who taught in Bologna about the year 1315,
quickly drew the curiosity of the medical profession by
weU-ordered demonstrations of the different parts of the
human body. \n 1315 he dissected and demonstrated the
parts of the human body in two female subjects ; and in
the course of the following year he accomplished the same
task on the person of a single female But while he seems
CC have had sufficient original force of inteUoct to direct
his own route, Eiolan accuses him of copying Galen ; and
it is certain that his descriptions are corrupted by the
barbarous leaven of the Ai-abian schools, and his Latin
defaced by the exotic nomenclature of Ibn-Sina and Al-
Easi. He died, according to Tiraboschi, in 1325.
Mondino divides the body into three cavities {ventres),
the upper containing the animal members, as the head, the
lower containing the natural members, and the middle
containing the spiritual members. He first describes the
anatomy of the lower cavity or the abdomen, then proceeds
to the middle'or thoracic organs, and concludes with the
upper, comprising the head and its contents and append-
a{,e3. His general manner is to notice shortly the situation
and shape or distribution of textures or membranes, and
then to mention the disorders to which they are subject.
The peritoneum he describes under the name of siphac, in
imitation of the Arabians, the omentum undei" thet of
lirbus, and the mesenterv or eucharw as distiucf. from
806
ANATOMY
[UISTOKV
both. In speaking of tLc intestines Le treats first of
tire rectum, then the colon, the left or tignioid (Ici-ure of
which, as well as the transverse arch and its connection
with the stomach, he particularly remarks ; then the c«cum
or rnonoculua, after this the small intestines in general
under the heads of ilemu and jejunum, and latterly the
duodenum, making in all six bowels. The liver and its
vessels are minutely, if not accurately, examin-sd ; and the
cava, under the name chilis, a coniiption from the Greek
KoiXri, is treated at length, with the eniulgents and kidneys.
His anatomy of the heart is wonderfully accurate; and it
is a remarkable fact, which seems to be omitted "by all
subsequent authors, that his description contains the rudi-
ments of the circulation of the blood. " Postca vcro
iVersus pulmonem est aliud orificium venaa arterialis, qua;
portal sanguinem ad pulmonem a corde ; quia cum pulrao
jdescrviat cordi secundum modum dictum, ut ei recompenset,
cor ei Irnnsr.iittit sangainem per hane venam, qure vocatur
vena arterialis ; est vena, quia portat sanguinem, ct arterialis,
quia habet duas tunicas ; et habet duas tunicas, primo
quia vadit ad membrura quod cxistit in continue motu, et
eecundo quia portat sanguinem valde subtilem tt choleri-
cum." The merit of these distinctions, however, ho after-
wards dcstroj-s by repeating the old assertion that the left
ventricle ought to contain spirit or air, which it generates
from the blood. His osteology of the skull is erroneous.
In his account of the cerebral membranes, though short, he
notices the principal characters of the dura maler. He
describes shortly the lateral Veutricles, with their anterior
and posterior comua, and the choroid plexus as a blood-red
substance like a long worm. He then speaks of the third
or middle ventricle, and one posterior, which seems to
correspond with the fourth ; and describes the iufundibulum
under the names of lacuna and emloton. In the base of
the organ he remarks, first, two mammillary caruncles, the
optic nerves, which he reckor.s the first pair ; the oculo-
muscular, which he accounts the second ; the third, Tyhich
\ppears to be the sixth of the modems ; the fourth ; the
fifth, evidently the seventh ; a sixth, the neriiis vagus ;
and a seventh, which is the ninth of the moderns. Not-
withstanding the misrepresentations into wliich this early
anatomist was betrayed, his book is valuable, and has been
illustrated by the successive commentaries of Achilliui,
Berenger, and Dryander.
: ISO. Matthew de Gradibus, a native of Gradi, a tovra in
Friuli, near ilUan, distinguished himself by composing a
series of treatises on the anatomy of various parts of the
human body. He is the first who represents the cvaries
of the female in the correct light in which they were
subsequently regarded by Steno.
Objections similar to those already urged in speaking of
Mondino apiiiy to another eminent anatomist of those
1495_ times. Gabriel de Zerbis, who flourished at Verona
towards the conclusion of the 15th centu-y, is celebrated
as the author of a system in which he is obviously mere
aniiqus to astonish his readers by the wondei'S of a verbose
and complicated style than to instruct by precise and faithful
description. In the vanity of his heart he assumed the
title of Medicus Theoricus ; but though, like ifondinc, he
derived his information from the dissection of the human
subject, he is not entitled to the merit either of describing
truly or of adding to the knowledge previously acquired.
He is superior to Mondino, however, in knowing the
olfactory nerves.
A.-hi! n:. Eminent in the history of the science, and more distin-
HC3 .;i2. guished than any of this age in the history of cerebral
anatomy, Alexander Achillini of Bologna, the pupil and
commentator of Mondino, appeared at the close of the 15th
century. Though a follower of the Arabian school, the
assiduity with which he cultivated anatomv has rescued
his name from the inglorious oWurity in which tl;?
^Vrabian doctors have in general slumben d. He i»
known in the history of anatomical discovery as the first
who described the two tympanal bones, termed malleus
and incus. Id 1503 he showed that the tarsus consists of
seven bones ; he rediscovered the fornix and the infundi-
bulum ; and ho was fortunate enough to observe the cou.'^se
of the cerebral cavities into the inferior cornua, and to-
remark peculiarities to wliich the anatomists of a future
age did not advert. He mentions the orifices of the duct^
afttrv,ardj5 described by Wharton. He knew the ilco-caiciil
valve ; and his description of the duodenum, ileum, and
colon shows that he was better acquainted with the site
aiid disposition of these bowels than any of his predecessors
or contemporaries.
Not long after, the science boasts of one of its most b
distinguished founders. James Berenger of Carjji, in the
.Modeneso territory, flourished at Bologna at the beginning
of the ICth century. In the annals of medicine his nani^
will be remembered not only as the most zealous ai^-
eminont in cultivating the anatomy of the human body,
but as the first physician who was fortunate enough Xn
calm the alarms of Europe, sufl"ering under the ravages uf
sypliilis, then raging with uncontrollable virulence. In
the former character he surpassed both p.-edecessors aiiii
contemporaries ; and it was long before tJie anatomists oi
the following ago could boast of equalling him. Hi.'
assiduity was indefatigable ; and he declares that he
dissected above one hundred human bodies. He is the
author of a compendium, of several treatises which he
names Introductions {hagor/ce), and of couimcntaries or
the treatise of Jlondino, in which he not only reotific?
the mistakes of that anatomist, but gives minute and in
general accurate anatomical descriptions.
He is the first who undertakes a systematic view of the
severa] textures of which the human body is composed :
and in a preliminary commentary he treats successively uj
the anatomical characters and properties of fat, of mem-
brane in general (pannitulus), of flesh, of ner\-e, of vilhit or
fibre (itlum), of ligament, of sinew or tendon, and of muscle
in generaii He then proceeds to describe with considerable
precision the muscles of the abdomen, and illustrates their
site and connections by woodcuts, which, though rude,
are spirited, and show that anatomical drawing was in that
early age beginning to be understood. In his account of the
peritoneum he admits only the intestinal division of that
membrane, and is at some pains to prove that Gentilis, who
justly admits the muscular division also, is in error. In
his account of the intestines ho is the first who mentions the
vermiform process of • the cseciun ; he remarks the yellow
lint communicated to the duodenum by the gaU-bladderj
and he recognises the opening of the common biliary duct
into the duodenum (quidam poms portans choleram). In
the account of the stomach he describes the. several tissues
of which that organ is composed, and which, after Alman-
sor, he represents to be three, and a fourth from th*
peritoneum ; and afterwards notices the rugce of its villous
surface. He is at considerable pains to explain the organs
of generation in both sexes, and gives a long account of
the anatomy of the foetus. He was the first who recognised
the larger proportional size of the chest in the male than •
in the female, and conversely the greater capacity of the
female than of the male pelvis. In the larynx he dis-
covered the two arytenoid cartilages. He gives the first
good description of the thymus ; distinguishes the obUqr.e
situation of the heart; describes the pericardiimi, and
maintains the uniform presence, of pericardial liquor. He
then describes the cavities of the heart ; but perplexes him-
self, as did all the anatomists of that age, about the spirit
supposed to be contained. The aorta he properly makef.
eiSTORT.]
ANATOMY
807
Ttrcch
'1173^
to arise from tie left ventricle ; but confuses Mmself with
tlie arteria venalis,tks pulmonary vein, and the vena arte-
rialis, the pulmonary artery. His account of the brain is
better. - He gives a minute and clear account of the vent-
riclea, remarks the corpus siriatum, and has the sagacity
to perceive that the choroid plexus consists of veins and
irteries; he then describes the middle or third ventricle,
ihe infundibulum or lacuna of Mondino, and the pituitary
gland ; and lastly, the passage to the fourth ventricle, the
conarium Or pineal gland, and the fourth or posterior
ventricle itself, the relations of which he had studied
accurately. He rectifies the mistake of Mcadico as to the
olfactory or first pair of nerves, gives a good account of the
optic and others, and is entitled to the praise of originality
in being the first observer who contradicts the fiction of
the wonderful net, and indicates the principal divisions
of the carotid arteries. He enumerates the tunica and
humours of the eye, and gives an account of the internal
ear, in which he notices the malleus s.udinais.
Italy long retained the distinction of giving birth to
the first eminent anatomists in Europe, and the glory she
acquired in the names of Mondino, Aehillini, Cajpi, and
Massa, was destined to becojne more conspicuous in the
labours of Columbus, Fallopius,, and Eustachius. While
Italy, however, was thus advancing the progress of science,
the other nations of Europe were either in profound
ignorance or in the most supine indifference to the brilliant
career of their zealous neighboora. The sixteenth century
had commenced before France began to acquire ana-
tomical distinction in the names of Dubois, Femel, and
Etienne ; and even these celebrated teachers were less
solicitous in the personal study of the animal body than in
the faithful explanation of the anatomical writings of
Galen. The infancy of the French school had to contend
with other difficulties. The small portion of knowledge
which had been hitherto diffused in the country was so
•nadequate to eradicate the prejudices of ignorance, that it
Tas either difiicult or absolutely impossible to procure
-iuman bodies for Ihe purposes of science ; and we are
assured, on the testimony of VesaHus and other competent
authorities, that the practical part of anatomical instruction
was obtained entirely from the bodies of the lower animnils.
The works of the Italian anatomists were unknown ;
and it is a proof of the tardy communication of knowledge
that, while the structure of the human body had been
taught in Italy for more than a. century by Mondino and.
nis foDowers, these anatomists aro never mentioned by
Etienne, who flourished long after.
Such was the aspect x>i the times at" the appearance of
Tacquea Dubois, who, under the Romanised name of
facobus Sylvixis, according to the fashion of the day, has
Leen fortunate in acquiring a reputation to which his
researches do not entitle him For the name of Jacques
Dubois the history of anatomy, it is said, is indebted to
his inordinate love of money. At the instance of his
brother Francis, who was professor of eloquence in the
college of Toumay at Paris, he devoted himself to the
study of the learned languages and matkematics ; but
discovering that these elegant accomplishments do not
invariably reward their cultivators with the goods of
fortune, Dubois betook himself to medicine. After the
acquisition of a medical degree in the university of Mont-
pellier, at the ripe age of fifty-one Dubois returned to Paris
to resume a course of anatomical instruction. Here he
taught anatomy to a numerous audience in the college of
Trinquet ; and on the departure of Vidus Vidius for Italy
was appointed to succeed that physician as professor of
surgery to tli Royal College. His character is easily
estimated. With greater coarseness in his manners and
language thin even the nide state of society in lii» tiuios
can palliate, with much varied learning and considerable
eloquence, ho was a blind, indiscriminate, and irrational
adipirer of Galen, and interpreted the anatomical and
physiological writings of that author in preference to
giving demonstrations from the subject Without talent
for original research or discovery hiniseU, his envy and
-jealousy .made him detest every one who gave proofs of
either. Wa are assured by Vesaliufl, who was some time
his pupil, that his • manner of teaching was calculated,
neither to advance the science nor to rectify the mistakes
of his predecessors. A human body was never seen in
the theatre of Dubois ; the carcases of dogs and other
animals were the materials from which he taught; and so
difficult even was it to obtain human bones, that unless
VesaUus and his fellow-students had collected essiduously
from the Innocents and other cemeteries, they must have-
committed numerous errors in acquiring the first principles.
This assertion, however, is contradicted by Riolan, and after-
wards by Sprengel and Lauth, the last of whom decidedly
censures VesaUus for this ungrateful treatment of his
instructor. It is certain that opportunities of inspecting
the human body were by no means so frequent as to
facilitate the study of the science. Though his mention
of injections has led some to suppose him the disco.verer
of that art, he appears to have made no substantial addition
to the information already acquired ; and the first acknow-
ledged professor of anatomy to the university of Paris
appears in history as one who lived without true honour
and died without just celebrity. He must not be con-
founded with Francisous Sylvius (De le Boe), who is
mentioned by Ruysch and Malacame as the author of a
particular method of demonstrating the braiiL
Almost coeval may be placed Charles Etienne, a younger EtieiineL
brother of the celebrated printers, and son to Henry, who I503-'3i,
Hellenised the family name by the classical appellation of
Stephen (Stc^ovos). It is uncertain whether he taught
publicly. But his tranquillity was disturbed, and his
pursuits interrupted, by the oppressive persecutions ir
which their religious opinions involved the family ; and
Charles Etienne drew the last breath of a miserable life in
a dungeon in 1564. Etienne, though sprung of a family
whose classical taste has been their principal glory, does not
betray the same servile imitation of the Galenian anatomy
with which Dubois is charged. He appears to have been
the first to detect valves in the orifice of the hepatic veins.
He was ignorant, however, of the researches of the Italian
anatomists ; and his description of the biain is inferior to
that given sixty years before by Aehillini. His comparison
of the cerebral cavities to the human ear has persuaded
Portal that he knew the inferior c<n-Kua, the hippocampus,
and its prolongations ; but this is no reason for giving him
that honour to the detriment of the reputation of Aehillini,
to whom, 80 far as historical testimony goes, the first
knowledge of this fact is due. The researches of Etienne
into the structure of the nervous system are, however,
neithei useless nor inglorious; and the circumstance of
demonstrating a canal through the entire length of the
spinal chord, which had neither been suspected by contem-
poraries nor noticed by successors till Senac made it
known, is .sufficient to place him high in the rank of
anatomical discoverers.
The French anatomy of the sixteenth century was
distinguished by two circumstances unfavourable to the
advancement of the science, — extravagant admiration of
antiquity, -with excessive confidence in the writings of
Galen, and the general practice of dissecting principally
the bodies of the lower animals. Both these errors were vwf"-4t
much amended, if not entirely removed, by the exer- 1514.
tions of a young Flcmi^g, whose appearance forms a con-
.SDicuous era in the history of anatomy. Andrew Vesali'is,
808
A N A T O i\I Y
a native of Brussels, after acquiring at Louvain the ordinary
classical attainnj'ints of the day, began at the age of fourtcea
to ttudy anatomy under the auspices of Dubois. Though
the originality of his mind soon led him to abandon the
1)1 .judices by which he was environed, and take the most
direct course for attaining a knowledge of the structure of
the human frame, ho neither underrated the Galeiiian
anatomy nor was indolent in the dissection of brute
animals. The diihculties, however, with which the practical
pursuit of human anatomy was beset in France, and the
dangers with which he had to contend, made him look to
Italy as a suitable field for the cultivation of the science;
and in 153G we find him at Venice, at once pursuing
the study of human anatomy with the utmost zeal, and
requested, ere he had attained his twenty-second year, to
demonstrate publicly in the university of Padua. After
remaining here about seven years, Vesalius went by ex-
press invitation to Bologna, and shortly afterwards to Pisa;
and thus [irofcssor in three universities, he appears to
have carried on his anatomical investigations and instruc-
tions alternately at Padua, Bologna, and Pisa, in the course
of the same winter. It is on this account that VesaLius,
(hough a Fleming by birth and trained originally in the
French school, belongs, as an anatomist, to the Italian,
and may be viewed as the first of an illustrious line of
teachers by whom the anatomical reputation of that country
■wai in the course of the sixteenth century raised to the
greatest eminence.
Vesalius is known as the first author of a comprehensive
and cystcniatic view of human anatomy. The knowledge
with which his <lissectioii3 had furnished him proved how
many errors were daily taught and learned under the broad
mantle of Galenian authority; and ho perceived the
necessity of a new system of anatomic.nl instruction, divested
of the omissions of ignorance and the misrepresentations of
prejudice and fancy. The early age at which he effected
this object has been to his biographers the theme of
boundless commendation ; and we are told that he befan
at the ago of twenty-five to arrange the materials he had
collected, and accomplished his task ere he had completed
Im 2Sth year.
Soon after this period wo find him invited as imperial
physician to the court of Charles V., where he was occupied
in the duties of practice, and answering the various charges
•which were unceasingly brought against him by The
disciples of Galen. After the abdication of Charies he
continued at court in great favour with his son Philip II.
To this he seems to have been led principally by the
troublesome controversies in which his anatomical writings
Lad involved him. It is painful to think, however, that
even imperial patronage bestowed on eminent talents does
not insure immunity from popular prejudice; and the fate
of Vesalius will be a 'lasting example of the barbarism of
the times, and of ths precarious tenure of the safety even
of a great physician. On the preliminary circumstances
authors are nofagreed ; but the most general account states
that when Vesalius was inspecting, with the consent of his
kinsmen, the body of a Spanish grandee, it was observed
that the heart still gave some feeble palpitations when
divided by the knife. The immediate effects of this outrage
to human feelings were the denunciation of the anatomist
to the Inquisition ; and Vesalius escaped the severe treat-
ment of that tribunal only by the influence of the kin'',
and by promising to perform a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land. He forthwith proceeded to Venice, from which he
sailed with the Venetian fleet, under James Malatesta, for
Cyprus, ^\^len he reached Jerusalem, he received from
the Venetian senate a message requesting him again to
a:cept the Paduan professorship, which had become vacant
hy the death of his friend and pupil FaUopius. Hig
[hisiorv.
destiny, however, which pursued him fast. Buffered him
not again to breathe the Italian air. After struggling for
many days with adverse winds in the Ionian Sia, he was
wrecked on the island of Zante, where he quickly breathed 1561
his last in such penury that unless a liberal gold-smith had
defrayed the funeral charges, his remains must have been
devoured by beasts of prey. At the time of his death he
was scarcely fifty years of age.
To form a correct estimate of the character and merit*
of Vesalius, we must not compare him, in the spirit of
modern perfection, with the anatomical authors cither of
later times or of the present day. Whoever would frame r.
just idea of this anatomist must» imagine, not a bold
innovator without academical learning,— not a genius
coming from a foreign country, unused to the forms and
habits of Catholic Europe,— nor a wild reformer, blaming
indiscriminately everything which accorded not with his
opinion ; but a young student scarcely emancipated from
the authority of instructors, and whose intellect was still
influenced by the doctrines with which it had been originally
imbued,— a scholar strictly trained in the ojiinions of
the tune, living amidst men who venerated Galen as the
oracle of anatomy and the divinity of medicine,— exercising
his reason to estimate the soundness of the instructions
then in use, and proceeding, in the way least likely to
offend authority and wound' prejudice, to rectify errors,
and to establish on the solid basis of observation the tnie
elements of anatomical science. Vesalius has been deno-
minated the founder of human anatomy; and though we
have seen that in this career he was preceded with honour
by Mondino and Berenger, stiU the smaU proportion of
correct observation which their reverence for Galen and
Arabian doctrines allowed them to communicate, will
not in a material degree impair the original merits of
'VesaUus. The errors which he rectified and the additions
which he made are so numerous, that it is impossible, in
such a sketch as the present, to communicate a just idea
of them.
Besides the first good description of the sphenoid bone,
he showed that the sternum consists of three portions and
the sacrum of five or six ; and described accuiately the
vestibule in the interior of the temporal bone. He not
only verified the observation of Etienno on the valves of
the hepatic veins, but he described weU the vena azygos
and discovered the canal which passes in the foetus between
the umbilical vein and the vena cava, since named ductui
venosus. He described the omentum, and its connections
with the stomach, the spleen, and the colon ; gave the first
correct views of the structure of the pylorus ; remarked the
small size of the cajcal appendix in man ; gave the first
good account of the mediastinum and pleura, and the fullest
description of the anatomy of the brain yet advanced.
He appears, however, not to have understood well the
inferior recesses ; and his account of the nerves is confused
by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third aa the
fifth, and the fi;th as the seventh.
The labours of Vesalius were not limited to the immediate
effect produced by his own writings. His instrOetions and
example produced a multitude of anatomical inquirers of
different characters and varied celebrity, by whom the
science was extended and rectified. Of these we cannot
speak in detail ; but historical justice requires us to notice
shortly those to whose exertions the science of anatomv
has been most indebted.
The first tha*. claims attention on this account is Eustachiul
Bartholomeo Eustachi of San Severino, near Salerno, who 1*''^ or
though greatly less fortunate in reputation than Vesalius, ^^''*''
divides with him the merit of creating the science of
human anatomy. He extended the knowledge of the
internal ear by rediscovering and describing correctly the
HISTOEY. I
ANATOMY
809
tube which beare his name ; and if we admit that Ingras-
siaa anticipated him in the knowledge of the third bone of
the tympanal cavity, the stapes, he is still the first who
described the internal afad anterior muscles of the malleus,
as also the stapedius, and the complicated figure of the
cochlea. He ia the first who studied accurately the anatomy
of the teeth, and the phenomena of the first and second
dentition. The work, however, which demonstrates at
once the great merit and the unhappy fate of Eustachius
ia his Anatomical Engravings, which, though completed in
1552, nine years after the impression, of the work of
Vesalius, the author was unable to publish. First com-
municated to the world in 1714 by Lancisi, afterwards in
1744 by Cajetan Petrioli, again fn 1744 by Albinus, and
more recently at Bonn in 1790, the engravings show that
Eustachius had dissected with the greatest care and
diligence, and taken the utmost pains to give just views
of the shape, size, and relative position of the organs of
the human body.
The first seven plates illustrate the history of the kidneys,
and some of the facts relating to the structure of the ear.
The eighth represents the heart, the ramifications of the
vena azygos, and the valve of the mna cava, named from
the author. In the seven subsequent plates is given a
succession of different views of the viscera of the chest and
abdomen. The seventeenth contains the brain and spinal
chord ; and the eighteenth more accurate views of the
origin, course, and distribution of the nerves than had been
given before. Fourteen plates are devoted to the muscles.
Eustachius did not confine his researches to the study of
relative anatomy. He investigated the intimate structure
«)f organs with assiduity and success. What was too
minute for unassisted vision he inspected by means of
glasses. Structure which could not be understood in the
recent state, he unfolded by maceration in different fluids,
or rendered more distinct by injection and exsiccation.
The facts unfolded in these figures are so important that
it is justly remarked by Lauth, that if the author himself
liad been fortunate enough to publish them, anatomy
would have attained the perfection of the 18th century
two centuries earlier at least. Their seclusion for that
period in the papal library has given celebrity to many
names which would have been known only in the verifica-
tion of the discoveries of Eustachius.
Columbus. Eustachius was the contemporary of Vesalius. Columbus
li23. and Fallopius were his pupils. Colambus, as his immediate
successor in Padua, and afterwards as professor at Rome,
distinguished himself by rectifying and improving the
anatomy of the bones ; by giving correct accounts of the
shape and cavities of the heart, of the pulmonary artery
and aorta and their valves, and tracing the course of the
blood from the right to the left side of the heart ; by a
good description of the brain and its vessels, and by correct
understanding of the internal ear, and the first good
account of the ventricles of the larynx
Falloiios. Fallopius, who, after being professor at Pisa in 1548, and
at Padua in 1551, died at the age of forty, studied the
general anatomy of the bones ; described better than
heretofore the internal ear, especially the tympanum and
its osseous ring, the two /enestrw and their communication
with the vestibule and cochlea ; and gave the first good
account of the stylo-mastoid hole and canal, of the ethmoid
bone and cells, and of the lacrymal passages. In myology
he rcctifie'd several mistakes of Vesalius. He also devoted
attention to the organs of generation in both sexes, and dis-
covered the utero-peritoneal canal which still bears his name.
15i5-8C Osteology nearly at the same time found an assidumis
cultivator in John Philip Ingrassias, a learned Sicilian
physician, who, in a skilful commentary on the osteology
of Galen, corrected numerous mbtakes. He gave the first
1— L'T*
distinct account of the true configuration of the sphenoid
and ethmoid bones, and has the merit of first describing \5i'f,
the third bone of the tympanum, called stapes, though this
is also claimed by Eustachius and Fallopius.
The anatomical descriptions of Vesalius underwent the Ar=na. -
scrutiny of various inquirers. Those most distinguished 15^0-89^
by the importance and accuracy of their researches, as
well as the temperate tone of their observations, were Julius
Csesar Aranzi, anatomical professor for thirty-two years in
the university of Bologna, and Constantio Varoh, physician
to Pope Gregory XIII. To the former we are indebted
for the first correct account of the anatomical pecuharlties
of the foetus, and he was the first to show that the
muscles of the eye do not, as was falsely imagined, arise
from the dura mater, but from the margin of the optic hole.
He also, after considering the anatomical relations of the
cavities of the heart, the valves, and the great vessels,
corroborates the views of Columbus regarding the course
which the blood follows in passing from the right to the
left side of the heart. Aranzi ia the first anatomist who
describes distinctly the inferior cornua of the ventricles of
the cerebrum, who recognises the objects by which they
are distinguished, and who gives them the name by which
they are still known (hippocampus) • and his account is
more minute and perspicuous than that of the authors of
the subsequent century. He speaks at large of the choroid
plexus, and gives a particular description of the fourth
ventricle, under the name of cistern of the cerebellum, as a
discovery of his own.
Italy, though rich in anatomical talent, has probably few VarolioA
greater names than that of Constantio VaroU of Bologna. '^^'-^^
Though he died at the early age of thirty-two, he acquired
a reputation not inferior to that of the most eminent of
his contemporaries. Hp is now known chiefly as the
author of an epistle, inscribed to Hieronymo MercuriaU,
on the optic nerves, in which he describes a new method
of dissecting the brain, and communicates many interesting
particulars relating to the anatomy of the organ. He
observes the threefold division of the inferior surface or
base, defines the limits of the anterior, middle, and posterior
eminences, as marked by the compartments of the skull,
and justly remarks that the cerebral cavities are capacious^
cgmmunicate with each other, extending first backward
and then forward, near the angle of the pyramidal portion of
the temporal bone, and that they are folded on themselves,
and finally lost above the middle and inferior eminence
of the brain. He appears to have been aware that at
this point they communicate with the exterior or convo-
luted surface. He recognised the impropriety of the tenn
corpus callosum, seems to have known the communication
called afterwatds./oramsre Monroianum, and describes tha
hippocampus more minutely than had been previously done.
Among the anatomists of the Italian school, as a pupil 1534.'
of Fallopius, Eustachius, and Aldrovandus, is generally
enumerated Volcher Coiter of Groningen. He distin-
guished himself by accurate researches on the cartilages,
the bones, and the nerves, recognised the value of morbid
anatomy, and made experiments on living animals to ascer-
tain the action of the heart and the influence of the brain.
The Frutefull and Necessary Briefe Worke of John Halla
(1565), and The Englisheman's Treasure, by Master Thomaa
Vicary (1586), English works published at this time, ^ro
tolerable compilations from former authors, much tinged
by Galenian and Arabian distinctions. A mere valuable
compendium than either is, however, that of John Banister
(1578), entitled The Historic of Man, from tlie most approved
Anathomistea in this Present Age.
The celebrity of the anatomical school of Italy was Fal-.;;an
worthily maintained by Hieronymo FaLricio of Acquap;n-
dente, who, ia imitation of his master Fallopius, laboured
810
ANATOMY
[aiSTOEY.
to render aQatotnical knowledge more precise hy r^pca'.sd
dissections, and to illustrate the obscure by researches on
the structure of animals in general In this manner lie
investigated the formation of the fcetus, the structure of
thoa'sophagus, stomach, and bowels, and the peculiarities cf
the eye, the ear, and the kryai. The discovery, however,
on which his surest claims to eminence rest is that of the
membranous folds, which he niimes valves, in the interior
of veins. Several of these folds had been observed by
Fornel, Sylvius, -and Vesaliua ; and in 1647 Cannani
observed those of the vena azygos ; but no one appears to
have offered any rational conjecture on their use, or to
Lave traced them through the venous system at large, until
Fabricius in 1574, upon this hypothesis, demonstrated the
presence of these valvular folds in all the veins of the
tsxtremities.
Fabricius, though succeeaea oy his pnpil Julius Caaserius
of Placenza, may be regarded as the last of that illustrious
line of anatomical teachers by whom the science was so
successfully studied and taught in the universities of Italy.
The discoveries which each made, and the errors which
their successive labours rectified, tended gradually to give
anatomy the character of a useful as" well as an accurate
science, and to pave the way for a discovery whichj though
not anatomical but physiological, is so intimately connected
■«ith correct knowledge of the shape and situation of parts,
that it exercised the most powerful influence on the future
progress of anatomical inquiry. Thia was the knowledge
of the circular motion of the blood, — a fact which, though
obscurely conjectured by Aristotle, Nemesius, Mondino,
and Berenger, and partially taught by Servetus, Colum-
bus, Coesalpinus, and Fabricius, it was nevertheless re-
served to William Harvey fuUy and satisfactorilv to
demonstrate.
Mondino believed that the blooa proceeds from the
licart to the lungs through the vena arterialis or pul-
monary artery, and that the aorta conveys the spirit into
the blood through all parts of the body. This doctrine
was adopted with little modification by Berenger, who
further demonstrated the existence and operation of the
tricuspid valves in the right ventricle, anc' of the sigmoid
valves at the beginning of the pulmonary artery and
aoi-ta, and that there were only- two ventricles separated
by a solid impervious septum. These were afterwards
described in greater detail by Tesalius, who neverthe-
less appears not to have been aware of the important use
which might be made of this knoviledge. It was the
^ervetns. Spaniard Michael Servet or Servetus (boirn in 1509; bumtin
1553), who in his treatise De Tnnitatis Eii-vribus, published
at Haguenau in 1531, first maintained the imperviousness
of the septum, and the transition of the blood by what he
terms an unknown route, namely, from the right ventricle
by the vena artenosa (pulinonaiy artery) to the lungs,
and thence into the arteria venosa or pulmonary vein and
left auricle and ventricle, from which, he adds afterwards,
it is conveyed by the aorta to all parts of the body.i
* The passage of Servetus is so interesting that our readers may
feel some cimosity in perusing it in the language of the author ; and
it is not unimportant to remark that Servetus appears to have been
led to think of the course of the blood by the desire of explaining the
manner in which the animal spirits were supposed to be generated : —
** Vitalis spiritus in sinistro cordis ventriculo saam originem habet,
jUTantibus maximo pulmonibus ad ipsius perfectionem. Est spiritus
tenuis, caloris vi elaboratus, flavo colore, ignea potentia, ut sit quasi
ei puriore sanguine lucens, rapor substantiam continens aqus, aeris,
et ignis. Generntur ex facta in pulmone commixtione inspirati aeris
cam elaborate subtili sanguine, quern dexter ventriculus sinistro com-
municat. Fit autem communicatio hfflc, noa per parietem cordis
medium, at yalgo creditor, sed magno artificio a deltro cordis ventri*
culo, longo per p'almones ducta agitatar sanguis subtilis ; a pulmonibas
p.-*eparatur, fiavus efficitur, et a vena arteriosa in arteriam venosam
traosfunditor. Deinde in ipsa arteria venosa, inspirato acri mLscetur
Thci's;h the leading outlines, not only of the pulmonary
or small but even of the great circulation, were sketched
thus early by one who, though a philosopher, was attached
to the church, it was only in his work he Jie Anatomica,
published at Venice in 1559, that Columbus forraaUy and
distinctly aimounced the circular course of the blood as a
discovery of his own ; and maintained, in addition to the
imperviousness of the septum, the fact that the arteria
venalU (pulmonary vein) contains, not air, but blood miicd
with air brought from the lungs to the left ventricle of the
heart, to be distributed through the body at large.
Soon after, views still more complete of the smau or 1570-93.
pdlmonary circulation were given by Andrew Csesalpinua
of Arozzo, who not only maintained the analogy between
the structure of the arterious vein or pulmonary artery and
the aorta, and that between the venous artery or pulmonary
veins and veins in general, but was the first to remark the
swelling of veins below ligatures, and to uifer from it a
refluent motion of blood in these vessels. The discoveries
of Aranzi and Eustachius in the vessels of the foetus
tended at first to perplex and afterwards to elucidate some
of these notions. At length it happened that, between Harvfy.
the years 1598 and 1000, a young Englishman, Willian
H.irvey, pursuing his anatomical studies at Padua undei
Fabricius of Acquapendente, learnt from that anatomist
the existence of the valves in the veins of the e;?tremitie3,
and undertoyk to ascertain the use of these valves by
experimental inquiry. Jt is uncertain whether ho learnt
from the writings of Ca-salpinns the fact observed by that
author, of the tumescence of a vein below the ligature,
but he could not fail to be aware, and indeed he shows
that he was aware, of the small circulation as taught by
Servetus and Columbus. Combining these facta alreadj
known, he, by a series of well-executed experiments, de
monstrated clearly the existence, not only of the small, bu.
of a general circulation from the left side of the heart by the
aorta and its subdivisions, to the right side by the veins.
This memorable truth was first annoimced in the year 1G19.
It belongs not to this place either to consider the
arguments and facts by which Harvey defended his
theory, or to notice the numerous assaults to which he
was exposed, and the controversies in which his opponenta
wished to involve him. It is sufficient to say, that after
the temporary ebullitions of spleen and envy had subsided,
the doctrine of the circular motion of the blood was admitted
by ail enlightened and unprejudiced persons, and finally
v/as universally adopted as affording the most satisfactory
explanation cf many facts in anatomical structure which
were either misunderstood or entirely overlooked. The
inquiries to which the investigation of the doctrine gave
rise produced numer9us researches on the shape and
structure of the heart and its divisions, of the lungs, and
of the blood-vessels and their distribution. Of this descrip-
tion were the researches of Nicolas' Steno on the structure
of the heart, the classical work of Richard Lower, the
dissertation of Pechlin, the treatise of Vieussens, the
et exspiratione a fujlgine erpurgatur ; atque ita tandem a sinistro cordis
ventriculo totum mixtum per diastolen attiahitur, apta supellex, nt
fiat spiritus vitalis. Quod ita per pulmonfis fiat communicatio e*
praeparatio, -docet conjunctio varia, et communicatio vena arteriosa
cum arteria venosa in pulmonibas. Conlirraat hoc magnitudo insigcii
Tens arterioss, qua nee talis neo tanta esset facta, nee tantam a corda
ipso vim purissimi sanguinis in pulmonea emitteret, ob solum eorum
nutrimentum ; nee cor pulmonibus hac rations serviret, cum prseser-
tim antea in embryone solerent pulmoues ipsi aliunde nutiiri, ob
mem branulas illas seu valvulas cordis, usque ad horum nativita-
tem ; ut docet Galenus, &c. Itaque ille spiritus a sinistro cordia
ventriculo arterias totius corporis delude transfunditur, ita at qui
tonuior est, superiora petit, ubi magis elaboratur, prxcipue in plexa
retiformi, sab bast cerebri sito, abi ex vitali fieri incipit ^malis,
ad prapiiam tatioBoIis anima rationsm iccedens." — Le Trmilau,
Ub. v.
HISTORY.]
A N A T O M Y
81J
-iTork of Malpiglii on the structure of tie lungs, several
sketches in the writings of Mayow, and other treatises of
less moment. Systematic treatises of anatomy began to
assume a more instructive fora;, and to breathe a more
philosophical spirit. The great work of Adrian Spigelius,
which appeared in 1627, two years after the death of the
author, contains indeed no proof that he was aware of the
valuable generalisation of Harvey ; but in the institutions
of Caspar Bartholin, as republished and improved by his
son Thomas in 1651, the anatomical descriptions and
explanations are given with reference to the new doctrine.
A stUl more unequivocal proof of the progress of correct
anatomical knowledge was given in the lectures delivered
by Peter Dionis, at the Jardin Eoyal of Paris, in 1673 and
the seven following years, in which that intelligent surgeon
gave most accurate demonstrations of all the parts com-
posing the humBn frame, and especially of the heart, its
auri>;(-o3, ventricles, and valves, and the large vessels
connected with it and the lungs. These demonstrations.
Hist published in 1690, were so much esteeriied that they
passed through seven editions in the space of thirty years,
and were translated into English.
The progress of anatomical discovery continued in the
meantime to advance. In the course of the 1 6th century
Tjustachius, in studying minutely the structure of the vena
5i2yg03 had recognised ia the horse a white vessel full of'
■watery fluid, connected with the internal jugular vein, on
■the left side of the vertebral column, corresponding accu-
rately with the vessel since named thoracic dud. Fallopius
also described vessels belonging to the liver distinct from
arteries and veins ; and similar vessels appear to have been
noticed by Nicolaus Massa. The nature and properties of
these vessels were, however, entirely unknown. On th(
AmIUus. 23d July 1622 Gaspar Asellius, professor of anatomy ai
Pavia, while engaged in demonstrating the recurrent nerves
in a living dog, first observed numerous white delicate
filaments crossing the mesentery in all directions; nd
though he took them at first for nerves, the opaque white
fluid which they shed quickly convinced him that thfy were
a new order of vessels. The repetition of the experiment
the following day showed that these vessels were best seen
iu animals recently fed ; and as he traced them from the
villous membrane of the intestines, and observed the valves
vith which they were liberally supplied, he inferred that
they were genuine chyliferous vesseb. By confounding
them with the lymphatics, he made them proceed to the
pancreas and liver, — a mistake which appears to have been
first rectified by Francis De le Boe. The discovery of
Aselliua was announced in 1627 ; and the following year,
by means of the zealous efforts of Nicolas Peiresc, a liberal
senator of Aix, the vessels were seen in the person of a
felon who had eaten copiously before execution, and whose
body was inspected an hour and a half after. In 1629
they were publicly demonstrated at Copenhagen by Simon
Pauli, and the same year the thoracic duct was observed
by Mentel for the first time since it was described by
Eustachius. Five years after (1634), John Wcsling,
professor of anatomy and surgery at Venice, gave the first
delineation of the lacteals from the human subject, and
evinced more accurate knowledge than his predecessors of
the thoracic duct and the lymphatics. Highmore in 1637
■demonstrated unequivocally the difference between the
lacteals and the mesenteric veins ; and though some per-
plexity was occasioned by the discovery of the pancreatic
<luct by Wirs'ung, this mistake was corrected by Thomas
Bartholin; and the discovei-y by Pecquet in 16-17 of the
common trunk of the lacteals and lymphatics, and of
the course which the chyle follows to reach the blood,
may be regarded as the last of the scries of isolated facts
iy the generalisation of which the extent, distiibution, and
uses of the most important organs of the animal body-
were at length developed.
To complete the history of this part of anatomical
science one step yet remained, — the distinction between
the lacteals and lymphatics, and the discovery of the
termination of the latter order of vessels. The honour of
this discovery is divided between Jolyffe, an English
anatomist, and Olaus Rudbeck, a young Swede. The
former, according to the testimony of Glisson and Wharton,
w.as aware of ths distinct existence of the lymphatics in
1650, and demonstrated them as such in 1652. It is
nevertheless doubtful whether he knew them much before
the latter period ; and it is certain that Rudbeck observed
the lymphatics of the large intestines, and traced them to
glands, on the £7th January 1651, after he had, in the
course of 1650, made various erroneous conjectures re-^rd-
ing them, and, like others, attempted to trace them to the
liver. The foUowing year he demonstrated them in
presence of Queen Christina, and traced thenj. to the
thoracic duct, and the latter to the subclavian vein. Their
course and distribution were still more fully investigated
by Thomas Bartholin, Wharton, Swammerdam, and Blaes,
the last two of whom recognised the existence of valves ;
while Antony Nuck of Leyden, by rectifying various
errors of his predecessors,' and adding, several new and
valuable observations, rendered this part of anatomy much
more precise than formerly.
After this period anatomists began to study more
minutely the orgaifS and textures. Francis Glisson distin- 1654.
guished himself by a minute description of the liver, and a
clearer account of the stomach and intestines, than had
yet been given. Thomas ^Vha^ton investigated the structure 1656.
of the glands with particular care ; and though rather
prone to indulge in fanciful generalisation, he developed
some interesting views of these organs ; while Charleton,
who appears to have been a person of great genius, though
addicted to hypothesis, made some good remarks on th<j
communication of the arteries with the veins, the foetal
circulation, and the course of the lymphatics. But the
circumstance which chiefly distinguished the history of
anatomy at the beginning of the seventeenth century was
the appearance of Thomas Willis, who' rendered himself Wiliii
eminent not only by good researches on the brain and
nerves, but by many judicious observations on the structure
of the lungs, the intestines, the blood-vessels, and the
glands. His anatomy of the brain and nerves is so minute
and elaborate, and abounds so much in new information,
that the reader is struck by the immense chasm between
the vague and meagre notices of his predecessors, and the
ample and correct descriptions of Willis. This exceUent
work, however, is not the result of his own personal and
unaided exertions; and the character of Willis derives
additional lustre from the candid avowal of his obligations
to Wren and MiUingtdn, and, above all, to the diligent
researches of his fellow-anatomist Richard Lower.
Willis was the first who numbered the cranial nerves ia
the order in which they are now usually enumerated by
anatomists. His observation of the connection of the
eighth pair lyith the slender nerve which issues from the
beginning of the spinal chord is known to all. He
remarked the parallel lines of the mesolobe, afterwards
minutely described by Vicq d'Azyr. He seems to have
recognised the communication of the convoluted surface o{
the brain and that between the lateral cavities beneath the
fornix. He described the corpora striata and optic Ihalami;
the four orbicular eminences, with the bridge, which ha
first named annular protuberance; and the white m'am-
millary eminences, behind the infundibiilum. In the
cerebellum he remarks the aTborescent arrangement of the
white and grey matter, and gives a good account of the
812
ANATOMY
LHisTony.
intcrnil carotids, and the communications which they
inako with the branches of the basilar artery.
About the middle of the 17th century Kt. Hooke and
Nehemiah Grew employed the simple microscope in the
minute examination of plants and animals ; and the Dutch
philosopher Leeuwenhoeck with great acutcness eiamincd
microscopically the solids and fluids of the body, recognised
the presence of scales in the cuticle, and discovered the
corpuscles in the blood and milk, and the spermatozoa in
Malpigtii. the seminiJ fluid. The researches of Malpighi also tended
greatly to improve the knowledge of minute structure.
He gave the first distinct ideas on the orgaiii.sation of the
lung, and the mode in which the bronchial tubes and
vessels terminate in that organ. By the microscope ho
tractd the transition of the arteries into the veins, and saw
the movements of the blood corpuscles in the capillaries.
He endeavoured to unfold, by dissection and microscopic
observation, the minute structure of the brain. He studied
the structure of bono, he traced the formation and explained
the structure of the teeth ; and his name is to this day
associated with the discovery of the deeper layer of the
cuticle and tho Malpighian bodies in the spleen and
kidney. In these difficult inquiries the observations of
Malpighi are in general faithful, and je may be regarded
as the founder of histological anatomy.
1660. Nicolas Steno described with accuracy the lacryraal
gland and passages, and rediscovered tho parotid duct,
Bellini studied the structure of the kidneys, and described
tho tongue and tonsils with some care ; and Drelincourt
laboured to investigate f-e changes efTected on the uterus
by impregnation, and to elucidate the foimation of the
foetus. The science might have derived still greater
advantages from tho genius of Regnier de Graaf, who
investigated with accuracy the structure of the pancreas
and of the organs of generation in both sexes, had he not
been cut oflf at the early age of thirty-two. Lastly, Wcpfer,
though more devoted to morbid anatomy, made, neverthe-
less, some just observations on the anatomical disposition
of the cerebral vessels, the glandular structure of the liver,
and the termination of tho common duct in the duodenum.
Iiuyscn. The ai)pearance of Frederic Ruysch, who was born in
1638, and became professor of anatomy at Amsterdam in
1665, gave a new impulse to anatomical research, and
tended not only to give the science greater precision, but
to extend its limits in every direction. The talents of
Ruysch are said to have been developed by accident. To
repel the audacious and calumnious aspersions with which
De Bils attacked De le Boe and Van Home, Ruysch
published his tract on the valves of the lymphatics, which
completely established his character as an anatomist of
originality and research. This, however, is the smallest
of his services to the science. The art of injecting, which
had been originally attempted by Eustachi and Varoli, and
was afterwards rudely practised by Glisson, Bellini, and
Willis, was at length carried to greater perfection by De
Graaf and Swammerdam, the fonner of whom injected the
spermatic vessels with mercury and variously - coloured
liquors; while the latter, by employing melted wax with
other ingredients, made the first approach to the refinements
of modern anatomy. By improving this idea of using
substances which, though solid, may be rendered fluid at
the period of injectmg, Ruysch carried this art to the
highest perfection.
By the application of this happy contrivance he was
enabled to demonstrate the arrangement of minute vessels
in the interior of organs which had escaped the scrutiny
of previous anatomists. Scareely a part of the human
body eluded the penetration of his 8)Tinge ; and his
discoveries ".vere proportionally great. His account of (he
valves of the lymphatics, of the vessela of the lungs, and
their minute structuro ; his researches on the vascular
strjcture of the skin, of the bones, and their epiphyses,
and their mode of growth and union ; his observations on
the spleen, the glans penis, tho clitoris, and the womb
impregnated and unimpregnated, were but a limited part
of his anatomical labours. He studied the minute structuro
of the brain ; he demonstrated tho organisation of tho
choroid plexus ; he described tho stole of the hair when
afTected with Polish plait; he proved the vascular structuro
of the teeth ; be injected tho dura mater, the pleura, tho
pericardium, and peritoneum ; ha unfolded the minute
structure of the conglomerate glands ; ho investigated that
of tho synovial apparatus placed in the interior of tho
joints ; and he discovered several curious particulars relating
to the lacteals, the lymphatics, and the lymphatic glands.
Meanwhile, Meibomius rediscovered the palpebral glands, 167(f.
which were known to Casserius ; Swammerdam studied
tho action of the lungs, described tho structure of the
human uterus, and mado numerous valuable observations
on the cceca and pancreatoid organs of fishes ; and Kcrck-
ringius laid the foundation of a knowledge of the process
of ossification. John Conrad Brunner, in the course d 1687.
experiments on the pancreas, discovered the glands of the
duodenum named after him, and Conrad Peyer described 1677-81.
the solitary and agminated glands of the intestinal canal.
Leonard Tassin, distinguished for original observation, 1678.
rendered the anatomical history of the brain more accurate
than heretofore, and gave particular accounts of the intes-
tinal tube, the pancreatic duct, and the hepatic ligaments.
That France might not be without participation in the
glory of advancing the progress of anatomical knowledge,
the names of Duvemey and Vieussens are commemorated
with distinction. Duvemey, born in 164S, and first intro- Duveruey
duccd into public life in 1GV6 in the Royal Academy of
Science^, decorated with the honorary title of professor of
anatomy to the Dauphin, and appointed in 1679 professor
at the Jardin Royal, distinguished himself by the first
accurate account of the organ of hearing, and by his
dissections of several animals at the academy, supplied
valuable materials for the anatomical details of the natural
history of animals published by that learned body. Ho
appears to have been the first who demonstrated the fact
that the cerebral sinuses open into the jugular veins, and
to have been aware that the former receive the veins of
the brain, and are the venous receptacles of the organ.
He understood the cerebral cavities and their mode of
communicatiyu ; distinguishes the posterior pillars of tho
vault from the pedes hippocampi ; recognises the two
plates of tho septum lucidum ; and, what is still more
remarkable, ha first indicates distinctly the decussation of
the anterior pyramids of the medulla oblongata — a fact
afterwards verified by the researches of Mistichelli, Petit,
and Santorini. He studied the gangHons attentively, and
gives the first distinct account of the formation, connections,
and distribution of the intercostal nerve. It is interesting
to remark that his statement that the veins or sinuses of
the spinal chord terminate in the vena azygos was verified
by the more recent researches of Dupuytren and Breschet,
which show that the vertebral veins communicate by means
of the intercostal and superior lumbar veins with the
azj'gos and demi-azygos. His account of the structure of
bones, and of the progress of ossification, is valuable. .He
recognised the vascular structure of the spleen, and described
the excretory ducts of the prostate gland, the verumontanum,
and the anteprostates.
One of the circumstances which st this time tended
considerably to the improvement of anatomical science
was the attention with which Comparative Anatomy -was
beginning to be cultivated. In ancient times, and at
the renval of letters the dissection of the lower animals
SlSTOEY.]
i^ N A T 0 M Y
813
■was substituted tor that of tba Luinaa body; and'ths
descriptions of the organs of the latter wera too often
derived from the former. The otloquy and contempt in
which this abuse involved the study cf animal anatomy
caused it to be neglected, or pursued with indifference,
for more than two centuries, during which anatomists
conSned their descriptions, at least very much, to the parts
of the human body. At this period, however, the prejudice
agiinst Comparative Ajiatomy begaa to subside ; and
animal dissection, though not substituted for that of the
hur^^n body, was employed, as it ought always to Iiave
teen, to illustrate obscurities, to determine doubts, and to
explain difficulties, and, in short, to .enlarge and rectify
the knowledge of the structure of animal bodies generally.
For this revolution in its favour, Comparative Anatomy
•was in a great measure indebted to the learned societies
■which were established about this time in the different
countries of Europe. Among these, the Eoyal Society of
London, embodied by. charter by Charles IL in 1663, and
the Academy of Sciences of Paris, founded in 1655
by Colbert, are undoubtedly entitled to the first rank.
Thouirh later in establishment, the latter institution was
distinguished by making the first great efforts in favour of
Comparative Anatomy; and Perrault, Pecquet, Dtivemey,
ai>d Mery, by the dissections of rare animals'obtained from
the royal menagerie, speedily supplied valuable materials
for the anatomical naturalist In England, Nehemiah
Grew, Edward Tyson, and Samuel Collins cultivated the
same department with diligence and success. Grew has
left sn interesting accoimt of the anatomical peculiarities
of the intestinal canal in various animals ; Tyson in the
dissection of a porpoise, an opossum, and an ourang outang,
adduces some valuable illustrations of the comparative
difiFerenees between the structure of the human body and
that of the lower animals ; Collins has the merit of con-
ceiving, and executing on an enlarged plan, a comprehensive
system, embodyin* aU the information then extant With
the aid of Tyson and his own researches, which were both
extensive and accurate, he composed a system of anato-
mical knowledge in which he not only gives ample and
accurate descriptions of the structure of the human body,
und the various morbid changes to which the organs are
liable, but illustrates the whole by accurate and interesting
iketches of the peculiarities of the lower animals. The
titter of this work is so excellent that it can only be
iscribed to ignorance that it has received so little attention.
Though regarded as a compilation, and though indeed
much of the human anatomy is derived from VeaaUus, it
has the advantage of tlie works published on the Continent
at that time, that it embodies most of the valuable facts
derived from Malpighi, WiJis, and Vieussens. The Com-
parative Anatomy is almost all original, the result of
personal research and dissection ; and the pathological
observations, though occasionally tinged with the spirit
of the times, show the author to have been endowed with
the powers of observation and judicious reflection in no
ordinary degree.
About this time also we recognise the first attempts to
study the minute constitution of the tissues, by the
combination of the microscope and the effects of chemical
agents. Bone furnished the first instance iu which this
method was put in use ; and though GagHardi, who
undertook the inquiry, had fallen into some mistakes which
it required the observation of Malpighi to rectify, this did
not deter Clopton Havers and Nesbitt, in England, and
Courtial, Du Hamel, and Delasone, and afterwards Heris-
sant, in France, from resuming the same train of investi-
gation. The mistakes into which these anatomists fell
belong to the imperfect method of inquiry. The facts
which they ascertained have been verified by recent esperi-
' ment, and constitute no unessential part of cur knowledge
of the structure of bone.
Ten yeirs after the publication of the work of Collins, 1695.
Henry Ridley, another English anatomist, 'distinguished
bimsalf by a monograph on the brain, which, though not free
from errors, contains, nevertheless, some valuable observa-
tions. Ridley is the first who distinguishes by name the
restiiorm processes, or the posterior pyramidal eminences.
He recognised the figure of the four eminences in the
human subject ; he remarked the mammiUary bodies ; and
he discovered the sinus which passes under his name.
Raymond Vieussens, by the publication of his great work Vieossens.
on neurography in 1G84, threw new light on the conSguja-
tion and structure of the brain, the spinal chord, and the
nerves ; and gave e description of the airangement and
distribution of the latter more precise than heretofora Of
the formation and connections of the sympathetic nerve
especially he gave views which have been generally adopted
by subsequent anatomists. His new arrangement of the
vessels, pubUshed in 1705, contains several cuiious opinions
His observations on the structure of the heart, published
in 1706, and enlarged in 1715, exhibit the first correct views
of the intimate structure of an organ which afterwards was
most fully developed by the labours of Lancisi and Senac.
To the same period belong the rival publications of 1685-97.
Godfrey Bidloo and .WiUiam Cowper, the latter of whom,
however, stained a reputation otherwise good by publishing
as his own the engravings of the former. Cowper further
distinguished himself by a minute Account of the urethral
glands, alread.y known to Columbus and Mery; a good
description of the intestinal glands, discovered by Brunner
and Peyer ; and by demonstrating the communication of
the arteries and veins of the mesentery.
The anatomical genius of Italy, which had slumbered
since the death of Malpighi, was destined once more to
revive in Lancisi, Valsalva, and his Olustrious pupils
Santorini and Morgagni Valsalva especially distin.guished
himself by his description of the structure of the ear,
which, in possessing still greater precision and minuteness
than that of Duverney, is valuable in setting the example
oi rendering anatomy altogether a science of description.
Santorini, who was professor at Venice, was no unworthy Santorini.
friend of Valsalva and Morgagni His anatomical observa-
tions, which relate to the muscles of the face, the brain,
and several of the nerves, the ducts of the lacrymal gland,
the nose and its cavities, the larynx, the viscera of the
chest and belly, and the organs of generation in the two
sexes, furnish beautiful models of essays, distinguished for
perspicuity, precision, and novelty, above anything ^^hich
had then appeared. These observations, indeed, which
bear the impress of accurate observation and clear con-
ception, may be safely compared with any anatomical
writings which have appeared since. Those on the brain
are particularly interesting. Morgagni, though chiefly Morsagid.
known as a pathological anatomist, did not neglect the
healthy structure. His Adversaria, which appeared between
1706 and 1749, and his Epistles, published in 1723»
contain a series of observations to rectify the mistakes of
previous anatomists, and to determine the characters of
the healthy structure of many parts of the human body.
Many parts he describes anew, and indicates facts not
previously observed. All his remarks show how well he
kuG'^ what true anatomical description ought to be. In
this respect, indeed, the three anatomists now mentioned
may be said to have anticipated their contemporaries nearly
a century ; for, while other authors were satisfied with
giving loose and inaccurate or meagre notices of parts,
with much fanciful supposition, Valsalva, Santorini, and
Morgagni laboured to determine with precision the ana-
tomical characters of the parta which they describo.
814
ANA T O ]\1 Y
[historv
Winslow. The saina cliaracter is iue to Winsiow, a native of
Denmark, but, as pupil and successor of Duverncy, as
AeH as a convert to Catholicism, naturalised in France,
and Crally professor of anatomy at the Royal Gardens.
IJis exposition of the structure of the human body ia
distinguished for b3ing not only the first treatise of de-
scriptive anatomy, divested of physiological details and
hypothetical explanations foreign to the subject, but for
being a close description derived from actual objects,
without reference to the writings of previous anatomists.
A'Dout the same time Chcselden in London, the first
Monro in Edinburgh, and Albinus in Leyden, contributed
by their several treatises to render anatomy still more
precise as a descriptive science. The Osleographia of the
first-mentioned was of much use in directing attention to the
study of the skeleton and the morbid changes to which
it is liable. This work, however, magnificent as it was,
iik;„... '^^s e.Kcelled by that of Albinus, who, in 1747, published
engravings descriptive of the bones and muscles, which
perhaps will never bo surpassed either in accuracy of
outline or beauty of execution. The several labours of
this author, indeed, constitute an important era in the
history of the science. He was the first ivho classified
and exhibited the muscles in a pro])er arrangement, and
apfilied to them a nomenclature wljich is still retained by
the consent of the best anatomists. He gives a luminous
account of the arteries and veins of the intestines, represents
with singular fidelity and beauty the bones of the fcetus,
inquires into the structure of the skin and the cause of
its colour in different races ; represents the changes incident
to the womb in different periods of pregnancy, and de-
scribes the relations of the thoracic duct and the vena azygos,
with the contiguous parts. Besides these largo and
magnificent works, illustrated by the most beautiful en-
gravings, six books of Academical Annotations were the
fruits of his long and assiduous cultivation of anatomy.
These contain valuable remarks on the sound structure
and morbid deviations of numerous parts of the human
body.
Albinus found a worthy successor in his pupil Albert
Poller. Von lialler, who, with a mind imbued with every depart-
ment of literature and science, directed his chief attention,
nevertheless, to the cultivation of anatomical and physio;
logical knowledge. Having undertaken at an early age
(twenty-one) to illustrate, with commentaries, the physio-
logical prelections of his preceptor Boerhaavo, ho devoted
himself assiduously to the perusal of every work which
could tend to facilitate his purpose ; and as he found
numerous erroneous or imperfect statements, and many
deficiencies to supply, he undertook an extensive course
of dissection of human and animal bodies to obtain
the requisite information. During the seventeen years
he was pnfessor at Giiltingen, he dissected 400 bodies,
and inspected their organs with the utmost care. The
residt of these assiduous labours appeared at intervals in
the form of dissertations by himself, or under the name of
some one of his pupik, finally published in a collected
shape, between 174G and 1751 (Disputationes Anatomicce
Selecliores), and in eight numbers of most accurate and
beautiful engravings, representing the most important
parts of the human body, e.g., the diaphragm, the uterus,
ovaries, and vagina, the arteries of the difl'erent regions
and organs, with learned and critical explanatory observa-
tions. He verified the observations that in the foetus the
testicles lie in the abdomen, and showed that their descent
into the scrotum may be complicated with the formation
of congenital hernia. Some years after, when he had
retired from his academical duties at Gottingen, he
published, between 1757 and 1765, the large and elaborate
work which, with singular modesty, he styled Elements
of I'hyswluijy. This work, though profcs.icdly djvotci
to physiology, rendered, nevertheless, the most essential
services to anatomy. Haller, drawing an acc-.irate line of
distinction between the two, gave the most clear, precise,
and complete descriptions gf the situation, position, figure,
component parts, and minute structure of the different
organs and their appendages. The results of previous and
coeval inquiry, obtained by extensive reading, he sedulously
■verified by personal observation ; and though he never
rejected facts stated on credible authorities, he in all eases
laboured to ascertain their real value by experiment.
The anatomical descriptions are on this account not only
the most valuable part of his work, but the most valuable
that had then or for a long time after appeared. It is
painful, nevertheless, to think that the very form in which
this work is composed, with copious and scrupulous
reference to authorities, made it be regarded as a compila-
tion only ; and that the auiLor was compelled to show, by
a list of his personal researthes, that the most learnel
work ever given to the physiologist was also the Liost
abundant in original information.
With the researches of Haller it is proper to notica
those of his contemporaries, John Frederick Meckel, J. N.
Lieberkiihn, and his pupil John Godfrey Zinn. The
first, who was professor of anatomy at Berlin, described 1748-51. -
the Casscrian ganglion, the first pair of nerves and its
distribution, and that of the facial nerves generally, and
discovered the spheno-palatine ganglion. He made some
original and judicious observations on the tissue of the
skin and the mucous net ; and above all, he recognised the 175J-57V
connection of the lymphatic vessels with the veins, — a
doctrine which, after long neglect, was revived by Fohmann
and Lippi. He also collected several valuable observa-
tions on the morbid states of the heart and brain. Lie-
berkiihn published in 1745 a dissertation on the villi
and glands of the small intestines. Zinn, who was
professor of medicine at Gottingen, published a classical
treatise on the eye, which demonstrated at once the defects 1755,
of previous inquiries, and how much it was possible to
elucidate, by accurate research and precise description, the
structure of •one of the most important organs of the human
frame. It was republished after his death by Wrisberg. 1780.
About the .sarne time Weitbrecht gave a copious and minute
accoiint of the ligaments, and M. Lieutaud, who had
already laboured to rectify 'many errors in anatomy, de-
scribed with care the structure and relations of the heart
and its cavities, and rendered the anatomy of the blatlder
very precise, by describing the triangular space and the
mammillary eminence at its neck.
The study of the minute anatomy of tne tissues, whicli
had originally been commenced by Leeuwenhoeck,Malpighi,
and Ruysch, began at this period to attract more general
attention. De Bergen had already demonstrated the 1732.
general distribution of cellular membrane, and showed that
it hot only incloses every part of the animal frame, but forms
the basis of every organ, — a doctrine which was adopted,
and stiU more fully expanded, by his friend Haller, in 1757.
opposition to what was asserted by Albinus, who maintains
that each part has a proper tissue. William Hunter at the W. Hustci,
same time gave a clear and ingenious statement of the
difference between cellular membrane and adipose tissue,
in which he maintained the general distribution of the
former, and represented it as forming the serous membranes,
and regulating their physiological and pathological pro- 1757.>
perties, — doctrines which were afterwards confirmed by his
brother John Hunter. A few years after, the department
of general anatomy first assumed a substantial form in tho,
systematic view of the membranes and their mutual con-,
nections traced by Andrew Bonn of Amsterdam. In his -i. Bonn,
inaugural dissertation De Continualionibua Membranurum,
HISTORY.]
ANATOMY
815
\763. published, at Lsyden in ITSS, tliia author, after some
jjreliminary observation.-' on membranes in general and
itheir stracture, and an exposition of that of the skin, traces
its trausftion into the mucous mdmbranes and their several
t divisions.' He then explaina tho distribution of the cellular
membrane, the aponeurotic expansions, and the perios-
teum and perichondrium, by either of which, he shows,
every bone of the skeleton is invested and connected. He
flnaUy gives a very distinct view of the arrangement of the
internal membranes of cavities, those named serous and
fibro-serous, and the Tianner of their distribution over the
contained organs. This essay, which is a happy example
of generalisation, is remarkable for the interesting general
views of the structure of the animal body which it exhibits ;
and to Bonn belongs the merit. of sketching the first
outlines of that system which it was rcs3rved for the
genius of Bichat to qomplete and embellish. Lastly,
1767. Bordeu, in an elaborate essay on the iiiucouu tis.siie, or
cellular organ, as he terms it, broaght forward some
interesting views of the constitution, nature, aud extent of
the cellular membrane.
Though anatomy was hitherto cultivated with much
success as illustrating the natural history and morbid states
*f the human body, yet little had been done for the elucida-
tion of local diseases, and the surgical means by which
they may be successfully " treated. The idea of applying
anatomical knowledge directly to this purpose appears to
have originated with Bernardin Genga, a Roman surgeon,
who published in 1672, at Rome, a work entitled Surgical
ArMtamy, or the Anatomical History of the Bones and
Muscles of the Human Body, with the Description of the
Btood-veasels. This work, which reached a second edition
tn 1687, is highly creditable to the author, who appeajs to
have studied intimately the mutual relations of different
1718-26. parts. It is not improbable that the example of Genga led
Palfyn, a surgeon at Ghent, to undertake a similar task
about thirty years after. For this, however, he was by no
means well qualified ; and the work of Palfyn, though
bearing the name of Surgical Anatomy, is a miserable
compilation, meagre in details, inaccurate in description,
and altogether unworthy of the honour of being republished,
as it afterwards was by Antony Petit.
While these two authors, however, werS usefully employed
in showing what was wanted for the surgeon, others were
occupied in the collection of new and more accurate facts.
Albinus, indeed, ever assiduous, had, in his account of the
operations of Rau, given some good sketches of the relative
anatomy of the bladder and urethra ; and Cheselden had
already, in jiis mode of cutting into the urinary bladder,
shown the necessity of an exact knowledge of the relations
of contiguous parts. The first decided application, however,
of this species of anatomical research it was reserved for a
Dutch anatomist of the 18th centui^ to make. Peter
Pamper. Camper, professor of anatomy at Amsterdam, published in
1760. 1760 and 1762 his anatomico-pathological demonstrations
of the parts of the human arm and pelvis, of the diseases
incident to them, and the mode of relieving them by
operation, and explained with great clearness the situation
of tho blood-vessels, nerves, and important muscles. His
remarks on the lateral operation of lithotomy, which
contain all that was then known on the subject, are exceed-
ingly interesting and valuable to the surgeon. It appears,
further, that he was the first who examined anatomically
tho mechanism of ruptures, his delineations of which were
publislied in 1801 by Sommering. Camper also wrote some
important memoirs on Comparative Anatomy, and he was
the author of a well-known work on the Relations of
Anatomy to the Fine Arts.
j The attention of anatomists was now directed to the
iobicidation of the most obscure and least e^^plored parts
of the human frame — the lymphatic vessels and the nervea.
Although, since the first discovery of the former by
Asellius, Rudbeck, and Pecquet, much had been done,
especially by Ruysch, Nuck, Meckel, and Haller, many
points, notwithstanding, relating to their origin and distri-
bution in particular organs, and in the several classes of
animals, were imperfectly ascertained or entirely unknown.
William Hunter investigated their arrangement, and pro- W. and A
posed the doctrine that they are absorVieuts ; and John Hunter.
Hunter, who undertook to demonstrate the truth of this 17 15-5 V
hj^pothesis by experiment, discovered, in 1758, lymphatics
in the neck in birds. As the doctrine required the existence
of this order of vessels, not only in quadrupeds and birds,
but in reptOes and fishes, the inquiry attracted attention
among the pupils of Hunter ; and William Hewson at Hews^a*
length communicated, in December 1768, to the Royal
Society of London, an account of the lacteals and lymphatics
in birds, fishes, and reptiles, as he had discovered and
demonstrated them. The subject was about the same time
investigated by the second Monro, who indeed claimed tht
merit of discovering these vessels in the classes of animals
now mentioned. But whatever researches this anatomist
may have instituted, Hevvson, by communicating hi.=>
observations to the Eoyal Society, must be allowed, tc
possess the strongest as well as the clearest claim tc-
discovery. The same author, in 1774, gave the first
.complete account of the anatomical pec~uliarities of the
Ijrmphatio system in man and other animals, and thereby
supplied an important gap in this department. Hewson "
is the first who distinguishes the lymphatics into two-
orders — the superficial and the deep — buth in the extremi
ties and in the internal organs. He also studied tht.
structure of the intestinal villi, in v?hich he verified the
observations of Lieberkiihn ; and he made many important
observations on the corpuscles of the lymph and blood.
He finfilly applied his anatomical discovei-ies to explain
many of the physiological and pathological phenomena of
the animal body. Ten years after, John Sheldon, another
pupil of Hunter, gave a second history and description of
the lymphatics, which, though divested of the charm oi
novelty,' contains many interesting ajiatcmical facts. He
also examined the structure of the villi.
Lastly, Cruikshank, in 1 786, published a valuable Cruik*.
history of the anatomy of the lymphatic system, in which f-'aukJ
he maintains the accuracy of the Hunterian doctrine, that -'^'^-
the lymphatics are the only absorbents ; gave a more
minute account than heretofore of these vessels, of their
coats and valves ; and explained the structure of the
lymphatic glands. He also injected the villi, and examined
them microscopically, verifying most of the observations
of Lieberkiihn. The origin of the lymphatics he maintains"
rather by inference than direct demonstration. To theso
three works, though in ather respects very excellent, it isi.
a considerable objection that the anatomical descriptions
are much mixed with hypothetical speculation and reason-
ings on properties, and that the facts are by no mean,
always distinguished from mere matters of opinion. At thr
same time Haase published an account of the IjTnphatics o'
the skin and intestines, and the plexiform nets of the pelvis.
To complete this sketch of the history of the anatomy
of the lymphatic system, it may bo added that Mascagni, Mtscaguk
who had been engaged from the year 1777 to 1781 in the
same train of investigation, first demonstrated to his
pupils several curious facts relating to the anatomy of the
lymphatic system. When at Florence in 1782 he made
several preparations, at the request of Peter Leopold,
Grand Duke of Tuscany; and when the Royal Acadcroyo)
Sciences at Paris announced (ho anatomy cf this sy^ten
for their prize essay appointed for March 1784, IJascaga'
resolved on communicating to the public the results a
816
A N A T 0 il Y
[histoey
hLi regcarcnes — tjie nrst part of his commentary, with four
engravings. Anxiety, however, to complete hia prepara-
tions detained him at Florence till the close of 1783 ; ni'.d
from these causes his work did not appear t'll 17S7.
These delays, however, unfavourable as they were to his
claims of priority to Sheldon and Cruikshank, were on
the whole advantageous to the perfection of his work,
which is not only the most magnificent, bat also the most
complete that ever was published on the lymphatics. In
Lis account of the vessels and their valves he confirms
8omc of Hewsou'g observations, and rectiliea others. Their
origin he proves by inference much in the oamo manner
as Cruilcshank ; but ho anticipates this author in the
account of the glands, and he gives the most minute
description of the superficial and deep lymphatics, both in
the members and in the internal organs.
General accounts of the nerves had been given with
various degrees of accuracy by Willis, Vicussens, Winslow,
and the first Monro ; and the subject had been much
rectified and improved by the indefatigable HaUer. The
first exa;nple of minute descriptive neurography was
given in 17-18 by John Frederick Meckel, whose accouut
of the fifth pair, and of the nerves of the face, will long
remain a lasting proof of accuracy and research. The
same subject v.-as investigated in 1705 by Hirsch, and in
1777 by Wrisberg. In 1766 Metzger examined the
origin, distribution, and termination of the first pair,
— a point which was afterwards very minutely treated
ty Scarpa in his anatomical disquisitions, published
in 1780 ; and the internal nerves of the nostrils were
examined in 1751 by Haase. The optic nerve, which had
been studied originally by Varoli, and afterwards by Mery,
Duverney, Henkel, Mocller, Ilein, and Kaldschmid, was
examined with extreme accuracy, with the other nerves
cf the organ of vision, by Zinn, in his elaborate treatise.
The phrenic nerves and the oesophageal branches of the
eighth pair were studied by Haase ; the phrenic, the
•^ abdominal, and the phar)'ngeal nerves, by Wrisberg ;
those of the heart most minutely by Andersch ; and the
origins, formation, and distribution of the intercostal
nerve, by Iwanoif, Ludwig, ar-d GirardL The labours of
these anatomists, however, were ecUpsed by the splendid
works of Walter on the nerves of the chest and belly ;
1783. and those of Scarpa on the distribution of the 8th pair,
1791- and splanchnic nerves in general In minuteness of
description and in beauty of engraving these works have
not yet been equalled, and will never perhaps be suqiassed.
About the. same time, Scarpa, so tlistinguished in exery
branch of anatomical research, investigated the minute
structure of the ganglions and plexuses. The anatomy of
the brain itself was also studied with great attention by
•17£0. tne second Monro, Malacarno, and Vicq d'Azyr.
Lastly, the anatomy of the gravid uterus, which had
been original^ studied by Albinus, Roederer, and SmeUie,
was again illustrated most completely by William Hunter,
1774 whose engravings vrill remain a lasting memorial of
scientific zeal and artistic talent.
19th ceil- The perfection which anatomical science attained in
tury. the last ten years of the eighteenth and during the pre-
sent century is evinced not only in Jhfi improved character
of the systems published by anatomists, but in the enor-
mous advance which has taken place in the knowledge
of the minute structure of the Cnimal tissues, of the de-
velopment of the tissues and organs, and of the modifica-
tions in form and structure exliibited by various groups
cf animals.
The first who gave a good modem system was SabaHer ;
but his work was speedily eclipsed by the superior merits
cf the treatises of Sommering, Bichat, aud Portal. The
excellent work by Samuel Thomas Sommering, originally
publiihcd in tlio German language, between the years Sfimmer.
1791 aud 1796 ; tlicu in the Latin language, between the >°e-
yoj.ra 1791 and 1S09; and in a second edition in the
German language in 1800 and 1801, maintaining the high
character which it first possessed for clear arrangement,
accurate description, • and general precision, was, between
the years 1841 and 1814, republished in eight volumes at
Leipsic by Bischoff, Ilenle, Huschke, Theile, Valentin,
Vogcl, and Wagner, with suitable additions,, and a large
amount of new and accurate information. In this edition
Rudolph Wagner gives, in the first division of the first
volume, the life, correspondence, and literary writings of
Sommering; and in the second volume the aiiatomy of
the bones and ligaments. The third volume contains the
anatomy of the muscles and the vascular system by
Theile. Valentin devotes one volume, the fourth, to the
minute anatomy of the nervous system and its parts, as
disclosed by careful examination by the microscope ; and
it must be allowed that the author has been at great pains
to present just views of the true anatomy of the brain,
the spinal cord, the nervous branches, and the ganglia.
In the fifth volume, Huschke of Jena gives the aiiatoiuical
history of the viscera and the organs of the senses, a
department wliich had been left in some degree incomplete
in :he original, but for one division of which the author
had left useful materials in hia large figures already
mentioned. In the sixth volume, an entire and complete
system of general anatomy, deduced from personal obser-
vation and that of other careful observers, the materials
being in general new, and in all instances confirmed and
rectified, is given by Prof. Henlo. The seventh volume con-
tains the history of the process of development in mammalia
and man, by Th. L. W. Bischoff. The eighth volume
treatsof the pathological anatomy of the human body, by
Julius Vogel, but contains only the first division, relating
to the generalities of the subject This, which is probably
tu(! most aocmato as it is the most elaborate system of
anatomical knowledge up to the date of its publication in
1844, was translated into the French language by Jourdan,
and published in 1840 under the name of Encydopedie
Anatomigue. The eighth volume was translated into English
in the year 1847.
The Anatomie Generale of Bichat is a monument of his Bichat
philosophical genius which will last as long as the structure
and functions of the human body are objects of interes..
His Anatomie Descriptive is distinguished ■ by clear and
natural aiTangement, precise and accurate description, and
the general ingenuity with which the subject is treated.
The physiological observations are in general correct, often
novel, and alv/ays highly interesting. It is unfortunate,
however, that the ingenious author was cut off prematurely
during the preparation of the third volume. The later
volumes are, however, pervaded with the general spirit by
whicli the others are impressed, and are highly creditable
to the learning, the judgment, and the diligence of MM.
Roux and Buisson. The system of Portal is a valuable French
I and correct digest of anatomical and pathological know- systcraaho
ledge, which, in exact literary information, is worthy of ""^to""**
the author of the Histoire de t Anatomie et de la Ckirurgie,
and, in accuracy of descriptive details, shows that M.
Portal trusts not to the labours of his predecessors only.
Boyer published in 1 803 a complete treatise on Descripti ve
Anatomy. Cloquet formed, on the model of the Anatomie
Descriptive of Bichat, a system in which he avails himself
of the literature and precision of Sommering and the
details of PortaL An English translation of this work
was prepared by Dr Knox. Cruveilhier published in
1834-35 a good gerjeral treatise on Descriptive Anatomy,
which was translated into EngUsh, and published as a
part of The Library of Xedicine. Cniveilhier's treatiss
felSTORY.]
ANATOMY
817
las passed through several editions. About the same
time Blandin published an elemeutary work on Descriptive
Anatomy, and a useful treatise on Topographical Anatomy.
But the^ost elaborate system of human anatomy which
has proceeded from the French school is the groat treatise
of Bourgeiy, illustrated by numerous largo and beautifully-
coloured plates of the parts and organs. It consists of
two divisions, one on Medical and Physiological Anatomy ;
the other on Surgical Anatomy.
German J. F. Meckel pubUahed between 1S16 and 1820 a
systematic manual of Descriptive Anatomy which combines the
ajatoniists. philosophical generalisations of Bichat with the precise
description and pathological knowledge of Portal During
the succeeding thirty years excellent systematic treatises
in the German language were prepared by Roaenmiiller,
C. F. P. Krause, Frederick Hildebrand (the 4th edition of
which was edited in 1 830 by the eminent anatomist E. H.
Weber), and Fred. Arnold. In 1 846 Joseph Hyrtl published
a system of Human Anatomy, and in the foUo\7ing year a
manual of Topographical and Surgical Anatomy, both of
■which, but more especially the latter, have gone through
several editions. Luschka, the professor of anatomy in
Tubingen, has prepared a valuable treatise on Regional
Anatomy, in which attention is particularly directed to the
J relations of the parts which are of interest to the physician
and surgeon. The text-book by Hermann Meyer of Zui'ich
is also worthy of mention as a work in which the mechanical
constniction and uses of parts are described with great
care. Hecle's treatise on Human Anatomy, the publication
of v/hich was commenced in 1855, though the last volume
was not completed until 1S73, is, however, the most
complete work on the subject which has as yet issued from
the German press during the latter half of the present
century. It is remarkable not only for the elaborate
description of the organs and tissues of the body, and the
ample references to the labours of other observers, but for
the number and beauty of the wood engravings.
British In Great Britain systematic treatises on Human Anatomy
systematic wcis published in the earlier part of the present century
anatomUtu by Andrew Fyfe, John Bell, the third Monro, and John
G ordon, all of whom were teachers in the Edinburgh school
In London, Jones ,Quain prepared an excellent text-book,
whi;;h, under a succession of editors, who have kept each
new edition on a level with the advancing tide of anatomical
knowledge, has been much esteemed not only for the
clearness of its descriptions, but for the soundness of its
information on the various branches of human Systematic
Anatomy. The 7th edition, under the editorial superin-
tendence of Professors Sharpey, Allen Thomson, and
Cleland, appeared between 1864 and 1867. The passing
of the Anatomy Act in 1832, by affording facilities for
the pursuit of practical anatomy, gave a great stimulus to
its study in this country, and to facilitate the acquisition
of a knowledge of the subject many text-books have been
published. The most important are Harrison's Dublin
Dissedor,a.ndL the well-known Deincnstrationa of Anatomy hy
Prof. EUis. The increased importance attached by surgeons to
a precise acquaintance with tho knowledge of those regions
in which operations have most frequently to bo pei'formed,
has led to the production of valuable special works on
their anatomy. The treatise of Allen Bums on the head
and neck, those of Sir Astley Cooper and Sir W. Lawrence
on hernia, Morton's Anatomy of the Surgical Regions, the
excellent plates on Surgical Anatomy by Joseph Macliso, and
the beautiful draivings by Ford from tho dissections of Prof.
Ellis, with descriptive lettorpresij, are highly creditable to
British anatomwts ; whilst the treatise on hcniia by Scarpa,
and Cloquet's and Ilesselbach's works on the same subject,
reflect credit on the Italian, French, and German schools.
But special treatises have aUo been written on other
departments of uumau djscriptive ouatjiuy. Innos, Sandi- Spatial
fort, and Bai'clay published works on the muscles generally ; treatises.
and Sir Charles BeU, in hia classical t^'eatise on the Ana-
tomy of Expression, described with care the attachments
and action of the musclea of the face. Of late years tho
variations in the usually described arrangements in the
muscular system in man have been carefully inquired into,
and numerous memoirs have been written, more especially
by M'"vVhinnie, Halletfc, W. Gruber, John Wood, W. Turner,
and M'Alister. F. O; Ward published a work on Human
Osteology which is chara( Jerised by thfe minuteness and
accuracy of its description ; G. M. Humphry, a treatise in
which the physical, physiological, and pathological aspects
of the skeleton are dwelt upon ; and Luther Holden, a pro-
fusely-illustrated work on the same subject, in which the
surfaces for muscular attachments arc carefuDy delineated.
Sir Charles Bell's engravings of the arteries, Tiedemann's
more elaborate plates, and Harrison's admirable description
of these vessels, all deserve notice. But the most complete
work on the Anatomy of the Arteries which has yet appeared
is that by Richard Quain, which consists of eighty-seven
large plates, with 543 pages of descriptive letterpress.
It will long continue a standard work on tho subject.
Numerous treatises on the anatomy of the nervous
system have been published. In Germany the brothers
Wenzel, Red, Tiedemann, Gall and Spurzheim, Arnold,
and Reichert have prepared works on the descriptive
anatomy of the great nerve centres, not only in man but
in varic^us animals ; and by Tiedemann, Reichert, and
Ecker, the development of the brain has been especially
studied. In Italy tho memoirs of Rolando on the anatomy
of the brain, and of BeUingeri on the spinal cord and its
nerves, are of importance. From the French school the
writings of Serres, of FoviUe, of Leuiet and Gratiolet,,hav6
thrown much new light on tho structure of tho brain. In
Great Britain, Sir Charles BeU, in his great work on the
nervous system, developed and established the truth of the
separate nature of the nerves of sensation and motion.
In 1836, and again in 1847, Samuel SoUy published an
instructive treatise on the anatomy of the braia Between
1830 and 1834 Joseph Swan published a valuable series
of engravings in illustration of the distribution of the
nerves, and Robert Lee has especially Investigated the
arrangement and distribution of the nerves of the heart
smd uterus. In the Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,
under the editorial superintendocco of Dr Robert B.
Todd, original memoirs, not only on human but comparative
anatomy, by eminent writers, have appeared, and have
done much to diffuse a knowledge of anatomical science.
The improvement which has been effected in the con- Improve-
struction of the compound microscope during the fifty lup^ts in
years subsequent to 1822, has contributed in no small '^'^™"
degree to enable anatomists to obtain more correct infor-
mation on the intimate structure of different organs and
tissues of the animal body. For the first twenty years of
the nineteenth century, opticians and instrument-makers
had at intervals endeavoured to render the compound
microscope at once an instrument of greater power and
more free from sources of error and optical illusion than it
had hitherto been possible to obtain it. Two defects, how-
ever, still adhered to the compound microscope. The instru-
ment was not achromatic ; and a considerable degree of spheri-
cal aberration uncorrected rendered the image indistinct
Between 1812 and LSI 5 Professor Amici of Modena
had attempted to construct an achromatic object-glass of
one single lens, but found that this was impracticable.
M. Selhguee of Paris, in 1823, after vaiious trials, found
that this could bo done by making the olyect-glaas consist
of four achromatic compound lenses, each of which was
composed of two single lenses. This method was carrieu
L — 10.1
818
A N A T O M Y,
[history.
into practice and improved by the tvro MM. CLevalicr of
Paris. About the same time Dr Goring in London, ■H'itli
the aid of Mr Tulley and Mr Pritchard, constructed com-
pound microscopes upon a similar principle.
By the labours of those practical opticians, and the
suggestions of various scientific persons, as Sir John
Herschel, Sir Richard Airy, Mr Barlow, one great defect
of the compound microscope was obviated. The effects of
spherical aberration were in the next place overcome in a
very simple manner by the experiments of Mr Joseph
J ackson Lister, who had early observed that the combined
achromatic object-glasses devised by ScUigues were fixed in
their cells with the convex side foremost, a most improper
position, as it renders the spherical errors very great.
This gentleman found, after various trials, that by placing
three or more achromatic glasses with their plane surfaces
directed foremost, it was possible to correct completely all
spherical aberration.
This fact was made known in the beginning of the year
l830 ; and by its application the compound microscope was
brought to a high degree of perfection as an achromatic
instrument in 1831 and 1832, and became the means o£
affording valuable assistance in anatomical inqairies. The
use of the microscope in anatomy, which had in the
times of ilal pighi, Leonwenhoeck, William Cowper, Baker,
Fontana, Hewson, and the second Monro, been much
cultivated, but had afterwards, from the imperfection of
the instrument and the illusions to which it not luifrc-
tjuently gave rise, been neglected, now became so general
and so necessary, that since the year 1832 minute struc-
tural anatomy has been, if not created anew, at least
most thoroughly revised. The amount of knowledge
has been enormously increased ; that which was already pos-
sessed has been rendered gieatly more accurate and precise.
Micro- It is impossible in this place to name the authors of all
scopic the valuable monographs which have appeared during the
anatomy, p^gj forty years, but those who have especially advanced
the progress of our knowledge of the minute structure of
the tissues and organs may be referred to. Johannes Miiller
in 1830 published an elaborate commentary on the minute
structure of the glands, the first work in which the
anatomy of these organs was examined and elucidated in
a comprehensive and systematic manner. Ehieaberg
explained the structure of numerous infixsoria, and disclosed
the peculiarities of many other structures, animal, vegetable,
and mineral, which had previously eluded the most
Bkilful researches. Francis Kieman, in 1833, gave the
first conect account of the minute anatomy of the Uver.
Schleidea in 183S, and Schwann in 1839, published most
important generalisations on the cellular structure of
vegetable and animal orgamsms. Martin Barry communi-
cated new facts on the structure of the o\^lm and on the
structure of cells generally. John Goodsir laid great
emphasis on the oflSce of the nucleus in the nutrition,
growth, and reproduction of cells, and on the arrangement
ot the cells within an organism into departments or
territories. Virchow, by his researches into the connective
tissues, has still further developed the idea of the cellular
structure of the animal organism, and the importance -of
cells in the performance of phj-siological and patliological
processes. Lionel Beale attributed both to the nucleus and to
the substance of the cell immediately surrounding it import-
ant functional properties. Max Schultze showed the identity
in nature between the sarcode substance of the lower animal
organisms and the contents of the cells in the higher animals,
and applied to these substances the common term proto-
plasm, which had previously been introduced by Hugo von
Mohl to designate a similar material in the vegetable ceU.
The minute stnicture and development of bone has
been carelcUy invcstigatsd by J. Goodsir, W. Sharpey, H.
MiiUer, C. Gegcnbaur, and A. Kolliker; that of muscle by
Bowman, Kiilliker, and Sharpey ; of nerve by Schwann,
Rcmak, Stilling, Gerlacb, Lockhart Clarke, andDeitcrs;
of cartilage by Schwann and Schultze ; of the blood and
blood-vessels by Henle, Gulliver, Quekett, Paget, and
Wharton Jones ; of the mucous membranes by Bowman ;
of the serous membranes by Henle, Recklinghausen,
Ludwig, and Klein ; of the teeth by Retzius, A. Kasmyth,
J. Goodsir, J. Tomes, R. Owen, Czennak, Huxley, and
Waldeycr. The structure of the lungs has been investigated
by Addison, Rainey, and Rossignol ; of the kidney by
Bowman, Henle, and Schweiggerseidel ; of the liver by
Beale and Hering ; of the spleen by Sanders, Gray,
Billroth, and W. Miiller ; of the testicle by A. Cooper,
ICiilliker, and Henle ; of the ovary by Pfliiger and Waldeyer ;
of the thymus by A. Cooper and Simon ; of the stomach
and intestines by Kolliker, Brinton, and Frey; of the
placenta by Eschricht, Reid, Sharpey, Goodsir, Van der
Kolk, Virchow, Farre, Priestley, BxiUeston, Ercokui, and
Turner ; of the organs of sense by Henle, Bowman, His,
H. Miiller, Schultze, Corti, Reissncr, and Deiters.
The general results of the labours of these and other
investigators have been from time to time incorporated
into systematic treatises on microscopic anatomy, of which
reference may more cspsciaUy be made to those prepared
by J. Berres, F. Gerber, A. Hill Hassall, A. KoUikcr, W.
Sharpey, W. Bowman, F. Leydig, Frey, and S. Strieker.
Side by side with these inquiries into the structure and
development of the tissues, the evolution of the embryo
out of the fertilised ovum has been carried on. Purkinje,
Von Baer, Coste, V/harton Jones, Valentin, R. Wagner,
Rathke, J. Miiller, Provost and Dumas, Martin Barry,
Reichert, Bischoff, Kolliker, Vogt, Alien' Thomson, Owen,
Von Siebold, Dujardin, Milne-Edwards, Claparide, Agassis,
Huxley, Kitchen Parker, and Kowalevsky.have all contri
buted important memoirs on various branches of embryology.
Comparative Anatomy, which during the 18th century was Compa;y-
diligently cultivated by Daubenton, Pallas, Haller, BulTcjn, ''™
John Hunter, and the second Monro, has become during the '^'^^^7'
present centu^ a subject of increased interest, from its inti-
mate connection with the sciences of zoology, physiology, and
geology. It has consequently been studied with great zeal
and assiduity, and "multitudes of monographs, as well as
numerous systematic treatises on the anatomy both of the
vertebrata and invertebrata, have been published.
To name even a tithe of the workers and authors who
have added to our knowledge of the facts of comparative
anatomy would occupy considerable space. It may suffice
to refer to those whose writings have contributed most
materially to the advance of the science. In France,
Cuvier, Dnmeril, the Saint^HUaires, Blanchard, De Blain-
ville, H. and Alphonse Milne-Edwards, Gervais, and
Gratiolet ; in Germany, Meckel, Tiedemann, Von Baer,
Spix, Martins, Bojanxis, Otto, Carus, J. Miiller, Leuckart,
Gegenbaur, and Haeckel ; in Sweden and Denmark,
Retzius and Eschricht ; in Holland and Belgium, Van der
Kolk, Vrolik, and Van Beneden ; in America, Agassiz,
Wyman, and Burmeister; in Great Britain, E. Home, A.
Carlisle, R Grant, Richard Owen, J. Barclay, R. Knox, J.
Goodsir, G. Busk, Rymer Jones, W. B. Carpenter, T. H.
Huxley, G. J. AUman, Vi'. H. Flower, St George ilivart,
and J. Murie are names identified with one or more
branches of the subject.
The investigations into the form and structure of
animals have led anatomists to search for parts in one
animal which correspond with parts in other animals ia
their mode of development" and arrangement, and to
evolve from tieir researches general doctrines of organic
forms. The conception entertained by Goethe of the
presence ol a pre-maxillaiy element in the human upper
HUMAH AKATOMV.]
ANATOMY
8ia
jaw because it exists in othpr vertebrates, and the anccunce-
ment of the theory of the vertebrate nature of the skull by
Goethe and Oken, directed anatomists into a line of
inquiry which has been productive of fruitful results, and
has ^xercised a great influence on the progress and direction
of biological science. Geoffrey St Hilaire and C. Martins
in France; Spix, Cams, Gegefibaur, and Haeckel in Ger-
many; and Owen, Goodsir, Humphry, Huxley, Parker,
and Clelaud in Great Britain, have all published important
memoirs in this department of anatomical research.
The formation of- anatomical museums in connection
vith universities, and elsewhere, by enabling specimens
to be accumulated for observation and comparison, has
contributed in no small degree to the progress of anatomical
Ecience. Pre-eminent amongst these is the collection
originally formed by the genius, enargy, and self-devoted-
ness of John Hunter, which, under the fostering care of
the council of the Royal College of Surgeons of England,
has been materially augmented in all its departments by a
Buccession of curators — Clift, Owen, Quekett, and Flower.
The aid which has been afforded to anatomists in the
publication of their researches, more especially in providing'
plates and other expensive means of illustration, by the
learned societies of Europe, and the circulation which has
been given to their memoirs through the Transactions and
Proceedings of these societies, and through the Journals
devoted to anatomical and physiological science, have
materially contributed to the diffusion of a knowledge of
discoveries, and to the general advance of the science.
SPECIAL ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY.
Man, zoologically speaking, belongs
to- the Mammalian class of the Verte-
brate sub-hingdora, i.e., his young are
brought forth alive, and nourished
during infancy on mUk secreted in
mammary or milk-forming glands. In
common with all vertebrate organisms,
he possesses a spine orvertebral column
and a skull, in which are contained
the brain and the spinal marrow, and
on the ventral surface of the spinal
column are situated the several sirb;
divisions of the alimentary canal.
But man possesses certain special ot
distinctive anatomical characters. The
most noticeable, as seen on an external
inspection of his body, is his erect
position. He is, indeed, the only liv-
ing creature that can walk or stand
erect, i.e., with the axis of the spine
vertical ; with the hip and knee joints
capable of being fully extended, so
that the leg is brought into line with
the thigh ; with the foot so planted
cm the ground that it rests on the heel
behind and on the roots of the toes
in front ; with the upper limbs so
arranged as to act, not as instruments
of progression, but of prehension ; and
with the head so balanced on the top '''?.■ i--DM(rrnnim«iic wc-
... ^ tion thiougli the liuinan
of the spine that the face and eyes
look directly to the front. His bones,
joints, and muscles are constructed
and arranged so as to enable him to
preserve the erect attitude without
fatigue. In other vertebrata the axis
of the spine is oblique or horizontal,
the hip and knee joints arc porma-
nentlv bent at a more or less acute angle, the limbs cor-
licad mid trunk. The
skull and spine, dDikly
shaded, and conialnlnc
llio C(Meln-o.^plnal nci-v-
0U3 axis, are dorsal or nt
tlio hnt:\. The allntent-
ary and respiratory tubes,
seen In outline, are ven-
tral, or attho front. The
dotted line V reproseiiis
tho vertical axis of the
trunk.
re,<^ponding to the human upper extremities, are, in the form
of legs, wings, or fins, instruments of progression, and the
head is articulated with
the spine at or near the
hinder end of the skuU.
Owing to the oblique or
horizontal attitude of the
body in the vertebrata
generally, and its erect
position in man, the terms f'°-?-~9"!''""''"^'"'°""i"aoniped;thff
1-1 1 , . «^'9 O' tlie spine 13 almost at rielit uncles
which are employed in toUie vertical doited line. (^/(.rOooIiir.)
describing the relative position of different parts are not
used in the same sense by the human and comparative
anatomist. Thus, parts which are su- :
perior, or above other parts, in the
human body, are anterior, or in front,
in other vertebrata ; and parts which
are posterior, or behind other parts
in man, are superior to theni in other
vertebrata. To obviate the confusion
which must necessarily arise when com-
paring the . human body with that of
other vertebrates, certain descriptive
terms ha%'e been recommended which
may be employed whether the position,
of the body be erect or non-erect. Thus,
the aspect of parts directed towards the
region where the atlas or first vertebra is
situated is atlanlal, that directed towards
the sacrum is sacul, that toward.'; the ^'li\l,°f%lflF"^'i
back is dorsal, that towards the front the »pinc lies obliquely
, , T ^. -. 1 to the vertical dotted
IS ventral or tuepial. Quite recently Uno, (aA't ooodsir.y
the term prw-axial has been introduced as equivalent to
atlantal, and post-axial to sacral
The body may be considered as
divided by an imaginary plane, the
medal plane, into two lateral and
similar halves, a right and left, so
that it exhibits a bilateral sym-
metry; and the constituent parts
are described as being external or
internal to each other, according to
their relative position to this plane.
For descriptive, purposes, also, we
may subdivide the body into Axjal
and APPENDIC0LAK portions. Tlie ^
-AxiAl part is the stock or stem of /
the body, and consists of the Head, '
the Neck, and the Trunk. The '-
trunk is again subdivided into the fio- < -Ontuno di.iBraro of <>
chest or Thorax, and the belly or -;?,t%. '^he'sis :??";=-. "n'i
Abdomen; and the abdomen is ^'" obUiiueiy to the vertie«l
,...,-, . ^ ., , , dotted line, (A/ur Gtfodsir.)
again subdivided into tho abdo-
men proper and the Pelvis. The axial part contains
the organs essential to the preservation of hfe. In the
head is lodged the brain, from which the spinal marrow is
prolonged down the spinal canal At the sides of the head
are the ears, and opening on to the face are the eyes,
nostrils, and mouth. Prolonged down the neck are the
gullet and windpipe, with the latter of which is associated
the organ of voice. Within the chest lie the heart, l\pgs,
and gullet; and in the abdomen are contained the stomach,
intestine, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, and other organs
concerned in the urinary and generative functions. The
Appendicular part forms the luubs, which do not contain
organs essential to life. In man the limbs are called
Upper and Lower — the former aie instrun:ents of prehen-
sion, the latter of progression. The subdinsions of the
body are not homogeneous in structure, but are built up of
several systems of or^nw, etch system being characterLicd
B20
A N A T O M Y
[SKELETOS-
not only by peculiarities in fonn, appearance, and ttruL-lure,
but by possessing special functions and uses. Tbua the
bones collectively form the Osseous system; the joints the
Articulately system; the muscles, which move the bones
4»t the join ta, the Muscular systfem; and these several systems
-collectively constitute the organs of Locomotion. The bloud
and Ijinph vessels fonu the Vfi-scular 83'stem ; the brain,
spinal marrow, and nerves, the Nervous system, vrHh v,hich
is intimately associated the organs of Sense; the lungs and
Arindpipe, Jhe Respiratory system ; the alimentary canal,
with the glands opening into it, the Digestive system; the
kidneys, bladder, and urethra, the Urinary system ; the
testicles, spermatic ducts, and penis in the male, with the
ovaries, uterus, and clitoris in the female, the Generative or
Beproductive system ; the skin, with the hair and nails,
the Tcgumentary system. These various sj'stems are so
arranged wth reference to each other as to fona an organic
whole.
Anatomy of the Organs of Locomotion.
The organs of locomotion consist of the muscles or active
organs, and the bones and joints or passive organs. The
anatomy of the bones vrill first attract our attention.
(SkeUt«D. Osseous System — Osteology — Skeleton. — The word
Skeleton (from o-kc'AAu, to dry) signifies literally the dry or
hard parts of the body. ^^Tien used in a limited sense it
ii applied merely to the bones, but when used in a wider
end more philosophic sense it comprises not only the bones
or osseous skeleton, but the cartilages and fibrous mem-
branes which complete the framework of the body. The
first evidence of a skeleton in the embryo is the appear-
ance of membranes in many parts of which cartilage is
developed, and in course of time this cartilage' is converted
into bone. In some animals, however, as in the cartila-
ginous fish, the osseous conversion does not tnke place, and
the skeleton remains permanently cartOaginous; and in the
very remarkable fish called Lancelet, or Amphioxus, the
skeleton consists almost entirely of fibrous membrane.
The skeleton serves as a basis of support for the soft
parts, as affording surfaces of attachment for muscles and
ct a protection for many delicate organs. In the verte-
brata the osseous skeleton is clothed by the muscles and
£kin, and is technically called an endo-skdelon. In inverte-
brata the skeleton is not unfrequently on the surface of the
body, and is termed an exo- or dermo-she'etcm. In some
Tertebrates {e.g., the armadillo, tortoise, and sturgeon), in
aldition to the proper endo-skeleton, skeletal plates are
developed in connection with the integument, so that they
possess ^dermo-skeleton likewise. In some vertebrates,
also, a partial skeleton is formed within the substance of
some of the viscera — e.g., in ruminant animals a bone is
situated in the heart ; in the walrus and other camivora,
in rodents, bats, and some monkeys, a bone lies in the
penis ; and in the leopard, jackal, and other camivora, a
tartilaginous style lies in the middle of the tougue. These
parts form a splanchno- or viscera! skeleton. By some
anatomists the teeth, which are unquestionably hard parts
of the body, are also referred to the splanchno-skeleton,
though they are special modifications of the papilla; of the
mucous membrane of the gum. In man, the teeth being
excluded, there is neither exo- nor spknchno-skeleton, but
only an ondo-skeleton.
In each of the great subdivisions of the body an endo-
skeleton exists, so that we may speak of an Axial Skeleton
and au Appendicular Skeleton. The Axial Skeleton con-
sists of the bones of the spine and head, the ribs, and the
breastbone ; the Appendicular Skeleton, of the bones of
the limbs. The number of bones in the skeleton varies at
-different periods of Ufe. In the adult there are about 200,
bat in the child they are more numerous ; for in the pro-
cess of consolidation cf the skeleton certain bones originally
distinct become fused together. In Plates XIL, XIIL,
and XIV., front, back, (vnd side views of the entire skeleton
are given, together with figures of the skull and several of
its constituent bonea.
We shall commence the description of the Axial Skele-
ton by giving an account of the bones of the spine.
The SpiNE,SpiNAi,orVERTEi!RALCoLUMN,chine,orback- Spin*,
bone, consists of a number of superimposed bones wliicli
are named Vertebra, because
they can move or turn some-
what on each other. It b'cs
in the middle of the back of
the neck and trunk ; has the
cranium at its summit ; the
ribs at its sides, which in
their turn support the upper
limbs; whilst the pelvis, with
the lower limbs, is jointed
to its lower end. The spine
consists in an adult of twenty-
six bones, in a yoimg child
of thirty-three, certain of the
bones in the spine of the
child becoming ankylosed
or blended with each other
in the adult. These blended
bones lose their mobility, and
are called false vertebrce ;
whilst those which retain
their mobility are the true l^
vertebra:. In the vertebrata
the bones of the spine are
arranged in groups, whiefi
may be named from their V
position — vertebrae of the
neck or cervical ; of the chest, j.
dorsal or thocacio.; of the
loins, lumbar; of the pelvis, r,„ ,_Ti,t Axi.i sxeietoi,
sacral; and of thelail. coccy-
geal or caudal ; and. the num-
ber of vertebra in each group
maybe expressed in a formula.
In man the formula is as fol-
lows:— CtDiiLsSjCocj = 33 bones, as seen in the child;
but the five sacral rertebrse fuse together into a single bone —
the sacnim — and the four coccygeal into the single coccji.
Hence the sacnim and coccyx of the adult are the false,
whilst the lumbar, dorsal, and cervical arc the true
vertebrje.
The vertebrae are irregularly-shaped bones, but as a
rule have certain characters in common. Each possesses a
body and an arch, which enclose a ring, with certain pro-
cesses and notches. The Body, or Centrum, is ,a short
cylinder, which by its upper and lower surfaces is con-
nected by means of fibro-cartilage with the bodies of the
vertebne immediately above and below. The collective
series of vertebral bodies forms the great column of the
spine. The Arch, also called Neural Arch, because it en-
closes the spinal marrow or nervous axis, springs from the
back of the body, and consists of two symmetrical halves
united behind in the middle line. Each half consists of an
anterior part or pedicle, and a posterior part or lamina.
The Rings collectively form the spinal canaL The Pro-
cesses usually spring from the arch. The spinous process
projects backwards from the junction of the two laminre,
and the collective series of these processes gives to the
entire column the spiny character from which has arisen tho
Verlelirt
c,. iht
cervical Tertclirje; D,> the dortal;
L,. the Inmbar: S,, tUciAcre!; Coc^
the coccygeal; CC Iheeerieiof twcl**
ribsoD one side; Pi thepra:-8'ernuni;
Ma, the ine*o-«remQin; X& the xiptu-
etemam. The do'rcd line W repre-
fteau the vertical asis of the fpioe.
VOL. I
ANATOMX
Tt/t.l.
PLATE lar
VOL. I
^JN^ATOM
pr.ATE Mn
FtJ/.i.
VOL.1
J'lATE.JTlV
lU.i.
A In A T 0 M Y
821
term Spine, applied to it. The transverse procesaea project
outwards, one from eacli side of tLe arch. The articular
processes project, two upwards and two downwards, and
are for connecting adjacent Tertebraj together. The
Notches, situated on the upper and lower borders of the
pedicles, form in the articulated spine the intervertebral
foramina through which the nerves bass out of the spinal
canal
Cervic.il The vertebras in each group have characters which
vtrtebrs specially distinguish them. In man and all mammals,
with few exceptions, whatever be the length of the neck,
the Cervical Vertebra are seven in number. The excep-
tions are the three-toed sloth, which has nine, and Hoff-
mann's sloth and the manatee, in which there are only six.
In many whales the seven cervicals are fused in the adult
into a single bone. In man the body of a cervical vertebra
is comparatively small, and its upper surface is transversely
concave ; the arch has long and obliquely sloping laminre ;
the ring is large and triangular; the spine is short, bifid,
and horizontal ; the transvei"se process consists of two bars
of bone, the anterior springing from the side of the body,
the posterior from the arch, and uniting externally to
enclose a foramen, through which, as a rule, the vertebral
artery passes ; the articular processes are fiat and oblique,
and the upper pair of notches are deeper than the lower.
The first, second, and seventh cervical vertebrs have
characters which specially distinguish them. The first, or
Atlas, has no body or spine : its ring is very large, and on
each side of the ring is a thick mass of bone, the lateral
mass, by which it articulates with the occipital bone above
and the second vertebra below. The second vertebra. Axis,
or Vert^hra d^miata, has its body surmounted by a thick
tooth-like od-mtoid process, which is regarded as the body
of the atlas displaced from its proper vertebra and fused
with the axis. This process forms a pivot round which
the atlas and head move in turning the head from one side
to the other ; the spine is large, thick, and deeply bifid.
The seventh, called Vertebra prominens, is distinguished
by its long prominent spine, which is not bifid, and by
the small size of the foramen at the root. of .the transverse
process. In the human spine the distinguisliing character
of aU the cervical vertebra; is the foramea at the root of
the transverse process, but amongst m^nrmals this is not
an invariable character, for in the cetacea ik^ transverse
process of the atlas is imperforate, and in the horse,
ruminants, and many quadrumana, the seventh cervical
vertebra has no foramen at the root of its transverse
process.
Oureal The Dorsal Vertebras, more appropriately called costal or
virttlrx. thoracic, are twelve in number in the human spine ; but
amongst mammals they range from eleven in the anna-
dillo to twenty-two in the Cape hyrax and Hoffmann's
Rloth. They are intermediate in size and position to the
cervical and lumbar vertebrae, and are all distinguished
by having one or two smooth surfaces on each side of
the body for articulation with the head of one or two
ribs. The arch is short and with imbricated lamina; ; the
ring is nearly circular ; the spine is oblique, elongated,
and bayonet-shaped ; the transverse processes are directed
back and out, not bifid, and with an articular surface in
' front for the tubercle of a rib ; and the articular processes
are flat and nearly vertical The first, twelfth, eleventh,
tenth, and sometimes the ninth, dorsal vertebras are dis-
tinguis'ucd from the rest. The first is in shape like tiro
seventh cervical, but has no foramen at the root of the
transverse process, ind has two articular facets on each
side of the body ; the ninth has sometimea only one facet
at the side of the body ; the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth
have invariably only a single facet on the side of the body,
but the eleventh and twelfth have stunted transverse
processes, and the twelfth has ita lower articular processes
shaped like those of a lumbar vertebra.
The Lumbar Vertebrje in man are five in number, cut Lumbar
amougst mammals they range from two in the platypus to vertebrasu
eight in the hyrax or agouti. They are the lowest of the
true vertebrae, and also the largest,. especially in the body.
The arch has short and deep laminiE; the ring is triangular;
the spine is massive and hatchet-shaped ; the transverse
processes are long and pointed ; the articular are thick
and strong, the superior pair concave, the inferior convex,
and the inferior notches, as in the dorsal vertebrae, are
deeper than the superior. In the lumbar vertebrae and ia
the lower dorsal an accessory process projects from the base
of each transverse process, and a mammUlary tubercle from
each superior articular process. In man these are small and
rudimentary ; but in some mammals, as the kangaroo,
armadillo, and scaly ant-eater, the mammillary tubercles
are large, and in the baboon, dog, cat, and beaver, tho
accessory processes are weU developed. The fiith lumbar
vertebra has its body much thicker in front than behind ;
its spine is less massive, and its lower articular proccssss
are flat.
The Sacrum is composed of five originally separata Sacrum-
vertebrae fused into a single bone. In the bandicoot it
consists of a single vertebra, whilst it has as many as eight
in the armadillo. The relative size and completeness of the
sacrum are associated with the development of the haunch
bones and of the lower limbs. In whales, where the pelvic
bones are rudimentary and there are no hind Umbs, there
is no sacrum. It forms the posterior wall of the pelvis, i*
triangular in form, and possesses two surfaces, two borders,
a base, and an apex. The anterior or pelvic surface is con-
cave, and is marked by four transverse lines, which indie? Is
its original subdivision into five bones, and by four pai.'s
of foramina, through which are transmitted the antenor
sacral nerves. Its posterior surface is convex ; in the
middle line are tubercles or rudimentary spines, and cu
each side of these are two rows of tubercles, the inner of
which are the conjoined articular and mammillary pro-
cesses, the outer the transverse processes of the origincily
distinct vertebrie ; in addition, four pairs of foraminc. are
found which transmit the posterior sacra! nerves fron; the
sacral canal, which extends through tie bone from base t»
apex, and forms the lower end of the spinal canal By its
borders the sacrum is articulated with the haunch-bones —
by its base with the last lumbar vertebra, by its apex with
the coccyx The human sacrum is broader in proportion
to its length than in other mammals ; this great ireadth
gives solidity to the lower part of the spine, and, conjoined
with the size of the lateral articular surfaces, it permits
a more perfect junction with the haunch-bones, and is
correlated with the erect position. Owing to the need in
woman for a wide pelvis, the sacrum is broader than in
man.
The Coccyx consists of only four vertebrx in the hnman Coccy'n-
spine. It is the rudimentary tail, but instead of projecting
back, as in mammals generally, is curved forwards, and is
not visible externally, an arrangement which is also found
in the anthropoid apes and in Hofi'mann's sloth. In the
spider monkeys as many as thirty-three vertebra) are fornd
in the tail, and in the long-tailed pangolin the number
reaches forty-six Not only is the tail itself rudimentary
in man, but the vertebrae of which it is composed are
small, and represent merely the bodies of the trae vertebra;.
As there are no arches, the ring is not formed, and the
spinal canal docs not extend, therefore, beyond the apex of
the sacrum. The first coccygeal vertebra, in addition to a
body, possesses two processes or horns, which are jointed
with two corresponding processes from the last sacral
vertebra.
822
ANATOMY
[gkbleton — *
rhoraz.
The Human Spine is more uniform in length in persons
of the same race than might bo supposed from the indi-
vidual differences in stature, tho variation in the height of
the body in adults being duo chiefly to differences in the
length of the lower limbs. The average length of the
spine La 28 inches ; its widest part is at the base of the
sacrum, from which it tapers down to the tip of the coccyx.
It diminishes also in breadth from the base of. tho sacrum
upwards to the region of the neck. Owing to the pro-
jection of the spines behind and the transverse processes
on each side, it presents an irregular outline on those
aspects; but in front it is more uniformly rounded, owing
to the convex form of tllo antoro-latcral surfaces of the
bodies of its respective vertebrje. In its general contour
two series of curves may be seen, an autcro-postericr and
a lateral The antero-posterior is the more important
In the infant at the time of birth the sacro-coccygeal
part of the spine is concave fonvaids, but the rest of
the spine, except a slight forivard concavity in the series
of dorsal vertebrae is almost straight. When tho infant
begins to sit up in the arms of its nurse, a convexity for-
T.ards in the region of the neck appears, and subsequently,
03 the child learns to v>-alk, a convexity forwards in tho
region of the loins. Hence in. the adult spine a series
of convexo-concave curves are found, which aro alternate
and mutually dependent, and are associated with the erect
attitude of man. In the human spine alone are the
l«mbar vcrtebrse convex forward. A lateral cur\'e, convex
to the right, opposite the third, fourth, and fifth dorsal
vertebrae, with compensatory curve convex to tho left
immediately above and below, is due apparently to the
much greater use of the muscles of the right arm over
those of the left, drawing the spine in that region some-
what to the right. In disease of the spine its natiu'al
curvatures are much increased, and the deformity known
as humpback is produced. As the spine forms the central
part of tho axial skeleton, it acts as a column to support
net only the weight of the body, but of all that can be
ccrried on the head, back, and in the upper limbs : by its
transverse and spinous processes it serves also to give
attachment to numerous muscles, and the transverse pro-
cesses of its dorsal vertebrae are also for articulation with
the ribs.
The Thorax, Pectus, or Chest is a eavity or enclosure
the ■tvalls of which are in part formed of bone and cartilage.
Its skeleton consists of the sternum in hont, the twelve
dorsal vertebras behind, and the twelve ribs, with their
corresponding cartilages, on each side.
The Sternum or Breast Bone is an elongated bone
which inclines do%vnwards and forwards in the front wail
of the chest. It consists of three parts — an upper, called
raaimbrium or prffi-stemum ; a middle, the body or meso-
sternum ; and a lower, the eosiform process or xiphi-
f.^cmimi. Its anterior and posterior surfaces are marked
by transverse liucs, which indicate not only the subdivision
of the entire bone into three parts, but that of the meso-
stemum into four originsUy distinct segments. Each
lateral border of the bone is marked by seven depressed
surfaces for articulation with the seven upper ribs : at each
side of the upper border cf the prs-sternimi is a sinuous
depression, where the clavicle, a bone of the upper limb,
articulates with this bone of the axial skeleton. The
xiphi-sternimi remains cartilaginous up to a late period of
life, and froip its pointed form has been named the ensi-
form cartilage.
The Ribs or Costs, twenty-four m number, twelve on
each side of the thorax, consist not ordy of the bony ribs,
but of a bar of cartilage continuous with the anterior end
of each bone, called a costal canUaye, so that they funmh
examples of a cartiiaprlnous skeleton in the adult human
Dody; in aged persons these cartilages nsually become
converted into bone. The upper seven ribs are connected
by their costal cartilages to the side of the sternum, and
are called iCemal or true ribs ; the lower five do not reach
the sternum, and are named Orstemal ot false, and of these
the two lowest, from being comparatively unattached in
front, are called free ot floatiTig. All the ribs are articu-
lated behind to the dorsal vertebra;, and as they are sym-
metrical on the two sides of the body, the ribs in any
given animal are always twice as numerous as the dorsal
vertebras in that animal They form a series of osseo-
cartilaginous arches, which extend more or less perfectly
around the sides of the chest A rib is an elongated bone,
and as a- rule possesses a head, a neck, a tubercle, and a
shaft. The head usually possesses two articular surfaces,
and is connected to the side of the body of two adjacent
dorsal vertebrae ; the neck is a constricted part of the
bone, uniting the head to the shaft ; the tubercle, close to
the junction of the shaft and neck, is the part which articu-
lates with the transverse process of the vertebra. The
shaft is compressed, possesses an inner and outer surface,
and an upper and lower border, but from the shaft being
somewhat twisted on itself, the direction of the surfaces
and borders is not uniform throughout the length of the
bone.. The ribs slope from their attachments to tho spine,
at first outwards, downwards, and backwards, then down-
wards and forwards, and where the curve changes from
the backward to the forward direction an angle is formed
on the rib. The first, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth ribs
articulate each with only a single vertebra, so that only a
single surface exists on the head : the surfaces cf the shaft
of the first rib are almost horizontal ; those of the second
very oblique; the eleventh and twelfth ribs are rudi-
mentary, have neither neck nor tubercle, and are pointed
anteriorly. The ribs are by no means uniform in length :
they increase from the first to the seventh or eighth, and
then diminish to the twelfth ; the first and twelfth are
therefore the shortest ribs. The first and second costa.
cartilages are almost horizontal, but the others are directed
upwards and inwards.
In its. general form the chest may be likened to a trun-
cated cona It is rounded at the sides and flattened in
front and behind, so that a man can lie either on his back
or his belly. Its truncated apes slopes downwards and
forwards, is small in size, and allows of the passage of the
windpipe, gullet, large veins, and nerves into the chest,
and of several large arteries out of the chest into the neck.
The base or lower boundary of the cavity is much larger
than the apex, slopes downwards and backwards, and is
occupied by the diaphragm, a muscle which separates tha
chest from the cavity of the abdomen. The transverse
diameter h greater than the antero-posterior, and the antero-
posterior is greater laterally, where the lungs are lodged,
than in the mesial plane, which is occupied by the heart
Tha Head forms the summit of the av^'nl part of the
body. ■ It consists of two portions — the Cranium and the
Face.
The Skuix, or skeleton of the heaa, is composed of 22 3kon,
bones, 8 of which form the skeleton of the cranium, 14
that of the face. Except the lower jaw, which- is move-
able, the bones are all firmly united by immovable joints.
The 8 bones of the cranium are so united together by their
edges as to form the walls of a box or cavity, the cranial
eavity, in which the brain is lodged. The box of tho
cranium possesses a base or floor, a vault or roof, an
anterior, a posterior, and two later. .1 walls. The posterior
wall is formed by the occipital bone, which also exteiidj
for some distance forwards along the middle of the case ;
in front cf the basal part of the occipital is the sphenoid,
which also sends a process Qpwaids on each side cf the
JLL.l
ANATOMY
823
akuU; in front of the basa] part of the sphenoid U the
filimoid; mounting upwards in front of the ethmoid is the
Tso. «.— Prnnie of the akull. Ft, "frontal bona; Pa, parietal; SO. aapra-occlpltfll:
Sq. fiqaamous-temporal; MT, mtisiold-temporal; Ty, tytapanic; St, alyloid-
tempore!; As. ali-Bphenold ; E, 03 JTlanura of etbtaol'l ; U Uchi yiaai ; N.
nasal; Mi, superior mflxilla; Ma, malar; Mn, maiidlble ; 6/1, biWl-hya; ;
III, thyro-hyal; cIk cerato-liyal ; em,' exlamal tpcat-ia; u, coronal auture;
It, lamlidoldal suture; u. squamous suturu.
frontal, which foims-the forehead, ana closes in the front
of the (jranial box; forming the vault and side walls are
the two' parietal bones ; completing the side waUs, and
extending for a short distance along the side of the fioor,
are the two temporal bones; the vertex of the skull is at
the junction of the two parietrd hones with each oth^r.
\
>
:l'io. 7. — Section throuirn the skull Immediatr-ly 1 1 ti\^ rl^hf .^*t: e mesial plann.
The Ivtterlllg as in Fig 6. with. In addition, BO. baal-occipltal ; EO, cx-o<;clp:tal;
I*T. p'jtrooA-ttimporal ; BS, baal-sphcnold; PS. pic-spUonoid (the letters are placed
In tno sphenoidal sinus); OS. orblto-spheiiold; UK, mes ethmoid; SC. s-^ptal
cartilage of nose; VT'omer; PL palate; Pt, plervgvld I'f sphenoid; fi. frontal
sinus; Pf, pitult.ary fossa; /m, foramea magnum; a, angle; and t, vy[uphysls
of lower Jaw,
The fourteen bones of the face.'which aro situated below
and in front of the cranium, enter into the formation of the
walls of cavities which open on the front of the face ; thus
they complete, aiong with the frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid,
the walls of the two orbits io vrhich the eye-balls are
lodged; along with the ethmoid and sphenoid, the walls of
the nostrils; and they form the osseous walls of the mouth.
As a general rule, the cranial bones are expanded, and plate-
like in form. The outer surface of each bono assists in
forming the exterior of the cranium, aud not unfrequonJy
is marked by ridges or processes for the attachment of
muscles. The inner s'^'^ace, asain. is smooth, and pitted
witE~"depressions, in which the convolutions of the brain
ar< lodged, and also marked by grooves for the lodgment
of dilated veins called blood sinuses, and of arteries termed
meningeal' . The two surfaces of a cranial boue, dense in
structure, are called its tables,, outer dnd inner, and are
separated from each other by bone, looser and more<^pongy
in its texture, called diploe.' In sSme localities, more
especially in' certain of the bones which form tho walls
of the nostrils, the diploe disappears, a&d comparatively
wide interspaces separata the two tables which contain air,
and are called air-sinuses. The margins of the bones ara
denticulated, and it is by the interlocking of the denticula-
tions of adjacent bones that they are jointed together, tha
joints being named sutures. The bones are pierced by
holes or foramina, and similr.r holes exist between tha
adjacent margins of some of the bbnes. These foramina
are mostly situated in the floor of the skuil, and transmit
arteries into tho cranial cavity to supply the brain and
the inner table with blood, and veins and nerves out of
the cavity. Tbe largest of these holes is called foramen
magnum.. It lies in the occipital bone, immediately abova
the ring of the atlas; through it tho spinal marrow becomes
continuous vich the brain, and the vsriebral arteries pa^y
to supply ./^le biain with blood.
The Occipital, or bone of the Back of the Head (Figs. C'*:ccipital
and 7, and Plate XIII. ), consists of fo-.;r originally distinct
pieces fused into a curved plate-like bone. Its subilivisions
are arranged around the foremen magnum — the basilar
part, baai-oecipital, in front; the condyioid parts, ex-occipi-
tals, one on each side ; and the tabular p.art, or supra-occipital,
behind. The anterior surface of the supra-occipital is sub-
di>ided into four fos3|fe, in the two upper of which are
lodged the occipital lobes of the cerebrum, in the two lower
tho cerebellum ; the upper and lower pahs of fossje are
separated by a groove for the lodgment of the lateral
venous sinus. The posterior surface is marked by a pro-
tuberance and by curved lines for tho attachment of
muscles; by its margin the supra-occipital articulates with
the parietal and temporal bones. • Eaoh ex-occipital has
on its under '.surface a smooth condy la for articulatioa
with the atlaf; in front of the condyle is a foramen which
transmits thelast-or ninth cranial nerve, called hypoglossal,
and behind it a foramen for tha transmission of a vein
sometimes exists" The basi-occipital articidates and, in
the adult skull, 'is fused with tho body of the sphenoid
(Fig. 7), The upper sur/ace of the basi-occipital is grooved
for tha lodgment of the~^'medulla oblong.ata.
Sometimes the part of the supra-occipital situated abota
the protuberance and upper curved line ossifies as an inde-
pendent bone, called interparietal. In some mammals, aa
the sheep, the existeace of an interparietal in the young
skull is the rule and not the exception.
The Sphenoid or Wedge-shaped bone (Fig. 7, ana Plate Sphenoid,
XII.), lies at the base of the skull ; it articulates behind
with the occipital; in front it is jointed to the ethmoid and
frontal, and by its lateral processes or vriugs to the frontal,
parietal, and temporal bones, Frofc its positi<vi, therefore,
it binds together aU the bones of the cranium, and, more-
over, articulates v/ith many of those of the facp. For coix-
structive purposes it is tho most important bono of tag
head. It consists of a centrum or body, with which four
pairs of processes are connected. 'The body has a deep
depression on its upper surface, compared in shape to a
Turkish saddle, in which is lodged the pituitary body;
hence it is called pituitary fossa. In front of this fossa
is a ridge which marks the place of union of the pre- and
postsphenoidal subdivisions of the body of this 'bono; .the
body is grooved laterally for tho internal carotid artery
and the cavernous- blood sinuses, and it is hollowed ou£ in
its interior to form the spL°noidal air-sinuses: these air;
824
A. N A T O ]\I Y
[skeleton
sinu8C3 uro parlially closed in front Ijy a pnir of tinnU bony
plates called sphenoidal spongy tones, or bones of Berlin.
Behind the pituitary fossa is a, pair of processes called
posterior clinoid, from which the bone slopes back to the
baai-occipital; this slope is called the dorsum sdtas, and on
it rests the pons VaroliL From the posterior part of each
side of the body the great wings, or ali-spheiwids, pass
outwards and upwards to the sides of the skull, and each
sends off a plate-Iiko process to enter into the formation
of the outer wall of the orbit. From the anterior part of
each side of the body the lesser wings, orhilo-sphenoids,
pass outwards, and assist in forming the roof of each orbit;
each orbito-sphenoid ends internally in a knob-like process
called anterior clinoid, and at its root is a foramen called
o}ytic, which transmits the second nerve, or nerve of sight,
into tbo orbit. From the great wings ou each side, close
to its junction with the body, a pair of pterygoid processes,
called internal and external, project downwards, and the
internal process ends in a slender hook termed the /utmular
process. The ali-sphenoid is pierced by foramina called
rotundum, ovale, and spinostim, the two former of which
transmit divisions of the fifth cranial nerve, the last an
artery to tbo membranes of the brain ; between the orbito-
and ali-sphenoids i« a fissure which transmits tlie third,
fc'.irth, sixth, and first divisions of the fifth cranial nerve
into the orbit; and at the root of the pterygoid processes
is the vidian canal, for the transmission of a nerve of the
same name.
Ethmoid, The Ethmoid, or Sieve-like bone (Fig. 7, and Plate XIIT.,
fig. 5), is situated between the two orbital plates of the frontal,
and in front of the body of the sphenoid. It is cuboidal in
shape, and is composed of a central portion and two lateral
masses, which are connected together by a thin horizontal
plate pierced with holes like a sieve, and called cribriform.
This cribriform plate forms a part of the floor of the cranial
cavity ; on it rest the two olfactory bulbs, and the branches
of the nerves of smeD, called olfactory or first cranial
nerves, pass from the bulbs through the holes in this plate
into the nose. The central portion of the bone is a mesial
perpendicular plate, mes-ethmoid, and forms a part of the
septum which subdivides the nose into the right and left
nostrils. Each lateral mass consists of an external smooth
plate, OS planum, which assists in foniiing the inner wall
of the orbit ; and an internal convoluted part, called
superior and middle spongy bones or turhinals, which enter
into the formation of the outer wall of the nostril These
turbinals are associated with the distribution of the nerves
of smell; in the toothed whales, where there are no olfactory
nerves, the turbinals are absent, whikt in some mammals,
as the crested seal, they assume a highly convoluted form.
The lateral masses are hollowed out into air-sinuses, called
ethmoidal cells, which communicate with the nostrils and
vrith corresponding sinuses in the sphenoid and frontal
bones.
frontal. The Frontal, or L 5ne of the Forehead (Figs. 6 and 7, and
Plate XIII. ), consists originally of a right and left lateral half,
united by the frontal suture in the middle line of the fore-
head. As a nile, this suture disappears in early life, and a
single greatly curved bone is formed. The bone is convex
forwards, to form the rounded forehead, and presents two
eminences, the centres of ossification of the bone ; at the
root of the nose is an elevation called glabella, extending
outwards, from which, on each side, is the supra-ciliary
ridge, corresponding to the position of the eyebrow. In
the crania of some races, e.g., the AustraUan, the forward
projection of the glabella and supra-ciliary ridges is con-
siderable ; and in the well-known skull from the valley of
the Neauder it has reached a remarkable size. These
ridges and the glabella mark the position of the air-sinuses
iu the frontal bone. The upper border of each orbit, which
ends internally and txlurna'.ly in a process or bone called
angular, forms the lower boundary of the fo'^ehead. The
cerebral surface cf tuu Ijoiie is deeply concave, for tho
reception of the frontal lobes of tho brain ; the conca\ity
is deepened by the backward projection of two thin plates
of bone which form the roofs of the orbits, which plates
are separated from each other by the deep notch in which
the ethmoid bone is lodged ; along the margins of this
notch may be seen the openings into the frontal air-sinuses.
The Parietal bones, two in number (Figs. 6 and 7, and PaneiaL
Plate XIV.), form the greater part of the side wall of the
skull, and mount upwards to the vertex, where they unite
together along the line of the sagittal suture. Each biT.o
possesses about the centre of its outer surface an eminmc,
tho centre of ossification of the bono, with which a hollcw
on tho cerebral surface, lodging a convolution of the parietal
lobe of the brain, corresponds. Tho bone is quadrilateral
in form. Throe of its margins are strongly denticulated,
for junction with the occipital, frontal, and corresponding
parietal; the fourth is scale-like, for union with the tem-
poral, and fonds the squamous suture ; near the upper
margin on the cerebral surface is a groove for the lodgment
of the superior longitudinal venous sinus. The anterior
inferior angle articulates with the ali-sphenoid, and is
marked by a groove for the meningeal artery; the posterior
inferior is grooved for the lateral venous sinus, and articu-
lates with tho mastoid of the temporal
The Temporal bones, two in number (Figs. 6 and 7, Temrora4
and Plato XIV.), are placed at the side and base of the
skull, and are remarkable for containing in their interior
the organs of hearing. Each bone consists originally of
four Bubdivi.siona — a squamoso-zygomatic, a tympanic, a
petro-mastoid, and a styloid — which in course of time fuse
together to form an irregular-shaped bone. The squamous
part of the squamoso-zygomatic is a thin plate which fo.ins
that part of the side of the skull familiarly known as the
" temple." The zygoma extends horizontally forwards as
a distinct arched process, to join the malar or cheek-bone.
At the root of the zygoma is a smooth fossa, called glenoid,
which receives the condyle of the lower jaw, and assists in
forming the temporo-maxillary joint. The tympanic portion
forms in the fqetus a ring, which enlarges subsequently into
a curved plate that forms the wall of the external auditory
meatus, or passage into the tympanum or middle car. The
tympanic and squamoso-zygomalio parts of the bone fuse
together; but a fissure, called Gla.^erian, situated behind
the glenoid fossa, marks their original separation ; in this
fissure the slender process of the malleus (one of the bones
cf the tjTnpanum) is lodged. The petro-mastoid or periotic
part of the temporal contains the organ of hearing, and i»
compUcated in its internal anatomy. It extends forwards
and inwards along the floor of the skull, and forms on the
exterior of the skull the large nipple-shared mastoid pro-
cess. This process is rough on its outer surface, for the
attachment of muscles, and is hollowed out internally into
the mastoid cells or air-sinuses, which communicate ■.-ith
the tympanum or middle ear. The petrous-temporal ia
distinguished by its stony hardness, and has the form of a
three-sided pyramid. Its apex lies in relation to the side
of the body of the sphenoid ; its base corresponds to the
tympanic cavity and external meatus ; its under surface is
rough, and forms a part of the under surface of the skuU ;
its anterior and posterior surfaces are smooth and in r^la-
tion to certain parts of the brain. The petrous part of the
bone is traversed by a canal which transmits the internal
carotid artery and sympathetic nerve into the cranial
cavity ; in its posterior surface is a passage, intei-tiat
meatus, down which the seventh cranial nerve proceeds;
at the bottom of the meatus the auditory part of that
nerve enters the internal ear, whilst the part of the nerve
BKULL.]
A N A T O ]M Y
825
fwLich goes to the muscles of tlie face traverses a canaj in
the Bone, called aqueduct of Fallopius, "which ■ ends ex-
Wnally, between the styloid and mastoid processes, in the
stylo-mastoid foramen. The styloid process is a slepder part
of the bone which projects downwards from the tympanic
plate, and is connected with the small cornu of the hyoid
bone by the stylo-hyoid ligament. . It does not unite with
the rest of the bone untU a comparatively late period.
Between the petrous-tempiSral and ex-occipital is the
jugular foramen, which transmits out of the skvdl the
ei^;hth cranial nerve and the internal jugular vein.
Bones of The fourteen bones of the Face are, as a mle, much
tlie face. smaller than those of the Cranium ; some have the form
of thin scales, others are more- irregular in shape. They
are named as follows : — Two euperior maxillary, two
palate, two malar, two na^al, two lachrymal, two inferior
tarbinal, a vomer, and an inferior mazilla.
Cpper jaw. The Superior Maxillee, or bones of the Upper Jaw (Figs.
6 and 7, and Plate XIV.), form the skeleton of a large part
of the face, and enter into the formation of the walls of the
cavities of the nose, mouth, and orbit ; around them the
other bones of the face arc grouped. The facial surface
of each bone presents in front a large foramen for the
transmission of the infra-orbital branch of the fi/th cranial
nerve, and behind, several small foramina for the trans-
mission of nerves to the teeth in the upper jaw. On the
same surface ~is a rough process for articulation with the
malar bone. The orbital surface is smooth, forma the
floor of the orbit, and possesses a canal in which the infra-
orbital nerve lies. ITie nasal surface forms a part of the
cu'er v.all and floor of the nostril, and presents a hole
lc:iing into a lai-gs hollow in the substance of the bone,
Ci<Jisd the antrur,x, or superior ma.'dliary air-sinus. The
c^'al surface articulates with the inferior turbinal and
pal '.a bones. The nasal and facial surfaces becoms con-
tinuous with each other at the anterior aperture of the
nose, and from them a .strong process ascends to join the
frontal bono (ilose to the glabella ; tliis process also articu-
lates with the lachiy.aal and nasal bones. The palatal
fcurfaoe forms a.pai'c of the bony roof of the mouth, and
presents ul- front a sv:i^il holo (the incisive foramen) which
communicates with the nose. In the sheep and many other
mammals this hole is of large size ; the palatal surface is
bounded externally by a thick elevated border, in which
are the sockets, or alveoli, for the lodgment of the fangs
of the teeth; internally this surface articulates by a narrow
border with the other superior masiUa and with the vopier,
and, posteriorly, with the palate-bone.
The Palate-bone (Fig. 1, and Plate XIV.) lies in con-
tict with the inner surface and posterior border of the
superior m-xilla, and separates it from the sphenoid. It
.'3 in sliape not unUke the capital letter L, the horizontal
limb forming the hinder part of the bony roof of the
int;uth by its lower surface, and the back part of the floor
of the nose by its upper. The ascending limb assists in
forming the cuter wall of the nose, and subtlivides into
an anterior, or orhital, and a posterior, or sphenoidal, pro-
cess. At the junction of the two limbs is tho pyramidal
process, which articulates with the lower ends of tho
pteryg.id processes of tho sphenoid.
Vom-- Tho Vomer (Fig. 7), shaped like a plouglisharo, lies
• vertically in the mesial plane of the nose, and forms a
large part of the partition which separates one nostril from
tho other. It articulates above with tho under surface of
the body of the sphenoid and tho mes-ethmoid ; below
with the palatal proce-sses of the superior maxilh-e and
palate-bones; in front with the septal cartilage of the nose,
whilst the posterior border is free, and forms the hinder
t -go of the nasal septiim.
"'ho Inferior rurbinated is a siightly convoluted bone
Talate-
bone.
Inferior
turbinated
Malar.
situated on the outer wall of the nose, where it articulates
with the superior maxilla and palate a little below the
ndddle turbiual of the ethmoid.
The Lachrymd (Fig. 6) is a small scate-like bone, in Lachrymal
shape 'not unlike a finger-nail, placed at the inner wall
of the oibit, and fitting between the ethmoid, superior
m.axula, and frontal bones. It has a groove on the outer
surface, in which is lodged the lachrymal sac.
Tho Nasal (Fig. 6) is a thin, somewhat elongated NasaU
bone, which, articulating with its fellow in the middle
line, forms with it the bony bridge of the nose ; above, it
articulates with the frontal, and by its outer border with
the ascending process of the superior maxilla.
The Malar bone (Fig. 6), irregular in shape, forms the
prominence of the cheek, and completes the outer wall
of tho orbit. It rests upon the superior maxilla ; by its
orbital plate it articulates with the great wing of the
sphenoid ; by its ascending process with the ertemal
angular process of the frontal ; by its posterior process with
the zygomatic process of the temporal, so as to complete
the zygomatic arch.
The Inferior Maxilla, Lower Jaw, orMantlible (Figs. 6 and Handible
7, and Plate SIV., fig. 9), is a large horse-shoe shaped bone,
which has the distinction of being the only movable bone of
the head. Itconsists originally of two separate halves, v,-hich
unite during the first year of Ufe into a single bone at the
cj/mpJtt/sis or chin. A characteristic feature ot the human
lower jaw is the forward slope of the bone at the chin, for
in other mammals the symphysis inclines backwards. In
the upper border of this bone are the sockets for the lower
series of teeth. At the posterior end of the horse-shoe
curve on each side the bone ascends almost vertically, and
tercainates in two processes — an anterior, or coronoid,
which is for the insertion of the temporal , muscle, and a
posterior, or condyle, which is for articulation with the glen-
oid fossa of the temporal bone. Where the ascending and
horizontal limbs of the bone are continuous, it forms the
angle, which is almost a right angle. On the inner surface
of the ascending limb is a large foramen, communicating
with a cantd which traverses the bone below the sockets
for the teeth. In this canal are lodged the nerves and
blood-vessels for these teeth.
The Hyoid bone lies in the neck, on the same plane as
the lower border of the inferior maxilla (Figs. 6 and 7). It
is shaped like the letter U, and consists of a body, or hasi-
hyal, from which two long horns, or styMiyals, project
backwards. At the junction of the body and horns two
smaller comua, or cerato-hyaU, project upwards, and are
connected with the styloid processes of the temporal bones,
or stylo-hyals, by the stylo-hyoid ligaments, or epi-hyals.
The hyoid is the bone from which the muscles of the
tongue arise, and it is situated immediately above the
thyroid cartilage of the larynx, to which it is attached by
ligaments.
In its general form the Skull is ovoid, with the long
axis extending antero-posteriorly, the frontal and occipital
ends rounded, and the sides somewhat flattened. Its
average length in the people ot the British Islands is a
little more than 7 inches ; its greatest breadth about 5 J
inches; and its height, from the plane of tho foramen
magnum to tho vertex, about 6J inches. Its greatest
circumference is about 21 inches. The breadth of the
face across the zygomatic arches is about 5 inches. The
average capacity of the brain cavity is 92 cubic ibches.
The British skull is dolicho-ccDhalic and orthognathic.
(See Anthp.opolooy.)
The lateral regions of tjie skull are called the temporal
fossa;, and give origin to the temporal muscles. Under
cover of each zygomatic arch is the zygomatic fossa. At
the bottom of this is a hoUow between the superior maxilla
1 10^
Hyoid.
Genei-al
form and
size of am
82G
A i\ A T 0 -M Y
[sKF.LETOX — ■'
and EpLcnoid, called spheno-tnc.xUlary fossi, from whicn
the pierygn-maxiilai-y jUsure extends downwards between
the pterygoid and superior maxillary; and the s;//>-no-
maxillari/ Jissuro extends upwards into the orbit. The
urbit is a four-walled pjTamidal cavity, vath the base
directed forward to the face, and the apex backward to
the brain cavity. At the apex are the foramina in the
sphenoid, through which the nei ve of sight and other nerves
pass from the brain to the eyeball, muscles, and other suft
structures within the orbit.
The nostrils open on the front of the face by a large
opening situated between the two superior maxilhe, and
bounded above by the two nasals. The sides of the
opening pass down almost vertically to join the floor, and
are not rounded off as in the ape's skull ; from the centre
of the floor a sharp process, the nasal spine of the superior
masiilaj projects forwards, and forms a characteristic'
feature of the human skull. Attached to the sides of the
opening are the lateral cartilages of the nose, which form
the wings of the nostrils, and bo modify the position of
their openings that in t!ie face they look downwards. The
nostrils are separated from each other by a vertical mesial
partitioncoLnposcdof the mcs-ethmoid, vomer, and triangular
nasal ccrlilago, the last-named of which projects forward
beyond the anterior surface of the upper jaw, and con-
tributes materially to .the prominence of the nose. The
outer wall of each nostril presents the convoluted turbinals,
which are separated from each other by horizontal passages
e.\tending antcro-posteriorly ; the superivr passage or
meatus lies between the superior and middle turbinals of
the ethmoid, and is continued into the sphenoidal and
posterior ethmoidal air-sinuses; the middle meatus lies
between the middle and inferior turbinals, and is continued
into the frontal, anterior ethmoidal, and maxillary air
sinuses. These sinuses are therefore extensions of the nasal
chamber or respiratory passage, and correspond with the
air cavities which exist in so many of the bones of birds ;
the inferior meatus lies between the inferior turbinal and
floor of the nose; into its anterior part opens the nasal
duct which conveys the tears from the front of the eyeball.
The posterior openings of the nose are separated from each
other by the hinder edge of the vomer, and are placed
between the internal pterj-goid plates of the sphenoid.
The skull varies in appearance at difierent periods of life.
In infancy the faca is small, about 1th of the size of the
entire head, for the teeth are still rudimentary and the
jaws are feeble ; the centres of ossification of the cranial
bones are prominent; the forehead projects; the skull is
widest at the parietal eminences ; the air-sinuses, and bony
ridges corresponding to them, have not formed. In the
adult the face is about halt the size of the head, and its
vertical diameter greatly elongated, from the growth of the
antrum, the nose, and the dental borders of the jaws ; and
the angle of the lower jaw is almost a right angle. In old
age the teeth fall out, the jaws shrink in, their dental
borders become absorbed, the angle of the lower jaw, as in
infancy, is obtuse ; the vertex and floor of the skull also
become flattened, and the sides bulge outwards, — changes
due to graWtation and the subsidence of the bones by their
onn weight.
The skull ot a woman is smaller and lighter, with the
muscular ridges and projections due to the air sinuses less
strongly marked than in a man, but with the eminences
or centres of ossification more prominent. The more
feeble air sinuses imply a more restricted respirator)'
activity and a less active mode of life than in a maa The
internal capacity is about 10 per cent, less than that of
the male. The face is smaUer in proportion to the cranium;
the cranium is more flattened at the vertex, and the height
Ls couae<iueutly not bo great in proportion to the leng-'h as
in the man. Ii» the female skull, therefore, t4ie infantile
characters are less departed from tl.in is the case in the malej
TuiTung now to the Appendicular Skeleton, we shall
consider first that of the Scpeeiob or Tiioeacic or
Pectoral Extremitt, or Uppee Lime. The Upper Limb Upper
may be subdivided into a proximal part or shoulder, a Limb,
distal part or hand, and an intermediate shaft, which con-
sists of an upper arm or brac/iinm, and a fore-arm or arUi-
hrachium. In each of these subdivisions certain bones are
found : in the shoulder, the clavicle and scapula ; in tLo
upper arm, the humerus ; in the fore-arm, the Tadius and
ulna, the bone of the upper arm in man being longer than
the bones of the fore-arm; in the hind, the carpal and
metacarpal bones and the phalanges. The 'scapula and
clavicle together form an imperfect bony arch, the Scapular
Arch or Shoulder Girdle; the shaft and hand form a free
divergent Appendage. The shoulder girdle is the direct
medium of connection between the axial skeleton and the
divergent part of the limb; its anterior segment, the
clavicle, articulates with the upper end of the sternum,
whilst its posterior segment, the scapula, approaches, but
docs not reach, the dorsal spines.
Pio. 8. — PlflpramniatJcecctlon to reprcsen: the relations of the shoiCOer (rlrdJefa
the trunk. V. a Dorial Vertebra; C. a Rib; St. tlic Sternuro; Sc. the Scapula;
Cr. the Coracold ; Ct tlie Clarlcle ; If, tbe Mcui^ctis at its ateruaJ end ; 11, tbe
Huioerus.
The Clavicle, or Collar Bone (Fig. 9), is an elongated CkVicBj
bone which extends from the upper end of the sternum
horizontally outwards, to articulate with the acromion
process of the scapula. It presents a strong sigmoida)
curve, which is associated mth the transverse and horizontal
direction of the axis of the human shoulder. It is slender
in the female, but powerful in muscular males ; its sternal
end thick and somewhat triangular ; its acromial end,
flattened from above downwards, has an oval articulai
surface for the acromion. Its shaft has four surfaces for
the attachment of muscles; and a strong ligament, con-
necting it with the coracoid, is attached to the under
surface, near the outer end, whilst near the inner a strong
ligament passes between it and the first rib. The clavicle
is absent in the hoofed quadrupeds, in the seals and whales.
and is feeble in the carnivora ; but is well formed, not only
in man, but in apes, bats, and in many rodents and ,
insectivora.
The Scapula, or Shoulder Blade (Fig. 9), is the most Scapali.
important bone of the shoulder girdle, and is present in
all mammals. ■ It lies at the upper and back part of the
wall of the chest, reaching from the second to the seventh
rib. Its form is plate-like and triangular, with . three
surfaces, three borders, and three angles. The funda-
mental form of the scapula, as seen in the mole, is that of
a three-sided prismatic rod, and its assumption of the
plate or blade-li'se character in man is in connection with
the great development of the muscles which rotate the
humerus at the shoulder joint. Its costal or ventral
surface is in relation to the ribs, from which it is separated
by certain muscles : one, called subscapularis, arises from
the surface itself, which is often termed subscapular fossa.
The dorsum or back of the scapula is traversed froia
behind forwards by a prominent spine (PI. XIV., fig. 1, S),
which lies in tbe proper axis of the scapula, and subdivides
this aspect of the bone into a surface above the spine, the
UPPER LIKiB.]
ANATOMY
827
supra- or vnsrspir.o'lis fos-a, and one bslow the cpme, tie
infra- OT pcsi-spinoKS fossa. The spine arches forvrarda, to
end in a bread flattened process,
thfT acromion, which has an oral
artievdar surface for the clavicle ;
both spine and acromion are
largely developed in the human
scapula in correlation with the
great size of the trapezius and
deltoid muscles, which are con-
cerned in the elevation and ab-
duction of the upper limb. The
borders of the scapula, directed
upwards, backwards, and down-
wards, give attachment to oeveral
muscles. The angles are inferior,
supero-posterior, and supero-an-
terior. The supero-anterior is the
most important ; it is truncated,
and presents a large, shallow, oval,
emooth surface, the glenoid fossa,
for articulation with the humerus,
to form the shoulder joint. Over-
hanging the glenoid fossa is: a
curved beak-like process, the
coracoid, which is of importance
as corresponding with the separate
coracoid bone of birds and reptiles.
The line of demarcation between
it and the scapula proper is
marked on the upper border of
the 3capula by the supra-scapular
DOtcL
The Humerus, or bone of the
Upper Arm (Fig. 9), is a long bone,
and consists of • a _shaft and two
extremities. The upper extremity
of this bone possesses a convex
spheroidal smooth surface, the
head, for articulation with the
glenoid fossa of the scapula ; it
is surrounded by a narrow con-
stricted neck, and where the neck
and shaft become continuous with
each other, two processes or tuberosities are
to which are attached the rotator muscles arising
from the scapular fossae. Between the tuberosities is a
groove in which the long tendon of tho biceps rests, A
line drawn through the head of the humerus perpendicular
to tho middle of its articular surface, forms with the axis of
the shaft of the bone an angle of 40°. The shaft of the
humerus ia cylindriform above, but flattened and expanded
below ; about midway down the outer surface is a rough
ridge for the insertion of the deltoid muscle, and on the
inner surface another rough mark for the insertion of the
coraoo-brachialis. The demarcation between the cylindri-
form and expanded parts of the shaft is marked by a
shallow groove winding round the back of the bone, in
which the musculo-spiral nerve is lodged. 3'he lower
extremity of the humerus consists of an articular and a
non-articular portion. The articular presents a small head
t)r capitdlum for tho radius, and a pulley or trochlea for
the movements of the ulna in flexion and extension of tho
limb. The non-articular part consists of two , condyloid
eminences, internal and extcrnaL From the external, or erpi-
condyle, a ridge passes for some distance along the outer
border of the bone ; it gives origin to the supinator and
extensor muscles in the fore-arm. From the internal emi-
nsnce, or epi-trocldea, a ridge passes up the inner border of
the shaft of the bone; this . eminence gives origin to tho
"The Appendlcutcr Skele-
ton of the Left Upper Limb.
CI clavicle ; Sc &c«pula ; Ac.
acromion process; Cr, coracoid
process of ocapula; H, humerus;
R-raditis; U, ulna; C, opposite
the clfiht carpal bones; Mc, op-
posite the Ore metacarpal bi-iici;
P. pollcx, or thumb; II. Index,
III. middle, IV. ring, V.
Uttle finger.
found.
pronator and flexor muscles in the fore-arm. In nearly
two per coTit of the bodies examined in the cnatomy-rooms
in the university of Edinburgh, a hooked process has beeu
seen projecting from the shaft of the bone, about 2 inches
above the epi-trochlea j this process is connected to tho
epi-trochlea by a fibrous band; so as to form a forcxsa,
which has been called sjipra-condyloid. In these c-jes
the median nerve invariably passes through the foramen,
and not unfrequently is accompanied by the brachial
-artery. In tho feline camivora and some other mammals
a foramen constantly occurs in this part of the humerus,
through which, as a rule, both nerve and artery proceed,
though in the common seal it transmits only the nerve.
Before describing the two bones of the fore-arm, the
anatomist should note the range of movement which can
take place between them. In one position, which is called
sy,pins, they lie parallel to each other, the radius being iho
more external bone, and the palm of the hand being
directed forwards ; in the other or prone position the
radius crosses obliquely in front of the ulna, aiid the palm
of the hand in directed backwards. Not only the bones
of the fore-arm, bat those of the hand are supposed to be
in the supine position when they are described.
The Radius (Fig. 9) is the outer bone of the Fore-arm, and Eadia*
Kke ,all long bones possesses a shaft and two extremities.
The upper extremity or head has a shallow, smooth cup for
moving on the capiteUum of the humerus ; the outer
margin of the cup is also smooth, for articulation with the
ulna and annular ligament; below the cup is a constricted
■iiech, and immediately below the neck a tuberosity for the
iaserticn of the biceps. The shaft of the bone . possesses
three surfaces for the attachment of mu^cFfis, and a sharp
inner border for the interosseous membrane. The lower
end of the bone is much broader than the upper, and is
marked posteriorly by grooves for the lodgment of tendons
passing to the back of the hand : from its outer border a
pointed styloid process projects downwards; its inner border
has a smooth shallow fossa for articulation with the ulna, and
its broad lower surface is smooth and concave, for articula-
tion with the scaphoid and semilunar bones of tho wriit.
The Ulna (Rg. 9) is also a long bone. Its upper end ia ITliia..
subdivided into two strong processes 'by a deep fossa, tho
greater mgmoid cavity, which possesses a smooth sunace
for articulation with the trochlea of tho humerus. The
anterior or eormioid process is marked by an oblique ridge
for the insertion ^f '^^ brachialis anticus, whilst the pos-
terior or olecranon process gives insertion to the large
triceps muscle of the upper arm. Immediately below the
outer border of the great sigmoid cavity is the small
sigmoid cavity for articulation with the side of the head of
the radius. The shaft of the bone possesses three surfaces
for the attachment of muscles, and a sharp outer border
for the interosseous membrane. The lower end, much
smaller than the upper, has a pointed styloid process and
a smooth articular surface, the outer portion of which is
for tb-^ lowSr end of the radius, the lower part for moricg
on a cartilage of the wrist joint called the triangular fibro-
cartilage.
The Hand consists of the Carpus or wrist, of the Meta- HaixL
carpus or pahn, and of the free Digits, the thumb and four
fingers. Anatomists describe it with the palm turned to
the front, and with its mria in line with the axis of the
fore-arm.
The Carpal or Wrist bones (Fig. 9) are eight in number Corpus;
and small in size : they are arranged in two rows, a
proximal, — i.e. a row next the fore-arm, — consisting of the
scaphoid, semilunar, cuneiform, and pisiform ; and a distal,
'—i.e. a row next the bones of the palm, — consisting of a
trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum, and unciform ; the bones
in each row being named in the order they ire aiui with.
828
ANATOMY
[skeleton—
from the radial or niner vo me ulimr or inner side of tlie
wrist. It ia uu necessary to give a separate dtdcriiAiou of
each bone. Except the pisiform or pea-shaped bone,
v.hich articulates with the front of the cuneiform, each
carpal bone is short and irregularly cuboidal in shape ; its
anterior (or palmar) surface and its posterior (or dorsal) being
rough, for the attachment of ligaments ; its superior and
inferior surfaces being invariably smooth, for articulation
with adjacent bones ; whilst the inner and outer surfaces
are also smooth, for articulation, except the outer surfaces
of the scaphoid and trapezium (the two external bones of
the carpus), and the inner surfaces of the cuneiform and
nnciform (the two internal bones). Occasionally a ninth or
supernumerary bone may arise from the subdivision of the
scaphoid, semilunar, or trapezoid, iuto. two pieces ; more
rarely a distinct bone is found in the human wiist inter-
cJated between the trapezoid, os magnum, semilunar, and
scaphoid, which corresponds in position to the os inter-
medium, found constantly in the wrist of the orang, gibbon,
the tailed apes, and many rodents and inscctivora.
•Mtta- The Metacarpal bones, or bones of the Palm of the Hand,
■"''"Pus. Qro five in number (Fig. 9). They are miniature long
bones, and each possesses a shaft and two extremities.
The metacarpal of the thumb is the shortest, and diverges
outwards from the rest : its carpal extremity is sa^idie-
ahaped, for articulation with the trapezium ; its shaft is
somewhat compressed, and its phalangeal end is smooth
and rounded, for the first phalanx of the thumb. The
four other metacarpal bones belong to the four fingers :
they are almost parallel to each other, and diminish in size
from the second to the fifth. Their carpal ends articulate
with the trapezoid, os magnum, and nnciform : their shafts
are three-sided : their phalangeal ends articulate with the
Qrst phalanges of the fingers.
Oigits. The number of Digits in the hand is five, which is the
highest nuitber found in the mammalia. They are dis-
tinguished by thfe names of pollex or thumb, and index,
middle, ring, and little fingers. Their skeleton consists of
fo.jrteen bones, named phalanges, of which the thumb
possesses two, and each of the four fingers three. The
phalanx next the metacarpal bone is the first, that which
carries the nail is the terminal or ungual phalanx, whilst
tha intermediate bone is the second phalanx. Each is a
miniature long bone, with two articular extremities and an
intermediate shaft, except the terminal phalanges, which
have an articular surface only at their proximal ends, the
distal end being rounded and rough, to afford a surface
for the lodgment of the nail
2,0 ,,j.^ The Infeeiob or Pelvic Exteemitt, or Lowek Limb,
iimb. consists of a proximal part or haunch, a distal part or foot,
and an intermediate shaft subdivided into thigh and leg.
Each part has
its appropriate
ekeleton : in the
haunch, the pel-
vic or innomi-
nate bone ; in the
thigh, the femur;
in the leg, the
tibia and fibula Fio-10. — Diagrammatic section to represent the relations
/<u *l." T, V of the Pelvic Girdle to the Tmiik. V, a sacral Tertebra;
\Xiie tnign-DOne n, tho UIqui; P, Ibe two pubic bouts taeeUug in Iront
^^ man bein? atthesyiuphyBla; F. the femnr.
longer than the leg-bones); in front of the knee, the
patella ; in the foot, the tarsal and metatarsal bones and
phalanges. The bone of the haunch forms an arch or
Pelvic Girdle, which articulates behind with the side of the
sacrum, and arches forward to articulate with the opposite
haunch -bone at the pubic symphysis. It is the direct
medium of connection between the axial skeleton and the
shaft and foot, which form a free divergent Appendage.
L
Hiunx
—I
The Os lunomiuatum, or DauiicLbonc, is a large irre- Pelvid
gular plate-like bone, which forms the lateral and anterior girJle.
boundary of the canity of the pelvis. In early life it con-
sists of three bones — ilium, ischium, and pubis — which
unite about the twenty-fifth year into a single bone.
These bones converge, and join to form a deep fossa or
cup, the acetabulum or cztyloid cavitt/, on the outer surface
of the bone, which lodges .the head of the thigh-bone at
the hip-joint One-fifth of this cup is formed by the
pubes, and about two-fifths each by the ischium and ilium.
At the bottom of the acetabulum is a depression, to tho
sides of which the inUrarticular ligament of the hip-joint
is attached. From the acetabulum the ilium extends
upwards and backwards, the ischium downwards and
backwards, tho pubis forwards and inwards. In front of
the acetabulum is a large hole, the obturator or thyroid
foramen, which is bounded by the ischium 5nd pubea;
behind tho acetabulum b the v
deep sciatic notch, which is ■
bounded bv the ischium and
ilium.
The niom (Fig. 10) in man
Ls a broad plate - like bone.
In its most smiple form, as in
the kangaroo, it io -a three-
sided, prismatic, rod-like bone,
one end of which enters into
the formation of the acetabu-
lum, whilst the other is free,
and forms the iliac crest. In
man, notwithstanding its ex
panded form, three surfaces
may also be recognised, cor-
responding to the surfaces in
the ilium of the kangaroo; and, as
in that animal, the lower end
aids in forming the acetabulum,
v/hile the ' upper end forms
the iliac crest, which, in man,
in conformity with the general
expansion of the bone, is elon-
gated into the sinuous crest
of the Uium. This crest is of
great Importance, for it affords
attachment to the broad muscles
which igrro tho wall of the ab-
dominal cavity. One surface of
the ilium is external, and marked
by curved Enea which subdivide
it into areas for the origin of
the muscles of the buttock ;
auDther surface is anterior, and
hollowed out to give origin to
the Uiacus muscle ; the third, __^
or internal, surface articulates fio. li.— ihe AppcuiBcular Skeleton
of the Left Lower Limb, n, lllam,
la, Idchlutii, Pb, pubi^ the tbr««
parts of the Innominate bone ; F,
femur; P, patella; Tb, tibia; FU
fibula ; Tr, opposite the seven tarsal
bonc3; C OS calciB, forming proml-
E?nce of iieel ; Mt, opposite the fl»e
metatarsal bones; H, hallDX or
great toe; II. second. IIL third,
IV. fourth, V. enh or Uitle toe.
The dotted Hue HH representa tbe
horizontal plsne, whlLit the dotted
line V is In line with the renical
About the middle of this border "i» »' •>>« ^^^
is the anterior inferior spine. Between the extemaland inter-
nal EUi'faces is a border on which are found the posterior
euperiorandinferior spines ; between theanteriorand internal
surfaces is the pectineal border, which forms part of the line
of separation between the true and false pelvis.
The Pubis (Fig. 11) is also a three-sided, prismatic, rod-
posteriorly with the sacrum,
whilst anteriorly it forms a part
of the wall of the true pelvis.
The external is separated from
the anterior surface by a border
which joins the anterior end of
the crest, where it forms a pro-
cess, the anterior superior spine.
■ LOWER. UMB.]
ANATOMY
829
pubis. like tone, the fundamental form of wliicli is obscured by
the modification in shape of its inner end. In human
anatomy it is customary to regard it as consisting of a
body and of two branches, a fu^i-izonial and a descending
ramus. The body and horizontal* ramus form the funda-
mental prismatic rod, and the descending ramus is merely ■
a special offshoot from the inner end of the rod. The
outer end of the rod takes a part in the formation of the
acetabulum ; the inner end is expanded into the body of
the pubis, and has a broad margin, or ^mphysis, for
articulation with the corresponding bone on tho opposite
side of the pelvis. The three surfaces are — a superior, for
the origin of the pectineua muscle ; a posterior, which
enters into the wall of the tnie p<Dlvi3 ; and an inferior,
■which forms the upper boundary of the obturator foramen.
The descending ramus is merely a downward prolongation
of the inner end of the bone which joins the ischium, and
aids in forming the sido of the pubic arch. The junction
of the outer end of the pubis with the ilium is marked by
the pectineal eminence. The superior and posterior sur-
faces are separated by the sharp pectineal line, which,
starting from the spine of the pubis, runs outwards to aid
in forming the brim of tho true pelvis.
Ischium The Ischium (Fig. 11), like tho ilium and pubis, haa
the fundamental form of a three-sided prismatic rod. One
extremity (the upper) completes the acetabulum, whilst
the loWer forms the large prominence, or tuber ischii. The
surfaces of the bone are internal or pelvic, external, and
anterior. The pelvic and external surfaces are separated
from each other by a sharp border, on which is seen the
ischial spine. The pelvic and anterior surfaces are sepa-
rated by a border, which forms a part of the boundary of
the obturator foramen; but the margin between the external
and anterior surfaces is feebly marked. The tuberosity,
a thick, rough, and strong process, gives origin to
several powerful ifiuscles : on it the body rests in the
sitting posture ; an offshoot, or ramus, ascends from it
to join the descending ramus of the pubis, and com-
pletes both the pubic arch and the margin of the obturator
foramen.
Pelvis. By the articulation . of the two innominate bones with
each other in front at the pubic symphysis, and with the
sides of the sacrum behind, the osseous walls of the cavity
of the Pelvis are formed. This cavity is subdivided into
a false and a true pelvis. The false pelvis lies between
the expanded ■wing-Like portions of the two ilia. The true
pelvis lies below the two pectineal lines and the base of
tho, sacrum, which surround the upper orifice or brim of
the true pelvis, or pelvic inlet; whilst its lower orifice or
outlet is bounded behind by the coccyx, laterally by the
ischial tuberosities, and in front by the pubic aroL In
the erect attitude the pelvis is so inclined that the plane
of the brim forms ■with the hoiizontal plane an angle of
from 60° to 65°, The axis of the cavity is curved, and is
represented by a line drawn perpendicularly to the planes
of the brim, the cavity, and the outlet; at the brim it is
directed upwards and forwards, at the outlet downv^ards
and a little forwards. Owing to the inclination of the
pei^ris, the base of the sacrum ia nearly 4 inches higher
than the upper border of the pubic symphysi_s. The female
pelvis is distinguished from the male by certaip sexual
characters. Tho bones are more slender, the ridges and
processes for muscular attachment more feeble, thebreadtli
and capacity greater, the depth less, the ilia more expandedj
giving the greater breadth to the hips of a woman than a
man; ;,he inlet more nearly circular, the pubic arch ■wider, tho
distance between tho tuberosities greater, and the obturator
foramen more triangular in the female than in the male.
The greater capacity of the woman's than the man's pelvis
is to aiford greater room for the expansion of the uterus
during pregnancy, and for the expulsion of the child at
the time of birth.
The Femur or Thigh-bone (Fig. U) is the longest bone Feitiur.
in the body, and con.sists of a shaft and two extremities. The
upper extremity or head possesses a smooth convex surface,
in which an oval roughened fossa, for the attachment of
tho inter-articular ligament of the hip, is found; from tho
head a strong elongated neck passes downwards and out-
wards to join the upper end of the shaft; the place of
junction is marked by two processes or trochanters: the
e.vtemal is of large size, and to it are attached many
muscles; the internal is much smaller, and gives attach-
ment to the psoas and Uiacus. A line drawn through the
axis of the head and neck forms ■with a vertical hue drawn,
through the shaft an angle of 30°; in a woman this angle
is less obtuse than in a man, and the obliquity of the
.shaft of the femur is greater in the former than in the
latter. The shaft is almost cyUndj-ical about its centre,
but expanded ebovs and below; its front and sides give
origin to the extensor muscles of the leg; behind there is
a rough ridge, which, though called linea aspe-ra, is reully
a narrow surface and not a line; it gives attachment io
several muscles. The lower end of the bone presents
a large smooth articular surface for tho knee-joint, the
anterior portion of which forms a trochlea or pulley for tha
movements of the patella, whilst the lower and posterior
part is subdivided into two con vqx condyles by a deep
fossa which gives attachment to the crucial ligaments of
the knee. The inner and outer siirfaces of this end of tliB
bone aro rough, for the attachment of muscles and the
Literal ligaments of the knee.
The Patella jr Knee-pan (Fig. 11) is a small triangular Pafell*
flattened bone developed in the tendon of the great,extensor
muscles of the leg. Its anterior surface and sides are
rough, for the attachment of the fibres of that tendon; its
posterior surface is smooth, and enters iato the formation
of the knee-joint.
Between the two bone^ of the leg there are no movo
ments of pronation and supination as between the twe
bones of the fore-arm. The tibia and fibula are fixed in
position; the fibula is always external, the tibia internal.
The Tibia or Shin-bone (Fig. 11) is the krger and Tilij^
more important of the two bones of the leg; the femur
moves and rests upon its upper end, and down it the
weight of the body in the erect position is transmitted to
the foot. Except ther femur, it is the longest bone of the
skeleton, and consists of a shaft and two extremities. The
upper extremity is broad, and is expanded into two tuber-
osities, the external of which has a small articular facet
inferiorly, for the head of the fibula; superiorly, the tuber-
osities have two smooth surfaces, for articulation with the
condyles of the femur; they are separated-by an intermediate
rough surface, from which a short spine projects, which gives
attachments to the inter-articular erucial ligaments and
semilunar cai-tilages of the knee, and lies opposite the iuter-
condyloid fossa of the femur. The shaft of the bone is
throe-sided; its inner surface is subcutaneous, and forms
the shin ; its duter and posterior surfaces are for the orij^iii
of muscles; the anterior border forms tho sharp ridge of the
shin, and terminates superiorly in a tubercle for the inser-
tion of the extensor tendon of the leg ; the outer border
of the bone gives attachm<int to the inter-osseous membrane
of the leg. The lower end of tho bone, smaller than the
upper, is prolonged into a broad process, internal malleolus,
which forms the inner prominence of the ankle: its under
surface is smooth for articulation with the astragalus; exter-
nally it articulates ■with the lower end of the fibula.
The Fibula,, or Splint-bone of tho leg (Fig. 11), is a Pibnii.
slender long bone with a shaft and two extremities. The
upper end or head articulates with the outer tuberosity of
830
ANATOMY
[SKELETON-
Ilie tibia. The shaft is tlirce-sided, and roughened for tho
origins of muscles ; along the inner surface is a slender
riilge for the attachment of the interosseous membrane.
The lower end has a. strong' process {txlemat malteolvs)
projecting downwards to fono the outer prominence of the
ankle, and pos.se3se3 a smooth inner surfiice for articulation
witli the astragalus, above whi9h is a rough surface for the
attachment of ligaments which bind together the tibia and
fibula.
Foot. Tho Foot consists of the Tarsus, tho llctatarsua, and the
fivo free Digits or Toes, which is the maximum number
found in mammals. Tho human foot ia placed in the prone
position, with tho sole or plantar surface in relation to the
ground ; the dorsum or back of the foot directed upv/ards ;
llio aiis of the foot at about a right angle to the a.xis of the
leg ; and the great toe or hallux, which is the corresponding
digit to tho thumb, at tho inner border of the foot. The
human foot, therefore, is a pentadactylous, plantigi-de foot.
Taisiy The bones of the Tareus, or Ankle (Fig. 1 1, Tr), are seven
in number, and are arranged in two transverse rows, — a
prOiiraal, next the bones of the leg, consisting of the
astragalus, os calcis, and scaphoid ; a distal, next the
rcelatarsu.s, consisting of the cuboid, ecto-, meso-, and
entocuneiform. If the tarsal bones be looked at along
with those of the metatarsus and toes, the bones of the
foot may be arranged in two longitudinal columns, — an
outer, consisting of the os calcis, cuboid, and the metatarsal
bones and phalanges of the fourth and fifth toes ; an inner
column consulting of tho astragalu.s, scaphoid, three cunei-
form, and the metatarsal bones and phalanges of the first,
second, and third toes. The tarsal, like the carpal bones,
are short and irregularly cuboidal ; the dorsal and plantar
surfaces are as a rule rough for ligaments, but as the
astragalus is locked in between the bones of the leg and
the 03 calci.'?, its dorsal and plantar surfaces, as well
as the dorsum of the os calcis, are smooth for articu-
lation ; similarly, its lateral surfaces are smooth for
articulation with the tvio malleoli. The posterior surface
of the OS calcis pj'ojects backwards to form the prominence
of the heel \Vith this exception, the bones have their
anterior and posterior surfaces smooth for articulation.
Their lateral surfaces are also articular, except the outer
sui-face of the os calcis and cuboid, which form the outer
border; and the inner surface of the os calcis, scaphoid,
and ento-cuneiform, which form tho inner border of the
tarsus. A supernumerary bone is sometimes found in the
human tarsus, from a subdivision of cither the ento-cunei-
forra, astragalus, os calcis, or cuboid into two parts. In
some rodents and other mammals eight is the normal
number of bones in the tarsus.
Toes, The Metatarsal bones and the Phalanges of the toes
agree in number and general form with the metacarpal
bones and the phalanges in the hand. The bones of the
great toe or hallux are more massive than those of the
other digits, and this digit, unlike the thumb or pollex,
does not diverge from the other digits, but lies almost
l^raUel to them.
Development and Ilomolngies of the Skeleton.
It will now be advisable to consider briefly the mode of develop-
ment of the skeleton, and along with the study of its genesis to
compare its several parts with each other, in order to ascertain if
correspondences in their arrangement and mode of oripin exist, even
if they differ in the function or office which they pei-forra. When
two or more parts or organs coiiespond with each other in structure,
relative position, and mode of origin, we say tbey are homologous
iKirta, or homoJogues ; whilst parts which have the same function,
but do not correspond in structure, relative, position, and mode of
oiigin, are analogous parts, or analogues. Homologous parts have
therefore a morphological identity with each other, whilst analogous
mrts have a physiological agreement. The same pai-ts may be
both homolosouB and analogous, as the foi^-llmba of a bat and a
bird, bo',h of which, with the same fardr.mcntal type of stmcliin-,
ore subservient to ilight. In other cases analogous parts ore not
homologuea, as ii illustratrd by the wing of tho insect, which,
though subservient to flight, is fundamentally diiferent io struclurt
from the wing of the \>at or bird.
In the germinal area of tlie fertilised vertebrate ovum a longitudi-
nal groove appeara vvhich toarks the beginning of the cninial cavity
and spinal canal of the young embryo. At tl.c bottom of lliis cranio-
npinal groove a slender rod is formed, called chord/t dorsalu or no'.o-
chord. Each side of the groove then becomes elevated as a tliin mem-
brane, to meet behind to enclose a canal in which tlic brain and spinal
marrow are developed. Small dnrk masses, the primordial ot prulo-
vnrulira, next form on each side of the chorda dorsalis. In these
iiroto-vertehrae, about tho sixth or seventh week of intra-utcrin*
ufe of the humou ovum, little niiussca of cartilage appear, which
correspond in number and position to the future s|jinal vertebrae.
The part of the cartilage which foniis the body of the future vertebra
is developed around the chorda dorsalis, which it encloses in it»
substance, whilst the cartihiginous neural arch forms in the mem-
brane which closes in the spinal canal. Tho formation of these
cartilaginous vertebra is completed in the human imljryo about the
fourth month of intra-utcrinc life. The bodies of the cartilaginoua
vertebrae are connected to"ether by platea or discs of intervening
fibro-cartilage, which ore also deveio(»ed around the chorda dorsalis.
After tho enclosure of the ro<l-like chorda by the cartilaginous
vertebras and the inter-veitebral discs it disappeara, no remains
being found in the adult human bo<!y, or in that of the higher
vertebrates, except perhaps some slight traces in the soft pulpv
•entros of the inter-vertebnil discs ; altliough in the cartilaginous hsL
it remains aa a more or less complete structure throughout life.
In each of the cartilaginous vertebra bono begins to form and
to spread beyond its original jwint of formation, which is called
a centre or nucleus of ossification ; the greater paH of the body ia
formed from one of these centres, and each half of the neural arch
from another ; whilst small ossific centres arise for the tips of the
spinous, transverse, and mammillary processes, and a special plate
appears for both the upper and lower surfaces of the body ; tho
fusion of the various centres together to form a complett vertebra
takes place between the twentieth and twcnty-hfth year. The
atlas has a sei>arate centre for each lateral mass and one for the
anterior boundary of tho ring. The axis, in addition to tho ossilic
centres found in the vertebna geneiuUy, has on*; or two ft>r the
odontoid process. The seventh cer\'ical vertebra has the anterior
bar of ito transverse process devolop'cd from a separate centre. Each
coccygeal vertebra jKissesses only a single centre, which represents
the body of the bone.
At the time when the cranio-spinal canal is being closed in by
the development of its mcrabianous walls, the germinal layers of
the young embryo grow towards its anterior or ventral surface, and
meet in the ventral mesial line, so as to enclose the cavities in which
the thoracic and abdominal viscera are developed. In the membranous
wall on each side of the thoracic cavity twelve cartilaginous rods,
the future ribs, are developed ; and, connected with the anterior enda
of the seven paira of upper ribs, the cartilaginous sternum is formed
Each rib ossifies from one centre for its shaft, and one each for the
head and tubercle. The sternum ossifies in transverse segments, —
one for the prje-stemum, one or sometimes two for each of the four
subdivisions of the meso-stcrnum, and one for the xii'hi-sternum.
The complete os.sification and fusion of the diiferent parts of the
sternum into a single bone does not take place until an advanced age.
The axial part of the skeleton, formed by the vertebrae, ribs, and
sternum, is buUt up of a series of thirty-three transverse segments,
equal in number, therefore, to the bones of the spino ; so that each
vertebra, according as it is, or is not, articulated with a pair of
ribs and a segment of the sternum, constitutes a complete or
incomplete transverse segment. These several segments are serially
homologous with each other, but the homology is not so complete
in some of the segments as in the others. In the coccygeal, sacral,
and lumbar regions of man and most vertebrates, only the verte-
bral portion of each skeletal segment -is represented, though in the
abdominal wall of the crocodiles abdominal ribs and a sternum are
develotted. in tlie thoracic region the five lowest dorsal vertebrae
have five paira of ribs developed in connection with them ; whilst
the seven highest vertebrae have not only their correspon<ling pairs
of ribs, but also a sternum, which bone, however, has only six trans-
verse segments. In the cervical region seven vertebra are found,
but the anterior bar of the transverse process, although fused with
the vertebral body, is homologous with a rib, for in man it some-
times develoj>s as a distinct movable rib in connection with the
seventh cervical ; and in the crocodiles small movable ribs are
regulai'ly developed in connection with the diiferent cerv'ical verte-
bra The bodies and neural arches of the vertebrae are serially
homologous with each other ; as a rule this is also the case with
their processes, but the articular processes of the atlas and tho
superior pair of the axis,' although functionally analogous, are ncri
homologous with the articular processes of the other vertebrsej hvX
with the articular aujfaces for the ribs on the bodies of tha iace.\
DCVEI.OI'MENT.J
A N A G' O M Y
831
vertebrae, for they lii in front of, and not behind, the vertchral
notches through whiL-h the spinal nerves are transmitted. The
development of the odontoid process of the axis shows it to he the
tody of the atlas displaced from its proper bono and fused with the
body of the axis.
The development and homology of the skull is a much more
difficult problem to solve than that of the spine. The chorda
(lorsal'3 extends along the floor of the skull as far forv/arJ as the
posterior wall of the pituitary fossa. Cartilage is formed around it,
without, however, the previous production of proto-vertebrffi, and
this cartilage is prolonged forward on each side of the fossa, forming
two bars, the trabcculai cranii ; these bars then unite, and form tho
mes-cthmoia cartilage; at the same time the cartilage grows out-
wards for some distance in the membranous wall of the skull, but
it does not mount upwards so as to close it in superiorly, so that
the cartilage is limited to the floor of the ekuU ; moreover, the
cartilage is not segmented. The roof, side walla, and anterior wall
of the cranium retain for a time their primordial membranous struc-
ture. This membrane is prolonged downwards into the face proper,
where it forms a pair of maxillary lobes or processes, whicn pass
forwards beneath the eyes to form the side parts of tho face, and
a mid- or frontal-uasal process, into which the cartilaginous mes-
ethmoid extends. Immediately below each maxillary lobs four
arches, called branchial or visceral, arise in the vcutral aspect of the
head, and in each of the three first of these arches a rod of cartilage
is formed. The arches on opposite sides unite with each other m
the ventral mesial line, but those on the same aide are separated
from each other by intermediate branchial clefts; these clefts all
close up in course of time, except the ujiper part of the first, v;hich
remains as the external meatus of tho ear, the tjinpanum, and the
Eustachian tube; whilst the interval between the first visceral arch
Bud the maxillary lobes forms tho cavity of the mouth. The con-
version of the primordial cartilaginous and membranous craiiiura
into the bones of the head takes 'place by the fonnatioa in it of
numerous centres of ossification. The basi-, ox-, and so much of the
su]ira-occip;tal as lies below the superior curved line, are fonned
from distinct centres in the cartilaginous Door of the skull ; whilst
the part of the eupra-occipital above the curved line arises from
independent centres In tho membranous cranium, the whole ulti-
mately fusing together to form the occipital lone. The basi- or
post-sphenoid, the pre- with the orbito-sphenoids, the ali-sphenoid
with the external pterygoid and the internal pterygoid, also arise
in the cartilaginous floor, and they, together with the sphenoidal
spongy bones which are formed in the membranous cranium, fuse
into the sphenoid bono. The palate is apparently formed by ossifica-
tion of cartilage continuous with the bar in which the internal
pterygoid arises. The cent.-al plate and each lateral masa^ of the
ethmoid ahso arise in the cartilage by distinct centres. The inferior
turbinal has also a distinct origin in cartilage. The petro-mastoid
part of the temporal arises in cartilage from at least three centres,
peri-, pro-, and opisth-otic, and soon blends with the squamous
and tympanic elements which arise in the moiiibranous cranium ;
subsequently the styloid process, which is ossified in the rod of
cartilage in the second visceral arch, joins the temporal. The lower
end of this same rod forms the lesser comu of the hyoid ; the upper
end forms two small bonc-s, the stapes and incus, situated within
tb" cavity of tho tymp.anum. Tho cartilage of tho third visceral
arch forms the great cornu and body of the hyoid bono. The name
of Meckel's cartilage is applied to tho rod found in the first visceral
arch ; its upper end is ossified into tho malleus, a small bone
situated in the tympanic cavity; whilst in the membrane sur-
rounding the rest of the cartilage tho lower jaw-bone is formed.
The jianetal and frontal bones arise altogether in the membranous
vault ; and the nasal, lachrymal, malar, and superior maxillas arise
in connection with the bones which ftrm the faco; tlio vonaor is
doveioped In the membrane investing the me3-otl\mcid cartilage.
The human superior maxilla represents not only the superior maxilla
of other vertebrates, but tho pre-maxUlary bone also; but the two
bones become fused together at so very early a period that it is
dilficult to recognise their original independence. In the deformity
of hare-li]! and cleft palate, they are not unfrequently separated by
a distinct fissure.
Since the time when Okon and Ooctho propounded tho theory
that tho skull was built up of several vertebra;, the vertebral struo-
» turo of the skull lias led to much discussion amongst anatomists.
Every one admits that tho skull is in scries with the sjiino, that
tho cranial cavity is continuous with the spinal canal, and that the
cranial vault is formed in the wall of the embryonic ccrobro-spinal
canal. The skull also, like tho spine, is transversely segmented,
but whether we regard these segments as vcrtebraj or not wil'
depend upon tho conception wo entertain of f'l meaning of the
term vertebra. If with Owen wo define a vertebra to be "one of
those Bcinuents of the cndo-skelcton which constitute the axis of
the body and the protective canals of the nervous and vascular
trunks then we may support tho vertebral nature of the cranial
segments on the following grounds :—ls(, The presence of a series
of bones extending forwuria from the foramen magnum along tho
basis cranii, in scries with, the bodies of tlie spinal vertebrae, —<. 9.,
thebasi-occipital, basi-sphenoid, pre-sphcnoid, mes-ethmoid (Fig. 7);
2d, The presence of a series of neural arches which enclose and
complet* the wall of the cranial cavity, and lie in series with the
neural arches of the spinal vcitebr.-c, — e.g., the ex- and supra-occi-
pitals, which form the neural arches of the basi-occipital segment ;
the ali-sphenoids and parietals, which form the neural arches of
the basi-sphenoid segment; the orbito-sphenoids and frontal, which
form tho neural arches of the pre-sphenoid segment ; Zd, The
presence of a series of visceral arches of which the mandibular and'
Lyoidean enclose the alimentary and vascular canals, just as the
ribs enclose them in the thorax ; and Uh, The presence of foramina
between the cranial segments like the inter-vertebral foramina
between the spinal vertebrae for the transmission of nei-ves, — e.g.,
the spfienoidal fissure and the jugular foramen.
But if we are to regard a vertebra as a segment of the axial
skeleton, which in course of its formation passes through a definite
series of developmental changes, then the cranial se^ients cannot
be regarded as vertebras in the same sense as tlie spinal segments;
for, {st. The chorda dorsalis is not co-equal in length with the basis
cranii, as with tho bodies of the spinal vertebrae, so that if the
basi-occipital and basi-sphenoid segments, tho bodies of which ore
developed around it, were to 'ne regarded as cranial vertebrae, the
pre-sphenoidal and ethmoido-nasal would not be morphologically the
same, as they are formed in front of the anterior end of the chorda.
2d, Proto-vertebrae are formed in the spine, but not in the basis
cranii. Sd, The spine is transversely segmented In its cartilaginous
stage of development, but the skull is not. ith, The transverse
se'rmentation oi' the skull only appears when the bones are formed,
but the individuality of the segments becomes a^ain concealed by
the fusion of the pre- and basi-sphenoids and the basi-occipital into
a continuous bar of bone, a condition which is not found in the
spine except in the sacro-coccygeal region. 6(A, The neural arches
in the spine are, like the bodies, ossified in cartilage, but In the
cranium they are for the most part ossified in membrane. These
diiferences in the mode of development of the spine and basis cranii
may be summarised as below : —
Spine,
1st Stage, 2d Stage, Zd Stage, ith Stage,
Unsegmented Proto-Tertehrse. Segmented Segmented
chorda. cartilage. bones
£asis Cranii.
1st Stage, 2d Stage, 3d Stage, Uh Stage,
Unsegmented Unsegmented Segmented Unsegmented
chorda in part. cartilage. bones. bones.
It is evident, therefore, that, although both skull and spine an
developed in the walls of the ccrebro-spinal groove, yet, to quote
the words of Huxley, "though they are identical in general
plan of construction, the two begin to diverge as soon as the ono
puts on tho special character of a skull and the other that of a
vertebral column ; the skuU is no more a modified vertebral column
than the vertebral column is a modified skull."
The limbs, at their first appearance, sprout like little buds or
lappets from the sides of the trunk ; cartilage forms within them,
which assumes the shape of the future bones, and as the lilnbs
grow outwards, manifestations of joints appear, and the subdivision
of each limb into its several segments takes ])lace. The clavicle,
which ossifies before any of the other bones, begins to form, how-
ever, in fibrous membrane ; and at a much later period tho ends of
the bone, which are formed in cartilage, unite vrith the intermediata
shaft. The scapula ossifies from one centre for its expanded plato
and spine, two small centres each for the acromion and vertebral
border, and one for the coracoid. In many vertebrates, more espe-
cially birds and reptiles, the coracoid is a distinct bono from the
scapula, but they articulate with each other to form the glenoid
fossa. Each of the three rod-like bones of which tho innominate
bdno is composed, ossifies from one centre for the shaft of the bonv.
and one for each extremity ; in the ilium these terminal centres are
situated at the crest and acetabulum ; in the ischium, at the tuber
and ocetabuluin ; and in the pubis, at the symphysis and acetabu-
lum. Each of the long bones of the shafts of tho limbs ossifies
from a single centre for the .shaft, and one or more centres for each
articular extremity. Each carpal and tarsal bone ossifies from a
single centre, except the os calcis, which possesses an independent
centre for ita posterior surface. Tho metacarpal and metatarsal
bones and tho phalanges ossify each from two centres, one for the
shaft and ono for one of the extremities. In tho metacarpal bones of
the fingers and the four outer metatarsals, the distal end is tliat which
ossifies independently ; in the metacarpal of tho thumb, in the meta-
tarsal of the great toe, and in all the phalanges, the proximal end K
that which ossifies independently. As the method of ossification o(
the first metacarpal and first metatarsal corresponds with that of the
phalanges, some anatomists hold that these bones are really the first
idialanges of their respective digits, and thft the bone which is absent
in theao digits, when conijiared with thb other digits, is not &
phalanx, but b mcta-carpal or tarsal bone. When tho extrvmitjr
832
ANATOMY
Jomtd.
of « bono osiifiM (ix)m a contro disKnct frcm tho centre rroai which
.h^ft „"^,;r^ "" "^'^ ^ '^'''^""^ "^''^ 'I 'r'hysis u united to the
.ha/t of the growing bone by an mUrmcdiate i,lat« of cartilage, aad
» ong u any of this cartilage remain uno^iBed the b^ne can
wniuiue to grow m knrtK l^ho ossification i. not completed m
the different bonw nntil from tho twentieth to the twenty-fifth
l^' f f ? ^ "^ "' ^° '"."S '""^ "■« 'P'lhysia 8ituaU.J at the
•»nd of the bone, towards which the canal in the ahaft which trans-
mits the nutrient artery U directed, oesifies to the shaft before tho
epiphys^ at the other end. In the haments, tibia, and fibula.
where the canal is directed downwartls, tho epiphyses at tho lower
ends of the bones first unite with the shaft; whilst in the femur,
radjiu, and ulna^ whore the canal is directed upwards, tho osaifical
tion first takes place between the upper epiphysis and tho shaft
All anatomisto hold that the bones of the shaft and distal part of
a hmb belong to the appendicular part of the skeleton, but there is
» (liflercDco of opinion aa to tho place in the skeleton to wjich the
bonee of the shoulder girdle and haunch are to bo referred. Owen
considers that the scapular and pelvic arches belong to tho axial
skeleton, and are homologous with the ribs ; the scapula and coracoid
u the visceral or nb-arch of the occipital vertebra, the cUvicIe of
^ atlas, arid the innbminate bone of tho npper sacral vertobne.
uoodsir objoctod to this conclusion of Owen's on the ground that
the shoulder girdle was not in series with the visceral arches, but
was developed outside the visceral wall, at the junction of the
cervical and thoracic regions, from which region tho upper limb
receives ita nerves, and not from tho occipito-atlantal region,
whence they would have proceeded had -it been an appendage of
the rib-arclies of those segments. Owen's chief e.-gument for
regarding tho scapula and coracoid as the costal arch of tho occi-
pitej vertebra is because in fish tho scapula is attached to the
occipitaJ bone bv a bone which Cuvier called the supra-scapula,
and which he believed to be homologous with the supra-scapular
cartilage of many other vertebrates. Parker, however, ias recently
pointed out that the oocalled supra-scapula of a fish is not homolo-
gous with the supra-scapula of a rejitile or mammal, that it is not a
oartito bone, but is a splint or scale-like bone, developed as a
part of the dcrmo-skelcton. Between tho scapula and coracoid and
the innominate bona, anatomisU have long recognised homologies
to exist ; tho scapula is generally admitted to he the homotj-pe
of the ilinm and the coracoid of tho ischium, so that if thesa
elements of the shoulder girdle bo not a costal arch, neither can
those of the pelvic girdle. The claviolo has bj some bees re-
garded as the homotype of the pubis ; but in all probab'ilitr tho pubis
IS homologous with tho nrocoracoid bone which is found in the
amphibia and some reptiles, but is absent in crocodiles, birds, and
mammals ; whilst the clavicle b represented in the pelvic girdle,
not by a bone, but by a fibrous bend called Pounart's ligament
Between the bones of the shafts of the limbs homologies exist : the
hnmenis is the homotype of the femur, the radius of the tibial the
ulna of the fibula ; whilst the patella has no represeutative in the
human upper hmb. The scaphoid and semilunar bones in the
carpal are homotypes of the astragalus in the tarsus, the cunei-
form is the homotyne of the os calcis, the cuboid of the nncL'orm •
tho trapezium of the ento-cuneiform, tho trapezoid of the meso-'
and th« 03 magnum of the ccto-cuneilonn. 'The Ursal scaphoid is
pot, as a rule, represented in the human carjjus, but its homotype
is the cs intermedium, found in many mammals. The carpal
pisciform ia a sesamoid bone developed "in the tendon of a musclT
The metacarpal bones and phalanges are homologoas with the
metata.-sal bones and pualanges ; the tlHimb with the groat toe, and
the fingera with the foir outer toea. During the growth of the
limbs outward, and their change from the simple lappet-liie form
to their elongated condition, a rotation of the proximal segment of
the shaft takes place— that of the upper limb a quarter ofa circle
backward, that of tho lower limb a quarter of a circle forward— to
Cluce in the former case a supine position of the fore-arm and
d, with the thumb aa the outermost digit; in the latter case, a
prono condition of the leg and foot, with the great too as the inner-
most digit The range of movoment at Uio radio-ulnar joints
enables us, however, to pronate the hand and fore-arm by throwing
the radius across the ulna, so as to make the thumb the innermort
digit In many quadrupeds the fore-leg is fixed in this position,
so that these animals walk on the soles of both the fore and hind feet
[joints a.nd
ZtJ^l 1 ■ > '^'■-■^''"^'•'"-^ is tie junction of t^oSynchon-
boucs by the mterposition of an intermediate plate of drosei
cartikgc the fibroua membrane or periosteum yvhiuh
mvesta the bonee being prolonged from one bone to the
ether oyer the surface of the cartikge. A tulvrc ia the Suture..
connccUon of two bones by the
interlocking of adjacent toothed
margins; the periosteal fibrouB
mepubrane is prolonged from one ^
bone to the other, and ia alao F.a ij^Ve„,e.i'«..o» .broo.r,
interposed behvoen their adjacent • ef»Jii»i tmore. ». 1, the i»o
margins, in a young skull the the nbron. mmtruns, or pe.v
basi-occipital and basisnhenoid "»'""»■ P'-mg iwiween th»
orn iinl.ij \,„ 1. "l'"'-"""' t.obonri.Llcll pl.Tj Ibc p.n
arc united by synchondrosis, but »' • "c^mci!. ,r.i .hich i»
junction by sutures ia the mode Tt,!^r^,^",int '"'"'^
of union which prevails in the bones of the head. In oid
persons the sutures become obUterated by the ossificatioa
of the intermediate fibrous membranp ,, i
and the bones are permanently fused - ^ -
together. The cranial sutures may con-;'^ -"
vcniently be arranged in three groups : e==— iiizi.v*'
a, Median longitudinal, consisting of rio. i.r-ven 'iit»».
the frontal suture, which connects the rniJ^IL^rj,?;
two halves of the frontal bono, and the "° '~°"= sc ine
eagittol suture, betwceL the two parietal lyifT-t. tTot
bones; b. Lateral longitudinal, consist- "l"""^?"' '*>''<'
ins on each side of the head of the EH^^l ^ " '
frcnto-nasal, fronto-maiillary, fronto-lachrymal, fronto-
ethmoidal, fronto-m^ar, fronto-sphenoidal, parieto-sphe-
noidal, panet.o-squ5jnous, parieto-mastoid sutures ; e, Verti-
cal transverse, consisting of the coronal or fronto-parietaL
the kmbdoidal or parietoK)ccipital, the sphenoido-malar!
sphenoido-squamous and occipito- mastoid sutures. As
the skull grows by ossification of the cartilage of the base
and the membranous vault, the direction of growth
is perpendicular to the margins of the bones and
the sutures and synchondroses which connect them to-
gether. The growth of the sL-ull in length is perpea-
dicular, therefore, to ore
the basi-cranial syn-
chondrosis and the
vertical transverse
group of sutures; its
growth, ia breadth,
GElfERAt OeSEEVATIONS OS THE AeTICULATOET AOT)
Mu3ctn.AE Ststeus.
A Joint or AETicmLiTioif is the junction or union of
any two adjacent parts of the body. Most usually the term
is employeil to signify the connection established between
contiguous bones. It is by the joints that the various
bones are knit together to form the skeleton,' Joints may
be cither immovable or movable.
The immovable joints are divided into the tynchondrotet
to the median longi
tudinal group, and
in height to the
hiteral longitudinal
group. So long as
any of the cartilage
or membrane be-
tween the margins
of the bones remains
unossified, bone may
continue to form, and
the skull may in-
crease in size. It
sometimes happens
that the cartilage or
membrane is pre-
maturely ossified in
a particular locality,
and the further
oxA^r+K /\( ♦Iio .,1-^11 ^'^ 14— Vertex view of a boat.sliai.ed or BCapbc^
grOWtn Ot the Sj^uil „pbaUc smUI. .bo.mg the compl^ dtap^
put a stop to in that '"=' °' ^^ M«itt»i •atnre.
region ; if the brain is still growing, the skull must incffease
in other directions to permit of the expansion of the
cranial cavity, and deformities of the skrill are thereby
occasioned. One of the most ustial of these defonsities ia
1 due to premature closure of the sagittal suture, causing
B ,'
STUSCLES.]
ANATOMY
833
stoppage of ths growth of the skull in breadth, and, by
way of compensation, great increase in its length, so as to
produce . a very elongated and somewhat boat-shaced
cranium.
The movable joints are divided into the amphiarthrodial
and the diarthrodial joints. An amphiarthrosis or half-
Joint haa only a feeble range of
movement. It consists of two
bones, each of which has its
articular surface covered by a
plate of* cartilage, and which
plates are firmly connected to-
gether by an intermediate disc of
fibro-cartilage. The centre of this fw 15 —Vertical section ttrongti
diac ia soft, or may even be J^i amphiarthrodial joint, j., b.
' •' . T 1 ^^^ twobonee; c, c. theplateof
hollowed out into a cavity, linea cartilage on the articular sur-
by a smoothsynovial membrane, '::il°LTXTi^^C:.Tl
and containing a little fluid, ""o external ugaments.
Ligamentous bands, continuous with the periosteum invest-
ing the bones, invest the fibro-cartilage, and assist in bind-
ing the bones together. The best examples of amphi-
arthrodial joints are.furnished by the articulations between
the bodies of the true vertebrae.
Adiarthrosis admits of more or less perfect movement.
In it the two articular surfaces are each covered by a plate
of encrusting cartilage, the free
surface of which is smooth and
polished ; between these surfaces
is a cavity containing a glairy
fluid, the synovia, for lubricating
the smooth surfaces of the cartil-
age and facilitating' the movements
of the joint. This cavity is en-
closed by ligaments, which are
attached to the bones, and the
Inner surface of these ligaments
ia lined by a synovial membrane
which secretes the synovia. Some- Fio.i6.-Vcnicai section throiiRi.
times a plate or meniscus of fibre- * diarthrodial joint, a, &, the
cartilage is interposed between,
without, however, being attached
to the encrusting cartilages of a
diarthrodial joint, so as more or
less perfectly to subdivide the
cavity enclosed by the ligaments into two spaces. The
articular surfaces of diarthrodial joints are retained in
apposition with each other, some-
times by investing ligaments, at
others by surrounding muscles and
tendons; at others by atmospheric
pressure, aided by the adhesive I
character of the interposed synovia.
The form of the articular or mov-
able surfaces varies very materi-
ally in different examples of these
joints, and the modifications in
form determine the direction of
ihe movements of the joints. In
some, as the canial and tarsal _ „ „ _, , ., ., _^
, . ' , ^ * F10.I7. — Vertical section tlirouff*!
jomts, the surfaces are almost flat, a diarthrodial joint, in which
80 that they gUde on each other ; {^o ^y^ mte'r^rd'r.c^a'r"
the movement is comparatively tiingo or meniscas, fc iiio
». t. J I, A other letters as in Flff. 18,
eugnt, and about an axis perpen-
dicular to the moving surfaces : these are called plane-
turfaced joints. In other joints the articular surfaces may
be regarded as produced by the rotation of a straight or
curved line about an axis lying in the same plane ; these
are called rotation joints, and they present various modificar
tiona according to the direction and relation of the rotat-
ing line to the azia. One form of a rotation joint is the
I— js
two bones; r, c, tho plato of
cartilage on the articular stir-
fece of each bone ; I, t, the In-
vesting ligament, the dotted
lino within which represents
the synovial membrane. The
letter s Is placed in the cavity
of IbC'JoinL
piva4 joint, in which the movement takes place about ttse
axis of one of the bones, which is the axis of rotation of
the joint ; examples of this joint are found in the joint
between the atlas and odontoid process of the a-ids and
tho radio-ulnar joint. Another form is the ginglt/mus or
hinge joint, in which the axis of rotation of the joint ia
perpendicular to the axis of the two bones ; the mov&-
ments of the hinge are called flexion when the angle
between the two bones ia diminished, and extension when
the angle is increased. An important modification of the
ginglymus is the screweJ^surfaced joint, examples of which
are found in the elbow and ankle ; here the plane of
flexion is not perpendicular, biit oblique to the axis of the
joint. The saddle-slmped Andi oblong joi-ts a.T:6 '^\so modi-
fied hinges, but allow motion about two axes ; in tha
oblong both axes are on the same side of the joint ; but in
the saddle-shaped thereMs an axis of rotation on each side of
the joLot. The best example of the saddle-shaped is found
between the metacarpal bone of the thumb and the trape-
zium; of the oblong between the fore-arm and the carpus.
In the hall-andr^ock£t joint a spheroidsJ head fits into a
cup, and rotatign takes place about any diameter of the
sphere; the joint therefore ia multi-axial; the hip and
shoulder joints are the best examples. Some joints, in
which the forms of the articular surfaces are more complex,
are called composite; in them the movements of a hingo
and of a ball-and-socket joint may be combined ; the knee
may be cited aa an example of this form of articulation.
In ft,' large number of movable joints only portions of the
opposite articular surfaces are in contact with each other
at a given time ; but, aa the joint describes its path of
movement, difl'erent parts of the surfaces come into contact
with each other successively, and it is not unusual to find
the articular surface both of the ^cartilage and the sub-
jacent bono mapped out into distinct areas or facets, which
are adapted to corresponding facets on the opposite arti-
cular surface in particular positions of the joint. When
the corresponding facets on opposite articular surfaces
break contact with each other, the space between becomes
occupied by synovia, or in some joints, more especially tha
knee, by folds of synovial membrane enclosing clumps of
fat, which have been called sjmovial pads. In the simple
hinge, ill that with screwed surfaces, in the oblong and
composite joLats, the principal ligaments are situated at
the sides of the joint, and are called lateral ; they not only
prevent lateral displacement of the bones, but, by a.
tightening of their fibres, check excessive movement for-
wards or backwards during flexion and extension. In the
saddle-shaped and ball-and-socket joints, the joint is in-
cluded within a bag-like ligament called capsular. In the
pivot joints the cavity in which tho pivot fits ia completed
by a transverse or a ring-shaped ligament.
The MuscLES'are the organs which, by their contraction Muscle:
or shortening, move the bones on each other at the joints.
Tho muscles constitute the flesh of the body. They are so
arranged aa to be capable not only of moving the various
bones on each other, but the entire body from place to
place. Hence the muscles are organs both of motion and
locomotion. As they can be brought into action at the
will of the individual, they are called voluntary muscles.
Some of the muscles are engaged in the movement of other
stractures than the bones, such aa the eye-ball, tongue,
carEUages of the larynx, <fcc. About 400 muscles are
usually enumerated, and the names applied to them express
either their position, or relative size, or shape, or direction,
or attachments, or mode of action. Tho word muscle is
itself derived from the Latin musculus, a little mouse, from
a.fancicd resemblance between that animal and some of tho
moat simply formed muscles. It ia customary to dis-
tinguiah in a muscle a central part, or belly, and two ex-
834
A N A T O 1\1 Y
[joints and muscles —
.■i,
m
l>l
\\h
V-1
i
f
tremities, one of whicli b the head or the angxn, tae otucr
the ivfiertion. The boUy is the fleshy part of the muscle,
and possesses a dceivred characteristic colour; it is the
active contractile structure, the source
of motor power. The two extremities
are called the tendons of the muscle,
or sinews; the tendons are bluish-
whito in colour, possess no power of
contractility, and are merely, as it
were, the ropes by which the belly
of the muscle is attached to the bone
or other structure which is moved by
its contraction. The term tendon of
origin, applied to one extremity of the
muscle, signifies the fixed end of the
muscle, that to which it draws during
its contraction ; as a rule this is the
end nearest the trunk, the proximal
end. The term tendon of insertion is
applied to the end which is moved by
the contraction; as a rule this is the
end most removed from the trunk,
the distal end. Entering the sub-
stance of each muscle is at least
one artery, which conveys blood for its
nutrition; this artery ends in a net-
work of cajiillary blood-vessels, from
which a vein arises and conveys the
blood out of the muscle again; an-
other small vesse' called a lymphatic,
also arises wi' i the muscle, and
conveys the f 1 lymph out of the
muscle. Each muscle also is pene-
trated by a nerve, through which it
is brought into connection with the
brain, so as to be subject to the in- no. m— The rectus mnjcio
fluence of the wilL The will is the "' '^o "''eh; lo ehow
natural stimulus for exciting muscular
action, which action is in many cases
so rapid that scarcely an appreci-
able interval of tinae intervenes be-
tween willing and doing the action.
The bones form a series of rod-like levers, and, in study-
ing the mode of action of the muscles, the place of inser-
tion of the muscle into the bone — that is to say, the point
of application of the power which causes the movement —
and its relations to the joint, or fulcrum, or centre of motion,
and to the weight or resistance which is to be overcome,
have to be kept in view. The relative positions of ful-
crum, point of application of power, and resistance, are not
the same in all the bony levers. As a rule, the muscles
are inserted into bones between the fulcrum and the move-
able point of resistance, and nearer the fulcrum than the
movable point, as may be seen in the muscles which bend
the fore-arm at the elbow-joint. Although from the weight-
arm of the lever being in these cases much longer than the
power-arm, the muscles, as regards the application of the
power, act at a disadvantage, yet the movement gains in
■velocity. Sometimes the muscle is inserted, as is the
case in the great muscle which straightens or extends
the fore-arm, at one end of the lever, and the fulcrum
or joint is placed between it and the movable point. At
other times, as in the case of the chief depressor muscle
of the lower jaw, whilst the muscle is attached to one end
of the lever, the fulcrum is at the opposite end. ^Vhen a
muscle is so placed that its tendon of insertion is perpen-
dicular to the bone to which it is attached, it acts to great
.•advantage; when placed obliquely or nearly parallel, a loss
of power occurs. Many muscles at the commencement of
cQutMCtion lie obliquely to the bones which they move,
the constltaent parts of a
miiecle. R the fleshy
beily; to. tendon of oii-
Kln; <i, tendon of Inser-
tion; n. nerve of supply ;
a, artery of supply ; r,
vein ; /, lymphatic vessel ;
P, the patella.
but as contractfon goes on they become more nearly ptr-
pendicular, so that they act with more advantage nrir
the close tl-an at the commencement of contraction. If a
muscle passes over only one joint, it acts on that joint only :
but if it passes over two or more joints, it acts on them in
succession, beginning with the joint next the point of
insertion. A gii'cn movement m.ay be performed by the
contraction of a single muscle, but as a rule two or more
muscles are associated together, and they are not unfre-
quenlly so arranged that one muscle initiates the mov»-
ment, which is then kept up and completed by the rest.
Muscles producing movement in one direction have opposed
to them muscles which by their contraction cflTect the
opposite movement; when both groups act simultaneously
and with equal force, they antagonise each other, and no
motion is produced; when a muscle is par.-ilysed or divided,'
its antagonistic muscle draws and permanently retains the
part to its own side. The rapidity of action of a muscle is
proportioned to the length of its fasciculi, its power of
contraction to their number.
Each muscle is invested by a sheath formed of connective
tissue. In the limbs and in the neck not only has each
muscle a shieath, but a strong fibrous membrane envelopes
the whole of the muscles, and assists materially in giving!
form and <fcmpactness to the region. This membrane is called
generally a fascia or aponeurosis, but special descriptive
names are given to it in the different regions — e.g., cervica]
fascia, brachial aponeurosis, fascia lata, or fascia of tho
thigh. In some localities muscles arise from the fascia,
and in others they are inserted into it. The fascia is
separated from the skin by a layer of subcutaneous fatty
tLssue, and in this layer muscles are in some localities de-
veloped. In the fat of the inner border of the palm of the
hand a small muscle, the palmaris hrevis, is found, which
is inserted into the skin covering the ball of the little
finger ; at each side of the neck, also, lies a thin muscle
called platysma myoides, and the muscles on the face and
scalp which move the skin of the face and head belong to
the same category. These muscles form the group of sub-
cutaneous or dermal muscles which, except in the localities
above referred to, are not represented in the human body,
but are well known in the bodies of tho mammalia gene-
rally as the panniculus carnosus.
In arranging the muscles for descriptive purposes, either
a morphological, a topographical, or a physiological method
maybe pursued. The morphological arrangement is to be
preferred when the object is to compare the muscular
system in man «-ith that in different animals, and the basis
of the arrangement should be into muscles of the axiai,
the appendicular, and the axi-appendicular skeletons, and
sub-cutaneous muscles; a topographical arrangement is most
suitable for the purposes of the practical surgeon ; a physio-
logical arrangement, when the object is to study the action
of the muscles in connection with the movements of the
joints. In Plates XV. and XVI., a front and back view
of the voluntary muscles of the bodv is given.
Joints and Muscles of the Axial Skeleton.
Tho /niervertebral Joints are complex in construction
The bodies of the true vertebrje are connected together by
an amphiarthrodial joint : the fibro-cartilaginous plate or
intervertebral disc is tough and fibrous in its peripheral
part, but soft and pulpy within. (Fig. 15.) Remains of tha
chorda dorsalis are said to occur in the soft pulp, and some-
times a disjinct cavity, lined by a synovial membrane, is
found in the centre of the disc, which in the finner whales
is expanded into a largo central cavity containing many
ounces of sjTiovia. A diarthrodial joint connects the supe-
rior and inferior articular processes of adjacent vertebrae on
each side. Elastic yellow Ugaments, the ligamenta suhdavai
VOL.1
AI^ATOMY.
FZATTJV
AXIAL -SKELETOS.]
ANATOMY
835
pass between their laminae, /rater- and supraspinous liga-
ments connect adjacent spinous processes, and in the neck
the supra-spinous ligament forms a broad band, the liga-
vientum nuchce. In those mammals which possess big
heads or heavy horns, this ligament of the back of the
neck forms a powerful elastic band for the support of the
head. The joints between the atlas and axis, and the
atlas and occiput, are specially modified in connection with
the movements of .the head on the top of the spine. The
intervertebral discs axe absent, ajid the range of movement
cither from before backward, as in nodding the head, or
from side to side,' as in looking over the shoulder, are
more extensive than between any of the other true vertebra.
The head rotates along with the atlas around the odontoid
or pivot process of the axis, which is lodged between the
anterior part of the atlas and a strong transverse ligament
which lies behind the odontoid. Too great movement to
one side or the other is prevented by the check ligaments,
which pass from the top of the odontoid to the occipital
bone, in front of the foramen magnum. The nodding
movements take place between the occiput and atlas, and
are permitted by the size and shape of the occipital condyles
»ud hoUow upper articular surfaces of the atlas. These
IBiits are all diarthrodiaL The spine is flexible and
.elastic; except in the joints above referred to, the range
of movement between any two true vertebra is very small,
tut the sum of the movement in the entire spine, owing to
the number of bones, is considerable. The elasticity of
the spine is partly due to the numerous diarthrodial joints
between its. articular processes, but more especially to the
discs of fibro-cartilage interposed between the bodies of
the vertebrae, which act Kke elastic pads or buffers to pre-
vent shock. The spine and trunk may be bent either
forwards or backwards, or to the right and left side ; or
without being bent, the spine may be screwed to the right
or to the left, the-screwing movement being permitted by
the oblique direction of the articular processes.
The muscles which move the vertebrae on each other are
principally situated on the back of the trunk In the
hoUow on each side of the vertebral spines lies the great
erector spin» muscle, the fibres of which pass longitudin-
ally upwards. When both muscles act together, the entire
spine is bent back; but when the muscle of one side only
contracts, then the spine is bent to that side. These
muscles also act in raising the spine from the bent to the
erect position, and they are assisted by small inter-spinal
muscles, situated between the spines in the cervical and
lumbar regions. The spine is bent fonvard by the psoae
and longi colli muscles; and the straight muscles of the
abdomen, inserted into the lower true ribs, assist in this
movement. The screwing movements of the spine are
effected by a series of muscles, the fibres of which pass
obliquely between the laminas and spines of adjacent verte-
brce, and are known as the semispinales. multifidi. and
rotatorcs spinae muscles..
The head is balanced on the summit of the spine, and
is maintained in a quiescent position without any appre-
ciable muscular action, but it can be moved in various
directions by the muscles inserted into its bones. The
nodding movements of the head on the atlas are due to
tne posterior recti, the two superior obliques, the two
splenii, and the two complexus muscles, which draw it
backwards, and the anterior recti and sternci-cleido-mastoid
muscles, which draw it forwards. When the right splenius
and greater posterior rectus and inferior oblique act along
with the left complexus (ind sterno-mastoid, the head is
rotated to the right shoulder ; the. opposite rotation being
due ',^ the action of the corresponding muscles on the
other side of the body.
In the formation of the wall$ of the abdomen proper,
bones and joints play bnt a smaQ part. The Inmliar Musc!e9«|
vertebrae behind, the expanded wings of the iliac bones abdouien
below, and the false ribs above, are the only bones to be
considered. Three pairs of greatly expanded masdes —
the external oblique, internal obUque, and transverse — lis
at the sides and in front, and two pairs of muscles the
recti and pyramidales — are situated wholly in front. Tlia
internal obUque and the .transverse muscles are attached
above to the ribs, behind to the lumbar spine, below to tha
Uiac crest and to a strong band, Poupart's ligament, extend-
ing from the crest of the iUum to the pubic spine ; the ex-
ternal oblique has similar connections above and beliw, but
is not attached behind to the lumbar spine. The muscles
all terminate in front in strong expanded tendons, called
the anterior abdominal aponeuroses, which blend together in
-the middle Hue anteriorly to form the band called tinea
alha, which stretches longitudinally from the xiphi- temum
to the pubic sjonphysis. These expanded tendons enclose
the recti muscles, which pass from the pubis upwards to
the cartilages of the lower true ribs, and the pyramidal
muscles, which pass from the pubis to be inserted into the
Imea alba. ' The entire arr.ingement is admirably adapted
for completing the waUs of the great abdominal chamber,
and for enabling the muscles to compress the abdominal
viscera, an action which takes place when the contents of
the bowels and bladder are being expelled during defaeca-
tion and. micturition.
Bones and joints play a (more important part in the
formation of the walls of the thoracic than of the abdo-
minal cavity. Not only are there thoracic vertebrae behind,
and the sternum in front, but on each side the twelve ribs
arch more or less completely forward from the spioe; each
rib is articxdated behind to one or two vertebrae, and the
seven upper ribs, through their costal cartilages, articulate
with the sternum.
The Cosio-vertebral Joints are situated between the head Costal
of the rib and the vertebral body ; also, except in the float- J"'"'^
ing ribs, between the tubercle of the rib and the transverse
process of the vertebra, the joints being diarthrodial, and
completed in the usual manner by ligaments and synovial
membrane. The Costo-sternal Joints are also diarthrodial
(except the first costal cartilage, which is directly united to
the prae-sternum), a capsular ligament, Kned by a synovial
membrane, connecting the cartilages of the true ribs to the
sternum. The cartilages from the sixth to the ninth ribs
are also united by ligamentous fibres.
The movements of the ribs and sternum at the costo-
vertebral and costo-sternal joints are of the utmoot import-
ance in the process of breathing. Breathing or respiration
consists of two acts — ireathing in, or inspiration,and breath-
ing out, or expiration. During inspiration, the air rushes
through the nose or mouth down the windpipe, and dilates
the air-cells of the lungs ; together with the expansion of
the lungs the walls of the chest rise, so that the capacity
both of lungs and chest at the end of a fuU inspiration is
nearly doubled. During inspiration the following changes
occur in the walls of the chest : the ribs are elevated and
rotated, the lower borders of their shafts are everted,
while their surfaces are at the same time rendered more
oblique, and the width of the intercostal spaces is thi'.reby
increased ; the elevation and rotation of the ribs t"ii-ow
the sternum upwards and forwards, and make the thoracic
part of the spinal column straighter; the diaphragm is
depressed, and the anterolateral walls of the abdomen aio'
thrown forward. The muscles which cause these mov^
ments are as follows : — In each of the ■ spaces between
the different ribs a pair of intercostal muscles is situated;
these elevate and rotate the ribs, and the movements are
assisted by the levatores costarum, and, in the case of the
upper and lower ribs, by the scaleni and serrati pcstici
836
ANA T O M Y
[muscles or
mTUcles ; and by thcac agcuta the Iransvcree and ontero-
poeterior diameter of tho cheat is increased. The increase
in its vertical diameter ia duo to tho action of the dia-
phragm or niidriiT, tho great muscle which, oriaing by its
circum/erenco from tho liphi-stemum, six lower ribs, and
bodies of tho lumbar vertobraj, forma the floor of the thoracic
and tho roof of tho abdominal cavity. It constitutes a
great arch, with its convexity directed to lie cavity of the
cheat. By tho contraction of its fibres the arch is rendered
leas convex, and tho floor of the chest is thereby depressed.
Under circumstances which require more powerful efforts
of inspiration, the muscles which pass from tho walls of
the chest to the upper limbs may, by taking their fixed
points at tho limbs, act as elevators of tho ribs. During
expiration tho ribs arc depressed, their lower borders in-
verted, tho width of tho intercostal spaces diminished, the
stomuui -deDrossod, the spine more curved, and tho dia-
^oint^ and
iuu:>cle3 of
the head.
<£s^-„"*A
Fig. 19.— Tho concare abdominal surface of tho dlaphiagm. a, 4th lorabar
vertebra; ft, e, 12th and lllh libs; rf. xiphi-atemum ; «./, cmra of fllaphragm ;
H, A. arched tendons of origin of dlapbraifm ; t, aorta; t, ooaophnRlta; m.
inferior vuna cava; n, psooa ; o. quatlraltu muscle; qqq, central tcadoa of
dJapliragtn, Into which the mnscular fibres are Inserted.
phragm more convex. These movements are principally
due to the recoil of the elastic tissue of the lungs previously
rendered tense by the inflation of the air-cells, and to the
untwisting of the ribs when the inspiratory muscles cease
to'elevate and rotate them. Muscular action plays but a
email part in quiet expiration, but tho expulsion of the
air from the lungs may be facilitated by contracting the
abdominal muscles, which, pressing the abdominal viscera
against the under surface of the diaphragm, force that
mtiscle upwards.
The Tempofo-maxillary Joints are the only diarthrodial
articuktions in the head. The c/jndyle of the lower jaw on
each side is received into the glenoid fossa of the temporal
bone ; each joint is enclosed by a capsular ligament, and
between the articular surfaces is a meniscus, which sub-
divides tho interior of the joint into two cavities, each lined
by a synovial membrane, fhe movements of the lower
jaw take place eimultaneously 'at both its articulations
during mastication and speech, through the action of the
several muscles which are inserted into it. This bone is
elevated by the temporal muscles, inserted into the coronoid
procea>!es ; and by the maascterics, inserted into the outer
surface, and the internal pterygoids, into the inner surface of
each angle. It is depressed partly by its own weight and
partly by the action of the digastrics and genio-hyoids, in-
serted close to the symphysis; by the platysma, inserted into
the outer surface of each horizontal ramusj and the mylo-
hyoids, into their inner surfaces. The elevators of the jaw
are much more powerful than the depressors, for they not
only have to overcome the weight of the bone, but during
mastication have to exercise force sufficient to cut or break
down tho food between the teeth. In carnivorous animahs
more especiaUy those which, like tho tiger or hya;iia, crack
tho bones of their prey, these muscles attain a great size.
The lower jaw can be projected in front of the upper byithe
external pterygoid muscles, inserted into tho neck of the
bono on each side ; but excessive movement forward is
checked by the action of tho stylo-maxillary ligaments,
which pass from the styloid processes to tho angles of the
bone ; when projected forward, the jaw is drawn back by
tho posterior fibres of the temporal muscles. When th&
elevator, depressor, protractor, and retractor muscles are
successively brought into action, tho lateral or grinding
movements of the bone, so important in mastication, are
produced.
Along with the movements of tho lower jaw those of the
hyoid bone and larynx must be considered, for the digast'ica,
the genio- and mylo-hyoids, which depress the lower jaw,
act, when their action is reversed, along with the stylo-
hyoid muscles in elevating the hyoid bone and krynx,
which structures can be depressed or drawn downwards by
the action of tho stcmo-hyoids, sterno-thyroids, Ihyio-
hyoida, and omo-hyoids ; the elevation of the hyoid, when
drawn down by its depressor muscles, ia effected by the
elastic stylo-hyoid ligaments attached to its small coruua,
which, by their recoil when the depressor muscles have
ceased to contract, draw the bone up to its former position.
Numerous muscles are situated immediately beneath the
skin of the scalp and face. They are not of so deep red d
colour as the muscles of the trunk and limbs, and whilst
they arise from one or other of the bones of the head, they
are inserted into tlae deep surface of the skin itself. . Henco
when they contract they move tho skin of the scalp and face,
and as they are the instruments through which the various
passions and emotions are expressed, they are grouped to-
gether as the J/u«:/e.j o/.fi'.r/jrf&sion (Plat« Xy., figs. 2 and
3). The occipito-frontaUa, or great muscle of the scalp,
passes from the occipital bone over the vertex to the fore-
head ; when it contracts, the .''l-'in of the forehead is wrinkled
transversely, the eyebrows are elevated, and an expression
of amazement or surprise is produced. Some persons have a
greater power over this muscle than others, and by the alter»
nate contraction of its occipital and frontal portions can
move the hairy scalp to and fro with great rapidity. A pair
of muscles, the corrugatores superdlii, arises from the supra-
ciliary ridges, on the frontal bone, to be inserted into the
eyebrows : they draw the eyebrows downwards and in-
wards, wrinkle the skin of the forehead longitudinally,
and contract with great vigour in the act, of frowning.
The auricle of the external ear has three rtti.tII muscles
inserted into it, one behind, the posterior, one above, the
superior, one in front, the anterior auricukr muscle : in
man, as a rule, these muscles are feeble, and have little
action ; but in many mammals they are large, and by them
the animal pricks its ears to detect the faintest sound of
danger. The eyelids are drawn together, so as to close the
eye as in the act of sleep, by the orbicularis palpebrarum,
the fibres of which lie in the eyelids and on the bordersM
the orbit, and surround the fissure between the eyelids.
This muscle is a ch^aracteristio specimen of the group of
sphincter muscles, i.e., muscles which surround orifices, and
by their contraction close them. When the upper fibres of
the muscle alone contract, the uoper eyelid is depressed, —
a movement which takes place almost involuntarily and
with great frequency during our waking hours, so as to
wash the tears over che exposed part of the eyeball and
keep it moist. In expressing a " knowing wink," Uta
I
BEAD AND NECK.]
ANATOMY
837
Jower fibres alone of the orbicularis! contract, and the lower
}id is elevated. Tlie elevation of the upper lid, as in
opening the eye,- is due to the levator palpebras superioris,
which, arising withia the orbit, is inserted into the upper
eyelid. Muscles are inserted into the framework of the
nostrils Bo as to increase or diminish the size of their
orifices, and thus to promote or impede the passage of air
into the nose. The size of the orifice is increased by
two elevator muscles inserted into the ala, or side of the
nostril ; and when violent exercise is being performed, or
respiration is from any cause impeded, the nostrUs are
always widely dilated. One of these elevator muscles,
which also sends a slip down to the upper lip, and is con-
sequently called the common elevator, is the muscle by
the contraction of which a sneer is expressed. A partial
closure of the nostril can be effected by small muscles
which depress and compress the alae of the nose : in man
these muscles are rudimentary as compared with the seal
and other aquatic mammals, in which a powerful sphincter
muscle closes the nostrils in the act of diving. The lips
can be elevated or depressed so as to close or open the
mouth ; they can be protruded or retracted, or the comers
of the mouth can be drawn to one side or the other, by
the action of various muscles which are inseited into
these movable folds of the integument. The orbicvdaris
oris is a sphincter muscle, the fibres of which lie both
in the upper and lower lips; by its contraction the
mouth is closed and the lips pressed against the teeth,
as when a firm resolution is intended to be expressed.
The mouth is opened by the elevator muscles of the upper
^nd the depressors of the lower lip ; it is transversely elon-
gated by the zygomatic and risorius muscles, which pass to
its corners, and which are brought into action in the acts
of smiling and laughing. But the muscles of the lips also
play an important
part in connection
with the reception
of food into the
mouth, and with
the act of articula-
tion.
The cavity of
the mouth- forms'
the commence-
ment of the ali-
mentary canal,
and is lined by a
soft mucous mem-
brane. In it the
teeth and tongue
are situated, and
into it the secre-
tion caDed saliva
is poured. It
opens behind into
the pharynx. The
aide .walls of the
mouth are called
the checks, and
into the formation
of each cheek a
' flattened quadrila-
.1 1 *!, F"io- 20.— Profile of check and pharynx, a, booclnator;
teral muscle, me t, Icusor; c, levator palatl; d,<,/, superior, middle,
buccmator, enters. '"'' '"'enor conslriciort; l, thyio-hyoU; h, hyo-
_,, . J . gtOBBua; (, mylo-liyoid; m, crlco-thyrold: n, stylo-
1.1113 muscle IS atr pharyngeusi o. fltylo-glossus; q. flbious band which
tn/'Iipd nbnvft and '^"" <"■'«'» '<> buccinator and superior constrictor;
lacnea aoove anu ^ glos.o-iih»rynge.l nnve; 2, superior laryngeal
below to the upper urtcry: 3, supcilur laryngeal nerre; 4. Its br.inch 10
J 1 ^ crico-tUyrold; 0, inferior laryngeal nerve and artery.
bones, behind to a fibrous band, to which the upper
■constrictor muscle is also connected, so that tho walls of
th6 mouth and pharynx are continuous with each other,
whilst in front the buccinator blends' with the structures in
the lips. It compresses the cheeks, and drives the air out
of the cavity of the mouth as in playing a wind instru-
ment ; hence the name, " trumpeter's muscle."
The aperture of communication between the moutn and
pharynx is named the isthmus of the fauces. It is bounded
below by the root of the tongue, on each side by the tonsils,
and above by the soft palate. The soft palate is a structure
which hangs pendulous from the posterior edge of the hard
bony palate. From its centre depends an elongated body;
the uvula, and from each of its sides two folds extend, one
downwards and forwards to the tongue, the other down-
wards and backwards to the pharynx. These folds are
called the anterior and posterior pillars of the fauces or
palate. Between the anterior and posterior pillar, on each
side, the tonsil is seated. The soft palate and its pillars are
invested by the mucous lining of the iuouth and pharynx,
and contain small but important muscles. The muscles of
the soft palate and uvula, termed the elevators and tensors,
raise and make them tense during the process of deglutition.
The muscles of the posterior pillars, or palato-pharyngei, by
their contraction, approximate the walls of the pharynx to
the soft palate and uvula, whilst the muscles of the anterior
piUars, or palato-glossi, diminish the size of the faufces.
The pharynx is a Aibe vrith muscular walls, Uned by a Muscles oC
mucous membrane, which communicates above and in front phaiynr'
with the cavities of the nose, mouth, and larynx, whilst
below it is continuous with the. oesophagus or gullet. It
se.rves as. the chamber or passage down which the food'
goes from the mouth to the oesophagus in the act of
swallowing, and through which the air is transmitted from
the nose or mouth to the larynx Ln the act of breathing.
It lies immediately behind the nose, mouth, and larynx,
and in front of
the five upper
cervical verte-
bra. Its length
is from 4 J to 5|
inches: its widest
part is opposite
the back of the
mouth. The prin-
cipal muscles in
its walls are call-
ed the constric-
tors, and are
named, from
above down-
wards, superior,
middle, and in-
ferior. They are
arranged in
pairs, and arise
from the cartil-
ages of the
larynx, from the
hyoidbone,lower
jaw, and internal
r t. -L f'"- 21— Interior of Ihe phanni, Ken by opening U*
cess 01 the Sphe- posterior wall, do, Eustachian tube; ^ b, tensor; l^
n/iir? • whJUl- tliA levator palatl ; d, levator uvulte; e,^ palato-pharyngeo*;
uum, vvuuil, luo /_pijjto-glo8sus; n. /I, i. the tlireo constrictors; i; tun-
superior also sUs.
springs from th^ fibrous band to which the buccinator is
attached ; their fasciculi curve backwards to the middle lin&
of the posterior wall of the pharynx, to be inserted into a
tendinous baud which extends longitudinally along this
wall of the tube.
The action of the muscles of the mouth, palate, an'J
pharynx may now be considered in connection with'-tliig
838
ANATOMY
[joints and muscles —
Process of process of deglutition or Bwallowiug. When the food is
-wnllow- received into the mouth, it is moistened by the secretion of
*''* the salivary and other buccal glands, and is broken down
by tte grinding action of the molar teeth. The buccinator
muscles press it from between the gums ond the cheek,
and, along with the movements of the tongue, aid in col-
lecting it into a bolus on the surface of that organ. Dur-
ing the process of mastication the palato-glossi contract so
as to close the faucea When thg bolus is sufficiently tritu-
rated and moistened, the palato-glosai relax, the tip of the
tongue is pressed against the roof of the mouth, and by a
heave backward of that organ the bolus is pressed through
the posterior orifice of the mouth into the pharynx, where
it is grasped by the superior constrictor muscles, and forced
downwards by them and the other constrictor muscles into
the oesophagus, and thence into the stomach. As both
the nose and larynx open into the pharynx, the one imme-
diately above, the other immediately below the orifice of
the jpouth, it is of great importance that none of the food
should enter into these chambers, and obstruct the respira-
tory passages. To guard against any accident of this kind,
two valvular structures are provided, — viz., the soft palate
and the epiglottis, — which, whilst leaving the orifices into
their respective chambers open during breathing, may
effectually close them when deglutition is being performed.
As the bolus is being projected through the fauces into the
pharynx, the soft palate and uvula are elevated and made
tense, and at the same time the wall of the pharynx is
brought in contact with it by the contraction of the palato-
pharyngei; the part of the pharynx into which the nose opens
is thus temporarily shut off from that into which the mouth
opens. If laughter, however, be excited at this time, the
tension of the soft palate is destroyed, and part of the food
may find its way upwards into the nose. The closure of
the larynx by the epiglottis is due partly to the depression
of that valve and partly to the elevation of the larynx.
The backward heave of the tongue relaxes the ligaments
which connect the front of the epiglottis to that organ, and
enables the amall epiglottidean muscles to depress the
valve. The elevation of the hyoid and larynx is due to the
action of the mylo-hyoid, digastric, and genio-hyoid muscles,
which pass from the lower jaw to the hyoid, and of the
thyro-hyoid, which pesa from the hyoid to the thyroid
cartilage of the larynx; preliminary to their action, the
lower jaw must be fixed, which is done by the closure of
the mouth prior to the act of swallowing. The aperture of
the larynx is thus brought into contact with the depressed
epiglottis, which is adapted more exactly to the opening
by a change in its form due to the projection of a cushion-
like pad from its posterior surface. By these ingenious
arrangements the adaptation of a single chamber to the
very different functions of breathing and swallowing b
effectually provided for.
Joints and Muscles of the Uppee IiIMb.
The upper Umb is jointed to the trunk at the sterno-
clavicular articulation. This is a diarthrodial joint: the
bones are retained together by investing ligaments; a
meniscus is interposed between the articular surfaces, so
that the joint possesses two synovial membranes. A strong
ligament, which checks too great upward movement, con-
nects tie clavicle and first rib. The two bones of the
shoulder girdle articulate with each other at the diarthrodial
acromio -clavicular joint ; but, in addition, a strong ligament,
which checks too great displacement of the bones, passes
between the clavicle and coracoid. The movements of the
upper limb on the trunk take place at the stemo-clavicular
joint, and consist in the elevation, depression, and forward
and backward movement of the shoulder. The movements
M th.e Bcromio-davicular joint occur when the scapula is
rotated on the clavicle in the act of elevating the arra
above the head. The muscles which cause these mov&>
menta are inserted into the bones of the shoulder girdle;
the trapezius into the clavicle, acromion, and spine of the
scapula; the rhomboid, levator anguli scapula:, and scrratus
magnuB into the vertebral border of the scapula; the
pectoralis minor into the coracoid; and the subclavius into
the clavicla Elevation of the entire shoulder, as in
shrugging the -shoulders, is due to the contraction of the
trapezius, levator scapulae, and rhomboideus; depression
partly to the weight of the Umb and partly to the action of
the subclavius and pectoralis minor; movement forward to
the serratus and pectoralis; and backward to the trapezius
and rhomboid. In rotation of the scapula on the clavicle,
the inferior angle of the scapula is drawn forward by the
scrratus and lower fibres of trapezius, and backward by the
levator scapulae, rhomboid, and lesser pectoral
The Shoulder Joint is a ball-and-socket joint, iLe ball Shoaldet
being the head of the humerus, the socket the glenoiii fotsa )"'"'•
of the scapula. A large capsular ligament, wn.'ch i?
pierced by the long tendon of the biceps muscle, and lined
by a synovial membrane, encloses the articular ends of
the two bones, and is so loose as to permit a range of
movement greater than takes place in any other joint in
the body. The muscles which cause these movements are
inserted into the humerus ; the supra-spinatus, infra-
spinatus, and teres minor into the great tuberosity; the
sub-scapularis into the small tuberosity; the latifsimus
dorsi and teres major into the bottom of the bicipital
groove; the pectoralis major into its anterior bdrder; the
coraco-brachiolis into the inner aspect, and the deltoid,
which forms the fleshy prominence of the shoulder, into
the outer aspect of the shaft. Abduction and elevation or
extension of the arm outwards at the shoulder joint are
due to the supra-spinatus and deltoid; adduction or de-
pression, to the coraco-brachiaUs, latissimus, and teres
major, assisted by the weight of the limb; movement for-
wards and elevation, to the anterior fibres of the deltoid,
pectoralis, and subscapularis ; backward movement to the
latissimus and teres; rotation outwards to the infra-spinatua
and teres minor; rotation inwards to the subscapularis,
pectoralis, latissimus, and teres. A combiuation cf abduc-
tion, movement forwards, adduction, and movement back-
wards, produces the movement of circumduction. Certain
movements of the upper limb, however, take place not
only at the shoulder joint, but between the two bones of the
shoulder girdle ; for in elevating the arm, whilst the supra-
spinatus and) deltoid initiate the movement at the shoulder
joint, the farther elevation, as in raiding the arm above the
head, takes place by the traperius and serratus, which
rotate the scapula and draw its inferior angle forward. The
free range of movement of the human shoulder is one ol
its most striking characters,
60 that the arm can be moved
in every direction through
space, and its efficiency as an
instrument of prehension is
thus greatly increased. The
movement cf abduction, or
extension, which elevates the
arm in line with the axis of
the scapula, is characteristi-
cally human, and a distinct fi^^ j,
articular area is provided on
the head of the humerus for
this movement.
The Elbaw Joint is the articulation between the humerus, Elbow,
radius, and ulna : the great sigmoid cavity of the iJna is
adapted to the trochlea of the humerus, and the cup of
the ra^divs '■.o the capitellum. The joint is enclosed by »
OtitllDO Sketch of hDmao hn-
nenia. The ftrtlciilar area for fnm-
plcte exteosloD lies to the rishl of Lke
dotted line. (4/fcr Cx/diir.)
VOL 1
AM ATO Mr.
riATF. XI J
\lnr\r-
f-'>\\ /A vr
UPPEK LIMB.]
ANATOMY
839
capsuliir ligament lined b) a synovial membrane, which 13
eubdivided into anterior, posterior, internal, and ex-
ternal bands of fibres. Flexion and extension are the
two movements of the joint, and the range of movement is
limited by the locking at the end of flexion of the coronoid
process into the coronoid fossa of the humerus, and at the
end of extension of the olecranon process into the olecranoid
fossa. The elbow joint is a hinge with screwed surfaces ;
the path describe^ by the hand and fore-arm is a spiral, so
that during flexion they are thrown forwards and inwards.
The muscles which cause the movements are inserted into
the bones of the fore-arm. The flexors are the brachialis
anticus, inserted into the coronoid of the ulna ; the biceps,
which forms the fleshy mass on the front ^f the upper arm,
into the tuberosity of the radius ; the supinator longus into
the styloid process of the radius. Thq only extensor is the
triceps-anconeus, which forms the fleliry mass on the back
of the upper arm, and is inserted into~the olecranon.
Joints of The Radio-ulnar Joints are found between the two bones
fore-arm. of the fore-arm. The head of the radius rolls in the lesser
'sigmoid cavity of the ulna, and is retained in position by
a ring-like ligament which surrounds it ; the shafts of the
two bones are connected together by the interosseous
membrane, their lower ends by a capsular ligament and a
/ triangular fibro-cartUage or meniscus. The radius rotates
round an axis drawn thrqugh the centre of its head and
the styloid process of the ulna ; rotation of the fore-arm
and hand forward is called pronation, — rotation backwards,
supination. The supinator and pronator muscles are all
inserted into the radius : the supinators are the longus and
"\ brevis and the biceps ; the pronators are the teres and
\ quadratus. Where delicate manipulation is required the
j fore-arm is semi-flexed on the upper arm, for the cup-
,jj shaped head of the radius is tteu brought into contact
with the capitellum of the humerus, and the rotatory
movements of the bono can be performed with greater
'precision.
The Wrist or Radio-carpal Joint is formed above by the
lower end of the radius and the triangular meruscus, below
\y the upper articular surfaces of the scaphoid, semi-lunar,
«» ' ind cuneiform bones. An investing ligament, Uned by a
synovial membrane, and subdivided into anterior, posterior,
Internal, and external bands of fibres, encloses the joint
It is the oblong form of hinge-joint, and possesses two
axes, a long and a short ; around the long axis movements
occur wliich bend the hand forwards, or bring it in line
with the fore-arm, or bend it backwards ; around the short
axis the hand may be moved towards the radial or ulnar
margins of the fore-arm. The flexors forward are the
palmaris longus, inserted into the palmar fascia ; the flexor
carpi radialis into the metacarpal bone of the index ; the
flexor carpi ulnaris into the pisiform bone; the extensors
<.-, and flexors backwards are the longer and shorter radial
extensors inserted into the metacarpal bones of the index
and middle fingers, and the ulnar extensor into the meta-
carpal bone of the little finger ; the flexors and extensors
of the fingers have also a secondary action on the wrist
joint. The ulnar flexor and ulnar extensor of the wrist
draw the hand to the ulnar side, and the radial flexor and
extensor, together with the extensors of the thumb, draw
I, the hand towards the radial border of the fore-arm.
!■ jf The Carpal and Carpo-melacarpal Joints are constructed
IVau. thus: — The articular surfaces are retained in contact by
certjiin ligaments passing between the, dorsal surfaces of
adjacent bones, by others between their palmar surfaces,
. and by interosseous ligaments between the semi-lunar and
k cuneiform, semi-lunar and scaphoid, 03 magnum and unci-
I form, 03 magnum and trapezoid ; lateral ligaments also
•ttach the scaphoid to the trapezium, and the cuneiform to
Uie unciform. Similarly, the trapezoid, oa magntuu, and
unciform are connected to the metacarpal bonea of the
fingers by dorsal, palmar, and interosseous ligaments, and
the metacarpal bones of the fingers have a like mode of
union at their carpal ends ; further, a transverse Hgament
extends between the distal ends of the metacarpal bones of
the fingers, and checks too great lateral displacement. Tha
range of movement at any one of these carpal joints is very
slight, but the multiplicity of joints in this locality con-
tributes to the mobility of the vn-ist, and makes the junction
between the hand and fore-arm less rigid in its nature.
The metacarpal bone of the thumb is not jointed to tha
index, and has a distinct saddle-shaped aTticulation with
the trapezium, invested by a capsular ligament, so that its
range of movement is extensive.
The Metacarpo-phalangeal-aTid Inter-phalangecd JoinU Joiatt oi
are connected by lateral ligaments passing between the fingers,
bones, and by an arrangement of fibres on their dorsal and
palmar surfaces.
In studying the muscles which move the digits, it will
be advisable, on account of the freedom and importance nf
the movements of the thumb, to
examine its muscles indepen-
dently. These muscles either
pass from the fore-arm to the
thumb, or are grouped together
at the outer part of the palm,
and form the elevation known
as the ball of the thumb ; they
are insetted either into the
metacarpal bone or the pha-
langes. The thumb is extended
and abducted, i.e., drawn away
from the index, by three ex-
tensormusclesdescending from
the fore-arm, and inserted one
into each of its three bones,
and a small muscle, speciallaj
named abductor polUcis, iai
serted into the outer side of''
the first phalanx : its bones
are bent on each other by a
long and short flexor muscle ;
it is drawn back to the index
by an adductor muscle ; and
the entire thumb is thrown
across the surface of the palm
by the opponens pollicis,
which is inserted into the
shaft of the metacarpal bone.
The four fingers can be
either bent, or extended, or
drawn asunder, i.e., abducted
adducted. The ungual phalanges can be bent by tha
Fio 23. — Ueep muscles uMhe palm of
the hand. 1, abduitor pollicin rat
ahort; 2, opponcna ; 3 and 4. anb-
dlvlslona of flexor brevis; 6. ad-
ductor; 6, 6', tendon of long flexor
poilk^s; 7, abductor of tlte littlft
linger: 8. ahort flexor; 9, opponena;
10. tendoti of flexor carpi ulnarla ;
11. tendon of long auplnatorj tl
transverae metacai-pal ligament
or drawn together, i.e..
Fig. 24.— Tendonaattachifl to a llnjjcr. a. the fttttensor tendon; 6. decpCeior»
c Buporflclul flexor; d, a lumbrical muacle; e, ftO InteroMCNua muacles
/. tendinous cipanaion from the lunibrlcal and Interyeaeooa muaclea JolQluif
the extenaor tendoiL
action of the deep flexor muscle, the four tendons of whic'i
are inserted into them ; the second phalanges by the supe--
ficial flexor, also inserted by four tendons, one, into eacii
phalanx ; these muscles descend from the front of the fore-
arm into the palm in front of the wrist, where they^ais
840
ANATOMY
[jOCrrS AND MUSCLES--
eiicliHel in a canal by a strong band, llie anterior cnnutar
ligament, aud tlioir surfaces are invested by a synovial
luembrano, which facilitates their movements to and fro
l-oncath that.ligiffnent; aa they pass downwards in front of
the fingers they are enclosed in a strong fibrous sheath
Ttied by a synovial membrane, and the tendon of the supcr-
licial fldior is pierced by the deep flexoi;, so that the latter
tnay reach the third phalanx into which it is inserted.
Four rounded muscles, tho lumbricales, arise in the pabn
from tho deep flexor tendons, turn round the radial borders
of tho first phalanges, and are inserted one into the extoneor
tendon on tho dorsum of each finger ; these muscles bend
tho fii-st phalanges on the metacarpal bones, but from their
insertion into tho extensor tendons they also extend the
tecoud and thiid phalanges on the first ; as they are much
used in playing stringed instruments, they liavo been called
"fiddlers'muscles." Thefingers are extended or straightened
by muscles inserted into the back of tho second and third
phalanges ; the extensor muscles descend from tho back of
the foro-arm,^-one, tho common extensor, subdivides into
four tendons, one for each finger, but in addition tho index
aud little have each a separate extensor muscle, tho tendon
of which joins that of the common extensor. The index
finger possesses more independent movement than the
other digits — hence its more frequent use as a " pointer;"
tho extensor tendons of the little and ring fingers are
■usually united together, so that these digits are associated
in their movements. Abduction and adduction of the
fingers are caused by seven small muscles situated in the
intervals between the metacarpal bones, — hence called
interossei; four of these lie on tho back of the hand, three
on its palmar surface ; they are inserted into the sides of
the first phalanges, and either pull the fingers away from a
line drawn through tho middle finger or approximate them
to that line. Too great abduction is checked by the trans-
verse metacarpal ligament. The human hand is a perfect in-
strument of prehension; not only can the individual fingers'
be bent into hooks, but the thumb can be thrown across the
front of the palm, so that it can be opposed to the several
fingers, and objects can therefore be grasped between it and
them ; but further, this power of opposing the thumb permits
objects to be held in the palm of the hand, which may be
hollowed into a cup or made to grasp a sphere^ The
■movements of the joints are indicated on the surface of
the palm by tegiunentary folds, — an oblique fold for the
thumb, and two oblique folds for the metacarpo-phalangeal
joints of the fingers; the joints of the second and third
phalanges are also marked on Ae siuface by folds.
Joints and Muscles of the Lo^wee Limb.
Sacro-Uiio The innominate bones are connected to the spinal colxmin
jomt. by the sacro-Uiac joints and the sacro-sciatic ligaments.
The Sacro-iliac Joint is between the side of the sacrum and
the internal surface of the ilium, the articular surfaces of
which bones are covered by cartilage, and connected
together by short, strong ligaments. The sacro-sciatic
ligaments stretch from the side of -the sacrum and coccyx
to the spine and tuberosity of the -ischium. The two
innominate bones are also connected together at the puhic
symphysis, which is an amphiarthrodial joint. The sacro-
iliac joints and pubic symphysis permit only slight move-
ment ; that at the former is around an imaginary axis,
dra^wn transversely through the second sacral vertebra, which
allows the base of the sacrum to be thrown forward and its
apex backward in the stooping position of the body; but
too great movement backward of the apex is checkal by
iLs sacro-sciatic ligaments. As the weight of the trunk,
or of what may be carried in the arms or on the back, is
■^.insmitted through thehaunch-bones to the lower Limbs,
Ibo sacro-iliac ligaments require ts be of great strenglh,
because the sacrum, and -viiih it the entire trunk, are euB-
pended by them on the two innominate bones.
Tho llip Joint m a ball-and-socket joint; the ball is the Uip join
head of the femur, and the socket the cup-shaped acetabu-
lum in the haunch boBe, tho depth of the cup being in
creased by a ligament which is attached around tho briin.
A Lirge capsular b'gnment, which is cspeciaUy strong in
front, encloses the articular surfaces. The ligament ia
■ lined by a synovial membrane, which also invests the neck
of the thigh bone. Within the joint is the round or sus-
pensory ligament attached to the head of tho thigh bone
and to the sides of the depression at the bottom of tha
acetabulum. Whilst the hip joint possesses considerable
mobility, it has much more stability than the shoulder,
owing to the acetabulum being deeper than the glenoid
fossa, and the greater strength and tension of the fibres of
its capsular ligament. The muscles which move the thigh
at the hip joint are situated either behind the joint, where
they form the flc&y mass of the buttock, or at the front
and the inner side of the thigh. They are inserted cither
into the femur or fascia lata, and the great and small
trochanters serve as their principal surfaces of attachment.
The thigh can be bent on the abdomen by the action of
the psoas, iliacus, and poctineus, which lie in front of tha
joint ; it can be extended or dra^n into line witW the
trunk by tho glutajus-maximtis and medins ; it can be
abducted or drawn away from the opposite thigh by the
glutaeus maximus, medius, and minimus, which musdca
are of largo size, and form the fleshy jnass of the buttocks.
It can be adducted or dra^wn to touch its feUow, or, if
slightly bent, drawn in front of its fellow, by the adductor
longus, brevis, and magnus, ■which muscles are inserted
into the linea aspera, and form the fleshy mass on the
' inner side of the thigh ; and by the pectineus and quad-
ratus femoris. It can be rotated outwards by the obturator
and gemeUi muscles, the gluteus maximus, pyriformis, and
quadratus femoris; and rotated inwards by the glutjeus
medius, minimus, and tensor fascise femoiis. In standing
erect the hip joints are fuUy extended, and the mechanical
arrangements in and around 'these articidations are such
as to enable them to be retained in the extended position
with but a small expenditure of muscular power. As tho
weight of the body in the erect attitude falls behind the
joints, the strong anterior fibres of their capsular liga-
ments are made tense, and the extended position of the
joints is preserved. So long as the centre of gravity falla
■within the basis of support of the body, i.e., the space
between the two feet when standing on both legs, the body
■will not fall If the body is made to. lean forward, then
the capsular ligament is no longer tense, and the glutaeal
muscles are put in action to re-extend the trunk on the
thigh, and prevent it from falling forward ; if the body is
made to lean to one side or the other, the round ligament
is made tense, or the strong iUo-tibial band of the fascia
lata of the thigh, jvhich stretches from the ih'um to the
tibia, ia put on the stretch, and faUing aidewaye is pro-
vented. When, in standing erect either on one or both
feet, the balance of the body-is disturbed, then variona
muscles both of the trunk and lower limb are brought into
action to assist in preserving the erect position. In the
erect position the weight of the trunk is transmitted
through the acetabula to the heads of the thigh-bones, but
the position and connections of the round ligament enable
it to suspend that portion of the trunk the weight of which
is thrown upon it, and to distribute the weight over the
head of the femur.
The Knee is the largest and most complicated joint m. Knea.
the body. It consists of the femur, tibia, end patella.'
The Datclla moves up and down .the trochlear surface .ofj
towEP iiJli;.]
ANATOMY
841
Joints of
■uUa aud
(ooL
the femur, whilst tLe cundyles of the feimir roll upon the
semiTuBar cartilages and articular surfaces of the tibia.
A powerful investing ligament encloses the articular sur-
faces. This ligament is subdivided into bands, one on
each side of the joint — the internal and external lateral ligar
ments — a posterior and an anterior. The anterior extends
from the patella to the anterior tubercle of the tibia, and
serves both as a ligament and as the tendon of insertion of
the extensor muscles of the leg. Within the investing
ligament two interarticular or crucial ligaments pass from
the inter-condyloid fossa to the upper surface of the tibia ;
and interposed between the tibia and femoral condyles are
two menisci, which from their shape are called the semi-
lunar cartilages. The synovial membrane not only lines
the investing ligaments, but covers the front of the femur
for some distance above the trochlea, and forms folds or
pads within the joint itself, which in certain movements
are interposed between the articular surfaces of the bones.
The movements at this joint are those of flexion and exten-
Hion. The flexors are the three great muscles on the back
of the thigh, called the ham-strings ; they all arise from
the ischial tuberosity, and are inserted — the biceps into
the head of the fibula, the semi-tendinosus and semi-mem-
branosus into the upper end of the tibia. The extensors
form the fleshy mass on the front and outer side of the
thigh ; one muscle, the rectus, arises from the iLium=^-the
others, the vasti, from the shaft of the femur ; and they are
all inserted by a powerful tendon into the patella, and
through th« anterior ligament of the knee into the tibia.
Thij patella is indeed a sesamoid bone,, developed in the
tendon of these muscles (Fig. 18). The knee can be bent
Bo that the calf can touch the back of the thigh, and in
this position the patella is drawn down in front of the
joint, as in kneeling. The articular surface of the patella
is divided into seven areas or facets, and in passing from
the bent to the extended position of the joint, these facets
come successively into contact with the articuiar surface of
the femur, until, when the leg is fuUy extended on the
thigh, the whole of the patella is raised above the femoral
trochlea, except the lowest pair of narrow facets. It is in
order to provide a smooth surface for the patella in this
position that the synovial membrane of the joint covers
the front of the lower end of the femur. At the com-
mencement of flexion a slight ro'tation inwards of the leg
and foot takes place through the action of the sartorius,
gracilis, and semi-tendinosus, which are inserted close
together into the tibia ; whilst the extensor muscles cause,
at the completion of extension, a slight rotation outwards
of the leg and foot. The movements of flexion and exten-
sion are not simply in the antero-posterior plane, but
along oblique paths which are determined by the screwed
cortfiguration of the femoral condyles. In complete exten-
sion of the leg the joint is " screwed home ;" and as this
position is necessary for the preservation of the erect
attitude, the lateral, the posterior, and the anterior crucial
ligaments are then all tense, to prevent displacement of
the bones. The muscles which rotate the leg and foot
inwards initiate the act of flexion by unlocking the joint.
The Tihio-fibular Joints are found between the upper
and lower ends of the bones, and in addition a strong
-interosseous membrane fiUs up the interval between their
shafts. The movement between the two bones is almost
inappreciable.
The Ankle Joint is formed by the convex upper and the
' lateral surfaces of the astragalus fitting into the coiicivity
forraed by the lower end of the tibia and the two raalleoU.
An investing ligament, lined by synovial membrane,
encloses the joint ; the lateral portions of this ligament
form distinct bands, and are much stronger than tii«
anterior and posterior fibres. A diarthrodial joint also
exists between the astragalus and oa calcia, between which
bones a powerful interosseous ligament passes. Between
the astragalus and scaphoid, and the os calcis and cuboid,
important diarthrodial joints are found, which are enclosed
by ligamentous bands. Th^ remaining tarsal bones are
connected together usually by dorsal, plantar, and inter-
osseous ligaments, and a similar mode of union is found
between the distal row of tarsal bones and the metatarsals,
except between the great toe and ento-cuneiform, whera
there is no interosseous ligament. The four outer meta-
tarsals are also connected at their proximal ends by distal,
plantar, and interosseous ligaments; and further, a trans-
verse metatarsal ligamei\t passes between the distal ends
of all the metatarsal bones. The metatarsal bones articu-
late with the phalanges, and the phalanges with each other,
in a similar manner to that described in tne corresponding-
bones of the hand.
At the ankle joint movements of flexion and extension
take place. Tke dorsum of the foot is bent towards the
front of the leg by the direct action of the muscles on the
front of the leg, more especially the tibialis anticus, inserted
into the ento-cuneiform and metatarsal of great toe, and
the peroneus tertius, inserted into the metatarsal of littlo
toe ; the opposite movement, the so-called extension of the
foot, is due to the action of dhe gastrocnemius and soleus,
the great muscles of the calf of the leg, which are inserted
by the Tendo AchUlis into the posterior prominence of the
08 calcis or heeL This movement is made at every step in
walking or running, and the great size of the calf-muscles
is in relation to their use in the act of progression. The
foot cannot, however, be drawn so far back as to be brought
into direct line with the leg. In standing erect the foot is
at right angles to the axis of the leg, the astragalus is
locked in between'the two malleoli, and the fibres of the
lateral ligaments are tense, 80 as to check movement
forwards or backwards, and prevent displacement.
Between the several bones of the tarsus a certain amonrrt
of gliding is permitted, more especially between the os
calcis and cuboid and the astragalus and scaphoid, so that
it is possible to invert or evert the foot, i.e., to raise its
inner or outer borders from the ground. The Laversion is
performed- by the tibialis anticus and by the tibialis
■posticus, which latter is inserted into the scaphoid bone ;
the eversion by the peroneus longus and brevia muscle*,
situated on the outer side of the leg, the tendons of whick
pass behind the outer malleolus, — the brevis to be inserted
into the metatarsal bone of the little toe, the longus into
the plantar surface of the metatarsal bone of the great toe.
The individual toes are bent on the sole by the action of
the flexor muscles inserted into the plantar surface of the
phalanges, and they are straightened by the extensor
muscles inserted into their dorsal surfaces ; the toes also
can be drawn asunder or abducted, and drawn together
or adducted, chiefly by the action of the interosaei
muscles. The hallux or great toe ia the most im-
portant digit; a line prolonged backwards through it to
the heel forms the proper axis of the foot, and the sole
chiefly rests upon the pads of integument situated beneath
its metatarso-phalangeal joint and the heeL The hallux
is much. more restricted in its movements than the thumb:
the configuration of its tarso-metatarsal joint and the
attachment of the transverse metatarsal ligament prevent
the great toe from being thrown across the surface of tha
sole as the thumb is thrown across the palm in the move-
ment of opposition ; an object can, however, bo grasped
between the hallux and second toe by the action of it»
adductor muscles, and persons can be trained to write witli
a Den or pencil held in this position.
The act of walking consists in the movement forwarda
of the trunk by the alternate advancement of the lower
"842
A N A T O 1^1 Y
[ana'
limbs. Suppose a person to be standing erect, witli one
leg a little in advance of the other ; the body, being
inclined slightly forwards, is pushed in advance by the
cx'ension of the hindmost li^ib, so that the weight falls
more and more upon the advanced leg, which at the same
l^ino is shortened by bending the knee and ankle. The
I'ccl of the hindmost limb being then raised by the action
of the muscles of the calf, the toes press against the ground
Eo 03 to push the trunk so far in front of the advanced
limb as to be no longer safely supported by it ; the hind-
most limb is then raised from the ground by muscular
action, and allowed to swing forward by its own weight,
but guided by the muscles, until the toes touch the ground
in front of the opposite limb. A step has now been made,
and the linibs are in a corresponding but opposite position
from that in which they were when the step commenced :
a lepotitiou of the act constitutes another step, and so the
alternate action continues. At one momeui, in each step
both feut touch the ground at the same time, I.e., when
the hind foot presses against the earth. The act of running
consists in a repetition of the movements of walking per-
formed with so much greater rapidity that the feet never
touch the ground at the same moment ; the heels also are
never brought to the ground. The propulsive action is
also greatly increased by the extension of the hip and knee
joints, so that a succession of small leaps on to alternate
feet takes pi ice. In leaping from the standing position
the joints ol uoth lower limbs, previously fle.'ted, are suddenly
and simultaneously extended, and the body is projected
forwards with a rapid impulse.
l>n<:!npment and Homologies of the Voluntary Muscular System.
The volutlbiry musclts, like the bones and joints with which
Ihey are so intimately as.sociftted, are developed out of the middle
of the three layers — the mcso-hlast — into which the germinal area
or blusUidrrin of the young embryo is divided. The muscles of the
axinl skeli'ton are capable of subdivision into a group situated
outside the eudo-skeleton, i.e., between it and the intcs^iment —
which muscles have recently bees called ejn-skclclal — and a group
lyin;y on the ventral aui-face of the vertebral bodies and within the
rib arches, which have been termed the hicmal or hypo-skdctal
muscles. The cpi-skelet.il muscles, like the vertebroj themselves,
are developed within the proto-vcrtcbrce, but it is not known if tlie
hypo-skLdetal group have the same origin. In fishes the epi-
akt,dctal muscles preserve their fundamenti! arrangement with but
little modification. They aro disposed in transverse segments or
inyotonus^ which equal in number the vertebrce. These myotomes
are separated from each other by bands of fibrous tissue, tlie inter-
muscular sepl-i. In man and the higher vertebrates the simple
transversely segmented arrangement is to a large extent lost. Traces
are preserved, however, in the interspinales and iutertransversales
muscles, situated in the intervals between the spines and transverse
processes of some of the vertebral segments ; in the external inter-
costals and in the recti abdominis muscles, in the last-named of
wljich tendinous bands subdivide the muscle into several transverse
aegmenls. More usually, the intermuscular septa either are not
" formed or disappear, and adjacent myotomes become blended into a
continuous mass of muscle. In some instances the fibres of this
■muscle run longitudinally, and the entire mass subdivides longi-
tudinallv into separate and distinct parallel muscles, as is seen in
the subdivision of the great erector spinas into the sacro-lumbalis,
musculus accessorius, cervicalis ascendens, longissimus dorsi, trans-
versalis cervicis, trachelo-mastoid, and spinalis dorsi muscles. In
other instances the muscles run obliquely ; some on the back of
the body pass obliquely from below upwards and outwards, as the
splenius and obliquus inferior ; others obliquely from below, up-
wards and inwards, as the complexus, obliquus superior, semi-
spinalis, multifidus and rotatores spinie ; others again, as the external
and internal oblique muscles of the abdomen, extend obliquely from
behind forwards to the ventral mesial line.
Of the bypo-skeletal group of muscles, the internal intercoatals dis-
play the transverse segmentation. As a rule, however, the muscles
of this group extend longitudinally, andform the pra-vertebra, group,
named anterior recti, longi colli, and psoaj ; though the diaphragro,
l.iangulares stemi, transversi abdominis, and levatores am, which
lie in°relation to the inner surfaces of the ribs and visceral cavities,
arc not longitudinal, but are specially modified in arrangement for
functional reasons. Th" plane of demarcation between the hypo-
and cpi-skel'-tal groups of muscles, where they form together the
walls of the great visceral cnainbers,— the thorax ana abdomen, —
is marked off by the position and course of the intercost&I scriea of
spinal nerves.
The muscles of the appendicular skeleton are either limited to
the limbs (purely appendicular, therefore), or pass from the axial
part of the body to the limb (axi-appendicular). The axi-appen-
dicular group are undoubtedly prolongations of the axial system of
muscles. They are in the upper limb derived from the epi-skeletal
subdivision, and form the trapezius, rliomboiil, levator anguli
scaimlce, latisaimus dorsi, serratus mognus, gre.-iter and smaller
pectorals, and subclavius muscles of each superior extremity. In
the lower limb they are in part derived from the hypo-skeletal
subdivision, and form the pso.a3 and pyriforinis ; and in part, as the
gltitmus maximus, from the epi-skeletal subdivii>ioc. It is not
uuprobable that the purely appendicular muscles ore also prolon-
gations of tlie axial system, and that as the limbs, in their dcveloii-
ment from their fundamental bud-like lappets, undergo both a
transverse and a longitudinal segmentation, so the muscular mass,
prolonged into them, dilferentiatcs both transversely and longi-
tudinally into a motor apparatus, fitted for the performanco of the
special functions of each extremity.
A-NATOMY OF TUE Te.XTUBES OE TiSSDES.
Introductory.
Before proceeding to the description of the other organic
systems of which the human body is built up, it may be
well to enter into the consideration of the minute or
microscopic structure of its con.stituent parts. These parts
may primarily be di\'ided into fluids and solids. The fluids
are the blood, the lymph, the chyle, the secretions of the
various glands, and of the serous and sjTiovial membranes.
The solids form the framework of the several organic
systems, and assume different appeal auces in different
localities. Sometimes they are arranged in compact boU^
masses, as in cartilage ; at others they are elongated into
iine threads or fibres, as in muscle, tendon, nerve ; at
others they are expanded iuto thin membranes, as in the
fa.'scise or aponeuroses, the serous, synovial, and mucous
membranes ; at others they are hollowed out into distinct
tubes for the conveyance of fluids, as in the blood-vessels,
the lymph and chyle vessels, and the ducts of glands. To
the solids of the body, whatever their form may be, the
general name of Tissues or Textures is applied. Each
organic system may be regarded as in the main composed
of a tissue or texture peculiar to and characteristic of it-
self. Thus, the bones are essentially composed of the
osseous tissue, the muscles of the muscular tissue, the
nervous system of the nervous tissue, fibrous membranes of
the fibrous or connective tissue, ifec But though the
essential constituent of each organic system is a tissue
peculiar to that system, yet in most localities certain other
tissues are mingled Tvith that which is to be regarded as
the characteristic texture of the part. In a muscle, for
example, not only is the muscular tissue present, but
mingled with it are connective tissue, nerve tissue, blood-
vessels, and lymph-vessels. A gland also not only consists
of its proper tissue, the secreting cells, but of more or less
connective tissue, nerves, blood and lymph vessels, and
gland ducts. Indeed, there are few localities in which,
along with the proper tissue of the part, blood and lymph
vessels, nerves and connective tissue, are not found; and to
a part built up of two or more tissues the name of an
Organ is appUed. Thus the muscular system consists of
the series of organs which we call the muscles, the gland-
ular system of the several organs called glands, and so on.
Each tissue and each organ, into the constniction of which
that tissue enters as the characteristic texture, possesses
not only distinctive structural, but also distinctive functional
properties. Thus the muscular tissue is characterised by
the property of contractility, and the muscles, of which
it forms the essential texture, are organs of motion or
locomotion ; the .osseous tissue is chajacterised by it*
TEXTPEBS.]
ANATOMY
843
hardness and strengtli, and the bones, of which it forms
the essential texture, arp organs of protection and support.
But the study of the textures embraces an inquiry not
only into the special, structural, and functional properties
of each tissue and organ — into the special part which each
plays in the animal economy — but the consideration of
their properties as living structures. It would be out of
place in this article to enter into a discussion of the mean-
ing of the term LiFB, or Livinq, or to attempt an analysis
of the vaiio'is definitions of the term which hare been,
suggested from time to time by diflferent philosophers,
which win naturally find a place in the article Phtsiologt.
It will suffice for our present purpose to adopt the old
Aristotelian definition, and to speak of Life as the faculties
of self- nourishment, self-growth, and self -decay. All the
tissues, over and above the special properties which they
possess, have the power of growing and of maintaining
themselves in full . structural perfection and functional
ociivity for ^ given, period of time. After a time they
begin to exhibit signs of diminished perfection and activity,
they degenerate or decay ; ultimately they die, and the
entire organism of which they form the constituent parts
is resolved by the outrefactive orocess into reore simple
forms of matter.
Qeneeal Considbbations on Cells.
Proto- The simplest form of organic matter capable of ex-
?laam. hibiting the phenomena of life is called Cyto-blastema or
ProtoplasnL It possesses a viscous or jelly-like con-
sistency. Under the highest powers, of the microscope it
seezns to be homogeneous, or dimly granulated, like a
sheet of ground glass. Not only can it asainiilate nqtn-
ment and increase in size, but it possesses the power
of Bpontaneous movement and contractility. It eaters in
a very important manner into the structure of the bodies
of the lower animals. The elongated processes, or pseudo-
podia, to which Dujardin applied the
name of sarcode, which the Rhizopoda
an project from their surface into the
surrounding medium, and again with-
draw into their substance, consist of
protoplasm, and may be cited as fur-
nishing excellent examples of its
motive and contractile power. From
the recent researches of Haeckel it
would appejur that protoplasm is
capable of forming, without the super-
addition of any other structure, inde-
pendent organisms, which stand at
the lowest grade if organisation, and from their extreme
simplicity are named by him Monera. To the group
Mouera belong the genera Protamoeba, Protogenes, and
Bathybius. Of these, Bathybius is that
-which has attracted most attention. It has
besn regarded as a layer of soft slimy un-
differentiated protoplasm covering the bot-
tom of the deep sea, and capable of exhibit-
ing the phenomena of contractility, growth,
assimilation of food, and reproduction.
Doubts, however, have been expressed re-
"garding the nature of this Bathybius, so
that it cannot now be cited as so definite
4U organism as the freely-swimming Pro-
tamoeba and Protogenes. Haeckel has re-
ferred these simple organisms to a sub-
hingdom of Pboti8T.s, which ho considers
to lie on the confines of both the animal
and vegetable kingdoms. To a mass of protoplasm, whether
it formsj as in one of these Protista, an independent
organism, or is merely a portion of the iiubataace of the
VtQ. 2a.— Undifferentiated
cytodQ maA3 of proto-
plasm.
Fio. 26. — A qlmplo
form of nu-
cleated cell P,
protoplaam cdl-
fubfltance ; Jf,
DQcleiu; JfK QQ-
dooloa.
body 01 a higher organ, sm, he has given the general name-'
of a Cytode. Sometimes a cytode is a naked clump of Cytodei
soft protoplasm, without a trace of differentiation either
on its surface or in its substance, as in the freely-moving
Monera ; at others the peripheral part of the cytode
hardens, and differentiates into a more or less perfect
envelope, as in the genera Protomonas and Protomyxa.
So far back as 1861, Lionel Beale had described^ under
the name of germinal matter (Bioplasm), minute Uving
particles of vegetable protoplasm, and in 1863 he demon-
strated the presence of extremely minute particles of living
matter in the blood.' More recently Strieker has also
called attention, in the bodies of the higher animals, to
minute detached clumps of nrotoplasm which exhibited
the phenomena of Ufe.
As a rule, however, in Both vegetable and animal Cell,
organisms the specks or clumps of protoplasm assume
definite shapes, and show evidence of an internal dif-
ferentiation. In the midst of a minute clump of this
substance a sharply-defined body called a nudexts is
found, which differs from the surrounding protoplasm
in not being contractile; and sometimes a minute speck,
or nucleolus, exists within the nucleus. When a definite
clump of protoplasm contains a nucleus in its interior,
whether a nucleolus be present or not, it is called a
Nucleated CeU, Cells are definite anatomical and
physiological units, sind exhibit all the phenomena of
life. Some of the lowest organisms, consist merely of a
single cell, others of two or more cells united together,
and these are called uni- or multi-cellular organisms.
CeOs also enter in the most material manner into the
constitution of the textures of all the higher forms of
plants and ftniTniil.9 Not tinfrequently the peripheral
part of the protoplasm of the cell differentiates into a
distinct Investing envelope, .technically earned a cell wall
or cell membrane.
In the earner periods of investigation into the minute
structure of cells it was believed that a cell wall was con-
stantly present, and that each cell was a minute micro-
scopic vesicle or bladder, which in its^jtypical shape was
globular or ovoid, but capable of undergoing various modi-
fications both in form and chemical composition. The
material enclosed by the cell wall was termed the cell con-
tents, and either in the midst of these contents or in con-
tact with the ceU wall was the nucleus, which might or might
not contain a nucleolus. Schwann believed that the tell
wall was the most active constituent of th? cell, i.e., pos-
sessed the power not only of producing chemical and
physical changes in its own substance and in the cell
contents, but of separating niaterials from the surrounding
media,— of secreting them, as it were, into 'the interior of
the cell In this manner he accounted for the formation
in some ceUs of fat, in others of pigment, in others of the
characteristic secretion of glands, and so on.
It was then maintained by John Goodsir that the
nucleus was the part of a ceU which in all probabihty was
concerned in separating and preparing its characteristic
ceU contents, and in its nutrition. Martin Bany and
Goodsir also contended that the reproduction and multi-
plication of cells were due to self-division of the nucleus,
wiiich was thus the source of successive broods of young
cells. They gave to the nucleus, therefore, an importance
in the economy of the cell greater than had previously
been assigned to it
As the investigations into cell stroctnre became inoi%
extended, it was ascertained that .a cell wall was by no
means always present; that in many of the cells in which'
it had been supposed to eKist it could not satisfactorily be
demonstrated, and that in others, more especially in youLg
ecu vely-gro wing cells, no trace of an iniKsting envelope
844
A N A T 0 Jl Y
[anatomy or
Onun.
g<;Deais.
couJd bo oliservei Hence llie importance of the ccU wall as
an essential compc nent of a cell was still further dimiuisbed ;
and Leydig then defined a cell to bo a little masa composed
of a soft substance enclosing a central nucleus.
But a most important advance in our conceptions
of the essential structure of a cell was made when
Brucko pointed out that the contents of cells not unfre-
quently possessed the property of spontaneous move-
ment and contractihty, and when Max Schultzo deter-
mined that the contractile substance termed Barcode,
which forms so largo a part of the bodies of the lower
animals, was analogous and apparently homologous with
the contents of young actiToIy-growLng animal and vege-
table cells, before a differentiation of these contents into
special secretions or other materials had taken place. As
the term " protoplasm" had been introduced by Von Mohl
to express the contents of the vegetable ccU, which under-
goes changes in the process of growth, it was adopted by
the animal liiatologist; and Mas Schultze suggested
that a cell should bo defined to be a nucleated mass
of -protoplasm, — a definition which is adopted in this
article. Now, as protoplasm, whether it occurs along with
a nucleus in the form of a cell, or in independent clumps
or cytodos, exhibits not merely the property of contrac-
tility, but the power of growing and maintaming itself, it
is regr '"d as the functionally active constituent of the
cell, .tind thus our conceptions as to the part of the cell
in which its functional activity resides have passed through
three phases. In the first, the cell wall; in the second, the
nucleus; in the third, the protoplasm cell contents, or cell
aubstanco, has been regarded as the active con.stituent, not
only as regards its nutrition, but the reproduction of
young cells. But though the protoplasm can of itself
perform these ofEces, yet there can bo no doubt, as Barry
end Ooodsir were the first to show, that the nucleus of the
cell plays a part not unfrequently in the multinlication of
cells by self-division.
One of the most charactcnslic cells
ovum. In it a cell wall exists, known
as the zona pellucida or vitelline
membrane ; within this envelope is
the granular yelk or cell contents,
in the midst of which is imbedded
the nucleusor germinal vesicle, which
in its turn contains the nucleolus
or germinal spot. The granules of '^"ii. "\;^^,T °' • '''"?■
o ^ , t> n, ceU Will or zona pel.
the yelk are a special metamorphosis
of the protoplasm cell substance.
Schwann made the important
generalisation that the tissues of the animal body
are composed of cells, or of materials derived from
cells, " that there is one universal principle of develop-
ment {)! the elementary part of organisms, however
different, and that this principle is the formation of
cells." The ovum is the primordial or fundamental cell, or
germ-cell, from which, after being fertilised by the male
sperm, the tissues and organs of the animal body are
derived. Within the fertilised ovum multiplication of
tells takes place with great rapidity. It is as yet an un-
settled question how far the original nucleus of the ovum
participates in this process of multiplication ; but there
can be no doubt that the protoplasm ceU contents divide,
first into two, then four, then eight then sixteen segments,
and 60 on. Each of these segments of protoplasm con-
tains a nucleus — is, in short, a nucleated cell, and the
protoplasm of these cells exhibits the property of con-
tractility. The ovum or germ-cell is therefore the imme-
diate parent of all the new cells which are formed within
it, and mediately it is the parent of all the cells which,
in the subseauent processes of development and growth,
is the mammalian
Weida; P, protnplaam ot
yelk ; JV. nucleua, or ger-
miDal vesicle; fTt, DMcleoltu,
or germinal epoL
are descenaed Iroiu those produced by tne segmentalfon
of the yelk. The process of development of young cells
within a parent cell, whether it occurs in the ovum or in
a cell derived by descent from the ovum, is called the
endogenous reproduction of cells. But cells may multiply
by a process of fistion — i.e., a constriction, gradually deep-
ening, may take place in a cell until it is subdivided into
two ; the nucleus at the same time participating in the
constriction and subdivision. A third mode of multipli-
cation of cells is by bidding : little clumps of protoplasm
bud out from the protoplasm of the parent cell, become
detached, and assume an independ at vitality. If a
nucleus differentiates in the interior of such a clump, it
becomes a cell ; if it remains as a mere clumo of proto-
plasm, it is a cytode.
These various methods of multiplication are all con-
firmatory of Schwann's generalisation of the deccent or
derivation of cells from pre-existing cells. But as the
nucleated cell, either with or without a cell wall. Is not, in
the present state of science, regarded as the simplest and
most elementary unit capable of exhibiting vital pheno-
mena, and as these phenomena can be displayed by indi-
vidual clumps of protoplasm, without the presence of a
nucleus, some modification of the doctrine, as regards the
formation of the tissues from nucleated cells, seems to b<
necessary. For, although there can be no doubt that all
the tissues are mediately derived from the ovum or funda-
mental cell, and that most of the tissues are derived
directly from nucleated cells, yet there is reason to think
that a differentiation of a cytode clump of protoplasm into
tissue may take place, so that the direct formation of such
a tissue would be, not from a nucleated cell, but from the
more simple cytode. Hence a more comprehensive gene-
ralisation, to which observers have gradually been led
from the consideration of numerous facts, has now been
arrived at, — that the tissues and organs of the body, what-
ever may be their form and composition, are formed of
protoplasm, or produced by its differentiation ; and that
the protoplasm itself is derived by descent from the proto-
plasm substance of the primordial germ-cell. Some, in-
deed, have contended that protoplasm, cells, and their
derivatives can arise by a process of precipitation or
aggregation of minute particles or molecules in an organic
infusion, and that living matter may be thus spontane-
ously generated. But the evidence which has been
advanced in support of this hypothesis is by no means
satisfactory or conclusive, whilst the correctness of the
theory of the direct descent of protoplasm from pre-exist-
ing living protoplasm is supported by thousands of
observations made by the most competent inquirers.
In the process of conversion of protoplasm into the
several tissues, there takes place a differentiation of form
and structure {i.e., a morphological differentiation), and of
composition (i.e., a chemical differentiation), as the result
of which a physiological differentiation is occasioned,
whereby tissues and organs are adapted to the performance
of special functions. Hence arise the several forms of
tissue which occur in the human body and in the higher
animals. Many of the tissues consist exclusively of cells
which present in different parts of the body characteristic
modifications in external configuration, in composition, and
in properties, as may be seen in the fatty tissue, pigmentary
tissue, and epithelium. Other tissues, again, consist partly
of cells, and partly of an intermediate material which sepa-
rates the constituent cells from each other. Here also the
cells present various modifications; and the intermediate
material, termed the matrix or intercellular substance,.
varies in structure, in composition, and in properties-
in the different textures, as is seen in the connectivo^.
cartilaginous, osseous and muscular tissues
ANATOMY
riood.
Pcfd cor*
babclea.
TEXTUEES-l
It 13 not an easy matter to devise a classification of the
tissues, based on their structural characters, which shall
be in all respects logically perfect ; but a convenient basis
of arrangement for descriptive purposes may be found by
dividing them into those which consist — 1st, of cells sus-
pended in fluids ; 2d, of cells placed on free surfaces ; 3d,
of colls imbedded in solid tissues.
Irf Oroup, — Cells Suspended in Fluids.
The fluids of the body which have cells or other minute
solid particles suspended in them are the blood, the lymph,
and the chyle. Sometimes cells are found floating in the
secretions of glands.
The Blood. — The blood is tne weU-known red fluid
which circulates throughout the blood-vascular system.
As its composition and general properties will be described
in the article Physiology, the solid particles only, which
are suspended in the liquor sanguinis, will be considered
here. If a drop of human blood be examined under the
microscope, crowds of minute bodies, the blood corpuscles,
or blood globules, may be seen in it. These present two
different appearances, and are distinguished by the names
of red and white blood corpuscles.
The red corpuscles, which are by far the more numerous,
are minute circular discs, slightly concave on both surfaces.
Their average diameter is about j-sVjth of an inch, and
their thickness about Jth of that measurement; hence they
are not spheres, as the old name blood globules would imply.
They are non-nucleatsed. Single corpuscles have a faint
fawn-coloured hue, but collectively they give to the blood
its characteristic red colour. This colour is due to the
presence in the corpuscle of the substance termed
h'omcijlobin. It has been estimated by Vierordt and
Welcker that 5,000,000 red corpuscles are present in
every cubic millimetre of healthy human '^lood. The
red corpuscles in the blood of all mammals, except the
tribe of camels, are circular bi-concave discs ; but in these
exceptional mammals they have an elliptical outline In
all mammals the rod corpuscles are non-nucleated, though
appearances of nucleation have been seen in exceptional
individual cases; for Piolleston saw a nucleated appearance
in a small proportion of the dried red blood corpuscles of
a two-toed sloth ; and Turner observed in a proportion of
the red blood discs of a Hoffmann's sloth an appearance
of a central nucleus.
In all birds, reptiles, and amphibia the red corpuscles
are oval or elliptical, and in each corpuscle an oval or
elliptical nucleus is situated. In all fishes they are nu-
cleated and also elUptical in form except in some of the
Cyclostomata, which
' ©I
jiDssess circular discs.
In the elliptical nu-
cleated corpuscles the
surfaces are not bi-
concave, but have
central projections,
which correspond in
pasition to the nu
cleus (2, 4, 5, F
28). The red cor-
puscles vary mat&-
rially in size in dif-
ferent vertebrata,
and these variations
have been especi-
ally studied by Gul-
liver. He Ims found them to vary in mammals from an
average diameter of T^'uth of an inch in the elephant, and
j-^,t!i in Orycteyopus capensis, to i-j^jijth in Traguhis
Jaoaniciu, and he concludes that Iho eomllcst blood discs
845
Flo. 2S — 1, red corpuBctes of human blood ; 2, red
corpuscles of blood of common fowl, seen on
the sarfaco hnd cdgoways; 8, red corpuscles of
froft; 4, of &jualul Itjuattna; 6, of Lophiut
plicatoriut; 6, corpusclos of the blood of a scor-
pion.
occur in tire small species of an order or family, the largest
in the large species. In birds they are larger than in
mammals, and vary in length from an average of ■j-j'jj inch
in Casuarius javanicm to jjVt''^ '° Linaria minor. In
reptiles they are still larger, and vary in length from an
average of -piVff'^ ^ Anguis fragilis to xjVi'h in Lacerta
viridis. In amphibia the largest corpuscles, according to
Gulliver, are about j-J^^ inch in length in Proteus and
Siren, though RiddeU states that in Amphiuma tridactylum
they are Jd larger ; whilst the smallest, as in the common
frog, average in length y-^j inch. In cartilaginous fish
the corpuscles are larger than in osseous. In Lamna cor-
nubica Gulliver found their long diameter to be ^^ inch ;
while in the Salmonidje, which have the largest blood discs
among osseous fish, the long diameter in the salmon and
common trout is only about ixvis inch.
The white or colourless corpuscles are comparatively few White
in number in the healthy human blood. Welcker has corouscle^
estimated the normal relative number as one white to
335 red ; in pregnant and menstruating women the pro-
portion is increased to about 1 to 280. In some forms of
disease the proportion is so very materially increased that
they appear to be almost as numerous as the red. They
are rounded in form, finely granulated or mulberry-Uke in
appearance, and nucleated — the nucleus becoming more
distinct after the addition of acetic acid ; moreover, they
are larger than the red corpuscles, their average diameter
being from TrtV's''' ** jtVii''^ °^ ^° inch. Corpuscles of
a similar form are found in the blood of all vertebrata.
They do not vary so much in size in difl'erent animals as
do the red corpuscles. In Triton, according to Gul-
Uver, their average diameter is ^^^ oth, whilst in Eerpestei
griseus they are not more than jjVi inch. The white
blood corjjuscles are minute nucleated clumps of proto-
plasm ; they are therefore minute cells. It is very doubt-
ful if they possess a cell wall, the evidence being against
rather than in favour of its presence.
The red blood corpuscles in all. vertebrata, except the
mammalia, are nucleated clumps of protoplasm ; they are
therefore minute cells. In mammals, owing to the ab-
sence of a nucleus, they do not accord with the definition
of a cell adopted in this article, and they are not therefore^
morphc logically identical with the red corpuscles in other'
vertebrates. What their precise homology may be is some-
what difficult to say, owing to the obscurity which prevails
as fo their exact origin. If they are merely clumps of
speciaUy modified protoplasm, budded off from the white
corpuscles, then they are cytodes. If, as some have sup-'
posed, they are the nuclei of the white corpuscles, specially
modified in composition, then they are free nuclei If,
again, they are the white corpuscles, the cell substance of
which has undergone a special differentiation, and the
nucleus has disappeared, then they are potentially cells,
though no nucleus is visible. Whatever may be their exact
homology, there can be no doubt that the non-nucleated
mammalian red corpuscle, and that part of the nucleated
red corpuscle which lies outside the nucleus, are function-
ally identical with each other ; the protoplasm having
undergone a special chemical differentiation into haBmo-
globin, a proximate principle characterised by containing
iron as its essential constituent. The action of water,
spirit, acids, alkalies, various gases, heat, cold, and electri-
cal currents, on the red corpuscles has been studied by
several observers, and the conclusion has been reached that
the corpuscles consist of a " stroma," with which the
colouring matter is blended, but from which it may be^
separated without the stroma affording any evidence of the
presence of an investing envelope or membrane. WhcD
blood is drawn from the vessels the red corpuscles, in about
balf a minute, run together into piles, like rouUaux ot coin«
84G
ANATOMY
[anatomy op
(Fig. 29), wliich arrange tliemseives into irregular meshes.
In inflammatory diseases, and in tlie blood of pregnant
women, tho piles of corpuscles form more readily, and at
the same time sink rabidly below the surface of the Quid,
Flo. 29.-1, red corpuacloB of healthy human blood; i. red oorpnadee befflnnlni?
to form rouleaux; 3. niesh-Uko anaiiKem^nt In hi-olthy blood; i, meeli-Mtc
arriiDggmout In bufly blood, wburo tho muahM are larger tbaa In buliby
blood.
80 as to cause tne" Duffy coat" seen in the tiood coagulum.
In the healthy blood of horses a buffy coat ia formed as a
natural condition of the coagulation.
One of the most curious properties possessed by the
living white blood corpuscle "is that of protruding delicate
processes from its circumference, which processes may
change their shape, or be again withdrawn into the sub-
stance of tho corpuscle, which then resumes its former
circular outline. These processes resemble the sarcode
prolongations which Amoeba and other Ehizopods can pro-
ject from various- parts of their circumference; and as a
white blood corpuscle, Uko an Amceba, can by the move-
ments of the processes change its position, the term
"amoeboid movements" has been applied to the pheno-
mena in question. Like an Amceba, also, a white corpuscle
can by these movements include within its substance
minute particles of solid matter which it may come in
contact with in its path. Thirty years ago W. Addison
stated that the white blood corpuscles could pass through
the walls of the blood-vessels into the .surrounding tissue,
where they formed mucus corpuscles, and, under certain
pathological conditions, the corpuscles of pus or inflam-
matory lymph. The passage of white blood corpuscles
through the wall of the capillaries was seen in 1846 by
A. Waller; and though for many years his observations
were ignored, yet the more recent inquiries of Cohnheim
and others into the subject have anew directed attention
to them. It is now generally admitted that the migration
of these corpuscles from the blood through the waU of the
capillaries into the tissues does take place, and that they
may then " wander " to and fro, owing to the mobility of
thMT contractile protoplasm. These migrated corpuscles
are also believed to play an important part in many
iihysiological and pathological -processes.
But the blood contains, in addition to the red and white
corpuscles, still more minute particles, which are, however,
inconstant in numbed Minute globules have been de-
scribed by Beale and Max Schultze, which are probably
detached fragments of protoplasm budded off from the
white corpuscles ; and Zimmermann has described, as
elementary corpuscles, minute particles, which are appar-
ently derived from broken-up red corpuscles.
In the very young embryo the blood corpuscles, like
the capillary blood-vcssela themselves, are formed by special
differentiation of certain of the cells of the embryo, and
these young corpuscles seem to have the power of multiply-
ing by fission. At first they are colourless, but afterwards
sasume a red colour. Even in mammals the earliest red
blood corpuscjea are nucleated and larger than tlic future
red discs, but as development goes on, non-nucleated red
corpuscles appear, and as their number increases, both
absolutely and relatively with the progress of the foetus, in
course of time all the nutlcatcd red corpuscles have dis-
appeared, and are replaced by the non-nucleated discs. In
adults the red corpuscles are believed to be derived from
the white corpuscles, though tho exact process of meta-
morphosis has not been satisfactorily ascertained. It ia
also believed that red corpuscles may be new-formed in the
spleen, and Neumann has recently stated that the red
marrow of the bones may serve as a centre of origin for
the red blood corpuscles. In the fcetus the liver apparently
serves as a centre of origin for the white corpuscles, but its
blood corpuscle forming function ceases at the time of
birth. Throughout eJSra-uterine life the spleen and the
lymphatic glands are without doubt organs of formation
of tho colourless corpuscles,- those produced in the lymph-
atic glands, under the name of lymph corpuscles, being
mingled with the blood-stream where the fluid IjTnph flows
into the venous system. When mi^ed with the blood, tho
lymph corpuscles become the white blood corpuscles.
Corpuscles are also found in the blood of the inverto-
brata. They are as a rule colourless, Ijut R. Wagner
pointed out that in the Cephalopods,!they are coloured.
They are sometimes round, at others oval or fusiform, and
in worms and insects have even branched processes. They
are always nucleated.
The Lympu and Chvxb. — The lymph is the fluid found Lymph
in a subdivision of the vascular system named the lymph
vascular system. It is transparent and colourless, and con-
tains numerous corpuscles floating in it, which correspond,
in appearance, structure, and the possession of the pro-
perty of amoeboid movements, to the white corpuscles of
the blood. The lymph corpuscles are formed in the glands
situated in the course of the lymph vessels, and are carried
away from the glands by the stream of lymph which flows
through them.
The chyle is a milky fluid found during the penoQ of chyle,
digestion in the delicate lacteal vessels which pass from the
walls of the intestine. The lacteals join the lymphatics at
the back of the abdomen to form the thoracic duct in
which the lymph and chyle become mingled together. The
, chyle contains corpuscles similar to the lymph corpuscles,
which are apparently derived from the lymph glands in
the mesentery, through which the chyle flows on its way to
the thoracic duct. The fluid of the lymph, the chyle, an 1
the blood, in which the corpuscles are suspended, is some-
times described as a fluid interceUiJar substance. Cor-
puscles possessing the type of structure of the lymph
corpuscles, are named lymphoid cells or lextcocytse.
Cells are also met with floating free in the secretions
formed in the interior of some of the glands. They are
more particularly found in the secretion of mucus from
the mucous glands, and of saliva from the salivary glanda.
They are round, colourless, nucleated corpuscles, not unlike
the white corpuscles of the blood, and have been detached
from their original position in the gland follicles.
2d Group.^-CelU placed on Free Surfaces.
6y the term free surface is meant a surface which is not
blended with or attached to adjacent structures, but is free
or separable from them ^v^thout dissection. Every free
surface is covered by one or more layers of cells. Some-
times .these cells are named an Epithelium, at others an
Endothelium. By the term Epithelium is msant the cells
situated on free surfaces whiclv are exposed either directly
or indirectly to the air. By the term Endotheliimi is
meant the cells situated on free surfaces which are not ex-
posed either directly or indirectly to the air.
TEXTURES.]
ANATOMY
Epithe-
iKin..
Mu' oas
Mem
braues.
Epithelium. — The free surfaces ojvered by an epithe-
ium are the skin and the membranes, named, from the
character of their secretion, mucous membranes. The
Mucous Membranes line internal passages and canals, and
are continuous at certain orifices with the skin, — e.g., the
mucous membrane of the alimentary canal opens on the
surface at the mouth and anus ; the respiratory mucous
membrane opens on the surface at the nostrils, and is
continuous in the pharynx with the alimentary mucous
membrane — it is also prolonged through the Eustachian
tube into the tympanum, and is continuous through the
nasal duct with the conjunctiva; the genito-urinary mucous
membrane opens on the surface at the orifice of the urethra
and vagina. JIucous membranes also line the dticts of the
various glands which open on the surface either of the skiu
or the several mucous membranes. The epithelial cells are
as a rule arranged in layers or strata, and the shape of the
cells is by no means uniform in the dilferent layers. The
cells of the deeper strata are usually smaller, softer, more
rounded, and more recently formed than those of the super-
6cia) strata, though sometimes, as in the bladder, conjunc-
tiva, anJ'some other mucous surfaces, they may be irregular
m form and size, or even elongated into short columns.
The cells next the free surface have a tendency to be shed,
and their place is then taken by the cells of the deeper
layers, which become modified in form as they approach
the surface The form of the cells of the superficial layer
varies in diiferent localities, which has led to a division of
epithelium into groups bearing appropriate names. Epithe-
lium is distinguished further by being devoid of blood-
vessels, i.e., it is non-vascular; and also, with some excep-
tions, devoid of nerves, i.e., non-sensitive.
The epithelial cells, whether arranged in one or several
strata, rest upon a subjacent tissue, which, from its rela-
tion to the ceUs, may be called svb-epithelial. The sub-
epithelial tissue is a delicate modification of the fibrous
form of connective tissue, to be subsequently described, and
in it the nerves and the blood and lymph vesseb of the
skin and mucous membranes ramify; hence it is sometimes
described as a fibro-vascular tissue or corium. It was for
a long time believed that between the deeper surface of
the epithelium and the corium a homogeneous continuous
membrane, named by Bowman a basement membrane,
intervened. Bowman, however, himself admitted that in
some of the localities where this membrenie was theoreti-
cally supposed to exist it could not satisfactorily be demon-
strated ; and the general opinion of anatomists now is, that
a distinct separable membrane docs not intervene between
the epithelium and the fibro-vascular corium, but that the
cells of the former rest directly upon the surface of the latter.
The corium is also the seat of the numerous glands, with the
blood and lymph vessels and the nerves belonging to them,
found in connection with both the skin and the mucous
membranes ; and the epithelial lining of the g'ands is con-
tinuous at their orifices with the epithelial investment of
the corium. The surface both of the skin and mucous mem-
branes is usually more or less undulated — sometimes it is
thrown into strong folds or rugae, at others it is elevated into
minute, frequently conical, processes, named in some locali-
ties pai>illa;, in others viUi ; but in all these cases the epithe-
lium is prolonged as a continuous covering over the undulat-
* ing free surface. The free surface of all mucous membranes
ia kept moist by the secretion or mucus which lubricates it.
Tessellated, pavement, scaly, or squamous epithelium is
nituated on the free surface of the mucous lining of the
mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, vestibular entrance to the
nose, ocular conjunctiva, and entrance to the urethra and
va^na. It forms, under the special name of the honiy
l>i)er of the cuticle or epidermis, the superficial investment
of the skin. Its cells are nucleated flattened scales, varying
847
Those in the same
Flo, SO. — Scaly eplthcliura from the
mucoQS membraDe of tlie mouth.
Fig. 31. — Colnmnar epilheliom. A, sitfe lieer
of a croup of cells; B, larger free end of a
group of cells; C. a striated coloniDar cell
from intestinal villas.
in diameter from j^jth to i-Aisth inch,
layer, being in contact by thpir
edges, form a tessellated, pave-
ment-lik>6 arrangement, whilst
the cells in adjacent layers have
their flattened surfaces in con-
tact with each other. Sometimes
the ceUs have jagged, serrated
edges, or fluted surfaces, and
usuaUy they contain scattered
granular particles. In the forma-
tion of this epithelium a morpho-
logical differentiation of the protoplasm of the rounded
cells of the deeper strata into flattened scales, and at the
same time a chemical differentiation of their soft contents
into a homy material, have occurred.
Columnar or cylindrical epithelium is situated on the
free surface of the mucous lining of the alimentary canal
from the oesophageal orifice of the stomach to the anus, it
is prolonged into the ducts of various glands which open on.
the alimentary mucous membrane ; it covers the mucous
lining of the urethra and the mucous membrane of tha
gall bladder. Its cells are elongated, cylindrical columns,
about jl^th inch long, placed side by side like a row of
palisades, and with their
long axes perpendicular
to the surface on which
the cells rest. Some-
times the ceUs are uni-
formly cylindrical ; at
other times they are
compressed- at the sides;
at others they vary ia circumference, — the broader end,
lying next the surface, being rounded or polygonal ;
the deeper extremity being narrower and more pointed.
The nuclei are distinct, and the cell contents are finely
granular. Usually this epithelium forms only a single
layer of cells. The columnar ceUs which cover the intes-
tinal viUi have a clear space at their broad free ends,
which is often streaked with fine parallel lines. Inter-
mingled with the cells of the columnar epitheUiun of the
alimentary canal are smaU goblet-shaped ceUs.
Ciliated epithelium is situated on the free surface of the
nasal mucous membrane, which extends into the air-sinuses
within the cranial bones, into the nasal duct and lachry-
mal sac, into the Eustachian tube and tympanum ; on the
free surface of the mucous membrane of the nindpipe a»
far as the terminal branches of the bronchial tubes; on
the mucous surface of the uterus and FaUopian tubes ; ou
the mucous Uning of the commencement of the vas deferens,
and on the Uning membrane of the ventricles of the brain
and central canal of the spinal cord. It generally consists
of- columnar ceUs, which have at their free ends extremely
slender, soft, pellucid, hair-like processes, or cilia. Thes*
ciUa are specially differentiated at the
free ends of the epithelium cells from
which thej project. Beale states that
the soft bioplasm (protoplasm) of the
body of the ceU is prolonged along the
axis of each cUium, whilst the peri-
phery possesses the firmer consistence Fio.sJ.-ciiiaiedepitiieiiara
of formed or differentiated material. ""••
During life these processes move rapidly to and ..fro
in the fluid which moistens the surface of the nrcr'-
brane on which this form of eiuthelium is situated. In
the human body the ciUa are not more than from ^^Tfth
to tuVisth inch in length ; but in various marine iji.
vertebrata they are both longer and stronger. Sometimes,
as in the lining membrane of the cerebral ventricles and
central canal of the spinal cord, the telL) carr_;iiig the cilia
848
ANATOMY
[anatomy or
are either 8i)lieroidal or cyjindrical; but as the cavities liued
by these c«ljs are shut offTrom the air, the cells ought rather
to be referred to the endothelial than the epithelial -series
of structures. Cilia occasion currents in the fluid in ■which
they move, and play an important part in the economy of
many animals; in some of the invertebrata they serve as
organs of locomotion, in others they propel currents over
resjjiratory surfaces, and in others aid in bringing food
within the animal's reach.
r Splieroidal or glandular epithelium ia situated on the free
surface of the follicles or ultimate secreting apparatus of
glands, and the cojimencement of gland ducts. The cells are
often sphoroid^>i in form, though not unfrequently they are
polyhedraL Theircontentsarospeciallydifferentiated iutothe
secretion of the particular gland in which they are situated.
Secreting The epithelial cells of a Secreting Gland rest upon a sub-
gl»ndii. epithelial tissue. Not unfrequently this tissue has the
appearance of a membrane; it represents, indeed, the base-
ment membrane of Bowman, and is called membrana pro-
pria.. Deeper than this apparent membrane is a delicate
connective tissue in which the blood and lymph vessels and
the nerves of the gland -ramify. •■ The anatomical structures
necessary for secretion are cells. Wood-vessels, and nerves-
The blood-vessels convey
the blood from which the
secretion has to be derived;
the cells, as Goodsir s^wed
by a variety of pcoofs, are
the active agents in separat- ^^ „ _^ poiytodrui giana «u. froa
ing the secretion from the the Uver; B, eyheroldAlglAndcella from
blood ; the nerves regulate ,,'''° '°^""
the size of the blood-vessels, and therefore the amount of
blood which circulates through the gland, and perhaps also
exercise some direct influence on the activity of the cells.
The connective tissue and the membrana proprin. are merely
lupporting Btractures for the ceUs,- vesseb, and nerves. All
secreting glands have the same general type of structure,
though they differ from each other, as will be pointed odt
when the individual glands are described, in the degree of
complexity in which their constituent parts are arranged.
Transitional epithelium is the name applied to epithelial
cells, situated on some free surfaces, which possess transi-
tional forms either between "the columnar and tessellated
epithelia, or the colunuiar and spheroidal " The epithelium
<rf the mucous lining of the bladder is transitional between
the columnar and scaly varieties ; and in many glands
the continuity of the epithelial layer from the spheroidal
epithelium of the gland follicles to the columnar epi-
thelium of the ducts is preserved by the interposition of
intermediate transitional forms of cells.
I The epithelial surfaces of the upper part of the mucous
lining of the nose and of the back of the tongue are
specially modified in connection with the senses of smell
and taste localised in those regions, as will afterwards be
considered when their anatomy is described.
Enilothe- ENDOTHELIUM. — The free surfaces covered by an endo-
liuiD theUum are the serous membranes, the inner surface of
the walls of the lymph and blood vessels and of the heart,
the synovial membranes of the joints and of synovial
bursae, the free surface of the osseous and membranous
labyrinth of the internal ear, and the free surface -of the
ventricular cavities of the brain and central canal of the
spinal cord. The tubes, canals, and cavities lined thy
an endothelium are shut oflf from all communication with
the external atmosphere. The cells of the endothelium
are arranged so as to give perfect smoothness to the sur-
"face which' they cover. In , the blood and lymph vessels
chis smoothness of surface is In orcter to facilitate the flow
of the blood and lymph in\the^o>i'^6 of the circulation,
The serous and synovial membranes are found . covering
brtmes
tne surfaces oi parts which .move on cacn other, and the
smoothness 6f their respective surfaces, by permitting free-
dom of movement, diminishes the friction.
Each Serous Membrane consists of a portion which invests S«ron»
the viscus or organ, named the visceral layer, and a portion nn^m-
which lines the walla of the cavity in which the organ ia
situated, named the parietal layer. Between these two
layers ia the so-called serous cavity, the wall of which is
formed by the smooth surfaces of both the parietal i.nd the
visceral layers. The serous membranes are aa follows : — The
two pleurae situated in the cavity of the chest, one invest-
ing each lung, and lining the interior of that part of the
thoracic cavity in which the lung ia situated; the pcricar
dium, which invests the heart, and lines the bag in which
the heart is contained; the peritoneum, which invests the
abdominal viscera, and lines the abdominal cavity ; and
the arachnoid membrane, which invests the brain ano spinal
cord, and is regarded by many aa lining the dura mater, which
encloses these important organs. The smooth free surfaces
of the serous membranes are moistened by a limpid fluid,
or serum, which facilitates their movement on efich other,
jus't as the free smooth surfaces of the synovial membranes
are lubricated by the viscid synovia which they secrete.
Endothelial celb form usually only a single layer, and are,
aa a rule, flattened scale-like cells, arranged after the manner
of a tessellated epithelium,. Endothelium, Eke epithelium,
is non-vascular, and, so far es is known, non-nervous.
The endothelial cells rest upon a sub-endothelial tissue,
consisting of a delicate modification of the fibrous form of
connective tissue. Here, as in the surfaces covered by
epithelium, a basement membrane was at one time sup-
posed to intervene between the cells and the connective
tissue ; but it is now believed that the cells are in direct
contact, by their deeper surface, with the connective tissue
itself. In the serous membranes and in the coats of the
larger blood-vessels elastic fibres are present in considerable
numbers in the sub-endothelial tissue, which serves aa the
framework of support for the blood and lymph vessels and
the nerves of the part. In the serous membranes the lymph-
vessels are veiy abundant in the sub-epithelial tissue, where
they form a layer parallel to the free surface of the mem-
brane, from whieh short vessels pass vertically to open bj
minute orifices into the serous ca-vity. "RThe serous mem-
branes are attached by the sub-endothelial connective tiseue
to the organs which they invest.'
'■fe The endothelium of the Serous Membranes consists of
irregular and squamous cells, the edges of which may be
smooth or slightly serrated. The ceUs are "closely adapted
to each other by their edges, so as to form a continuous
smooth layer, which forms _,, ,,.,^.
the free surface of the serous "V)^"^^ "■^f'- ■
membrane. > Scattered • irr*-' ^^L hr^Tn
gularly over this surface are
the minute orifices, or itcOTKito,'
which open into lymphatic
vessels. The cells which sur-
round the stomata differ in
form and appearance from
the J ordinarv ■ endothelium ; ^'°- , , . „
they are smaller, VandVwffj etoniata may, be seen sunouBded bj
1 1 J 1 .1 :„„„„*„„*„ „„„! polyhedr&l nadeated cells; the one
polyhedral, their contents are^ ,„ t^^ i^n „ ^ok^. The light band
erranular, and the nucleus is "narks the position of a vertical Ijm-
° ,■ • .' ■ 'PhaUc vessel . iAfUr Elein.)
more distiuct._^ _-
^laffhe endothelium lining the Lymphatic Vessels consists
of flattened cells, which, instead of having an irregular
shape, are elongated spindles, slightly sinuous La outline.
The endothelium of the lymphatics is ' continuous with
that of the serous membranes through the stomata, so that
the cavities of ithe seroua membranes are now regarded_js
j__ great i):mph-sai^
TiSXTOKES.]
ANATOMY
849
Coanecli
Bane.
The endothelial lining of the Blood Vessels corresponds
in general characters with that of the lymphatics. In the
small blood capillaries the cells are fusiform ; in those of
larger size, more irregular : in the veins they are broader,'
jnore irregular, and less, distinctly fusiform than in the
Arteries. The endothelial covering of the endocardial
lining of the heart consists ■ of a layer of flattened cells
•with irregular outlines. The endothelial lining of tlie.
Wood-vascular system is continuous with that of ihe
lymph-vascular system, where the thoracic duct and other
large lymph-vessels ■open into, the great veins, and thus a
continuity of surface is established between the. serous
membranes and the lining membrane of the blood-vascular
system through the lymphatics.
The endothelium of the Synovial Membranes is formed
of roundish, or polygonal, or tesseOated cells, arranged after
the manner of a stratified epithelium. Not unfrequently
processes of the sub-eadothelial vascular connective tissue
covered by the endothelium project into the cavities of
joints and synovial bursje. They have been called synovial
fringes, and contribute to the formation of the synovia
which lubricates the surfaces of a synovial membrane.
The endothelium of the Cerebral Ventricles and Central
Canal of the spinal cord is, as already stated, formed of
spheroidal or cylindrical cells, possessing cilia on the free
surface. The endothelial lining of the osseous labyrinth
consists of flattened scales, whilst the membranous laby
linth possesses a layer of polygonal cells.
Zd Group. — CelU imbedded in Solid Tissvet.
The cells which are imbedded in the solid tissues are
either grouped together in considerable masses, or, as
not unfrequently happens, are more or less separated by
an intermediate matrix or intercellular substance. The
matrix substance varies in its character in different tissues,
and sometimes is so abundant as to obscure the cells.
The textures which are constructed on this plan are of
great importance, and constitute by far the larger propor-
tion of the tissues not only of the' human body, but rf the
bodies of animals generally. Sometimes these tissues are
elongated into delicate threads or fibres, at other times they
are expanded into thin membranes, at others they form
solid masses of considerable thickness.
1 CoNNEcrrvE Tissite. — By the. term connective tissue is
meant a group of tissues which, though the members of
the group differ la various respects from each other, both
in naked eye and microscopic characters, yet agree in the
property of binding or connecting together other tissues
or parts of the body, and in serving as a supporting frame-
work for more delicate tissues. This group of tissues is
the most extensively diffused of all the textures, for there
is no organ in the body which does not contain one or other
of its forms. The following varieties, based on modifica-
tions in their appearance and structure, may be recognised.
o. Neuroglia. This name, which means nerve glue, has
l>een applied by Virchow to the delicate tissue in the cen-
tral organs of the
nervous system,
and of the retina,
■#) \Pi. ' '■"■
which supports
"■the nerve cells,
nerve fibres, and
blood-vessels of
those parts. Mi-
croscopically it
consists of small
round or ovoid
corpuscles, im-
bedded in a soft
-no differentiated Drotoolaam.
1 10. 86. — Scdlon of the white matter of the c«ri.brum
Tlic DeuroRlla, uerre flt>re& uid capillar/ blocd-veuelj
kre rcprcACDlcd.
A.iorm of tunoor. named
Glioma, is sometimes proauced by the excessive growth in
the brain or retina of this variety of connective tissue.
h. Retiform connective tissue constitutes the stroma ot
supporting framework of the lymphatic and other glands
which , possess the adenoid typo
of tissue. It also forms the middle
subdivision of the enamel organ
of the teetK It consists of stel-
laxe branching cells, the branches
of which blend ■with each other,
and form a delicate anastomosing fio. 3g.— Retiform com.ecure
network or reticulum. In the u=si": ftoni a lympunic ghmd
lymph glands, the colourless lymph corpuscles are set m
the meshes of this network In the solitary and Peyer'a
glands of the alimeptary canal, in the tonsils, the back of the
tongue, the posterior wall of
the nasal part of the pharynx,
the palpebral conjunctiva, the
thymus gland, the pulp and
Malpighian bodies of the
spleen, colourless lymph-Kke
corpusclesare alsoincluded in
themeshesofareticulum. The
name adenoid or lymphoid
tissue is sometimes employed
in describing this type of
structure, and in some forms
of disease the tissue increases
in certain localities so largely Fio- a?.— Lymphoid ccHs, inciaded id a
■ ., . t n reticular mesh of connective tiwiw
m quantity as to form well- from a lymphoid tumour of tbe
defined lymphoid tumours. mediaitinmn.
c Gelatinous or mucous connective tissue (Scldeimgewehe),
forms the connective tissue of the embryo, the vitreuua
humour of the
eye-ball, and the
jelly of Wharton,
which invests the
blood-vessels of
the umbilical
cord. It is soft
and jelly-like in
consistency. Mi-
croscopically it
consists of round
ed, or spindle-
like, or stellate
cells, imbedded
in a soft gela-
tinous intercel-
lular substance.
Sometimes the intercellular substance is in part diffpjenu-
ated into short delicate fibres. Under some pathological
conditions, this form of tissue increases largely in quantity
in some parts of the body, and forms a kind of tmnour
named Myxoma,
d. Fibrous connecuve tissue presents four modifications
in appearance. It may be soft and delicate, with the
fibres short and but faintly marked, as in the sub-epithelial
tissue of the skin and mucous membranes. It may be
loose, flocculent, and filamentous, and may contain small
spaces or areola; (when it b called areolar tissue), which is
well seen in the subcutaneous tissue of the adult, and in
the omenta. It may be expanded in the form of a fibrous
membrane, as ifl the fasciae or aponeuroses, and the threads
or fibres, strong and well marked, sometimes run parallel^
sometimes cross each other at various angles. -It may bo
collected into rounded'or flattened bands, as in tendons and
ligaments, where it forms the tendinous and ligameitloui
tissues Here also the threads or fibres may be distinctly
recognised and seen to run in p^rjUel bundles, so as to
I, - lOf
Flc, 83. — GelatinousconnectlTe tiMue. The foflfonn and
stellate cells, and the paitial differentiatiou Into fibres
of the intercellular substance, are &ho»n.
850
ANA T O M y
[anatomy or
the
Whito
flbroas
tisra=.
Yellow
dbro'os
tusae.
connect together the two structures between ^which
tendon or ligament passes.
In the fibrous form of connective tissue, l!oth"ceUs and
'intercellular substance, the latter of which is differentiated
into fibres, may be recognised. The cells are, as. a rule,
cither elongated, or fusiform, or caudate, or stellate branched
ecUa, and are familiarly known as the connective tissue
corpitseies. In these cells the nucleus is round or oyal, and
usually well marked. It is surrounded by granular proto-
jilasm, but it is very doubtful if the protoplasm is invested
by a- cell wall. Not unfrequently, more especially where the
cells are stellate, the delicate branched protoplasm processes
of adjacent cells appear to blend at their extremities with
each other, and form an anastomosing network. In tend-
ons the cells are arranged in linear rows, which lie parallel
to the long axis of the tendon itself. In adults these cells
are flattened, but in younger tendons they are more poly-
gonal in form. There seems reason to think, indeed, as
Thin has shown, that the Tjundles of connective tissue are
invested by a layer of flattened cells. The wide dif-
fusion of the connective tissue throughout the body, and
the great importance of its cellular elements, have been
especially dwelt on by Virchow as sources of origin of the
new cell forms which arise in various pathological processes.
The intercellular tubstaiice consists of fibres, which are
not uniform in shape, and are divided into the two groups
of white and yellow fibres.
The w/ute fibres of connectii'e tissue constitute the
most common form, and make up the great bulk of most
ligaments, tendons, and fibrous membranes.
They consist of excessively delicate filaments,
varjing from rsHot'i to jTrintli inch in
thickness, which are united together in
bundles or fasciculi of variable size. The
bundles, as well as the filaments of which
they are composed, have a wavy course, and
the filaments in each bundle lie almost
parallel to each other. The bundles also
in some cases are parallel, though in otliers
they dross at various angles. Not only the
filaments in each bundle, but the bundles
themselves, are cemented together ; the firm-
ness of the adhesion varies in the different Fia S9.— Fasciculi
modifications of the fibrous connective tissue, ol ''Mraerti«
being much more decided in the tendons, ''»™=-
ligaments, and fasciae, than in the las areolar tissue.
' The yellow fibres of connective tissue, named elastic
fibres, from their elasticity, make up the mass of the liga-
mentum nuchas, the ligamenta sub-flava, and the yellow
elastic coat of the arteries. They are also found, mingled
with the white fibres, in the fibrous membranes, the skin,
mucous and serous membranes, the areolar tissue, in ten-
dons, and some ligaments. In the liga-
menta sub-flava and nuchas the yellow
Sbres are arranged in bundles, the in-
dividual fibres of which are comparatively
braad, with a distinct dark outline. They
branch, and their branches readily break
across, and the broken end then curls
upon itself. Their diameter is about
jT^th incL In the coats of the arteries
the elastic fibres form an anastomosing
network. When mingled with the white
fibres they are much finer, and sometigies
do not exceed ^j^tst^^ i°<=t indiametsr. ^'^j
They possess however, a distinct and de-
fiiiite outline; they branch and occasion-
ally anastomose; and the individual fibres, possessing a ring-
like, spiral, or twisted course, are wound around the bundles
of the white fibres. The white fibres yield gelatine on boil-
40. — FABdcnlos
' fibres of yellow
-elastic tissue from
Ugameutom naciuB.
ing, but the elastic fibres do not. The wliite fibres eweD up
and become so transparent under the action of acetic acid
as to be no longer recognisable. The yellow fibres, again
are not affected by that reagent. Quekett pointed .out that
the elastic fibree of the ligamentum nucha; of the giraff©
were marked by transverse sti-iae, and JI. Watson has seen
a similar appearance in the elastic pericardiac ligament of
the elephant. These transverse striae are apparently cracka
in the fibre; and, as Bcale has shown, arc not unfrequently
seen in the elastic fibres in beef and mutton which hava
passed through the alimentary canaL
Bearing on the mode of nutrition of the tendons, and
other fibrous forms of connective tissues, the existence of
plasma, or juice, canals has been described, along which,
not blood, but the liquor sanguinis is supposed to flow.
Virchow conceived that the connective tissue corjjuscles
formed an anastomosing network for this puqjose. Briicke
believed that delicate channels or lacuna; existed between
the bundles of connective tissue, whilst Recklinghausen
maintained that serous canaliculi were situated in the
homogeneous substance which connects the fibrous fasciculi
and lamellae of the connective tissue with each other.
These lacunae or canaliculi are, in all probability, the root-
lets of origin of the lymphatic system of ve.ssels. There
can indeed be no doubt, as the recent injections of Ludwig
and Schweigjjer-Seidel have shown, that tendons tad fasciaa
are well provided with lymph vessels, for thoy have in-
jected in them a minute net-
work, consisting in part of
polygonal meshes, and in part
of vessels running longitudin-
ally and parallel to the con-
nective tissue bundles. Mid
the walls of these vessels were
formed of endothelial cells.
Recklinghausen and othcrt
have recently described cor-
puscles in the connective tissue
which resemble in size and
appearance the white cor-
puscles of the blood and
lymph. These corpuscles are believed to move about in
the juice canals already referred to, and it is possible that
they may have migrated into the tissue through the walla
of its nutrient blood-vessels.
The vascularity of the connective tissue varies in cliiTer-
ent localities. The perrosteum and perichondrium are very
vascular; but their numerous vessels are concerned in the
nutrition not merely of these fibrous membranes, but of
the bone and cartilage which they invest The sheath of
connective tissue which invests a tendon is more vascular
than the substance of the tendon itself. As a rule, it may
be stated that the fibrous connective tissues are not highly
vascular, and that the nutritive changes which take place iu
them aitpr their growth is cofapleted are not very active. >
The mode of development of the connective tissue has Develop
been much discussed by anatomists, and various views have ™e°t ol
been advanced as to the changes which lead to its pro- "^"e'*'**
duction. It is now, however, generally admitted that it
arises from the embryonic cells by a special morphological
and' chemical differentiation of their protoplasm, but the
degree to which this differentiation may proceed varies with
the particular form of the texture. In the neuroglia the
tissue is apparently a simple nucleated protoplasm. In the
retiform connective tissue the cells have assumed a stellate
shape, and their branches anastomose.'-' In the gelatinous
and fibrous forms an intercellular matrix is extensively pro-
duced, and exhibits a differentiation into fibres/'%In these
4ast-named forms, which are the most characteristic varie-
ties of the tissue, the cells of the embryo change thcii lormj
, Flu. 41. — Connective ti^jae ci the
omcDtum of the f(^tu^ ahowin^ tlie
cjiaracteristic fuslforiu corpot^tes.
A capillary Wooi-vcLui croues tlift
figure, and near it arc aeveial tlood
corpnsclea which have pr&ba'oljr
mlgrsted from the ve&aej.
TEXTURES.]
ANA
T O M Y
851
Patty
tissue
snd assume a fusiform, caudate, or stellate shape ; and,
subsequently a delicate fibrillated structure appears between
them, which assumes the characters of the bundles of
white fibrous tissue, and by separating the cells from each
other forms the fibrous intercellular matrix. It has been
much disputed whether these white fibres take their rise
immediately from the peripheral portion of the cells by a
direct differentiation of their protoplasm, or whether this
protoplasm is not in the first instance converted into a
homogeneous matrix in which the fibrous differentiation
then occurs. There can be no doubt that the fibres are
formed by a metamorphosis of the protoplasm of the cells ;
whether the metamorphosis takes place directly, or through
the intermediate stage of a homogeneous matrix, is a
secondary question, and in all probability both modes of
conversion take place at different times and in different
locaUtiea As the differentiation into fibres progresses, the
tissue becomes firmer and tougher, and the proportion of
the cellular to the fibrous element diminishes. Hence, say
in a young tendon, the rows of connective tissue cells are
not only closer together, but are much more readily seen
than in an adult tendon, in which the increased production
of fibres obscures the cellular element.
The mode of origin of the yellow elastic fibres has also
been much discussed. At one time it was believed that
they were derived from nuclei, and on this supposition they
were named nuclear fibres. But from more recent observa-
tions there is reason to believe that they are produced, like
the white fibres, by a special differentiation of the proto-
plasm of the embryonic cells, or of a homogeneoua matrix
derived from that protoplasm. In such localities as the
ligamentum nuchre, where the fibres are both large and
numerous, the whole of the cell protoplasm appears to
become converted into elastic tissue. In tendons, and those
parts where these fibres are slender and scanty, and coil
round the bundles of white fibrous tissue, they apparently
arise from a differentiation of the protoplasm on the sur-
face only of the formative embryonic cells.
Adipose Tissue. — The adipose or fatly tissue varies in
its amount in different individuals. It is especially found
in the marrow of the bones; as a layer beneath the skin,
differing in thickness in different individuals; and collected
in the cavity of the abdomen in the folds of peritoneum,
known as the mesentery and omenta, in which, and indeed
in the other localities where it occurs, it is intimately
associated with the connective tissue. It consists of cells,
which vary in size from jjjth to siirth
inch, usually ovoid or spherical in form,
though when collected into masses they
may be laterally compressed. These cells
are sometimes isolated, though most
usually arranged in rows or clusters to
form lobules of fat. The number of cells
in a given lobule varies with the size
of the lobule. The distinctive contents
of these cells is a minute drop of oil,
which, when examined by transmitted
light, presents a bright appearance; but
when seen by reflected light, Tooks,
Monro primus described it long ago, like
*tt cluster of jiearla Each fat cell possesses a distinct wall, as
can bo readily demonstrated by digesting these cells in ether,
when the oil is dissolved out and the membranous wall
remains. The nucleus of the fat cell is more difficult to
demonstrate, and when seen is found attached to the inner
surface of the cell wall. In the fat of old persons, and in
specimens of this tissue which have been removed from
the body for a length of time, a stellate group of acicular
crystals i.9 not unfrequently to be seen in the interior of
tha cell, which consists either of.margarin or margaric
Fio. 42.— Flit cells and
areolar ttssae.
acid, one of the constituents of human fat. The lobules
of fat cells are included between bundles of the areolar
variety of connective tissue, which form their supporting
framework. But in addition, they are more or less per-
fectly surrounded by a network of capillary vessels, which
not only serves to convey to them blood for their nutrition,
but aids in retaining them in position.
The close anatomical relation between the adipose and the
connective tissue points to a genetic relationship between
them. It has now been ascertained that the first stage in
the formation of a fat cell consists in the appearance of
extremely minute drops of oil in the protoplasm of the con-
nective tissue corpuscles of the part ; as these run together
larger drops are produced, a cell wall at the same time
diS'erentiates from the peripheral part of the protoplasm,
and as the ceU becomes distended with oO, by the conver-
sion into fat of its substance, it swells out into a spherical
or ovoid cell. Klein has recently shown that the fatty
tissue of the omentum and mesentery is formed by the
production of oQ drops within the branched cells, which
form the reticular tissue that supports the lymphoid cells
found so abundantly between these folds of peritoneum.
Pigmentary Tissue. — In some parts of the body a ;
yellow, brown, or black pigment is found in the interior of
cells, which gives to the tissue and organ a characteristic
colour. In the coloured races of mankind, and in certain
parts of the body of the white races, pigment is produced
in the cells of the cuticle or epidermis, more especially in
the cells of the deeper strata or rete Malpighi. In the con-
nective tissue corpuscles, also, more especially in the dermis
of fish, amphibia, and reptiles, pigment is found in con-
siderable abundance. The choroid coat of the eyeball owes
its dark brown or black colour to the presence of pigment
in the interior of the cells. The
pigment cells of the choroid are
usually polyhedrons, 5 or 6-sidcd, ^,'<*'
and are arranged to forna a mosaic "y-'.-v.^- '■•"'> =■-.;! .
pattern. In the centre is a nu- Fia. 43— Cronp ot 6-si.irj .■^lo^
cleus, and the cell substance is "' ' p'P"="
occupied by numbers of minute brown granules. In th;
connective tissue on the outer surface
of the choroid, the pigment is contained
in stellate cells. In the skin of fishes
and amphibia, the stellate pigment cells
branch and subdivide so as to form higlily
complex patterns, and the cells are crowd-
ed with brown or yellow granules. The
production of pigment, either in the in-
terior of epidermal cells, in the poly-
hedral cells of the choroid, or in the
stellate cbnnective tissue corpuscles, is
owing to a special metamorphosis or dif-
ferentiation of the protoplasm substance mem ciis tiom u.o
of these cells. .kin ol a codM,.
Cahtilaginous Tissue. — By the term cartilage, or Cartilage,
cartilaginous tissue, is meant a group of tissues which,
though usually found in the form of plates or bars, yet
differ in various aspects from each other, both in naked eye
and microscopic characters. They agree, however, in
forming solid textures, opaque when seen in mass, but,
in thin slices, translucent, pearly, or bluish white, firm in
consistence, but easily cut with a knife, endowed with
considerable elasticity, and yielding chondrino on boiling.
Cartilage is of greater importance in the fcctus, and in the
immature condition of the body than in the adult, for in
early life the bones are in a great measure formed of it.
As development and growth proceed, a considerable pro-
portion of the cartilage becomes converted into bone, and
is called, therefore, temporary cartilage, whilst the remain-
ing portion continuea as cartilage throughout life, and \a
I.— .Stcllnle pic-
852
A N A T 0 IM Y
termed permanent. The following varieties of cartilage,
based on modifications in structure and appearance, may be
recognised
Cellniar cartilag
C«11b with matrix aubstance.
Matrix homogeneous.
(Hyaline cartilage.)
Matrix fibrous.
(Fibro-cartilage.)
White filrocartilago. Yellow fibro-cartilago.
The Cellular op Parmchymalom Cartilage does not exist
in the adult human body. It occurs, however, in the
hum.in embryo, in the embryos of all the vertebrata, and
in the larval stage of development of the tunicata, as the
slender rod named chorda dorsalis or notochord. In all
the higher vertebrata the j;horda dorsalis disappears as
development advances, but in the lower vertebrates it per-
sists throughout life as a more or less perfect structure. In
the lamprey and myxine it forms a continuous rod in the
vertebral region. In fish gene-
rally, but more especially in the
cartilaginous group, it forms a
jolly-like mass, occupying the
concavities between the bodies
of the vertcbriB. The cells lie
in contact with each other.
They are compaiatively large in
size, are sometimes rounded, but
more usually compressed late ^'^ *'-:^l'^ ^^^i^^^" """-
rally. The nucleus is often very
distinct, though at other times more difficult to detect,
and the cell wall is well marked. Sometimes a little inter-
cellular substance is found. By some anatomists the chorda
dorsalis is regarded as a variety of connective tissue, and
not of cartilage
The cartilaginous framework of the ear of some small
mammals — as the mouse, the bat, and the rat— is formed of
cellular cartilage, the cells of which
are smaller in size than those of the
chorda dorsalis, irregularly poly-
gonal, and closely packed together
BO as to form a solid tissue.
The Hyaline Cartilage consists
of cells imbedded in a pellucid or
hyaline matri,T, which, under some
conditions, however, may assume ''l,\llr'l^l'::L;,''T;l.''^''^,
a dimly granulated appearance. The "' "■» moma
iiphoid and costal cartilages, the encrusting cartilages at
the articular ends of the bones, the cartilages of the noso,
those of the windpipe, except
the epiglottis and cornicula
laryngis, belong to this var-
iety, as also the temporary car-
tilages. In hyaline cartilage
the cells are ovoid or poly-
gonal, or even fusiform, and
sometimes flattened, the flat-
tened form of cell being
found next the surface of the ^'"^ "-">""■« '-"^ "''"»«^
cartilage. They lie singly, or in groups of two, or three,
or four ; sometimes they are arranged in linear series, at
other times they are irregularly grouped together. The cell
contents are dimly granular, with a well-defined nucleus
containing a nucleolus. Not unfrequently two or more
nuclei are present in a cell ; and in old cartilage the con-
tents are often coarsely granular, or even infiltrated with
drops of oiL Eeideuhain has shown that powerful induc-
tion shocks cause contraction of the protoplasm'of the cells
towards the central nucleus. The cells lie in cavities in
the matrix substance, and the part of the matrix which
.forms the immediate wall of the hollow is named the
[xNATOMr
Two or more cells may sometimes b'«
t)iTou{;)i an encniBllng
cartll&se. Ji, tlio bnne
on Mhlcb tlie CBrtliag*
rctts.
capsule of the celL
in the same hollow.
The matrix of hyaline cartilage is usually homogeneous.
In some animals the matrix appears to have a concentric
arrangement around the cells; and Rollett has stated that
by the use of dilute sulphuric acid or chromic acid the
matrix may bo mnrlo to split up into concentric layers.
Sometimes the matrix appears granulated, a change which
is very apt to occur in sections of cartilage which have
been removed for some time from the body. In the costal
cartilages of old persons the matrix becomes fibrous; and
it is by no means uncommon to find in advanced age these
bars of cartilage converted into bone.
In the articular or encrusting cartilages the arrangement
of the cells is quite di-stinctive. If a vertical section be
made through a plate of this carti-
lage, the cells next the bone are
seen to bo arranged in parallel rows
perpendicular to the surface of the
bono on which the cartil.ige rests;
tho cells are smaller than those of the
costal cartilage, oblong in form, and
the adjacent rows are separated by
intermediate hyaline matrix. Near
the free surface of the cartilage the
cells are flattened, placed parallel to
tho plane of the surface, and so
closely packed together that the
proportion of matrix is much re-
duced. In tho intermediate parts
of tho cartilage the cells lio irregularly in the matrix, and
are rounded in form. It was from the study of the
changes which take place in articular cartilage in disease
that Goodsir was enabled to establish the production of
now cells by the multiplication of the normal pre-existing
cells of the cartilage,— an observation which formed the
starting-point of the modern doctrine of cellular pathology.
Fibro-cartilagei are divided into white and yellow.
Wliite fibro-cartUago may form the connecting medium
between the articular surfaces of an r- •-- t "
amphiarthrodial joint, as in the inter- [
vertebral discs; or it may form plates in '
the interior of joints, as in the semi- .
lunar cartilages of the knee and other i ^
menisci in diarthrodial joints; or it may v^"
extend around the margin of the socket
of a joint, as in the cotyloid ligament of i
the hip; or it may invest the surf.-vces of '-,i
bones over which tendons have to play,
as whore the tendons of the peronei
muscles play in the groove on the back
of the external malleolus. In the intervertebral discs,
which give the best illustrations of the structure of white
fibro-cartilage, the cells are ovoid in form and distinctly
nucleated. Sometimes two or three are grouped together,
but not unfrequently they occur singly. They are sepa-
rated from each other by short fibres. In these discs the
fibrous matrix is always stronger and more distinct in the
peripheral than in the central part The other forms of white
fibro-cartilage are transitional between the true cartilage
and connective tissue, i.e., the cells possess the characters
of cartilage cells, whilst the fibrous matrix approximates to
the matrix of the connective tissue.
The yellow elastic fibro-cartilages are the epiglottis, the
cornicula laryngis, the cartilaginous framework of the auricle
of the human ear, and the cars of mammalia generally,
and the cartilaginous wall of th'e Eustachian tube. The
cells are rounded or ovoid, distinctly nucleated, and usually
arranged singly or in pairs. The matrix is distinctly
fibrous; the fibres, which form a close intersecting LOt-
flbro- cartilage of
an liztcrrcrtcbrtl
di«c.
|[SX3'DSES.]
ANATOMY
853
ment of
{artilage;
Bons>
ifforlc, branch and spmetimea anastomose. Ttey resist the
action oi acetic acid like the yellow fibres of connective
tissue; and Bonders has described a continuity between
them and the elastic fibres of the connective tissue, which
forms the investing perichondrium of this form of cartilage.
The yellow fibro cartilage has no tendency to ossify.
The bars and plates of cartilage, — except the encrusting
tyaline cartilages, and the interarticular, marginal, and in-
vesting white fibro-cartilages, — are surrounded by a fibrous
membrane or peric/umdrium. In the adult human body
cartilage is not penetrated by blood-vessels, but is nourished
by the vessels which ramify in its investing perichondrium.
In the foetus, however, and in the large masses of cartilage
which are found in the skeletons of the cetacea and of the
cartilaginous fishes, the cartilage is permeated by canals in
which blood-vessels ramify. In the encrusting cartilages,
the cartilage is nourished by the blood-vessels of the
synovial membrane of the joint, which, in the case of the
articular cartilage, form a vascular ring around its margin;
and, both in it and in the forms of white fibro-cartilage
that do not possess a perichondrium, by the vessels of
the bone, to which these cartilages are as a rule attached.
Itt the movable joints, after the child has begun to use its
limbs, the synovial membrane is not continued over the
free .surface of the articular cartilage, but stops at its
margin along the line of the vascular ring. In the foetus,
however, it has been stated that both blood-vessels and
Synovial membrane: are prolonged over the free surface of
(the articular cartilage.
In the development of hyaline cartilage the contents of
the embryonic cells of the part, where the cartilage is to be
produced, become clear, and a cell waU difl'erentiates around
the exterior of the celL-'r. The nuclei in the cells divide and
subdivide, so- that a. multiplication of the cells by endo-
genous ' reproduction takes place. Hyaline matrix sub-
stance then appears between the cells, and is concentrically
arranged around them ; it is believed to be formed by a
special conversion of successive layers of the cell proto-
plasm into a substance which yields chonarine on boiling.
The fibro-cartilages, both white and yellow, but especially
the latter, yield but little chondriue on boiling, for the
fibrous matri.i of the white fibro-cartilage is a gelatine-
yielding substance, like the white fibres of connective
ii^ue, whilst the fibres of the yellow fibro-cartilage partake
of the nature of elastic tissue, . The fibro-cartilages, there-
fore, form a group which links together the connective and
cartilaginous tissues.
Osseous Tissue. — The osseous tissue, or bone, is that
which constitutes the hard framework of the skeleton.
Each bone consists of a hard, more or less dense, tough,
and but slightly elastic material. The elasticity of the
bones is more marked in young than in adult and aged
persons. From differences in their external configuration,
bones are divided into long or cylindrical, e.y., femur;
short, e.y., carpal or tarsal bones; flat or plate-like, f.y.,
scapula; irregular bones, e.g., vertebrae. These variations
in shape do not, however, involve differences either in
composition or minute structure. Bone consists chemically
of an earthy and an animal substance intimately blended
^together. The. earthy matter forms about two-thirds of
it, and consists chiefly of phosphate of lime, which, from
its abundance in bone, is frequently called " bone earth."
Carbonate of lime and a small proportion of soda and
magnesia salts are also present. The hardness of bone is
due to the presence of the earthy matter. The animal
matter forms the remaining third, and yields gelatine on
boiling; it imparts elasticity and toughness to the bone,
.aud binds together the particles of earthy matter.
Bone presents two different structural characters to the
%akcd eyo; The outer tart of. » bone is ita hardept nart-
and ^orms a dense external shed, technically called the
eompact tissue. The interior of a bone is much less firm,
and is made up of thin deUcate plates or bars, ortrabecles,
which intersect each other at various angles, and form a
lattice-like arrangement, technically called the spongy or
cancellated tissue. The plates and bars of the spongy
tissue are continuous with the inner surface of the compact
tissue lu the long bones the interior of the shaft is hol-
lowed into a canal, named the medullary canal, the walls
of which are formed by the compact tissue, and the can-
cellated tissue is found only at the articular ends of these
bones; the thickness of the compact tissue in a long bone
is always greater at the centre of the shaft than at or near
the articular -ends.
If the outer surface of the compact tissue of a long bono
and the wall of the medullary canal be examined with a
pocket lens, they will be seen to be riddled by multitudes
of minute orifices, which are the mouths of minute tubular
passages or canals that traverse the compact tissue. These
passages are named Haversian canals, and their arrange-
ment may be studied by making thin sections through
the compact tissue, and submitting these to microscopic
examination, when they will be seen to pass longitudinally
or very obliquely through its substance, so as to terminate
by rounded orifices either on its outer surface, or on the
inner surface, which forms the wall of the medullaiy canal.
These canals are connected together at intervals by short
transverse or oblique canals. Owing to these communica-
tions the dense osseous tissue is permeated by an anasto-
mosing (Sietwork of canals, which, as they contain blood-
vessels, may be named vascular ca,nals. These canals are
circular in section, and vary in dia/.ieter from about TrJ-jth
to ■j-s's!!''!! inch. They not unfrequently are dilated at
the inner end, where they open into the spaces of the
cancellated tissue. The compact tissue of all bones possesses
a system of canals similar to those found in the long bones,
but when bone occurs in the forir of very thin plates the
canals may be absent. In addition to the Haversian canals,
irregular spaces, named Haversian spaces by Tomes and
De Morgan, may also be seen in sections thruugh the com-
pact tissue. They are met with not only in youug but ir
adult bones, and are regarded as produced by absorption
of the bone in those particular localities. In thin sections
through bone, more especially when the Haversian canals
are transversely divided, the dense tissue or matrix of the
bone which surrounds the canals is seen to be arranged in
concentric rings, as if it were built up of a series of lamellae
superimposed on each other. These lamella; do not at all
times form complete circles, and the number which sur-
round a canal may vary from two or three to half a dozen;
they are sometimes called the Haversian lamella;. Other
lamellffi lie in relation to the periosteal surface of the bone,,
and are called peripheral lamella; ; whilst others again are,
as it were, intercalated between adjacent Haversian systems
of lamella;, and are named intermediate or interstitial. It
has been pointed out by Sharpcy that a bone lamella,
after the earthy matter has been dissolved out by the
action of an acid, is made up of multitudes of fine trans-
parent fibres, which intersect each other and form a net-
work. Hut he has farther Bho^vn that the lamellae are
perforated by fibres, or bundles of fibres, which pass through
them either perpendicularly or obliquely, so as to bolt
adjacent lamella; together. With a little care, the per-
forating fibres %f Sharpey may be drawn out of the holes
or sockets in which they are lodged.
AVlien tliin sections through a macerated and dried bone
are examined under the higher powers of the microscope,
the lamellated matrix is seen to exhibit a very peculiar
appc;iiao\)e, which is chftTsrteristic of the osseous tissue.'
F'Ctween the surfaces of adiaccnt lameDre irregularly
854
A N A T O M
' r
[amatomy op
^ 'la-
•Iho
IscuDic, Had
elongated spRcea, called lacuna, are to be seen iu con-
eiderablo numbers ; these lacuna;, like the lamellaj be-
iTftcn which they are situated, have a concentric arrange-
ment around the Haversian canals. , The lacuna, the
lamella;, and the Ilaver-
Bian canal which they
eurround, are sometimes
named a Haversian sys-
tem. From the ends and
sides of any one of these
lacunie very minute
branching canals, termed
CCncJ&li/i, proceed, which F'"' to.— TrmtTerto wcllon ;
, ,* , ,, , pftct tisHUC or tno dhttft of a long Lii
penetrate the lamella; and i;av.
anastomose with the c«,.«jicuii arc .oown.
canaliculi proceeding from adjacent lacun:e, whilst the
canaliculi, springing from the sides of those lacuna; which
lie nearest to the Haversian canal, open on the wall
of the canal itself. The lacuna) average in length
■j-plj-jth inch, and their transverse diameter is about
stVtj''' inch ; the canaliculi vary from TjJri!'''^ *° TTfiTr'^
inch in diameter. When examined in a dried bono by
transmitted light, the lacunie look like solid, black bodies,
and the canaliculi seem to bo processes branching off from
them, hence they were erroneously called by the earlier
observers bone-coqjuscles. But it a little turpentine bo
added to the section, the fluid displaces the air which
the lacunas and canaliculi contain in the dried bone,
renders the part more trans))nrent, and affords a satisfac-
tory demonstration that they are, in a macer.lted and dr)-
bone, not solid bodies, but a minute system of spaces and
anastomosing little canals; and that all tho.<ie which lie in
the same Haversian system not only freely camunicate
with each other, but, either directly or indirectly, with the
Haversian canal which they surround.
But a macerated and dried bone, such as one sees in
museums and in articulated skeletons, and the structure of
which has just been described, is
a bone which has been deprived
of several soft tissues by the pro-
cess of putrefaction, which tis-
sues are of the utmost importance
in the economy of the tone in the
living animal. A living bone is
acomplex organ, andamacerated
Lont is (,nly the skeleton of a
living bene. It is essential,
therefore, in studying the struc-
ture ef bone, that the attention
should not be limited to the ap-
pearances presented by the macerated bone, but that the
arrangement and structure of its soft tissues should be con-
sidered. The soft tissues of a bone are the periosteum and
its prolongations, the marrow,
the minute masses of nucleated
protoplasm which occupy the
lacunae of the bone, the blood and
lymph vessels, and the nerves.
The Periosteum is a strong
fibrous membrane which invests
all the exterior of a bone, except
where the encrusting cartilage
is continuous with its articular
end. It is subdivided into two
layers: a, a firm external fibrous
layer, consisting of bundles
of connective tissue, which de-
cussate with each other in
various directions, and amiist which a network of
.small blood-vessels is freelv distributed prior to their
Flo. 81, — I-Ongitudiiial section
throuKh the compact tissue of a
long bonf^ to 6how the pi^ssage
of blood-vessels from the peri-
osteum P, into the Haveraiun
canals n n.
Fio. 52. — Section t'nrnugh the peri-
osteum and compact tissue of a
young bone. S P, auperflclal fibrous
layer of periosteum: D P, deeper
cellular layer prolonged into H M,
the wide Haversian canals ; V,
a vessel of the periosteum entering
a canal.
passage into the Haversian criiials ; 6, a softer internal
layer, which is especially well marked in young growing
bones. This soft layer partly consists of very delicate
connective tissue, in which rounded or oval cells are found,
which give off slender processes at various points of their
periphery, and partly of larger granular cells, which lie
next the bone itself. Processes of the soft inner layer are
prolonged into the Haversian canals, in which, as Goodsir
pointed out, a layer of cellular substance lies between the
wall of the canal and its contained blood-vessel, so that
these canals are not, as in macerated bones, empty passages,
but are filled up by the blood-vessels and the cellular layer.
The Marrow occupies -the medullary canal of a long
bone and the spaces in the cancellated tissue of bones
generally. It occurs in two forms, red and yellow
marrow. Red marrow is found in the bones of the feetua
generally, and in the cancelli of the plate-like, short, and
irregular bones at a more advanced period. It consists
principally of large many-nucleated masses of protoplasm,
the myeloid cells of Kijlliker and Robin, lying in a very
delicate areolar tissue, and supplied by a network of
capillary bloodvessels. It contains little or no fat. Yel-
low marrow, again, is composed of fat cells lying in a
• delicate areolar tissue with accompanying blood-vessels.
The areolar tissue, which supports the marrow cells, lines
the medullary canal and cancelli, and is named the medul-
lary membrane, or the endosteum.
In the fresh bone the lacunse are not empty spaces as in
the macerated bone. They are filled up by nucleated clumps
of protoplasm, and are therefore, as Goodsir was the first
to show, the seats of b'ttle masses of nucleated cells, which
cells are the true bone-corpuscles. The protoplasm of these
cells is apparently prolonged into the canaliculi. Hence
the hard part of the osseous texture has within it a system
of nucleated cells, some of which occupy the lacunae and
canaliculi, while others form a lining to the Hdversian canals.
The blood-vessels of a bone are abundant. It receives
its arteries partly from the smaU arteries which ramify iu
the periosteum, the fine branches of which enter the
Haversian canals, and form within them an anastomosing
network of capillaries ; partly through a special artery
which enters the nutrient canal in the bone, to be distri-
buted chiefly to the marrow; partly through small arteries
which enter openings in the compact tissue near the
articular extremities. The veins of bones are abo abun-
dant. In the cancellated tissue they are large, and leave
the interior of the bone partly through foramina situated
near the articular ends, and partly by a vein which accom-
panies the artery that traverses the nutrient canal. In
the plate-like bones of the skull the veins lie in distinct
channels in the diploe, and in the bodies of the vertebrae
the veins pass out through large holes in the posterior
surface. Bones possess lymph-vessels, but their exact
mode of arrangement has not yet been ascertained. Fine
nerves have been traced into bones accompanying the
arteries which enter the nutrient and Haversian canals.
It is clear, therefore, that a bone, hard and dense
though its texture seems to be, is yet hollowed out by
spaces, passages, and canals which, under the several
names of medullary canal, cancellated spaces, nutrient
canal. Haversian canals. Haversian spaces, lacunas, and
canaliculi, are ocbupied by blood-vessels or other soft tis-
sues. By the penetration of blood-vessels into the bone,
blood is conveyed not only to the medulla, but into the
very substance even of the compact tissue ; and there can
be no doubt that the nucleated masses of protoplasm which
occupy the lacuns and canaliculi, and line the Haversian
canals, are, as Goodsir long ago pointed out, centres con-
cerned in the nutrition of the matrix substance of the
bono in their imaieaiata neighbourhood. These . celJ*
TEXTURES.]
ANATOMY
ijone.
together with the periosteum, the medulla, and their blood-
vessels, are active agents in 'the development, growth, and
nutrition of the osseous tissue.
Develop- Tn the description of the development of the skeleton,
luent of jj ^.gj stated that the bones are formed by ossification in
cartilage and fibrous membrane, so that bones are pro-
duced by secondary changes in a pre-existing material.
The mode of production of the osseous tissue in the car-
tilaginous and fibrous tissues will now be considered, and
it should be clearly understood at the outset that, in normal
ossification, bone is not formed by a mere calcification of
the matrix of the pre-existing tissue, and a conversion of
the cartOage or connective tissue corpuscles into bono
corpxiscles; but, as the researches of Sharpey, Bruch,
H. Miiller, Lov6n, and' Gegenbaur have made known, is
due to a development of new corpuscles, which Gegenbaur
Las named osteo-blasts, accompanied by an abundant forma-
tion of blood-vessels.
When the process of ossification in temporary cartUage
legins, a change takes place in the arrangement of its cells
at the centre, or point, or nucleus of ossification. The cells,
instead of preserving their irregularly scattered arrange-
ment in the matrix, are now collected into longitudinal
parallel rows, not unHke what was described in a previous
section, in the deeper cells of encrusting cartilage. In each
TOW the cells lie with their long axes transverse, and.
apparently multiply by a process of fission. The cells at
the end of the rows which lie nearest the centre of ossiflc
change swell out and become more rounded. Calcification
of the matrix substance, which separates not only the
parallel rows of cells, but also the cells in the same row,
from each other, then takes place, which calcification in-
( ludes also the capsules of the cartilage cells. A general
opacity of the cartilage is the result of this calcification,
a nd the further progress of ossification is rendered obscure.
It Vi necessary, therefore, to dissolve out by an acid the
calcareous matter, in order to follow the steps of the process.
Spaces or canals now form in the ossifying cartilage,
irto which blood-vessels, continuous with the vessels of
the perichondrium, are prolonged. These spaces are lined
ty concentric layers of small rounded cells, not unlike lym-
phoid cells in size and appearance, and form the medullary
spaces of foetal cartilage, whilst the cells and blood-vessels
form the medulla. Respecting the source of origin of
the cells of this mfedulla, there have been difiiculties in
arriving at a correct conclusion. Some have believed
them to be descended from the cartilage cells, though no
demonstration of-th.eii derivation from this source has
«ver been obt^ned. Henke conceived that they might be
blood corpuscles migrated from the blood-vessels within
the spaces. But the recent observations of Stieda seem
Batisfactoxily to show that the layers of medulla cells are
continuous with similar layers beneath the perichondrium,
which layers are prolonged along with the blood-vessels into
tlie medullary spaces as they form in the ossifying cartil-
age. But, whatever be their derivation, there can be no
doubt that these cells undergo certain modifications which
are of the utmost importance in the further stages of the
ossific process. A few become elongated into fusiform or
, stellate corpuscles, like those of connective tissue ; others
have oil drops forming in their interior, and become the
cells of yellow marrow ; others become the corpuscles of
red marrow ; others, again, which form the osteo-blasts,
properly so-called, are the direct agents in the Droduction
of the osseous tissue itself.
The formation of the medullary spaces in cartilage is
o\ving to an absorption of the calcified cartilaginous tissue.
Kblliker points out that the absorption is effected through
the agency of colossal, many-nucleated cells (myeloplaxes),
wliicli he beUcvcs to be derived from the osteu-blastic cells
boo
of the medulla already deBcribecT, so itct; a aestrucuou of
. the calcified cartilage precedes the formation of the proper
'osseous tissue. As the absorption of the cartilage goes on,
an irregular series of medullary spaces communicating
more or less freely with each other is produced. But
along with the destructive changes in the cartilage the pro-
duction of the new osseous tissue takes place. Certain of
the cells of the medulla are arranged in layers around the
walls of the medullary spaces, and undergo an important
change both in composition and shape. They become
granular, their protoplasm hardens from the periphery
towards th>; nucleated centre of the cell, so as to give
origin to tie dense matrix^ substance of a bone lamella;
but the nucleus, and the protoplasm immediately investing
it, do not harden,
— they form the
soft contents of the
lacunse and canalicuh I ' r'
A second layer of /w
osteo-blastic medulla V/
cells then passes
through a similar f<
metamorphosis, and
a second lamella i-i
formed. By a repeti
tion of this process
around the walls of
the several medullary
spaces, the lamellae of
tn which the lacunas, with their eoft oaclcated
conteiitB, may be seen, M, M, the medollarj
tissue in the medullaiy spaces. OB, OB, layei
of osteo-blastic ct^Us of the medulla, next the
osseous tissue, some of which in pieces era
obviouflly beconilng Included in It. V.V, trans-
versely divided blood-vessels, snrrounded bj
medullacella, situated jn medullar}' spaces, v. bich
are assuming the form of Baveision can. is.
the bone are produced. ^^ (i3._secllon thr.URh a foetal hone to lUustrat.
Hence it would appear ■ its development. B, B,tlia dense osseooatiaeue^
that the dense solid
matrix of the osseJus
tissue is produced by
a special hardening of
the protoplasm of the
osteo-blastic cells in
the medullary spaces, and as layer after layer of these
cells is ossified successive lamellae are produced. The per-
sistence, however, of thff nucleus of each osteo-blast, and
of a small portion of its investing protoplasm, preserves
within the hard matrix a certain amount of soft material,
which being destroyed when a bone is macerated, leaves
the lacunary and canalicular system already described.
The formation of successive lamellae diminishes the size of
the medullary spaces, which then form the Haversian
canals. The vascular and cellular contents of these canals
are therefore the remains of the contents of the mcdullaty
spaces of the fcetal cartilage, and are contiDuo'.i3 with the
deeper layer of the periosteum.
So long as any cartilage remains in a fcetal or young
bone the process of replacement of the cartilaginous tissue
by the proper osseous tissue goes on, until none of the
cartilage is left, except the thin layer of encrusting cartil-
age at each articular extremity. Bones grow in length by
an ossification in cartDage ; and a provision for their
longitudinal increase is furnished up to, and even beyond
the age of puberty, by the plate of cartilage which p.epar-
rates the epiphysis from the shaft of a bone. The ossifica-
tion of this plate of cartilage marks the period when
growth ceases in the long axis of the bone. But bones
also grow in thickness, and this addition to their girth
takes place by an ossification of material situated at their
circumference. It has already been pointed out that a
bone is invested by a fibrous membrane, the periosteum,
which fulfils for it the same purpose as does the peri-
chondrium for the cartilage. On the deeper surface of the
periosteimi, i.e., next the bone itself, are osteo-blastic cells,
similar to those which lie in the medullary spaces of the
foetal cartilage. These cells pass through a BJinilar seriet
856
A N A T 0 31 Y
[anatomy of-
oi cbatigea, aud produce successive layers of new bono at
the periphery. The importance of the periosteum as a
centre of origin of new bono has, indeed, long been recog-
nised by both surgeons and pathologists. The parta of this
membrane in which the special bone-producing power
resides is the deep layer of osteo-blastic cells, whilst the
blood-vessels furnish the pabulum for their nutrition. If
strips of periosteum bo removed, along with the cells of
the deeper osteo-blastic layer, from a bone, and transplanted
to other parts of the living body, bone will continue to bo
produced by their agency.
The intra-membranous ossification of bone was first
recognised by Ncsbitt, and has been worked out in most
of its details by Sharpey, Kolliker, and Gegenbaur.- The
tabular bones of the skull offer the best illustration of
this mode of ossification. Sharjjey has pointed out that a
network of minute spicula of bone forms in the membrane,
and extends in radiating lines from the centre of ossifica-
tion towards the circumference of the bone. Tho ossify-
ing tissue consists of fibres, of multitudes of granular cor-
puscles or osteo-blasts, and of blood-vessels. The osteo-blasts
invest the fibres, but as tho investing osteo-blastic celk
calcify, from the periphery towards the nucleus, they assume
a stellate configuration, and pass through a series of changes
similar to those described in the intra-cartilaginous mode
of oi5sification. The fibres, which are in tho first instance
soft, also calcify, <ind contribute to tho formation of the
bone. Here, howev.'r, as in the intra-cartilaginous ossifica-
tion, the active agents in tho ossific process are the osteo-
blastic cells. The lamellated structure is due to ossifica-
tion of successive layers of these cells, and the formation
of the lacunse and canaliculi is owing to the persistence of
their nuclei with a small proportion of unossified investing
protoplasm. Tho increase in thickness of a membrane
bone, like that of a cartUage bone, takes place through
ossification in a deep periosteal layer of osteo-blasts. Hence
it follows that, though the tissue which precedes the
appearance of bone in the skeleton is not uniformly tho
same, in some cises being membrane, in others cartUage,
there is an identity in the ossific process in the two forms
of pre-existing tissue, in both of which the osteoblastic
cells are the active agents in ossification. The chemical
difTerentiatiou which takes place in the protoplasm of the
osteo-blasts during bone-formation is not merely a calcifica-
tion, but a coincident production of a gelatine-yielding
substance, within which the minute calcareous particles are
deposited.
Stress has been laid by some anatotnists, in discussing
the homologies of the several bones of the skeleton, on tho
differences met ^vith in the place of their formation. Tha%
it has been supposed that a bone originally developed in
cartilage cannot be homologous with one originally de-
veloped in membrane, and that a fundamental morpho-
logical distinction should be drawn between cartilage bones
and membrane bones. But when it is considered that,
though the place of formation may varj', the method of
formation is the same in all localities, it dqes not appear
that so much importance should be attached tw the distinc-
tion between cartUage and membrane bones as it has some-
times received, lloreover, the differences between these
two varieties of bones are, during the growth of the bone,
stiU further diminished, for in both cases increase in thick-
ness takes place in the same kind of pre-existing tissue,
and in the same way, viz., by ossification of the deep
periosteal layer of osteo-blasts.
In the description of the development of bone in the
foetus and youig person, the formation of medullary spaces
was referred to. But the production of spaces in bone is
by no means limited to its early stages of growth. The
medullary canal in a long bone can scarcely be said to
exist in tho bones of an infant's limba The hollowing
out of the shaft of a long bone into a largo canal, aud tho
enlargement of tho spaces of tho cancellated tissue, goes on
not only up to the period of adult life, but even to ad-
vanced years ; so that in an old person tho relative size of
this canal is greater than in tho prime of life. Tho Haver-
sian spaces also, as Tomes and Do Morgan pointed out,
are produced by tho absorption of tho lamellie of tho
osseous tissue surrounding tho Haversian canals, and the
production of these spaces is constantly going on during
tho life of tho bone. The air-sinuses in the cranial bones
are also formed by the absorption of tho diploe, and con-
sequent separation of the two tables of the skuIL Bones,
therefore, aro organs which are continually undergoing
change. During growth additions aro being made to their
length and thickness, and additional lamclls aro being
formed in the walls of tho Haversian canals. At the samo
time a hollowing out of spaces in their interior is going
on, so that an increase in weight commensurate with their
growth does not take place. The interstitial absorptivo
changes, whether occurring during growth or after growth
is completed, are due, as Kolliker has shown, to the action
of many-nucleated colossal cells which lino the walls of tho
spaces where absorption is going on, which cells ho has
named osleoMasts. Tho development and configuration
.of a bone is therefore, as has' been well expressed by
Kolliker, the product of the formation of osseoiu tissue by
tho agency of the osteo-blasts, and of its absorption or
destruction by the action of the osteo-klasts.
From the fact that osseous tissue may bo produced either
in tho cartilaginous or in the fibrous tissues, and that all
three contribute to the formation of tho skeleton, it is
evident that these tissues are closely allied. To express
this alliance they have all been grouped together under tha
common term connective substances.
MtJscULAfi Tissue. — The muscular tissue is that which Mosclet
is actively concerned either in the movement of parts, of
the body on each other, or in the movement of the entiro
body from place to place ; it is the active agent, therefore,
both in motion and locomotion. It forms a large pro-
portion of tho general mass of the body, is the essential
constituent of the muscles or flesh, and enters into tho
formation of the wails of tho hoUow viscera. It consists
structurally of threads or fibres, some of which are distin-
guished by being marked with transverse stripes or strijB ;
others have no such markings. Hence it is customary to
divide the fibres of the muscular tissue into transversely
striped fibres and non-striped fibres. As a rule, the striped
fibres are collected together to form those muscles which
are under the influence of tho will, so that both the muscles
and the fibres of which they are composed are called volun-
tary. One important exception to this rule is, however,
met with, for the muscular fibres of the heart, though
transversely striped, are involuntary ; the will exercises nc
control over the action of the heart. The non-striped fibres,
and the muscles into the construction of which they enter,
are in no instance, however, subject to the influence of tho
■will ; so that, without exception, thev may be named in-
voluntary.
The Kon-striped or Involuniary fibre, sometimes called
pale or smooth muscular fibre, enters into the forma-
tion of the walls of tho hollow viscera — e.y., stomach,
intestines, bladder, uterus^-of the walls of the air-tubes,
gland-ducts, blood and lymph vessels, of the skin, and
various mucous membranes. The fibres are usually col-
lected into bundles or fasciculi, which are not aggregated
together into such compact red masses as in the voluntary
muscles, but are of a paler red colour, and are set farther
apart, and often cross and interlace with each other in the-
walls of the tubes and hollow viscera, in which this form
TEXTURES.]
ANATOMY
857
of muscle is fouu4 The fascicim are separated from each
other by a delicate, areolar coimective tissue, or jKrimysium.
The size of the fasciculi varies in different localities; in the
iollow viscera they are so large that their
arraugemeut can be observed with the naked
eye; but in the skin, the walls of glaud-
ducts, &c., they can only be seen with the
aid of the microscope. If a fasciculus be
carefully torn up with needles it can be
resolved into its constituent fibres, and
the number of the fibres varies with the
sizS of the fasciculus. Tlie non-striped
fibrc3 are pale and almost colourless, with
soft, ill-defined outlines, from j^^th to
-y^ijjth inch in diameter; they are rounded
in form or laterally compressed, and are so
easily flattened by artificial pressure, that
they have erroneously been regarded as flat
or ribbon-shaped fibres. When digested ^°-, ".— A, a fascu
^ . ■. . o cuius of non-stiiped
for a few hours m dilute mtric or hydro- muscular fibre; d.
chloric acid, and sometimes even without '["r flbl'oceirmure
any reagent, the fibres may be resolved into Wsi'iy magniotd.
elongatedfusiform cells — \he contractile fibro-cells of KiiUiker
— which vary in length from jf^th to rir*''! i°<^^) ^^^
■which taper off usually into attenuated ends. In the
middle of each cell is a characteristically- elongated, rod-
fihaped nucleus, and sometimes the substance of the cell is
finely granular, or even faintly longitudinally striped. No
icU wall or sarcolemma can bo distinguiiihed. In some
localities, as was pointed out by Lister in the minute
arteries in the web of the frog's foot, isolated contractile
fibro-cells are wound spirally around the wall of the
■VfsaeL
The Transversely Striped fibre is the characteristic tissue
of the voluntary muscular system, and is found wherever
energetic movements are tojbe performed. In these muscles
the fibres are collected together in fasciculi, which bundles
usually lie parallel to each other, and extend from the
tendon of origin to the tendon of insertion. Each muscle
is invested by a membranous sheath formed of connective
tissue, the perimysium externum, which sheath gives off
processes that dip into the substance of the muscle, so as
to form delicate partitions between the fasciculi, and from
these partitions stiQ more slender prolongations of connec-
tive tissue, named perimysium inlernum, pass between the
fibres. The number and size of the f^isciculi vary with
the size and texture of the muscle ; iu some, as the deltoid
and glutaeus maximus, the fasciculi are large and coarse ;
■whilst in others, as the gracilis and omo-hyoid, they are
much finer. The number of fibres in a fasciculus varies
■with its length and thickness, and the fibres which are
adjacent to each other in a fasciculus lie parallel
The striped fibres are cylindrical or laterally com-
pressed; they usually taper off at their extremities, and
apparently do not, even in muscles with long fascicidi,
exceed 1| inch in length. The transverse diameter of the
striped fibres varies, in different localities in the human
body, from y^-jth to nj^Vj*^ inch, according to the measure-
ments of Kblliker. Much wider differences in diameter
are found in the animal series, in insects the fibres being
U)f extreme minuteness, whilst in cold-blooded animals
they are much larger than in man and mammals.
If a fibre bo carefully separated from a fasciculus, and
examined microscopically by transmitted light, transverse
strijjes may be readily seen to extend across it from side
to side. These transverse strias are not mere surface
jiiarks, but, as Bowman pointed out, pass through its
entire thickness, and lie parallel to each other. The stria-
tion is due to the structure of the fibre, which consists
«£ dark and light bands or discs, alternately dark and
light. The discs differ in optical properties, for, ea
Brlicke's obser\-ation3 show, the light discs refract light
singly — are isotropic; whilst the dark discs refract light
doubly, and consist of an anisotropic substance. ■ Busk
and H'uxley described in 1853 a dark line
passing across the light disc, so as to sub-
divide it into two halves ; and this appear-
ance has also been figured by Sharpey,
Krause, and others. ■. It is belie'ved to be duo
to the presence of a strongly refracting stripe
in the middle of the feebly refracting disc.
More recently Henseu has directed attention
to a slender, feebly refracting stripe passing
transversely across the strongly refracting
disc, so as to subdi'vide it also into ).wo
halves. In addition to the transverse ■
striae, the fibres not unfrequently show
markings which extend longitudinally, but
these are irregular in position, do not cor-
respond to the whole length of the fibre, or
necessarily pass through its entire thickness.
The transverse and longitudinal mark- virteiy etii.cd
ings indicate that a muscular fibre has a ■""^'J"'"'"^
disposition to split up transversely or longitudinally
into smaller particles. The transverse subdivision of
the fibre is promoted by digesting a piece ■ of muscle
for some hours in dilute hydi-ochloric acid. If the
fibres be then examined, gaps or fissures T\'ill be seen
to extend transversely into the substance of the fibre ;
and, if the digestion has been sufficiently prolonged, the
fissures have extended completely across the fibre, and
have subdivided it into, a multitude of plate or disc shaped
bodies — the muscular -fibre discs. These discs are the
strongly and feebly refracting discs already described, and
the transverse diameter of each disc corresponds to that of
the fibre from which it has been derived. The longit'udinal
marks in the fibre are best seen by digesting a piece of
muscle in strong spirit of wine, or in a solution of chromic
acid. If a fibre so treated be teased out "with needles, and
the thin covering glass be smartly tapped, the fibre ■wUl
split up longitudinally into multitudes of minute, elongated
threads — the muscular-fibre fibrillce. A fibrilla may be
regarded as equalling in length the fibre of which it formed
a part, and like the fibre is transversely striped ; but its
breadth is not definite, and depends upon the minutenesa
■with which the fibre has been split up in the longitudinal
direction. If in the same fibre the processes of transversa
and longitudinal splitting were to go on simultaneously,
then the fibre would be resolved into an immense multi-
tude of rectangular" particles — the sarcous elements of
Bowman. If these particles be regarded as the ultimate
subdivisions of the fibre, then the discs may be conceived
to be buUt up of a number of these particles, possessing
similar optical properties, arranged side by side, so as ta
occupy the entire diameter of the fibre in any transverse
plane: whilst the fibrillae are built up of the particles
arranged end to end, so as to correspond to the entire
length of the fibre ; but in this longitudinal arrangement,
particles ■with different optical properties, the one singly
refracting, the other doubly refracting, alternate with each
other with the utmost regularity.
Another view of the structure of muscular fibre has just
been advanced by E. A. Schafer. He describes the dark,
or, as seen in a living fibre, the " dim discs," as traversed
by multitudes of excessively fine, dark, rod-shaped particles
parallel in their direction to the fibre itself, which extend
into the contiguous bright discs, near the middle of which
each muscle rod ends in a knob-like extremity, and the
aeries of knobs form a line of minut« dark dots, passing
transversely across each bright disc. The muscle rods are
L — 108
858
A N A T O :\I Y
[nebvous
imbedded ia a " ground substance," that forms tbo alter-
nating dim and bright discs, which substance he believes
to be anisotropous, whilst the muscle rods are isotropous.
lie regards the ground mbstance as the ti-uo contractile
part of the fibre.
Each transversely striped fibre is invested by a homo-
geneous membrane, the sarr.clemma or myolcmma, which
is so transparent as to allow the characteristic transverse
stria; to be distinctly seen thmugli it. The sarcolcmma is
so closely incorporated with the periphery of the fibre, that
its isolation and demonstration as a distinct membrane are
attended with soi'io dilTicully, but when water is added to
a living fibre it is absorbed, and elevates the sarcolemma
from tho sarcous contractile particles. If acetic acid bo
added to a muscular fibre tho transverse strias become less
distinct, and a number of oval bodies come into view.
These aro C3j)ccially to bo seen next the periphery of the
fibre in relation to tho inner surface of tho sarcolemma,
tliough some apparently lie deeper in the substance of the
fibre. These bodies have long been known as tho nuclei
of tho striped fibre. More recent investigations have, how-
ever, shown that' each nucleus lies in a little finely-dotted
]irotoplasui, which often extends in a fu.siform manner
beyond the ends of the nucleus. These nuclei, with their
investing protoplasm, have tho anatomical characters of
nucleated cells, and are called the muscle corpuscles.
Some peculiar modifications of the striped muscular fibre
are met with in certain localities. As a rule, this form of
fibre docs not branch ; but in tho muscles of the tongue
and lip, and other muscles of tlu- face, these fibres usually
branch prior to their insertion, .md the branches taper off
to finely attenuated ends. In the heart also the fibres
branch ; and the branches of adjacent fibres anastomose,
60 that the muscular wall of this organ consists of a com-
pDct network of fibres. The individual fibres are smaller
t-lian those of the voluntary muscles, tho transverse stria-
tiou is much less distinct, and it is doubtful if an investing
sarcolemma be present.
Some difficulty has been experienced in determining the
exact mode of connection of the fibres of the belly of a
muscle with those of its tcrniinal tendons. By some it has
been sujjposed that the fibres of tho one are directly con-
tinued into those of the other ; whilst W'eismann has de-
scribed the muscular fibre as terminating in a sharply-
defined, rounded, or pointed extremity, to which the fibres
of the tendons are closely apposed.
Both the striped and non-striped forms of muscle are
well provided with blood-vessels, which ramify in tho sub-
stance of the muscle lying in the areolar connective tissue
that separates tho fasciculi and fibres from each other.
Tho capillaries form an elongated network, the principal
strands of which lie parallel to the muscular fibres, but
never penetrate tho sarcolemma. Hence, though the belly
of a muscle is a highly vascular organ, its individual fibres
aro extra-vascular. The vascularity of the fleshy belly is
much greater than that of the terminal tendons of attach-
ment, and the nutritive changes are much more active in
it than in them.
Develop- '^^^ contractile fibro-cells of the non-striped muscular
meiit of fibre are formed by the gradual elongation of the rounded
muscle. cells of the middle germinal layer of the embryo into
epindle-shaped cells, the oval nuclei at the same time be-
coming elongated, so as to assume a rod-shaped form.
Usually the spindle cells which lie in the same linear series
become cemented together into the smooth fibres of this
form of muscle.
The mode of development of the striped fibre is more
difficult to follow out, and various statements have been
made as to the successive stages of its formation. Schwann
believed that a fibre was built UD of the ciubryunic celb of
tho part, which arranged themselves in linear series, coalesc-
ing with each other at their surfaces of contact; thet tlie
contents of the cells then became transversely striated, and
that tho cell walla formed tho sarcolemma. Savory and
Lockhart Clarke maintained that a formation of blastema
tuok place around free nuclei, and that this blastema
gradually assumed the ctriated character. Reniak, Kolliker,
Wilson Fox, and Frey have, however, by studying the
earliest stages of development in the very young embryo,
established the fact that tho striped fibres are developed from
tho cells of tho embryo, though not in the manner described
by Schwann. Tho process, briefly stated, is as follows :
The embryonic cells elongate, tho nucleus may remain
single, but moro usually it divides and subdivides, so that
many nuclei appear in the interior of tha elongated cell.
Tho nuclei lie in linear series, and may cither bo separated
from each other, or two or moro may bo in contact, and
they may lie cither near tho periphei'y of tho elongated
cell, or in its axis. With this multiplication of the nuclei,
tho cell increases in length and assumes tho form of a fibre.
The cell protoplasm, both in the single and many-nucleated
fibres, then diflercntiatcs into tho sarcous particles of the
transverse striaj, and as this progresses the fibre assumes
its characteristic striped appearance. The whole amount of
the protoplasm does not, however, assume the transversely
striped appearance, for a small quantity remains around
each nucleus and forms with it a muscle corpuscle. Tho
differentiation of the protojilasm occasions an anatomical
and chemico-physical change in the fibre, and confers on
it the property of energetic contractility. W. Engelmanii
has endeavoured to show that the opaque anisotropic discs
of tho fibre are those in which the power of contractility
resides, and that the cle.ar isotropic discs possess only clastic
properties. The mode of development of the sarcolemma ia
still somewhat obscure. By some it is regarded as the wall
of the embryonic cell, which has become metamorphosed
into a muscular fibre ; by others it is regarded as a special
differentiation of tho protoplasm at the periphery of tho
fibre taking place at the time when the transverse stria;
are being formed ; whilst by others it is considered to be
a special modification of connective tissue formed around
the fibre. In the development of tho muscular fibres of
the heart, the cells of the embryo heart branch and anasto-
mose, and the nuclei multiply. By the transverse striation
of the protoplasm of these cells the branched muscular fibres
of the heart aro produced.
In the growth of a muscle the individual fibres increase
in size, so that they are bigger in the adult than at tho
time of birth. The observations of Budge, Weismann, and
Beale show that new fibres may also form in a muscle.
Weismann believes that this increase may be due to a
longitudinal splitting of a. pre-existing fibre ; but Beale
maintains that the new fibres are produced in the muscle,
in the same manner as the original fibres of the part.
Nervous System.
The Nervous System consists of a number of organs
which aro named respectively Nerve Centres, Nerves, and
Peripheral End-organs. The largest and most important
Nerve Centres are the brain and spinal cord, which together
constitute the cerebro-spinal nervous axis, and are lodgeij
in the cranial cavity and spinal canal. But, in addition,
numerous small bodies, usually oval in form, technically
called ganglia, are situated in the axial part of the body,
and form smaller nerve centres. The Nerves are white
cords which traverse the different regions of the body, both
axial and appendicular, for a greater or less distance, for
the purpose of connecting together the other sub-divisions
of tLc nervous svstcm. Tho Peripheral Knd-organa ara
SYSTEM.]
ANATOMY
859
minute structures connected with the peripheral extrem-
ities of the nerves. These end-organs are situated in the
skin and other organs of sense, in the glands, blood-vessels,
and muscles. The nerves establish communications and con-
duct nervous impulses, either between diiferent nerve centres,
or between nerve i-entres and peripheral end-organs, so as
to associate together in their action parts of the nervous
system often widely separated from each other. Nerves,
therefore, are internuncial structures. When a nerve con-
nects two nerve centres together it is intercentraL When
a nerve connects a nerve centre with a peripheral end-
organ, and conducts impulses from the centre to the
end-organ, it is a centre-peripheral or centrifugal nerve.
When a nerve connects a peripheral end-organ with a
centre, and conducts impulses from the end-organ to
the centre, it is a periphero-central or centripetal nerve.
Owing to the different directions in which impulses are
conducted by nerves, the varying nature of their end-
organs, and the functional differentiation of the nerve
centres, or portions of the nerve centres in which their
central extremities terminate, nerves vary so in their
functions, that a classification of the nerves, based upon
their functional properties, has been proposed. Of the
centro-peripheral nerves, those which end in the muscles
are motor nerves ; those which end in the muscular coat
of the blood-vessels are vaso-motor nerves ; whilst some
physiologists have named nerves which they believe to
terminate in connection with the secreting cells of a gland,
secretory nerves; and others, which they believe to terminate
iu the tissues and to be concerned in the regulation of their
nutrition, trophic nerves. It should be stated, however,
that it is not yet absolutely determined that the secreting
cells of glands and the cell elements of the tissues have
special nerves terminating in connection with them for the
purpose of exercising a direct influence over secretion and
nutrition. Should these special nerves be non-existent, then
the secretory and nutritive functions would be influenced
solely by the vaso-motor nerves, which regulate the size of
the blood-vessels and the amount of blood which flows
through a part in a given time. Of the periphero-central
nerves, those which arise in the end-organs in the skin,
tonninate in a nerve centre, and excite in it the
sense of touch, are nerves of common sensation; those
which aiise in the end-organs in the eye, ear, nose, and
tongue, and excite in their appropriate nerve centres the
sensations of sight, sound, 'smell, and taste, are nerves of
special sense ; whilst nerves whicU conduct impulses
from peripheral end-organs to a nerve centre, and, instead
of exciting in the latter a sensation, have the impulses
reflected to motor nerves, are reflex or excito-motory
nerves.
The nerve centres, nerves, and peripheral cud-organs are
arranged in two groups or systems — a Ccrebro-spinal and
a Sympathetic. The Cerebro-spinal nervous system con-
sists of the brain and spinal cord, the ner>'cs which arise
from or terminate in these large centres, the small ganglia
connected with these nerves, and the end-organs at their
peripheral terminations. The Sympathetic nervous system
consists of the sympathetic ganglia, with their nerves and
end-organs.
Nervous Tissue. — The several parts of the nervous
system are not uniform in colour, some being white,
others grey. The nerves, at least those of the cerebro-
spinal system, are invariably white, and white masses,
variable in size, are met with in the brain and spinal cord;
they constitute the white matter of the nervous system.
In the nerve centres, both of the cerebro-spinal and sym-
pathetic systems, grey matter is found, sometimes in con-
siderable quantities. This grey colour is so characteristic,
that it may be regarded as marking the position of a nerve
centre.
The nervous system possesses a cnaractenstic form of
tissue — the nervous tissue — which in part consists of fibres
(Nerve Fibres), and in part of cells (Nerve Cells). The nerva
cells are found in the grey matter — that is, in the nerve
centres — and sometimes also in the peripheral end-organs.
The nerve fibres constitute the nerves, enter into the nerve
centres, and pass into the peripheral end-organs; they form
the white matter. But in addition to the characteristic
nervous tissue, the nervous system also contains a con-
siderable quantity of connective tissue, numerous blood-
vessels, and some lymph vesseb.
Nerve Fibres. — Nerve fibres are of two kinds : a, the
white, medullated, or dark-bordered fibres, ";vhich are the
characteristic fibres of the cerebro-spinal nervous s5'stern,
though they do also sparingly occur in the sympathetic
system ; h, the pale, non-medullafed, ir gelatinous nerve
fibres, which are the characteristic fibies of the sympa-
thetic nervous system.
Medullated Nerve Fibres. — To examine the structure of
these fibres, a portion of a cerebro-spinal nerve may be
selected. In the first place, it will be seen to be invested
by a sheath of connective tissue, the perineurium, which
gives off processes that pass into the nerve, and subdivlda
it into fasciculi or funiculL Each fasciculus is in its turn
composed of nerve fibres, which are separated from each
other by bundles of delicate connective tissue, prolonged
from the perineurium, in which the nutrient blood-
vessels of the nerve ramify. The size of a nerve is in
relation to the number and size of its fasciculi, and the
size of a fasciculus is in relation to the number of its fibre.?.
The fibres and the fasciculi lie parallel to each other in the
same nerve ; but as nerves branch at intervals, the more
external of the fasciculi diverge from the main stem to
form the branches. In the white matter of the br£|,in and
spinal cord the nerve fibres are not arranged in such
definite fasciculi as in a distributory nerve, and the con-
nective tissue between the fibres is the soft, delicate form
called neuroglia.
A meduUated nerve fibre is an elongated cylinder, which,
when examined in the body of a living animal, or im-
mediately after removal from the liring body, consists
apparently of a soft, homogeneous, or glassy-looking sub-
stance enclosed within a limiting membrane. When ex-
amined some time after death, or after the addition of re-
agents, such as water, spirit, ether, collodion, acetic acid, &c.,
it loses its homogeneous aspect, and the following struc-
tures can be distinguished in it : A (Fig. 5C),a delicate trans-
parent investing membrane,
— the so-called tubular or
priinitive membrane, or neuri-
lemma ; C, a delicate thread,
extending along the axis of
the fibre, — the axial cylinder
or central band of 'Rcmak ;
B, a substance which lies be-
tween the primitive mem-
brane and the axial cylin-
der,— the white substance of
Schwann, or the medxdlary
sheath. Within the external
outline of the fibre, formed by
the investing membrane, is a
second line, not quite parallel
to the first, and the presence
of these two lines gives to
the fibre a characteristic double-contoured appearance. Tho
investing membrane is a perfectly jicllucid, homogeneous
structure, with nuclei arranyj;d at iutcrv'als in it. It is
Fio. 56. — 1. fctccIuUarcd ncrv© fibroid
fthowlnK Ihe double contour. 2. A
Blmllar flbro in which A Is Ihe pri-
mitive membrane. 1( the medullaiy
ehcath, C tho ftxlftl cylinder, pro-
truding beyond tho broken cird « f
tho fibre. 8. TrannverfiO eecllon
throuch the medullated flhrca of a
Dorve, Bhowlne the axial cylinder In
each flhte. Beiween iho fibres lathe
Inlcillbrous connective tUauc.
«GU
ANATOMY
[nervoub
believed to bo absent from the nerve fibres in the brain
and epinal cord, as well as at the peripheral terminations of
many nerves. ' The medullary sheath is a fatty and albu-
minous substance, which refracts the light strongly. Not
unfrequently it collects into little ball-like masses, and
Bomotimes causes irregular bulgings on the fibre, and pro-
duces a knotted, varicose appearance; at other times it
becomes granular, and makes the fibre opaque. By gentle
j)re33uro it can be squeezed out of the broken end of a
fibre. The axial cylinder is a pale, grey, cylindriform band,
Ui'.ally about one-third or one-fourth the diameter of the
f:b.o, which possesses more ton.icity than the medullary
sheath, and not unfrequently, as in Fig. 6G, 2, projects for
some distance beyond the broken end of a fibre. Mas
Schultzo showed that it is not homogeneous, but exhibits a
very delicate longitudinal fibrillation, and at the ends of the
norv33 these primitive fibrillaj may separate from each other.
Although from its great delicacy the axial cylinder can-
not bo seen in the living fibre of a ccrebro-spinal nerve,
yet there are many reasons for regarding it as a structure
existing in the living nerve, and not the product of a post
mortem change. It is the part of a fibre which first appears
in the course of development, the medullary sheath and
primitive membrane being secondary investing structures,
superadded as development proceeds. It forms not un-
frequently the only constituent of a nerve fibre at its
■central and peripheral terminations, and is therefore the
part of the fibre which is anatomically continuous with the
nerve cell, or with the peripheral end-organ. As it is the
solo constituent of many nerve fibres at their terminations,
(and bf all nerve fibres in the earlier stage of development,
and as it forms the medium of connection between them
and the structures it. which they terminate, it is obviously
of primary importance, both anatomically and physiologi-
call^v, and is believed to be the part of the fibre 'directly
eonterned in the condnclioii of impulses ; whilst the
investing structures serve the purpose of insulating mate-
rials. Lister and Turner pointed out, in 1859, that essential
differences in chemical composition existed between the
axial cylinder and the medullary sheath ; the former being
uuafrectod by chro"mic acid, though the latter is rendered
opoque and brown, and concentrically striated under its
inlliience; while, on the other hand, the axial cylinder is
stained red by an ammoniacal solution of carmine with
great facility, although the medullary sheath is unaffected
by it. They further showed that these differences in the
mode of action of chromic acid and carmine might
advantageously bo employed in the demonstration of the
structure of nerve fibres. Kanke has subsequently stated
that the axial cylinder possesses an acid, and the medullary
sheath an alkaline reaction.
Modullated nerve fibres vary materially in diameter in
different parts of the nervous system. In the brain, for
instance, they are sometimes as fine as the -j-j^-B-jith inch;
whilst, in the distributory nerves, fibres of T^nytli of an
inch in diameter may be seen ; though it should be stated
that, even in the nerves of distribution, fibres of great
minuteness are often placed in the same bundle with those
of the largest size. Nerve fibres do not branch in their
course^ but only at their central cs peripheral terminations,
and much more frequently at the latter than the former.
Non-medullated Nerve Fibres. — These fibres, which are
characterised by the absence of a medullary sheath, are
chiefly found in the sjnjipathetic nervous system, but they
occur also in the cerebro-spinal system. The fibres of the
olfactory nerve are nan-medullated, so ulso are the peri-
pheral terminations ci the cerebro-tpinal nerves, and indeed
all nerve fibres in the first stage of their development. In
Petromyzon it has been stated that all the nerve fibres are
'iJbtin^uishcd by the absence of a medullary sheath.
material iT'"
This form of nerve fibre consists of pale grey, tran, uccnt,
flattened bands, the »jroth to ssVith inch in
diameter. They usually appear as if homo-
geneous or faintly granidar ; but Schultzo
showed that, when carefuUy^xamined, they
present a delicate fibrillated afpcorancc, lilco
that seen in the axial cylinder of a meduUated
nerve ; so that, like that cylinder, they are
8U])posed to bo composed of multitudes of
extremely delicate primitive fibrillro imbedded
in a finely granulated material. Sometimes
these fibres consist solely of this fibrillated
material, at other times they are invested by
a sheath similar to the primitive membrane
of a mcduUateili fibre. Nuclei are also found
both in the substance of the fibre and in
relation with the primitive membrane. The fio. 47. — Noa.
presence of multitudes of fibres in tho sym- n;.J,''j°" b^^m
pathetic nervous system, formed cither cri- (rom the oym-
tirely, or almost entirely, of a
precisely similar in structure to the axial
cylinder of a medullated fibre, and by which tho proper
function of tho fibre can alone, therefore, bo exercised, is,
of course, an additional argument to those provionsly
advanced, in favour of tho existence of tho axial cylinder
as a normal constituent of tho fibre, and of its functional
importance.
Nerve Cells. — Nerve cells constitute an important division
of the nervous tissi^. They are the characteristic structures
in the nerve centres, aresusocptible toimpressions, or nervous
impulses, and are the texture in which the molecular changes
occur that produce or disengage the special fonn of energy
named nerve energy, the evolution of which is the distinc-
tive mark of a nerve ■centre. The central extremities of the
nerve fibres lie in relation to, and are often directly con-
tinous with, the nerve cells. It was at one time thought
that nerve cells wae globular in forr' ; but it is now gene-
rally understood that, though the body of tho cell is not
unfrequently globular, two or more processes or poles
project from it, and are continuous with its substance.
Nerve cells are distinctly nucleated ; tho nuclei are usually
large, and contain one, and often two nucleoli. The cell
substance is granular, and not unfrequently brown or
yellow pigment is collected around the nucleus. A ceD
wall is sometimes apparently present, though at others it
cannot be demonstrated. The nerve cells in the grey
matter of the brain and spinal cord are imbedded in the
neuroglia. In the smaller nerve centres, as the sympathetic
ganglia and tho ganglia on tho posterior roots of the
spinal ner\vs, the nerve cells are surrounded by a capsule
of connective tissue. Frantzel, KoUiker, and others, have
described tiis capsule as lined by an endothelium formed
of flattened cells ; and it should bo stated
that Ranvier has described a similar endo-
thelium in relation to the connective tissue
investment of the cerebro-spinal nerves.
It is not improbable that these endothelial
cells form the walls of delicate capQlary
rootlets of the lymphatic vascular system.
Nerve cells from which two poles or pre
cesses proceed are called bipolar. Charac-
teristic specimens of thc-?e cells, as was first
pointed out by Robin and R. Wagner, may
be recognised without diiBculty in the gan-
glia on tie posterior roots of the spina!
nerves of fishes, and it is probable that ^'"'-
similar cells exist m the corresponding ncno fibres con.
centres in other vertebrates. These cells Hr^'^^'J'^^^S.a
usually possess a globular body, thougli ofaekate.
sometimes it may be elongated; and from opposite jpointo.
U. — Bipolar
nerve cell, wiib two
SYSTKM.]
A N A T O ]\I Y
59.— Pyrlform
ncrvQ cell Sr,
8tratyht DtTve fibre;
Sp. spiral ncrTC
fibre; C, capsule of
connective tlssao
around nervo Cell,
of the surface of the body a strong pr\".;?&s is given off,
which is directly continued Into a nerve fibre. Tho axial
cylinder of the fibre is continuous with the cell substar.oo.
and Schultze has shown that both exhibit a delicate fibril-
latcd structure. The medullary sheath and the primitive
membrano are also usually continued from the fibre over
the nerve celi Hence these bipolar cells seem to be, as
Schultze expressed it. nucleated enlargements of the axial
cvlinder.
A remarkable modification of the bipo'ar nerve cell,
carefully studied and described by Lionel
Beale, is found in the sympathetic ganglia
of the frog. The cells are pear-shaj)ed,
aud from the narrow end of the pear two
uerve fibres arise, cue of which, called the
straight fibre, forms, as it were, the stalk
of the pear; whilst the other, or spiral
fibre, wdnds spirally round the straight
fibre, and then passes away from the cell
in the opposite direction. Both fibres are
nucleated, and at their origin consist,
apparently, of axial cylinder substance
only ; but in their course they may
acquire both a medullary sheath and a
primitive membrane. The straight fibre
passes into the interior of the cell sub-
stince, aud Arnold and Courvoisier be- j„
lievi that they have traced it into tlie
nucleus ; but the spiral fibre apparently
arises nearer the periphery of the celL
The pyriform cells are invested by a dis-
tinct capsule of connective tissue. The
nerve fibres of these pyriform cells, although they both
arise close together from one end of the cell, represent its
poles. Should one of the poles, eith'cr in this, or iu the
bipolar form of nerve cell described in the preceding
paragraph, be from any cause removed or not developed,
then the cell would be miipolar ; aud if both poles were
absent it would be apolar.
In other locaUties, as in tue sympathetic ganglia of man
and many other vertebrates, and in the several subdivisions
of the cercbro-spinal nervous axis, the nerve cells have more
than two poles or processes projecting from them. Cells
of this kind are called multipolar, and in many localities
they present characteristic forms. In the grey matter of
the sjjLnal cord, more especially in its anterior horn, they
give rise to numerous processes, and have a stellate or
radiate form. In the grey matter on the surface of the
convolutions of the cerebrum they are pyramidal in shaoe.
The apex is directed to the surface of the
convolution, the base towards the white
matter. The processes arise from the
base, apex, and sides of the pyramid.
In the grey matter on the surface of the
cerebellum the body of the cell is almost
globular. From that aspect of the cell
which is directed towards the white matter fio.co.— Mninpoisrceii
a slender central process arises: from the 'f""" '""<""] »y>"i'»-
. f , ' f. . .. Ihctic Kanullon. C,
opposite or peripU,eral aspect of the ccU cap.uio or connccUvo
two strong, many-branched processes ex- "'""•
tend for a considerable distance. In the human nympa-
thetic ganglia, again, the stellate form of cell prevails, and
the existence of a capsule of connective tissue around the
individual cells can be recognised. The processes which
arise from a multipolar nervo cell, as a rule, divide and
subdivide as they pass away from the body of the cell,
until at last they give rise to branches of extreme tenuity.
These branching processes apimrently consist exclusively of
cell protoplasm, and have been called protoplasm processes.
OerlacU lias described the protophism processes of .the
8(H
the brain and spinal cord as
multi-polar nerve colls of
forming an excessively
minute network, from
-.rbich minute medullated
nerve Sbres arise; and F.
Boll conceives that a simi-
lar arrangement occurs in
the cells of the cerebellua.
One, at least, of the pro-
cesses of a multipolar
nerve cell does not branch,
but becomes directly con-
tinuous with a nerve fibre,
and has been named the
axial - cylinder process.
This process was first re-
cognised byDeiters in the
ceU'j of the spinal cord;
but Hadlich and Kosch- Fig.CI.— Mulclpolarcellfiomllieereyniiltcr
ri««:l- tT 1,,,-.,., „;«,.^ J of ontcrior cornu In llie spina] curd. AC,
ennikutf have since de- i,on.b,ancbeda..ial-e,llnJcrr.rocc.srtl,ccli;
scribed the central process <:on>"i"ou3 ''"b a nene fibre.
of the cells of the cerebellum as continuous mth a meaullated
nerve fibre; and the latter observer has pointed out, that
from the base of a pyramidal nerve cell in a cerebral con-
volution a process may be traced directly into a nerve fibre.
Hence it would appear that the multipolar nerve cells may
have two modes of union with nerve fibres^one directly
through the passage of the non-branched axial-cylinder pro-
cess into a fibre, the other through the origin of fibres from
the minute network in which the branched protoplasm
processes terminate. The branched processes of adjacent
nerve cells may also blend with each other, so as to form
an anastomosing cell netv/ork, though these anastomoses
are, in all probability, not so frequent as was at one time
supposed. Schidtze has pointed out that not only the
protoplasm substance of the body of a multipolar nerve
cell, but both the non-branched and braiiched processes,
possess a fibiillatcd structure similar to thai described by
him in the axial cylinder of the nerve fibres.
Peripheral End-Organs or £nd Bodies. — Nerve fibres at
their peripheral extremities terminate iu connection with
peculiar structures, named end-bodies, terminal bodies, ot peri-
pheral end-orqaTis, which are situated in the several organs of
the body. The motor nerves end in thS voluntary and in-
voluntary muscles; the vaso-motor nerves end in the mus-
cular coat of the blood-vessels; the sensory nerves end in
the skin, mucous membranes, and organs of special sense;
and it has been stated that secretory nerves terminate iu
connection with the ultimate cell elements of the secreting
glands. These end-organs possess certain structural peca-
liarities, which are by no means uniform in the different
parts, so that the end-body connected with the peripheral
termination of a nerve is distinctive of the organ in which
it is situated. It will be a matter of convenience to defer
the consideration of the peripheral end-bodies in the skin,
organs of special sense, coats of the blood-vessels, and the
several glands, until these parts are described. In this
place the mode of termination of the motor nerves in the
voluntary and involuntary muscles, of the sensory nerves
in the mucous membranes, and of the ending of the nerves
in the remarkable bodies .named Pacinian corpuscles, will
alone be examined
After a nerve has entered a voluntary muscle it ramincs
in the connective tissue, which lies between the fasciculi,
and at the same time divides and subdivides into smaller
branches. These branches interlace with each other and
form plexuses, from which slender nctvous twigs, often
consisting of only a single medullated nerve fibre, pro-
ceed, which ramify in the connective tissue, separating'tho
individual muscular fibres from each other. The siuj'lu
«G2
A N A T O 3J Y
[nkrvous
nerve fibres in their turn branch, accompanied by a
splitting of the axial cylinder, and these branches usually
lose the medullatcd character. The mode of termination
of these very delicate branches has been a subject of much
dispute. Bealo described ihem as forming a minute net-
work, situated on the exterior of the sarcolemma, but in
contact with it, and the fibres of this nervous network were
distinctly nucleated. Other observers have, however,
described peculiar bodies, called motorial end-plates, at
the extremity of these nerves. These end-plates consist
of a clump of richly nucleated protoplasm, somewhat oval
or pcrha])s irregular in form, into which the axial cylinder
of the nerve fibre penetraUA The exact position of these
cnd-platcs in relation to the mu?xular fibres is difficult to
determine. Krause holds that they lie outside tho sarco-
lemma, but adherent to it ; whilst Kiihne, Margo, and
Kouget maintain that tho end-plate lies within the sarco-
lemma, and that tho nerve fibre has to pierce that mem-
brane before it can enter tho ond-plate. After the axial
cylinder has entered the end-plate it subdivides into very
minute branches. Each muscular fibre has apparently
only a single end-plate, and consequently only a single
axial cylinder in connection with it.
In the non-striped muscles the nerves are distributed in
the connective tissue which separates the fasciculi from
eo.ch other. Here they form plexuses, which in some loca-
lities, as in tho myenteric plexus of Aucrbach in the mus-.
cular coat of the intestines, have collections of nerve cells,
forming microscopic ganglia lying in them. • From these
plexuses fibres arise which subdivide into delicate non-
medullated fibres possessing nuclei. These delicate fibres
form still finer plexuses, which in their turn give origin to
minute fibres, which pass between the muscular fibre cells
to form a still more minute intra-musc^jlar network.
Frankenhiiuser maintains that the delicate nerve fibrils
which arise from ihis terminal network penetrate the
muscular fibre cells, enter the nucleus', and terminate in
the nucleolus; but Arnold considers that, after having
c.'itered the nucleus, the fibril again gives off a filament,
which passes out of the cell to join the intra-muscular
plexus; the ending of the nerve, therefore, within the
nucleus is only apparent, and is rather to be regarded as
the nodal point ^f a fine intranuclear plexus.
The termiiialion of the sensory nerves in the mucous mem-'
branes has been especially studied in the conjunctiva, the
mucous membrane of the soft palate, and the glans of the
penis arid clitoris. In these parts Krause discovered oval or
globular end-bocfies, which consisted of a soft, homogeneous
substance invested by a nucleated capsule of coimective
tissue. A nerve fibre pierces the capsule and terminates in
tho interior of the end-body, which forms a bulbous enlarge-
ment at the end of the nerve, and is called the end-bulb.
After the nerve has entered the end-bulb, it may consist
only of the axia' cylinder and terminate in a pointed
extremity, or it may twist upon itself and form a coil
within the end-bulb. When the structure of the skin is
described, it will be seen that the ending of the nerves in
the cutaneous papillae bears a general resemblance to
their termination in the end-bulbs of a mucous mem-
brane.
But in certain of tlic mucous membranes delicate nerves
have been traced into the layer of C])ithelium, situated on
the free surface of tho membrane. PetermoUer described
nerve fibres continuous with the nerves of the cornea pass-
ing into the layer of conjunctival epithelium on the front
of the cornea. Klein recognised an intra-cpithelial nervous
network in the same locality. Chrschtschonovitsch traced
non - medullated nerve fibres proceeding from a sub-
epitliclial network into the deeper epithelijl lavers of the
vaginal mucous membrane, and siniilar norve fibres have
been seen by Elin to end in the epithelial investment of
the mucous membrane of the mouth.
Connected with the sensory nerves in some localities are I'•^cillii^,
the remarkable bodies named the Cori)Uselcs of Pacini, '^<"'Piis»-ie\
which were the first terminal organs discovered in connec-
tion with the peripheral distribution of the nerves, i These
corpuscles have been found attached to the nerves which'
pa.ss to the skin of the fingers and toes, to the nerves
which supply the skin of the neck and arm, to the inter-'
costal nerves, to the nerves of the joints, to the nerves of;
the periosteum, to the nerves of the genital organs, and
to the mesenteric nerves. In cats they arc often extremely]
abundant both in the mesentery and omenta. .. A 'Paciniaiv
f loTCS— I.'"KerTei of ohe flnirer wtth
\t1ie Pacinian con'usclcs allftctieil.
2, n Pacinian cori)nscle X 350; a,
■talk or peduncle: 6, nerve fibre la
•lullt; c external lajci^ of capsule:
d^ inner layers; e, nnn-mcduUbteii
nerre fibre In the central core; /.
bninclilnc of lerminnl enfLflfiDcrve
tlbre. ..(/"rem Ji. KiltdtrY
corpuscle can be seen' by '.lie naked eye, and' looks" lijcc a
minute grain from i\th to j'^th inch long. It is elliptic.il
in form, and may either be sessile or attached to the nerve
stem by a slender stalk. Examined microscopically, it is
seen to consist of numerous layers of connective tissue
concentrically;, arranged, which form its capsule, and'
surround a central core. Numerous connective tissue cor-;
puscles may be seen in the concentric layers, and Hover,
has recently show'n that an endothelial-like appearance exists]
on the inner surface of the corpuscle. Entering one pole
of the corpuscle is a nerve fibre which extends along tha
axial core for a considerable distance, and usually tcrmu
BTSTEM.]
ANA T O M Y
803
nerve
tissue.
bates in a slight bulboiis enlargement ' The nerve fibre
parts with its perineurial sheath after ib enters the Pacinian
corpuscle; and as it lies in the core it loses its medullary sub-
stance, 80 that its terminal part consists only of the axial
cylinder. Sometimes the nerve fibre dividesintotwobranches
■within the corpuscle. Capillary blood-vessels are distributed
to the concentric layers of the Pacinian corpuscle.
■Develop- The mode of origin of the nervous tissue in the course
ment of of development of the embryo is still involved in some
obscurity. It is, ho^wever, believed that the nervo cells are
derived from the embryo colls, ivhich multiply, and. the
young cells then gro^vv and assume characteristically granular
and linely fibrillated contents. Processes or poles then
appear at the periphery of the cells, ■which, according to
the obsei-vations of Beale, connect adjacent cella together.
As the growth of the part goes on, the cells are more
■widely separated from each other, and the anastomosing
processes in consequence become considerably elongated,
and form the axial cylinder of the nerve fibre. In the course
of time the medullary sheath and the primitive membrane
may form around this axial cylinder so as to insulate it.
The exact mode of formation of the medullary sheath is
not properly understood; but it is believed that *he primi-
tive membrane, and the perinenrial connective tissue, are
derived from those surrounding embryonic cells ■which
difi'erentiate into connective tissue. Of the two originally
contiguous cells from, which the nerye fibre is, as it were,
spun out, one, as Hensen conceived, may form a cell in a
nerve centre, the other may differentiate 'into a peripheral
end-organ. In the tail of the tadpole the formation and
growth of nerve fibres have been studied by KoUiker and
others, and it has been seen that the terminal part of a
fibre may have fusiform or tri-radiate cells connected with
it, the processes of which cells gradually differentiate into
nerve fibres. The young cerebro-spinal nerve fibres are
distinctly nucleated, and correspond in appearance and
structural characters to the uon-medullated nerve fibres of
the adult. If in a young or adult person a nerve be cut
across, its conducting power is destroyed ; but after a time
it reunites, and its function is restored. The part of the
nervo which lies between the place of section and its
peripheral extremity, undergoes, as Waller pointed out,
degenerative changes. To how great an extent the de-
generation affects the various constituents of each fibre, it
is difficult to determine; for whilst some experiments
■would seem to show that only the medullary sheath broke
up into granular particles and was absorbed, in others both
it and the axial cylinder disappeared. In process of time,
Lowever, these parts may be reproduced, and the nerve
then recovers its functional activity.
PiSoKiPTi^Vt, Anatomy op the Ceeebbo-spinal .
Nekvods System.
Tn this section the anatomy of the Brain and Spinal
Cord, and of the numerous distributory Nerves which arise
from them, will be described. The brain and spinal cord
ere the largest and most important of all the nervo centres.
They occupy the cranial cavity and spinal canal, and are
continuous ■with each other through the foramen magnum
•in the occipital bone. As the arrangement of the struc-
tures which compose the brain and spinal cord is extremely
complex, and as the names applied to the several parts are
numerous and often very arbitrary, it may bo well, before
commencing a detailed description, to make a few general
observations on their mode of development.
• Development of Ou Ccreiro- Spinal Nervous Axis. — The brain aud
spinal cord arc developed in the cranio-spinal ctoovc of the embryo,
and appear orif;inally as a thin band extending along the whole
length of this groove. About tho time whr^n tlm walla of the
proovo meet posteriorly to conipletfl the cranio-8[iiual cavity, tlio
nurgisa of tUi4 baud bucomu elevated, bend backward^ and meut,
60 that the originally simple band becomes converted into a cylindri- Develop,
form cerebro-spinal tube. In the walls of this tube the nervous ment of
structures of the brain and spinal cord are formed, whibt the axis cerebro-
of the tube forms a central cauaL In the part which becomes the spinal
Spinal Cord the central canal persists as the central canal of the syst.-m,
spinal cord, and around it a layer of ciliated cylindrical endothelium
is developed. Outside this layer a mass of grey matter containing
nerve cells is formed, which is subac'iuently divided into two latertd
crescent-shaped masses. Outside the grey matter white matter is
. produced, which ultimately becomes arranged in the form of longi'
tudinal columns of nerve fibres. 'With the formation and growth
of these columns and of the internal grey matter, a longitudinal
mesial fissure appears on tho anterior and another on the posterior
surface of the cord, which gradually increase in depth until the
cord is almost completely divided into two lateral halves. At the
bottom of the anterior median fiss%ire tho nerve fibres of the antei-ior
commissure are developed, and at the bottom of the posterior median
fissure those of the posterior commissure. These commissures unite
the two halves of the cord together.
The upper or cerebral end of the cerebro-spinal tube becomes
the Encejthalon, or Brain. At first the cerebral part of the tube is
uniform Ln appearance with the spinal part, but it soon expands
into three vesicular dilatations — the primary cerebral vesicles.
These vesieles, named (from before backwards) anterior, middle,
and posterior, are separated from each other by constrictions, and
03 the development progresses the vesicles bend on each other and
on the upper end of the spinal cord. As each vesicle is an expan-
sion of the cerebro-spinal tu'oe, it is necessarily 'noiiow, and the
space in its interior is continuous with the central canal of the
spinal cord. In the walls of the vesicles the nervous structures aro
produced, which form the several subdivisions of the encephalon.
The posterior cerebral vesicle bends first forwards from the upi <cr
end of the spinal cord, and then backwards; the part which
bends forward becomes the medulla oblongata; that wnich bends
backward the c*irebellum^ whilst the poTis is developed at the angle
where these two parts are continuous with each other ; the central
hollow forms the a^ntral canal of the medulla oblongata and
the dilated space called the fourth ventricle. In the medulla
oblongata shallow anterior and posterior median furrows then appear
continuous with those in the cord, and each lateral half dill'eren-
tiates into grey matter and into a longitudinal arrangement of nerve
fibres continuous with the corresponding structures in the cord. A
large proportion of these fibres are continued upwards throuj^h the
pons as its longitudinal fibres. The cerebellum consists at tirst of
a central lobe, and in tlie lower vertebrates ite development does
not proceed beyond this stage ; but in mammals, including man,
a lateral lobe or hemisphere is superadded on each side, and with
the growth of these lateral lobes numerous transverse fibres, which
connect the two hemispheres together, are developed in the pons.
The cerebellum is also connected below with the medulla oblongata
by the pair of restiform bodies, or inferior peduncle^, and above
with the corpora quadrigcmina by the pair of superior peduixles. i
The middle cerebral vesicle bends forwards from the posterior
vesicle. In its roof the oi)tic lobes are formed ; in its floor the
crura cerebri; whilst the central hollow becomes the aqueduct of
Sylvius. At first the optic lobes form a single structure, but about
the sixth month of embryo life a median furrow divides this struc-
ture into two lateral halves (the corpora bigemina), and in the
lower vertebrates the development does not proceed beyond this
stage ; but in the seventh month of embryo life of the human fcetus
each lateral half is subdivided into two by a transverse fissure, so
that four bodies (the corpora quadrigemina) are produced. The
crura cerebri form the two cerebral peduncles, which, diverging
from each other, pass upwards to the hemisphere of the cerebrum.
They consist almost entirely of nerve fibres continuous with tho
longitudinal fibres of the pons, a few of which go to the corpora
quadrigemina, but the greater number ascend to the cerebrum. i
The anterior cerebral vesicle bends do^wnwards from the middle
vesicle. The posterior part of this vesicle forms at first a simple
hollow eac, but subsequently divides into the two optic thalamic
one on each side of the central hollow, which hollow becomes
tho third ventricle. This ventricle is prolonged downwards into
a funnel-shaped process, the infundibulum, which is connected
with the pituitary body, or hypophysis cerebri, lodged in the pitui-
tary fossa in the si>henoid bone, whilst posteriorly it is continuous
with the aqueduct of Sylvius. In its uiiper and posterior wall the
pineal body, or epiphysis cerebri, is developed, and from this boil^-
two vi\n\^ peduncles run forwards on the sides of tho optic thalami.l
Immediately below these peduncles the transverse fibres of the
posterior commissure are developed, which pass between the two
optic thalaiui. ■ The anterior wall of this ventricle is closed in by
the lamirjz cinerea or lamina tcrminalis, and behind it aie formed
tho trannvcrso nervo 'fibres of tho anterior cchiiviissure, and tho
vertical fibres of tho anterior pillars of thc/omi'x. These fornix
fibres pass to the base of the brain, and form the corpora albieantia,
prior to entering the optic thalfni. The posterior part of the antcrio
Teaicle gives oil from each, s^da a Hask-shapcd xirolong-ation-tfao.
&U4
A J^ iV T 0 .M Y
[nkrvous
primary/ optic X'cside. Tlio stem of the prolongation, at first hoUow,
becomes 8oli»i, and forms the optic nerve and trad, whilst the
cxparidcd distal end forms the nervous elements of the rctiiia.
The antt-ro-laternl jiart of tho anterior cerebral vesicle is prolonged
forward as two lioUow iirocessea, tho hemisphere vesicles, winch
liccomo the cerebral hemispheres, ond arc separated from each other
by a median longitudinal fissure; whilst the hollow in tho interior
of eacli forms the lateral ventricle. In the floor of each hcmisplicro
vesicle is developed a largo grey mass, striated with bundles of
nerve fibres, tlie corpus striatum, wJiich Hes immediately in front
and to the outer sido of the ojitic thalamus; a curved band, tho
(tenia semicircularts, is formed, along tho junction of tho thalamus
with the corjuis striatum, and at the inner and anterior cud of tliis
band, immediately behind the anterior pillars of the fornix, the
two Iftteial VfUti'iclcs bcconio continuoua witli each other and with
the third vcnlrii-lc through ihe/oramen of Monro, The roof and
side walls of each hemisphere vesielo form a grey expansion or mantle,
which is at first smooth, but subsequently becomes divided into
lobes and convolutions, separated from cadi other by fissures. A
deep gap or fissure now appears on the inner wall of each liemi-
sphcro vesicle, and is bounded above by n longitudinal band of
fibres, wliich, conlitmous anteriorly with tho anterior jiillar of the
fornix, joins it'i fellow in tho middle line to form the bod 1/ of tho
fornix, ond then again diverging from its fellow passes backwards,
downwards, and forwards as the posterior pillar oi i\\c fornix or tho
t-xnia hippocampi. A transverse arrangement of fibres then forms
in each heniisphcre vesicle, above tho piano of the fornix, which,
reaching the mesial plane, joins its fellow, connects tho two hcmi-
Bphcrcs togctlicr, and forms tho corpus callosum. In the hinder
part this corpus rests upon the u]>per surface of tlic fornix, but moro
anteriorly it lies some distance' abovo tho fornix, and then bends
down in front of it. llcnco thero is enclosed between tho fornix
iind the antero-inferior part of tho corpus callosum two thin layers
of grey matter, one belonging to the inner surface of each hemisphere
vcBicle, and called tho septum lucidum. Between these two layers
is a narrow Bjiacc, tho fflh ventricle, which, unlike the other
Ventricles, is not derived from the ccrcbro-spinal tube, but is merely
a portion of tho longitudinal median fissure shut in by tho develop-
ment of the corpus callosum and fornix. Each hemi3i)here vesielo
also gives olf from its anterior part a hollow process, which expands
in front into a bulbous dilatation, named tlie olfactory hulb,^ from
which the nerves of smell arise, whilst the stalk of the bulb solidifies
and forms the olfactorxj peduncle.
Owing to the great development of the mantle of the hemisphere
vesicles in the human biain, and the fizc and complexity of the
convolutions, these parts of tho hemispheres grow forward so as to
overlap the olfactory bulbs an^l peduncles, and backward, so as to
conceal not only tho cori)ora striata and optic thalami, but also the
corpora quadrigt-niina, crura cerebri, cerebellum, pons, and medulla
oblongata, so that when the human brain is looked at from above,
none of these structures can be seen. It is only when the brain is
turned over and its base exposed that the medulla, pons, cerebellum,
and crura aro visible; and* before the corpora quadrigomina, optic
thalami, and corpora striata can bo exposed, portions of the hemi-
sphere substance must be removed. The great growth of the hemi-
sphere vesicle leads also to a great expansion of tho central hollow
or lateral ventricle, which is prolonged forwards, backwards, and
downwards as tho anterior, posterior, and descending cornua. In tho
descending cornu is a projection, ihQ hippocamus major, along which
the t.xnia liippocampi of tho fornix runs ; in tho posterior cornu is a
jmallcr euiinence, the hippocampus minor; and at the junction of
llicse two cornua is a third elevation, tlie ernincntia collateralis.
Immediately investing tho spinal cord and em:ephalon a vascular
membrane, tho pia mater, is developed, processes from which dip
into the fissures between tho two halves of the cord and between
the cerebral convolutions. A broad band, the velum interpositum,
which possesses two marginal fiinges, the choroid plexuses, is
n*lnutted into the lateral ventricle tliiough tho gap or fissure in
the inner wall of each hcmisphero vesicde. This fissure is bounded
above by tho arch-shaped fornix, with its tccnia hippocampi. When
the two hemispheres aro m situ, and tho two halves of tho fornix are
joined together to form the body of that structure, the fissure, with
its contained velum intcrpositum, passes across tho mesial plane
fiom one liemisphere to tho other, having the fornix and tainise for
its roof, and tho optic thalami and corpora quadrigomina for its floor;
it is known as tho arcat transverse fusure of tJie cerebrum.
Membranes of Braix and Stinal Coed. — These nerve
fcntrcs are invested by three incnibraaea or meninges,
which lie between them and the bones that form the walls
of the cranial ca\nty and spinal canal. The inembraQe3 are
named dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.
Dura mater. — The most external membrane, named
dxira from its firmness, consists of a cranial and a spinal
fcubdiviaion. The cranial part b in contact with the inner
table of the cranial bones, and is adherent along the linea
of the sutures and to the margins of the foramina, whicli
transmit the nerves, more especially to the foramen mag-
num. It forms, therefore, for these bones an internal
periosteum, and the meningeal arteries which ramify in it
are tho nutrient arteries of the inner table. As the growth
of bone is more active in infancy and youth than in the
adult, the adhesion between the dura mater and the cranial
bones is greaterjn early life than at maturity. From tho
inner surface of the dura mater strong bands pass into tho
cranial cavity, and form partitions between certain of the
Bubtli visions of the brain. A vertical longitudinal mesial
band, named, from its sickle shape, /a/x cerebri, dips between
tlie two hemispheres of the cerebrum. A smaller sickle-
shaped vertical mesial band, the falx cerehclli, attached to
the internal occipital crest, passes between the two hemi-
spheres of the cerebellum. A large band arches forward
in the horizontal plane of the cavity, from the transvcrso
groove in tho occipital bone to the clinoid processes of tho
sphenoid, and is attached laterally to the ujiper border
of the petrous part of each temporal bone. It separate*
tho cerebrum from the cerebellum, and, as it forms a tent-
liko covering for the latter, is named tentorium cereUHi.
Along certain lines the cranial dura mater splits into t'.vo
layers, to form tubular passages for the transmission of
venous blood. These passages are named the venous Hood
si7iuses of the dura mater, and they aro lodged in the grooves
on the inner surface of the skull referred to in the descrii>a
tion of the cranial bones. Opening into tliese sinuses aro
Fio. C3.— Dura muter hikI cranlnl elnusca. 1, Fnlx cerebri; ?, tenloriufc' 3. 8,
Buperior longituillnol sii.ue; 4, Ifitcral einue ; fi, inte.rnal jugular vein; 6. occl-
pluWhius; 6'. toiculor llcroiliUi ; 7. liifet'or IonKUud:n.iJ sinus; 6, veins of
Gulcn; 9 uiid 10, BupLrior anil InTc-rior pctr.i-al sinus; 11. ca\frnou3 ainus ; I'J;
ciiculir 6iiiu8, w lilch connccls the two cavernous sinust-s tocctlier ; 13, optitliaU
mlc veio, from li, ilic eyeball; 14, crista guUi of etlnuolil booe.
numerous veins, which convey from the brain the biood
that has been circulating through it ; and two of these
sinuses, called cavernons, which lie at the sides- of the body
of the sphenoid bone, receive the 'ophthalmic veins from
the eyeballs situated in the -orbital cavities. These blood
sinuses pass usually from before backwards : a superior^
lo7igitudinal along the upper border of the fabc cerebri as
far as the internal occipital protuberance; an inferior
longitudinal along its lower border as far as the tentorium,
where it joins the straight sinus, which passes back as far
as the same protuberance. One or two small occipital
sinuses, \vh\ch lie in the falx ecrebellf, also pass to join tho
straight and longitudinal sinuses opposite this protuberance ;
several currents of blood meet, therefore, at this spot, and
as Heropbilus supposed that a sort of whirlpool was
formed in the blood, the name torcular Herophili has
been used to express the meeting of these sinuses. From
the torcular the blood ia draiucd a\vax^^two lar^Q
SYSTEM.]
ANATOMY
865
sinuses, na.^ed lateral, which curve forwards and down-
wards to the jugular foramina to terminate in the internal
j ugular veins. In its course each lateral sinus receives two
petrosal sinuses, which pass from the cavernous sinus back-
wards along the upper and lower borders of the oetrous
part of the temporal bone.
The spinal part of the dura mater hangs loosely in the
spinal canal. Itdoes not form a periosteum for the vertebrae,
but is separated from their bony rings by loose fat and a
plexus of veins. It gives off no bands from its inner surface,
and it does not spUt into two layers for the lodgment of
venous blood sinuses. The spinal dura mater forms a tubu-
lar envelope for the spinal cord and the origins of the spinal
nerves. It extends from the foramen magnum, where it is
continuous with the cranial dura mater, to the lower end of the
sacral canal, ends below in a funnel-shaped prolongation, and
is pierced laterally Jay the roots of the several spinal nerves
in their passage outwards to the intervertebral foramina.
Both the cranial and the spinal parts of the dura mater
consist of a tou^h, fibrous membrane ; somewhat flocculent
externally, but smooth, glistening, and free on its inner
surface. The inner surface has the appearance of a serous
membrane, and when examined microscopically is seen to
consist of a layer of squamous endothelial cells, similar to
those drawn in fig. 34. Hence the dura mater is some-
times called a fibro-serous membrane. The dura mater is
well provided with lymph vessels, which in all probability
.»pen by stomata on the free inner surface. Between the
dura mater and the subjacent arachnoid membrane is a fine
space containing a minute quantity of limpid serum, which
moistens the smooth inner surface of the dura and the
corresponding smooth outer surface of the arachnoid. It
is regarded as equivalent to the cavity of-a serous mem-
brane, and is named the arachnoid cavity, or, more
appropriately, the sub-dural space.
Arachnoid Arachnoid mater. — The arachnoid is a membrane of
Djembrnne. great delicacy and transparency, which loosely envelopes
sub-arachnoid space is more distinctly marked beneath the
spinal than beneath the cerebral parts of the membrane,
which forms a looser investment for the cord than for
the brain. At the base of the brain, and opposite the
fissures between the convolutions of .the cerebrum, the
interval between the arachnoid and the pia matter can,
however, always be seen, for the arachnoid does not, like
the pia mater, clothe the sides of the fissures, but passes
directly across between the summits of adjacent convolu-
tions. The sub-arachnoid space is subdivided into numerous
freely-communicating loculi by bundles of delicate areolar
tissue, which bundles are invested, as Key and Retzius have
Bhown, by a layer of squamous endothelium. The space
contains a limpid cerebrospinal fluid, which varies in quan-
tity from 2 drachms to 2 ounces. The fluid is alkaline, of
sp. gr. I'OOo, contains a little albumen, and a substance
■which, as Turner pointed out, reduces blue oxide of
copper to the state of yellow sub-oxide. The arachnoid
membrane is made up, of delicate connective tissue.
TJie free surface next the sub-dural space is smooth,
like a serous membrane, ind covered by a layer of squam-
ous endothelium. • This layer is reflected on to the roots
of the spinal and cranial nerves, and, whiiu lhey"picrce the
dura mater, it becomes continuous with the endothelial
lining of that membrane. As the arrangement and struc-
ture so closely correspond with what is seen in the serous
membranes, many anatomists regard the arachnoid as the
visceral layer of a serous membrane, and the endothelial
lining of the dura mater as the parietal layer, whilst the
sub-dural space is the intermediate cavity.
\~1'J
When the skull cap is removed, clusters of granular
bodies arc usually to be seen imbedded in the dura mater
on each side of the superior longitudinal sinus; these are
named the Pacchionian bodies. When traced through the
dura mater they are found to spring from the visceral or
proper cerebral arachnoid. The observations of Luschka
and Cleland have proved that villous processes invariably
grow from the free surface of that membrane, and that when
these viUi greatly increase in size they form the bodies
ia question. Sometimes the Pacchionian bodies greatly
hypertrophy, occasion absorption of the bones of the cranial
vault, and' depressions on the upper surface of the brain.
Pia mater. — This membrane closely invests the wholi Pia matmt.
outer surface of the brain. It dips into the fissures
between the convolutions, and a wide prolongation,
named velum interpositum, Ues in the interior of the
cerebrum. With a little care it can be stripped off the
brain without causing injury to its substance. The pi?
mater invests the spinal cord, and is more intin;ately
attached to it than to the brain, for not only does it send
prolongations into the anterior and posterior fissures of the
cord, but slender bands pass repeatedly from its inner
surface into the columns of the cord. Hence it cannot be
stripped off the cOrd without causing injury to its sub;
stance. The pia matter is prolonged on to the roots both of
the cranial and spinal nerves, and on to the filum terminale.
This membrane consists of a delicate connective tissue; in
which the arteries of the brain and spinal cord ramify and
subdivide into small branches before they penetrate the
nervous substance, and in which the veins conveying the
blood from the nerve centres lie before they open into the
blood sinuses of the cranial dura mater and the extra-
dural venous plexus of the spinal canal. The arteries
which pass from the pia mater into the brain and spinal
cord are invested by a loose sheath, which has been de-
scribed as forming the wall of a peri-vascular lymphatic
vessel ; but Key and Retzius have shown that the space
both the brain and spinal cord. It is separated from these between the blood-vessel and the sheath opens into the sub-
organs by the pia mater ; but between it and the latter arachnoid space, and contains cerebro-spinal fluid. A net-
membrane is a distinct space, called stib-arachnoid. The work of lymph vessels ramifies freely in the pia mater. It
is also well provided with nerves, which arise from the
posterior roots of the spinal nerves, from some of the
cranial nerves, and from the carotid and vertebral plexuses
of the sympathetic. The epi-cerebral and epi-spinal spaces
described by His as existing between this membrane and
the brain and spinal cord are in all probability artificial
productions.
In the spinal canal a slender fibrous band projects from Ligamen-
the pia mater covering the side of the cord, and, pushing turn dratv
the arachnoid membrane in front of it, is attached by cnlatum.
about twenty-two pairs of denticulated processes to the
inner surface of the dura mater. It is named ligamentun
denticulatum, and its teeth alternate with the successive
pairs of spinal nerves.
Spinal Coed. — The Meditlla Spinalis, or Spitf al Spinal
Coed, occupies the spinal canal, and extends from the '^''"'■
foramen Inagnum to opposite the body of the first lumbar
vertebra. In the early fcetus it equals in length the canal
itself ; but as the spinal column grows at a greater pro-
portional rate than the cord, the latter, when growth has
ceased, is several inches shorter than the column. The cord
is continuous above with the medulla oblongata, whilst it
tapers off below into a slender thread, the filum terminale,
which lies in the axis of the sacral canal, and is attached
below to the back of the coccyx, or to the fibrous mem-
brane which clcraes in below the sacral canal; The length
of the cord is from 15 to 18 inches. It approaches a
cylinder in shape, but is flattened on its anterior and pos-
terior surfaces, and presents two enlargements which have
a greater girth than the rest of the cord The upper,
80G
ANATOMY
[jTEBVOOa
calkd tlie cervical or brachial enlargement, extends from
opposite the third cervical to the first dorsal vertebra, and
from it arise the nerves which supply the upper limbs ; the
lower, called the crurOl or lumbar eidargement, b opposite
the last dorsal vertebra, and supplies with nerves the
lower limbs. The cord is almost completely divided into
right and left lateral halves by two fissures, named re-
spectively anterior and posterior median Jissuret, which do
not quite reach the centre of the cord, for at the bottom of
the anterior fissure are the transverse fibres of the anterior
while commissure, and at the bottom of the posterior fissure
ho fibres of the posterior grey commissure. By these com-
missures the two halves of the cord are united together.
The fibres of the posterior commissure surround a canal,
called the central canal, which extends along the whole
length of the cord, and even passes into the upper end of
the filum tenninale. This canal is lined by a ciliated
columnar endothelium, and expands superiorly into the
cavity of the fourth ventricle. Eaqh lateral half of the cord
is subdivided into three columns by two depressions, which
mark the points of emergence of the roots of the spinal
nerves. The anterior nerve roots pass through the
anterolateral depression or fissure, and between it and the
antcro-median fissure is the anterior column of the cord.
The posterior nerve roots pass through the postero-lateral
fissure, and between it and the postero-median fissure is
the posterior column, whilst between the anterior and
posterior nerve roots lies the lateral column. In the
cervical region, the part of the posterior column which lies
next tne postero-median fissure is marked off by a fisstire
into a small internal or postero-median column. The sub-
division of each
lateral half of the
cord into the
columns, and the
arrangement of its
Bervous tissues, are
well seen in trans-
verse sections
through its sub-
stance. The cord
is composed of
white and grey
matter. The white
matter is e.^temal, Fio. 64.— Transverse section through the spinal cord,
and forms the co- **••'"'"<>.■"'=?';".■»'>•'.•'''• ^■"•H'-o-"'^'^"'"''^"'-"
lumiis of the cord.
The grey matter is
surrounded by the
white, and has
in each lateral
half of the cord a crescentic shape. The horns of the
crescent are directed towards the fissures of emergence of the
nerve roots ; the anterior horn is rounded ; the posterior
long and narrow. The proportion of grey matter to the
white varies in different parts of the cord. At the com-
mencement of the filum terminale there is scarcely any
v.-hite matter ; but the white matter increases in amount
from below upwards, so that its absolute quantity is greatest
in the cervical part of the cord. The grey crescents are
thicker in the upper and lower enlargements than in the
intermediate part
The cord contains both nerve fibres and nerve ceUs. The
external, columnar, white part of the cord consists of nerve
fibres, with a supporting reticular framework of coimective
tissue and blood-vessels derived from the pia mater. Well-
formed stellate connective tissue corpuscles lie in this sup-
porting framework. The nerve fibres of the various columns
extend longitudinally, and lie paraUel to each other, so that
in tiansverse sections through the columns the fibres are
PC, posterior, LC lateral, and AC, anterior culumnH;
AR, anterior, and PR. posterior nen-e roots; C,
central canal of cord, with its cohimnar endothelial
Unlnc- The pia mater Is shown investing the cord.
Bending processes Into the anterior and posterior
fisstirea, aa well as delicate prolongations into the
columns. The croscentic anangement of the gre>
matter is shown by the darker shaded portion.
transversely divided. The individual fibres vary much vi
diameter, but in sQl the axial cylinder and medullary sheath
can be distinctly seen. Wherever the nerve roots enter
into the cord, the fibres of these roots pass transversely or
obliquely in their course inwards to the grey matter.
Horizontal fibres are also found in the white anterior com-
missure,' and a similar appearance can be seen in the
posterior commissure. Horizontal fibres have also been
traced from the lateral columns into the adjacent part of
the grey matter.
The grey crescentic portion of the cord contains con-
nective tissue, blood-vessels, nerve fibres, and nerve cells.
The nerve fibres in the grey matter are numerous ; and
whilst some possess a medullary sheath, others consist
only of the axial cylinder ; they divide and subdivide,
and, as Gerlach has shown, form a narrow -meshed
network of extremely minute fibres. The nerve cells are
multipolar, and are chiefly collected in the anterior and
posterior horns of each crescent. The ceUs of the an-
terior cormi are large, distinct, and stellate, and form
a well-defined group of nerve cells. Those of the pos-
terior comu are smaller in size, more elongated in shape,
but with stellate branched processes. They are not so
distinct as in the anterior horn, owing to the connective
tissue with its corpuscles being so abundant This tissue
is best marked at the tip of the posterior horn, where it
forms the substantia gelatinosa of Rolando. Lockhart
Clarke has described an intermedio-lateral group of nerve
cells situated at the outer side of the grey matter, about
midway between the anterior and posterior horns, in the
upper part of the cervical portion of the cord, and in the
thoracic part between the brachial and crural enlargements.
The course of the fibres in the cord and their relations
to the nerve cells should now be considered. There can
be no doubt that of the longitudinal fibres some ascend
from below upwards, and conduct either cxcito-motory
impulses to the regions of the spinal cord itself, or sen-
sory impulses to the brain. Other longitudinal fibres again
descend from the brain and higher regions of the cord to
the lower, and conduct motor and vaso-motor impulses
from above downwards. The horizontal and oblique fibres
of an anterior or motor nerve root enter the grey matter of
the anterior comu, and seem to have the following arrange-
ment: some become directly continuous with the axial cylin-
drical processes of the nerve cells; others pass into the an-
terior commissure ; others extend as far as the grey matter
of the posterior horn. The nerve cells of the anterior comu
give origin, therefore, directly to nerve fibres by their nn-
branched processes. Gerlach's observations show that the
branched processes of these cells become continuous with.
the network of extremely minute fibres already described
in the grey matter; from this network medullated fibres
appear to arise which leave the grey matter; some enter the
lateral column, and ascend as the fibres of this structure;
others pass as fibres of the anterior commissure to the
opposite side of the cord, and ascend as the anterior column
of that side. The anterior and lateral columns, therefore,
are constantly receiving accessions of fibres from the
enclosed grey matter.
The fibres of a posterior or sensory nerve root on entering
the cord subdivide into two bundles; one does not enter the
grey matter, but applies itself to the posterior coluinn, of
which it forms some of the vertical fibres. These fibres
may ascend to the brain, or they may at some higher point
in the cord enter the grey matter of the posterior horn. The
other bundle of posterior root fibres at once enters the
posterior horn of grey matter. The connections and ulti-
mate arrangement of these fibres in the grey matter have
not been satisfactorily made ,out Gerlach states that, as
they frequently eubdivide on entering the grev matter it
rEM.]
ANATOMY
867
Bpir-l
neiri '
is possible they may form the fine nerve fibre plexus of the
grey substance ; but a direct continuity between them and
the axial -cylinder processes of the cells of the posterior
horn does not seem to have been observed. From the
plexus, formed by the much subdivided processed of these
cells, fibres arise, which, forming the fibres of the pos-
terior commissure, pass both in front of and behind the
central canal to the opposite side, where they ascend towards
the brain, " partly in the vertical fasciculi of the posterior
comua and partly in the posterior columns."
The structure of the spinal cord shows it to be both a
nerve centre and a conductor of nervous impulses. The
nerve cells in its grey matter give rise either directly,
or through the delicate plexus formed by their branching
processes, to nerve fibres, which may either pass out of
the cord as the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal
nerves, or may ascend to the brain as the columns of the
cord. Hence the cord is anatomically continuous, on the
one hand, through the nerves which arise from it, with the
peripheral end-organs in the skin, and muscular system in
which those nerves terminate; and, on the other hand, it is
continuous with the brain. It serves, therefore, to conduct
the impulses of touch-sensation from the skin upwards
to the brain, and the motor impulses from the brain
downwards to the- muscles. But further, the cord is the
great nerve centre concerned in reflex excito-motory
actions. It must, also, be remembered that the two halves
of the cord are anatomicaOy continuous with each other
through the nerve fibres of the commissures, so that it acts
as a single organ, and not as two organs. Experiments
have shown that sensory impulses are conducted upwards
through the cord, not by that half from which the nerves
arise that have been excited, but by the opposite half of
the cord, which is obviously due to the crossing of the
fibres of the posterior commissure. Motor impressions
are, however, conducted downwards by that haU of the
cord from which the nerves arise that pass to supply the
muscles to be moved.
The spinal cord is well supplied with blood by numerous
arteries, which terminate in a dilTused capQlary network.
The capillaries are much more numerous in the grey matter
of the cord than in the white columns.
Oeigin, Aeeangement, and Distribution of the
Spinal Nerves. — The spinal cord gives origin to thirty-
one pairs of Spinal nerves, which pass out of the spinal
canal through the intervertebral foramina. These nerves
are arranged in groups, according to the region of the
spine through the foramina in which they proceed.
There are eight pairs of cervical nerves; the first or
cub-occipital emerges between the occipital bone and the
tttlas, the eighth between the seventh cervical and first
dorsal vertebrae; Twelve dorsal or thoracic nerves pass out
on each side in relation to the dorsal vertebrae: five pairs
of lumbar nerves in the region of the loins; five pairs of
sacral nerves through the sacral foramina; and one pair
of coccygeal nerves through the lowest openings, in the
spinal canal Each spinal nerve arises by two roots, an
anterior and a posterior, from the side of the cord. These
roots arc distinguished from each other both anatomically
and physiologically. The posterior root has a swelling or
ganglion on it, whilst no ganglion exists on the anterior
root. The posterior root consists of sensory nerve fibres,
i.e., of fibres which conduct impulses from the periphery
into the nerve centre; whilst the anterior root is composed
of motor nerve fibres, i.e., of fibres which conduct im-
pulses from the centre to the periphery. The ganglion is
situated on the posterior root, as a rule, in the interverte-
bral foramen; but the lower sacral nenfos have the ganglia
on their posterior roots in the spinal canal These ganglia
contain bipolar nenu cells, and the nerve fibres, as they
pass through each ganglion, are apparently connected vrith
the poles of the cells. The roots of the spinal nerves vary
in direction and length. Those of the cervical nerees
are short, and run almost horizontally outwards to their
respective intervertebral foramina; those of the dorsal are
longer and more oblique; whilst the roots of the lumbar
and sacral nerves, ovring to the cord ending much above
the foramina through which the nerves proceed, are very
long, and form a leash of nerves in the lower part of the
spinal canal, which surrounds the filum terminale, and, from
its general resemblance in arrangement to the h?irs of a
horse's tall, has been named canda equina.
The anterior nerve root joins the posterior immediately
outside .the ganglion, and by their junction a spinal nerve
is formed. This nerve contains a mixture of both motor
and sensory fibres, and is compound therefore in function.
Almost immediately after its formation the nerve separates
into two divisions, an anterior and a posterior, and each
division, like the nerve itself, contains both motor and
sensory fibres.
The Posterior Primary Divisions of the spinal nerves,
smaller than the anteriqr, are distributed both to tho
muscles and skin on the back of the axial part of the body.
Their general arrangement is as follows : each division,
with some three or four exceptions, subdivides into an
internal and an external branch. In the back of the neck
and the back of the upper part of the chest, the external
branches of these nerves supply the deep muscles; the
internal branches pierce the muscles close te the spines
of the vertebrae, and end in ^le skin; the internal branch
of the second nerve, called great occipital, and that of
the third cervical, pass to the skin over the occipital bone.
In the back of the lower part of the chest and of the loins,
the internal branches supply the deep muscles, the external
branches pass to the skin, those of some of the lumbar
nerves extending as far as the skin of the buttock.
The Anterior Primary Divisions are not so uniform
either in arrangement or distribution as are the pos-
terior. They supply the
front and sides of the axial
part of .the neck and trunk,
and the extremities. The
anterior divisions of the
twelve thoracic nerves have
the most simple arrange-
ment. Each nerve, called
from its position an inter-
costal nerve, runs out-
wards, immediately below
the lower border of a rib, Fio.es.— Diagram ot the aiTangcmcnt of a
and gives origin to three
series of branches, named
communicating, muscular,
and cutaneous. By the
Commilnicating branch
each intercostal nerve is
connected with an ad-
jacent ganglion on the thoracic portion of the sympathetic
system. By the Muscular or motor branches these nerves
supply the intercostal muscles, the lovatores costarum, and
the triangularis stemi, whUst the lower intercostal nerves
run forwards and downwards into the wall of tho abdomen,
and supply the two obUque, the transvei-se, rectus, and
pyramidalis muscles. The skin of the sides of the thorax
and abdomen receives its nervous supply from the Lateral
Cutaneous branches, whilst the skin on the fiont of tho
trunk is supplied by the Anterior Cutaneous terminations of
these nerves. The lateral cutaneous branches of the second
and third intercostal nerves are comparatively large in size,
and assist in the supply of the skin of the inner side of
pair of thoracic spinal nirrvcs. SC. aylnal
cord ; AR, anterior ner\ e root ; PR. po»-
terior root, with ita ganglion; PD, pt*.
terioi piioiary division ; AD, anterior
primary divlaloD, or Intercostal nei-ve;
SG, sympathetic gaDRllon, with the com-
mtmlcatlng brancltes between it and the
anterior division ; M, mosclea, with the
motor branches entering them : LC^
lateral cataneous, and AC, anterior
cntaneoua nervca
868
ANATOMY
[kbbvodb
tho upper arm; Leuco they ore called intercosto-kumercU
nerves.
Kervoaa In tlio regions of tlio ueck, luins, and pelvis, the anterior
ploi\ise3. divisions of tho spinal nerves do not pass simply outwards
to their distribution, lu each region adjacent nerves in-
terlace with each other, and form what is technically called
a nervous plexus. When a branch arises from a thoracic
nerve, it contains fibres derived from that nerve only ; but
*ifion a branch arises from a plexus, it may contain fibres,
not of one only, but of two or more of the nerves which,
by their interlacement, form tho plexus. Hence the parts
T\ hich are supplied by these branches aro brought into con-
nection with a greater number of nerves, and consequently
with a greater extent of tno spinal cord or nervo centre,
than are the parts wliich receive branches from a single
nerve only. Those plexuses are especially found in con-
nection with tho nerves which supply the extremities,
■where, owing to tho complexity of tho muscular move-
ments, the co-ordination of those movements through the
nervous system is rtndercd necessary.
Tho anterior divisions of tho eight cervical nerveS are
arranged in two plexuses, named cervical and brachial
The Cervical plexus (PI. XVII) is formed of the four
upper cervical nerves, which make, by interlacement with
each other, a series of loops in front of the transverse
processes of the cervical vertebrse. Arising cither directly
from these nerves, or from the plexus which they form, are
communicating, muscular, and cutaneous branches. The
Coinmuni<:ating branches connect these nerves with the
large superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic system,
also with tho vagus, accessory, and hypoglossal cranial
nerves, and with the descending branch of tho hypoglossal
The Muscular branches supply the anterior recti muscles
of tho neck, the levator scapuilie, the posterior scalenus,
the diaphragm, and in part the stemo-mastoid and trape-
zius. The branch to tho diaphragm, or the phrenic nerve,
is the most important (PI. XVIL f) ; it springs from the
third, fourth, and fifth cervical, and passes down the lower
part of the neck, and through the thorax, to supply its
own half of the diaphragm. The Cutaneous branches are
as foUowa: — the occipitalis minor, to the skin of the
occiput ; the auriculo-parotidejn, to the skin over the
parotid gland and the atijacent part of the auricle ; the
transversalis colli, to the skin < f the front of the side of
the neck ; tho supra-clavicular nerves, to the skin of the
lower part of the side of the neck, and upper part of the
chest.
The Brachial plexus (PL XVIL 1, 2, 3, 4) is formed
of the four lower cervical nerves, and of the larger por-
tion of the fii'st intercostal, called also first dorsal nerve.
It is of large size, and is principally for the supply
of the upper limb. Its exact mode of arrangement
presents many variations, but the following is not un-
irequently found : — The fifth and sixth nerves join lo
form a large nerve, which, after a short course, is joined
by the seventh ; in this manner the upper cord of the
plexus is formed. The eighth cervical and the first
dorsal then join, to form the lower cord of the plexus.
These cords then pass behind the clavicle and subclavius
muscle into the axilla, where they become modified in
arrangement. From each a large branch arises, and these
two branches then join to form a third cord. These three
cords have special relations to the axillary artery : the one
which lies to its outer side is named the outer cord ; that to
the iimf ;, the inner cord; that behind, the posterior cord.
These nerves and the cords formed by them give origin to
conmiunicaiiag, muscular, cutaneous, and mixed branches.
The Communicating branches join the middle and in-
ferior cervical and first thoracic ganglia of the sympathetic
•yatcuL Thj Muscular branches supply the scaleni, longi'.s
colli, rhomboid, and subclavius muscles ; the oupra and
infraspinatus muscles, through a branch called tupra-
scapular ; tho serratus magnus, through tho posterior
t/u>racic branch ; tho greater and lesser pectorals, through
the two • anterior thirracic branches ; and the subscapu-
larifl, teres major, and latissimus dorsi, through the three
subscapular branches. The Cutaneous branches arise from
the iimer cord, and are the lesser internal cutaruout,
which ends in tho akin of the inner side of the upper
arm, and joins the intercosto-humeral ; and the internal
cutaneous, which not only sends branches to the skin of
the upper arm, but supplies the skin of the inner Bide
of tho forearm, both on its anterior and posterior surfaces.
The Mixed branches aro large and very important: —
d, The Circumjlex, from the posterior cord, supplies the
deltoid and teres minor muscles, tho skin over tho del-
toid, and tho shoulder joint, b. The Musculo-Spiral, also
from tho posterior cord, supplies the triceps and anconeus,
the supinator longus and extensor carpi radialis longior
muscles ; and hy its external cutaneous branch, the skin of
the outer side of the back of the forearm. It then divides
into tho radial and posterior interosseous branches. The
radial passes through the forearm to tho hand, and 6ui)plies
tho skin on the back qf the thumb, index and middle digits,
and radial side of the ring digit. Tho posterior interosse-
ous supplies the muscles on tho back of the forearm and the
articulations of tho carpal joints, c, Tho Musculo-Cutane-
ous branch of the outer cord of the plexus supplies tho
biceps, brachialis anticus, and coraco-brachiahs muscles, ,
and ends in an external cutaneous branch, which supplies
tho skin of the outer side of the forearm, both in front and
behind, d. The Ulnar nerve arises from the inner cord,
passes through the upper arm, and enters the forearm be-
tween tho inner condyle and olecranon, where it supplies
the elbow joint. Here it may easily be compressed, when
a pricking sensation is experienced in the course of its dis-
tribution. In this spot it is popularly called the " funny
bone." In the forearm the ulnar nerve supplies the flexor
carpi ulnaris and inner part of the' flexor profundus digi-
torum muscles. In the hand it supplies the muscles of the
ball of the little finger, the two inner lumbricales, the inter-
ossei muscles, and the adductor and deep part of tho short
flexor of the thumb. It also supplies a dorsal cutaneous
branch to the back of the hand, and the back of the little
and of tho ulnar side of the ring digits. Palmar cutaneous
branches are also given to the palm and the palmar aspects
of the same digits, e, The Median nerve arises by tvio roots,
one from the inner, the other from the outer cord of the
plexus. It enters the forearm in front of the elbow joint,
supplies, either directly or thfough its anterior interosseous
branch, all the flexors and pronaters, e::cept those supplied
by the ulnar ; is continued to the hand, where it supplies
the abductor, opponens, superficial part of the short flexor
of the thumb, and two outer lumbrical muscles. It also
supplies a palmer branch to the skin of the palm, and gives
digital cutaneous branches to the thumb, index and middle
digits, and radial side of the ring digit.
The Lumbar plexus, of large size, is situatea at the back
of the abdominal cavity in the region of the loiiLS, and is
formed by the four upper lumbar nerves, which form a
series of loop-like interlacements in front of the transverse
processes of the lumbar vertebrae. It gives origin to com-
municating, muscular, cutaneous, and mixed branches.
The Communicating branches join the four upper lumbar
ganglia of the sympathetic system. The Muscular
branches supply the quadratus lumborum muscle, and
give branches to the psoas. The Cutaneous branches are
named — a, Ilio-hypogastric, which gives an iliac branch to
the skin of the buttock, and a hypogastric branch to the
skin of the abdomen above the pubio symphysis; i
■5 "s
<l
I
SYSTEM.]
ANATOMY
8Gi>
Hlo-inguiiial, which supplies the skin of tne groin ; this
nerve is by some said to send a branch to the internal
oblique muscle ; c, External Cutaneous, which suijplies the
skin on the outer aspect of the thigh. The Mixed branches
are as follows : — a, Genito-erural, which supplies the cre-
master muscle, and a cutaneous branch to the skin of the
groin. 6, Anterior Crural, a large nerve which enters the
thigh by passing behind Poupart's Ligament, and supplies the
great extensor muscles of the knee-joint, and also the sar-
torius, the psoas-iliacus and the pectineus, wliich act as
flexors of the hip joint; it gives off the following cutaneous
branches : — An internal eidaneous to the skin of the inner
side, a middle cutaneous to the skin of the middle of the
front of the thigh, and the long saphaious nerve, which
supplies the skin pf the inner side of the knee-joint, the
inner side of the leg and the foot, c, Obturator nerve, which
leaves the pelvis through the obturator foramen, and sup-
plies the obturator externus and adductor muscles of the
thigh, and sends a branch to the pectineus; it also supplies
the. hip and knee joints, and not unfrequently gives a
branch to the skin of the lower part of the inner side of
the thigh, d. An Accessory Obturator nerve is sometimes
present, which goes to the pectineus. to the hipjoint, and
aliio joins the obturator ucvve.
Tio. 68. — Lumbar, oaeral and sacro-coccycea. plexaaes, DXII, the lowest thoracic
nerve of the Intercostal serlea; LI to IV, the nerves of the lumbar plexus; V,
Ihe fifth lumbar, with 8, the lumbo-sacral cord; SI to IV, eacral nerves pnloc
to form the sacral plexus; V and CI, the aacro-coccygeal plexus; a, chain of
panfilla of Ihe ej-mpiithetlc system. showlnR the communicating branches with
the spinal neives; c, the Inst of these ganglia, railed cnccyceal gnngilnn, or
ganglion Impar; 6, position of solar plexns; 1. llio-hypogasfrlc nerve; 2, Ilio-
inguinal; 3, external cutaneous; 4, gcDlto-cmral ; 6, anterior crural; 6,
obturator; 7, aupeilor glutieal.
"The Lumbo-sacral Cord is formed of the fifth lumbar
nerve and of a branch from the fourth lumbar. It joins the
sacral plexus. Before the junction it gives origin to a com-
municating and a muscular branch. The Communicating
joins the fifth lumbar ganglion of the sj-mpathetic. The
Muscular branch, named the superior gluttsal nerve, sup-
plies the glutjeus medius arid minimus and the tensor fascia;
femoris muscle.
The Sacral plexus is situated in the cavity of the pelvis,
and is the largest of all the plexites. It \a formed by the
junction of the lumbo-sacral cord, the fifst, second, third,
and [lartof the fourth sacral nerves, and ajipears as atlattened
mass in front of the sacrum. It gives origin to com*
municating, muscular, and mixed branches. The Com-
municating branches join the upper sacral ganglia of the
sympallictic system. The Muscular branches supply the
upper fibres of the glutaeus ma.ximus, the pyriformis,
gcnielli, quadratus femoris, and obturator internus
muscles. The Mixed nerves are as follows : — a, Fudic,
which supplies the muscles and skin of the external organs
of generation. 6, Small Sciatic, which supplies not only the
lower fibres of the glutxus maximus muscle, but the skin of
the buttock, the back of the thigh, of the [lopliteal space,
and of the leg; it also gives a long pudendal branch to
the skin of the perineum, c. Great Sciatic; this is the
largest nerve in the body. It leaves the pelvis through
the great sciatic foramen, and passes down the back of the
thigh, when it divides into external and internal popUteal
branches. Before dividing it supplies the hamstring
muscles, and gives a branch to the adductor magnus.
The external popliteal branch gives offsets to the knee-
joint, passes down the outer side of the leg, supplies the
peronei longus and brevis, gives off the communicant
peronei branch to the skin of the outer side of the back of
the leg, and ends as the external cutaneous nerve for the
dorsum of the foot and the dorsal surfaces of all the toes,
except the outer side of the little and the adjacent sides of
the great and second toes. The internal popliteal branch
gives offsets to the knee-joint, and supplies the communi-
cans tibialis nerve, which joins the communicans peronei.
and forms with it the external saphenous nerve that paj»je3
to the outer side of the foot and little toe. The iii«rnal
popliteal also supplies the muscles of the caU and the
popliteus muscle, and is prolonged downwards as the
posterior tibial nerve. The anterior tibial passes to thir
front of the leg, suppUes the tibiaUs anticus, peroneus ter-
tius, and extensor muscles of the toes, and terminates as the
cutaneous digital nerve for the adjacent sides of the great
and second toes. The posterior tibial nerve passes down
the back of the leg, supplies the tibialis posticus and long
flexors of the toes, gives off a cutaneous branch to the
skin of the heel, and terminates by divic^ng into the
internal and external plantar nerves. The internal plantar
nerve supplies the skin of the sole and sends digital branches
to the skin of the great, second, third, and tibial side of the
fourth toes ; it also supplies the abductor poUicis, flexor
brevis digitorum, flexor brevis pollicis, and two inner
lumbrical muscles. The external plantar nerve supplies
digital branches to the skin of the little and fibular sides
of the fourth toes, and branches to all the muscles of the
sole of the foot which are not supplied by the interna]
plantar nerve.
The Sacro-Coccygeal is the smallest plexus belonging to
the anterior divisiohs of the spinal nerves. It is formed by a
part of the fourth sacral, the fifth sacral, and the coccygeal
nerves. It Ues in front of the last sacral and the first coccy-
geal vertebra;, and gives origin to communicating, visceral,
muscular, and cutaneous branches. The Communicating
branches join the lower sacral and the coccygeal ganglia of
the sympathetic system ; the Visceral pass to the pelvic
plexus of the sympathetic, and through it to the bladder
and rectum : the Muscular to the levator ani, jcoccygeus,
and sphincter ani externus muscles ; the Cutamous to the
skin about the anus and tip of the coccyx.
Thk Brain. — By the term Brai.n or ENCErnALON is Brain,
meant all that part of the central nervous axis which is
contained within the cavity of the skull. It is divided
into several parts, named medulla oblongata, pons, ccro-
belium, and cerebrum. The medulla oblongata is directly
870
A N A T O M Y
[kEEVuOSi system~
continuous with tho spiniil cord through tho foramoii
magnum. The cerehcUuia lies above, and immediately
behind tho uiedulU oblongata, with which it is directly
coutinuous. Tho pons lies above -and in front of tho
medulla, with which it is directly continuous. The cere-
brum is the highest division, and lies above both pons and
cerebellum, with both of which it ia directly continuous.
Several figures of the braia are given in Plato XVUI.
JMoJulla Tho Medulla Odlonqata reata upon tho basi-occipital.
oblou- [t is somewhat pyramidal in form, about IJ inch long, and
P^"' 1 inch broad in its widest part. It is a bilateral organ, and
is divided into a right and a left half by shallow anterior
and posterior median fissures, continuous with tho corre-
sponding fissures in the spinal cord ; the posterior fissure
ends above in tho 4th ventricle.- Each half is subdivided
into elongated tracts of nervous matter. Next to, and
parallel with the anterior fissure is the anterior pyramid
(PI. XVIII. figs. 1 and 2, P). This pyramid is continuous
below with the cord, and the place of continuity is marked
by the passage across thtrfissuro of three or four bundles of
nervo fibres, from each half of tho cord to the opposite
anterior pyramid; this crossing is called tho decussation of
the pyramids. To the side of tho pyramid, and separated
from it by a faint fissure, is the olivary fasciculus, which
at its upper end is elevated into the projecting oval-shaped
olivary body (PI. XVIII. figs. 1 and 2, 0). Behind tho olive,
and separated from it by a faint groove, is the strong tract
named restiform body; as it ascends from tho cord it
diverges from its fellow in the opposite half of the medulla
oblongata. By this divergence the centml part of tho
modidla is opened up, and the lower half of the cavity of
tho 4c)) ventricle is formed. Internal to the restiform body
is the posterior pyramid, which is continuous with the
postero-median column, and bounds the postero-median
fissure. Where the restiform bodies diverge from each
other, there also the posterior pyramids diverge outwards
from tlie sides of the postero-median fissure. At the upper
part of the floor of the 4th ventricle a longitudinal tract of
nerve fibres, the fasciculus teres, ascends on each side of
its median furrow (Fig. 68, 7). Slender tracts of nerve
fibres, the arciform fibres, arch across the side of the medulla
immediately below tho olive ; and white slender tracts
emerge from the median -furrow of the 4th ventricle, pass
outwards across its floor, and form the stnoe medullares or
acmisiicae, the rootsof origin of the auditory nerve(Fig. 68,8).
The medulla oblongata, like the spinal cord, with which
it is continuous, consists both of grey and white matter.
But the exterior of the medulla is not so exclusively formed
of white matter as is the outer part of the cord, for the
divergence from each other of the restiform bodies and
posterior pyramids of opposite sides opens out the central
part of the medulla, and allows the grey Lnatter to become
superficial on the floor of the 4lh ventricle. The nerve
fibres which enter into the formation of the pyramids and
the other tracts just described, are partly continuous below
with the columns of the spinal cord, and are prolonged
upwards either to tho pons and cerebrum, or to the cere-
bellum, or they partly take their rise in the medulla
oblougata itself from the ceUs of its grey matter. As the
medulla is a bilateral organ, its two halves are united
together by commissural fibres, which cross obliquely its
mesial plane from one side to the other, and as they, decus-
sate in that plane, they form a well-marked mesial band
or raphe. Further, the medulla is a centre of origin for
several pairs of the more posterior encephalic nerves, and for
the vaso-motor nerves. In the passage upwards through
the medulla of the columns of the cord, a re-arrangement
of their fibres takes place ; just as in a great central railway
station, the rails, which «nter it in one direction, intersect
.and are rearranged before they emerge from it in the opposite
direction. The fibres of the posterior median column of
the cord are prolonged upwards as the posterior pyramid.
The fibres of the posterior column of the cord are for the
most part prolonged upwards mto the restiform body,
though some fibres pass to the front of the medulla to
participate in the decussation of the anterior pyramids.
Tho lateral column of the cord divides into three parts ;
a, the greater number of its fibres pass inwards across the
anterior median fissure, to assist in forming the anterior
pyramid of the opposite side, so as to produce the decussation
already referred to ; b, others join the restiform body ; c,
others form tho fasciculus^ teres situated on the floor of the
4th ventricle. The ante-
rior column of the cord
also divides into three
parts : a, some fibres
form the arciform fibres
and join tho restiform
body ; b, others assist in
the formation of tho
olivary fasciculus ; c,
others are prolonged up-
wards in the anterior
pyramid of the same
side (Fig. 67).
The anterior pyramid
consists partly of fibres
of the anterior column
of the cord of the same
side, partly of decus-
sating fibres of the ante-
rior commissure, partly
of decussating fibres
from the posterior co-
lumns and posterior cor-
nu of grey matter, but
principally of tKe decus-
sating fibres of the lateral
column of the opposite
side of the cord. The
fibres of the anterior
pyramid are prolonged
through the pons to the
cerebrum. Owing to
the decussation of the
lateral columns of the cord in the formation of the pyramids,
the motor nerve fibres from one-half of the brain are trans-
mitted to the opposite side of the tord, so that injuries
afi'ecting one side of the brain occasion paralysis of the
motor nerves arising from the opposite half of the cord.
The olivary fasciculus is formed partly of fibres of the
anterior column of the same side, and partly of fibres
arising from the grey matter of the ohve. It is continued
upwards through the pons to the cerebrum. The restiform
body is formed principally of fibres of the posterior column
of the same side, but partly of fibres of the lateral column,
and also of the arciform fibres from the anterior column,
and from the grey matter of the superior and inferior
olives. As the restiform body is continued upwards to
the cerebellum, and forms its inferior peduncles, the arciform
fi,bres have been called by SoUy the superficial cerebellar
fibres of the medulhv. Through the restiform body the
cerebellum is connected with the posterior, lateral, and
anterior columns of the cord as well as with the olivary
nuclei in the grey matter of the medulla oblongata. The
posterior pyramid consists of the posterior median column
of the cord, and is prolonged through the pons to the
cerebrum. The fasciculus teres is formed of a small part
of the lateral column of the cord, and is also prolonged
through the pons to the cerebrum.
Flo. 67. — Diiigrimm&tic dlSECcliOD of tbo me-
diilta oblonK^ta and pons lo ftbow tbe coaroe
of tlie flbres. a, Eupei tlcial, d'. deep traosverM
flhrca of the pons; b, b, anterior pyr&midt
oscondiugat&'tbrouehtliepona; c, e, olivary
todies; c'. olivary fasciculus in tbe poiia;
d, d. aolcriorcolotnns of cord; e. Inner part
of the rlgbt column Joining tbo anterior
pyramid ; /, tbe outer part going to Uifl
olivary fascicules; y, lateral ct'Iumn of cord;
h. tbe part which dtcusa;ite8 at t, the dccusaa*
tion of the pyramids ; t, the part which joins
tho rcallforro body ; m, that v/hlch forms tbo
fascicules teres; n, crcifonn fibres, land 3,
sensory and motor roots of fifth nerre;
3, sixth nerve; 4, portio dura; 6, portio
intermedia j 6, portio ciollia 01 seventh nerve;
7, glosso-phar}'ngesl ; 8. poeumo-gaatric ; 9,
spinal accessory of eightli nen-e ; 10, hypo-
glossal nerve.
AJSTATOMY
PLATE XVI II.
Kbn'j of' Corarui R^Lita
EKCYCLOP-tOIA BRITANNIC*. NINTH CDIflOH
("
BEAIN.]
A N' A T 0 M Y
871
Thfl grey matter of the medulla oblongata, which contains
numerous multipolar nerve cells, is in part continuous with
the grey matter of the Spinal cord, and in part consists of in-
dependent masses. As the grey matter of the cord enters the
medulla it loses its crescentic arrangement. The posterior
coi:nua are thrown outwards towards the surface, lose their
jiointed form, and dilate into rounded masses named the
grey tubercles of Rolando, whilst portions are prolonged
into both the posterior pyramid and the restiform body.
The gray matter of the anterior cornua and of the intermedio-
Jateral tracts loses its continuity, and becomes subdivided
into numerous small masses, owing to being traversed by
bundles of nerve fibres, which give rise to a network termed
formitio reticularis, in the meshes of which the groups of
nerve cells are contained. In the lower part of the medulla
a central canal continuous with that of the cord exists, but
when the restiform bodies and posterior pyramids on the
opposite sides of the meduUs diverge from each other, the
central canal loses its posterior boundary, and dilates into
the cavity of the 4th ventricle. The grey matter in the
interior of the medulla appears, therefore, on the floor of the
ventricle; that which corresponds to the anterior cornua
being situated immediately on each side of the median fur-
row, whilst that which ia continuous with the grey tubercles
of Rolando and the posterior cornua is some distance ex-
tern?! to it. This grey matter forms collections of nerve
eel! 1, which are the centres of origin of several important
encephalic nerves.
Of the independent masses of grey matter of the medulla,
that which forms the corpus dentatum within the olivary
body is the most important, and constitutes the nucleus of
the inferior olive. It is folded on itself in a zig-zag or
denticulated manner, and forms a sort of capsule open on
the inner aspect, through which openings a bundle of nerve
fibres from the interior of the capsule proceeds. These
fibres aid in the formation of the ohvary fasciculus, and as
Deiters and Meynert have pointed out, in part arch across the
mesial plane and join the restiform body on the opposite side,
whilst some apparently join the posterior pyramid. The
nei'va cells of the olive are multipolar and flask-shaped, and
in all probability give origin to the nerve fibres proceeding
from the interior of the capsule. Separated from the inner
part of the olive by a layer of reticular substance is a smaller
grey m.ass, called by StiLUng nucleus oUvaris accessorius.
Cro 'ing the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata,
immediately below the pons, in the majority of mammals
is r, transverse arrangement of fibres forming the trapezium,
Viiicli contains a grey nucleus, named by Van der Kolk
the superior olive. In the human brain the trapezium is
concealed by the lower transverse fibres of the pons, but when
sections are made through it, as L. Clarke pointed out, the
gi'ey matter of the superior olive can be seen. Mejmert
states that its nerve ceUs give origin to some fibres, which
run tiraight backwards to the restiform body of the same
lida, and to others which pass across the mesial plane to
the opposite corpus restiforme.
The Rons Vaeolii or Bridge (PI XVIII. figs. 1, 2, 3,N)
Is cuboidal in form : its anterior surfacia . rests upon the
dorsum sellas of the sphenoid, and is marked by a median
longitudinal groove ; its inferior surface receives the pyra-
midal and olivary tracts of the medulla oblongata; at its
superior surface are the two crura cerebri ; each lateral
surf?,co is in relation to a hemisphere of the cerebellum,
and a peduncle passes from the pons into the interior of
each hemisphere ; tie posterior surface forms in part the
upper portion of the floor of the 4th ventricle, and in part
is in contact with the corpora quadrigemina.
The pons consists of white and grey matter : the nerve
fibres of the white matter pass through the substance of
the pons, cither in a transverse or a longitudinal direction.
The transverse' -fibres go from one hemisphere of the
cerebellum to that of the opposite side ; some are situated
on the anterior surface of the pons, and form its superficial
transverse fibres, whilst others pass through its substance
and form the deep transverse fibres. The transverse fibres
of the pons constitute, therefore, the commissural or
connecting arrangement by which the two hemispheres of
the cerebellum become anatomically continuous *ith each
other. The longitudinal fibres of the pons ascend or pass
vertically upwards from the medulla oblongata, and consist
of the fibres of the antenor pyramids, olivary fasciculi,
fasciculi teretes, and posterior pyramids. They leave tho
pons by emerging front its upper surface as fibres of tho
two crura cerebri. Tho pons possesses a median raphe
continuous with that of the medulla oblongata, and formed
like it by a decussation of fibres in the mesial plane.
The grey matter of the pons is scattered irrepularlv
through its substance, and appears on its posterior surface ;
but not on the anterior surface, which is composed exclu-
sively of the superficial transverse fibres. It is traversed
both by the longitudinal and deep transverse fibres, which
form a well-defined formalio reticularis. To a portion of
grey matter, containing nerve cells charged with dark
pigment, the name of locus cccruleus is applied. The locus
lies on the floor of the iih vtutricle, close to the entrance
to the aqueduct of Sylvius, and serves as the Origin of the
sensory root of the 5th, and perhaps of the posterior root of
the 4th cranial nerve. The nerve cells of the pons are multi-
polar and stellate. The pons acts as a conductor of
impressions through its nerve fibres, and as a centre of
origin of nerVe fibres from nerve cells. Meynert states that
some of the fibres of the crura cerebri end in the nerve
cells of tho pons, which cells again give origin to fibres
that pass outwards to the cerebellum.
Tho Cerebellum, Little Brain, or After Brain (PL Cere-
XVIII. fig. 2, c), occupies the inferior pair of occipital fossae, •jf'!'""-
and, along with the pons and medulla oblongata, hes below
the plane of the tentorium cerebeUi. It consists of two hemi-
spheres or lateral lobes, and of a median or central lobe, which
in human anatomy is caUed the vermiform process. It ' is
connected below with the medulla oblongata by the two resti-
form bodies which form its infenor peduncles, and above to
the corpora quadrigemina of the cerebrum by two bands,
which form its superior peduncles; whilst the two hemi-
spheres are connected together by the transverse fibres of the
pons, which form the viiddle peduncles of the cerebellum.
On the superior or tentorial surface of the cerebellum tho
median or vermiform lobe is a mere elevation, but on its
inferior or occipital surfaca this lobe forms a weU-defined
inferior vermiform process, which lies at the bottom of a deep
fossa or vallecula ; this fossa is prolonged to the posterior
border of the cerebellum, and forms there a deep notch
which separates the two hemispheres from each other; in this
notch the falx cerebelli is lodged. Extending horizontally
backwards from the middle cerebral peduncle, along the
outer border of each hemisphere is the great horizontal
fissure, which divides the hemisphere into its tentorial and
occipital surfaces. Each of these- surfaces is again subr
divided by fissures into smaller lobes, of which the most
important are the amygdala or tonsil, which forms the
lateral boundary of the anterior part of the vallecula, and
the flocculus, which is situated immediately behind the
middle peduncle of the cerebellum. The inferior vermiform
process is subdivided into a posterior part or pyramid ; an
elevation or uvula, situated between the two tonsils ; and
an anterior pointed process or nodule. Stretching between
the two flocculi, and attached midway to the sides of the
nodule, is a thin, white, semilunar-shaped plate of ncrvoui
matter, called the posterior medullary velum^
The whole outer surface of the cerebellum possesaeaa
^72
ANATOMY
[.•TEEVOUS 8VBTEM —
characteristic foliated or laminated app'iarance, due to its
subdivision into multitudes of thin plates or lamella! by
numerous fissures. The cerebellum consists both of grey
and white matter. The grey matter forms the exterior or
cortok of the lamella;, and passes from one to the other
across the bottoms of the several fissures. The white
matter lies in the interior of th" organ, and extends into
the core of each lamella. When a vertical section is made
through the organ, the prolongations of white matter
branching off into tho interior of the several lamellae give
to tho section an arborescent appearance, known by the
fanciful name of arhor vit'x{V\. XVIII. fig. 3,c). Independent
masses of grey matter are, however, found in the interior
of the ccrebcUura. If the hemisphere b« cut through a
little to the outijr side of tho median lobe, a zig-zag arrange-
ment of grey matter, similar in appearance and structure
to the nucleus of the olivary body in the medulla oblongata,
and known as tho corpus dentalum of tho cerebellum, is
seen ; it Les in tho midst of the white core of the hemi-
sphere, and encloses white fibres, which leave tho interior
of the corpus at its inner and lower side. Stilling has de-
scribed, in connection with the. anterior end of the in-
ferior vermiform process, which projects forwards into the
valvo of Vieusseos, and aids in the formation of the roof
of the 4th ventricle, two grey masses, named roof nuclei.
They possess flask-shaped nerve cells like those of the
corpus dentatum. The white matter is more abundant in
the hemispheres than in tho median lobe, and is for the
most part directly continuous with the fibres of the
pMuncles of tho cerebellum. Thus the restiform or inferior
peduncles pass from below upwards through the white core,
to end in the grey matter of the tentorial surface of the
cerebellum, more especially in that of the central lobe ; on
their way they are connected both mth the grey matter of
the corpus dentatum and of tho roof nuclei. The superior
peduncles, which descend from the corpora quadrigemina of
tho cerebrum, reach the grey cortical matter, more especially
in the inferior surface of the cerebellum, though they also
form connections with the corpus dentatum. The middle
peduncles form a large proportion of the white core, and
their fibres terminate in the grey matter of the foliated
cortex of tho hemispheres. But, in addition to these
peduncular fibres, which connect tho cerebellum to other
subdivisions of tho encephalon, its white matter contains
fibres proper to the cerebellum itself. The_/56)-CE proprice
have been especially described by Stilling ; some, which he
has termed the median fasciculi, lie near the mesial plane,
and connect the grey matter on the tentorial aspect of the
middle lobe with that of the inferior vermiform process,
whilst others cross directly the mesial plane to unite opposite
and symmetrical regions of the hemispheres. Further, the
auditory nerve was said by Foville to derive some of its
fibres of origin from the cerebellum ; the connection of this
nerve with the cerebellum has been strongly insisted on by
Meynert, anl this anatomist has also ascribed a cerebellar
origin to a portion of the sensory root of the 5th cranial
Derve.
The grey matter of the cortex is divided into two well-
defined laytrs, an external grey, and an inner rust coloured
liyer of about equal thickness. The rust colo\ired layer is
distinguished by containing multitudes of so called " gran-
ules," the well-defined nucleus in which, as described by
Strachan, is invested by a small quantity of branched
protoplasm. These "granules" are, therefore, minute
stellate cells. ^Vhere the rust coloured layer joins the
grey layer the characteristic nerve cells of the cerebel-
lum, named the corpuscles of Purhinje, are situated. A
slender central process arising from each cell enters the
rust coloured layer, and, as the observations of Hadlich
aud Koscheanikoff show, becomes continuous with the
axial cylinder of a medullated nerve fibre ; for the nervo
fibres of the white core enter this layer, divide into minute
fibres, and ramify amidst the granules. From the oppo-
site aspect of each* cell two peripheral processes arise,
and ramify in an antler-hke manner in the external grey
layer. Obersteiner and Iladlich maintain that the finer
branches of these processes curve back towards the rust
coloured layer, where, according to Boll, they form a net-
work of extreme minuteness, from which it is believed
that nerve fibres may arise. The substratum of the grey
layer, in which the branched processes of the cells of
Purkinje lie, consists of a very delicate neuroglia, in which
scattered corpuscles are imbedded ; but, in the outer part
of this layer, delicate supporting connective tissue-like
fibres are also met with.
The Fourth Ventricle is the dilated upper end of the ccn- Fonrth
tral canal of the medulla oblongata. Its shape is like an Vcntricl*.
heraldic lozenge. Its floor ia formed by the giey matter of
Fio. G3.— Floor of tho foiiitti ventricle and adjace.d ftlniotnrr*. 1, pln»
gland; 2, tho natea, and 3, the testes of the corpora quadrigenilna; 4, <
middle peduncles, 6» 6, flupcrior pedunclca, 9, 9, Inferior pedDnclci of th«
cerebellum; 6. 6. valve of Vleussens divided; 7. 7, fasciculi tcretes; 8, 8. loou
of the auditory nenes; 9', corpus dentatum; 10, 10, posterior py/anildB; II,
calamus sci iptoiius.
the posterior surfaces of the medulla oblongata and pons;
its roof partly by the inferior vermiform process of the cere-
beUum, the nodule of which projects into its csvity, and
partly by a thin layer, called valve of Vieussens, or anterior
medullary velum ; its lower lateral boundaries, by the diver-
gent restiform bodies and posterior pyramids; its upper
lateral boundaries, by the superior peduncles of the cere-
bellum ; the reflection of the arachnoid membrane from the
back of the medulla to the inferior vermiform process closes
it in below, but allows of a communication between its cavity
and the sub-arachnoid space ; above, it communicates with
the aqueduct of Sylvius, which is tunnelled through the sub-
stance of the corpora quadrigemina. Along the centre of
the floor is the median furrow, which terminates below in
a pen-shaped form, the so-called calamus scriptorius.
Situated on its floor are the fasciculi teretes, strias acous-
ticae, and deposits of grey matter described in connectioB
with the medulla oblongata. Its endothelial lining is con-
tinuous with that of the central canal.
The Cerebrum or Great Brain lies above the plane
of the tentorium, and forms much the largest di -vision of
the encephalon. It is customary in human anatomy to
include under the name of cerebrum, riot only the convo-
lutions, the corpora striata, and the optic thalami, developed
in the anterior cerebral vesicle, but also the corpora quadri-
gemina and crura cerebri developed in the middle cerebral
vesicle. The cerebrum is ovoid in shape, and present*
superiorly, anteriorly, and posteriorly a deep median longuw-
BRAIN.]
ANATOMY
873
dinal fissure, which subdivides it into two hemispheres.
Inferiorly there m a continuity of structure between the
two hemispheres across the mesial plane, and if the two
hemispheres be drawn asunder by opening out the longi-
tudinal fissure, a broad white band, the corpus callosum.,
may be seen at the bottom of the fissure passing across the
mesial plane from one hemisphere to the other. The outer
gurfape of each hemisphere is convex, and adapted in shape
to the concavity of the inner table of the cranial bones ;
ita inner surface, which bounds the longitudinal fissure, is
flat and is separated from the opposite hemisphere by the
fall cerebri; its under surface, where it rests on the
tentorium, is concave, and is separated by that membrane
from the cerebellum and pons. From the front of the pons
two strong white bands, the crura cerebri or cerebral
peduncles, pass forwards and upwards to enter the optic
thalami iu their respective hemispheres. Winding round
the outer side of each crus is a flat white band, the optic
tract. These tracts converge in front, and join to form
the optic commissure, from which the two optic nerves arise.
The crura cerebri, optic tracts, and optic commissure enclose
a lozenge shaped space, which includes — a, a grey layer,
called po7iS Tarini, which, from being perforated by seve-
ral smaD arteries, is often called locus perforatus posticus;
b, two white mammillae, the corpora albicantia ; c, a grey
nodule, the tuber cinereum, from which, d, the infundi-
bulum projects to join the pituitary body. Immediately in
front of the optic commissure is a grey layer, the lamina
cinerea or lamina, terminalis of the 3d ventricle; and
between the optic commissure and the inner end of each
Sylvian fissure is a grey spot perforated by small arteries,
the locus perforatus anticus.
The peripheral part of each hemisphere, which consists
of grey matter, exhibits a characteristic, folded appearance,
known as the convolutions or gyri of the cerebrum. These
convolutions are separated frorh each other by fissures or
tvXci, some of which are considered to oubdivide the hemi-
sphere into lobes, whilst others separate the convolutions
in each lobe from each other. In each hemisphere of the
human brain five lobes are recognised: the temporo-sphe-
noidal, frontal, parietal, occipital, and the central lobe or
insjjla. Passing obliquely on the outer face of the hemi-
sphere from before, upwards and backwards, is the well-
marked Sylvian fissure, which is the first to appear in the
development of the hemisphere. Below it lies the tem-
poj-o-sphenoidal lobe, and above and La front of it, the
parietal and frontal lobes. The frontal lobe is separated
from the parietal by the fissure of Rolando, which extends
on the outer face of the hemisphere from the longitudinal
fissure obliquely downwards and forwards towards the
Sylvian fissure. About two inches from the hinder end
of the hemisphere is the parieto-occipital fissure, which,
commencing at the longitudinal fissure, passes down the
inner surface of the hemisphere, and transversely outwards
for a short distance on the outer surface of the hemi-
sphere; it separates the parietal and occipital lobes from
each other.
The Temporo-Sphenoidal Lobe presents on the outer surface
of the hemisphere th(%e convolutions, arranged in paraUel
<!«)•« from above downwards, and aa.medsuperior,middte,and
inferior temporo-sphenoidal convolutions. The fissure which
separates the superior and middle of these convolutions is
called the parallel fissure. The Occipital Lobe also con-
sists from above downwards of three parallel convolutions,
named superior, middle, and inferior occipital. The
Frontal Lobe is more complex ; immediately in front of the
fissure of Rolando, and forming indeed its anterior boundary,
is a convolution named ascending frontal, which ascends
obliquely backwards and upwards from the Sylvian to the
longitudinal fissure. Springing from the front of this con-
volution, suid passing forwards to the anterior end of tlie
cerebrum, are three convolutions, arranged in parallel tiert
fronj above downwards, and named superior, middle, and
inferior frontal convolutions, which are also prolonged on
to the orbital face of the frontal lobe. The Parietal Lobe
is also complex ; its most anterior convolution, named
ascending parietal, ascends parallel to and immediately
behind the fissure of Rolando. Springing from the upper
end of the back of this convolution is the postero-parietal
convolution, which, forming the boundary of the longitudinal
fissure, extends as far back as the parieto-occipital fissure;
springing from the lower end of the back of this convo-
lution is the supra - marginal convolution, which forms
the upper boundary of the hinder part of tho Sylvian
bJl
Fig. 70.
Fics. $9 and 70.— Profile fcnd vertex rlcwa of cerebrmn. Fr, the fiootal lobe;
Par, paiietal; Oc, occlpir«l; Ts, temporo-sphenoidal lobe; 55; Syl'ltn Hs-sure ;
RR, HssQ-e of Rolando; PO, parieto-occipital fissure; IP, Intra -parlcul fi«arf ;
PP. Parallel fljBure ; SF and IF, eupcro- and In fero- frontal fiw-ucB; 1, 1,1,
Inferior. 2. 2, 2, middle, and 3. 3, 3, anperior (ronlul convolutions; 4, \
ftscendinc frontal convolution; 6, 5. 5. ascendlnif parietal, &'. pustero-parictul,
and 6, 6, angular convolutions; A. BnrTft-mflrginal, or convolution of the purittal
eminence; 7, 7, superior. 8, 8, 8. middle, and 9. 9. 9. Inferior temporo-
Bptienoldal convolntions; 10, superior, U, middle, and 12, Infcrtor occipital
convolutions; a, fi, y, i, foar annccient convolutions.
fissure J 03 this gyrus occupies the hollow in the parietal
bone, which corresponds to the eminence, it may appro-
priately be named tho convolution of the parietal eminence.
Continuous with the convolution of the parietal eminence
is the angular convolution ^ which bends round the posterior
extremity of the Sylvian fissure. Lying in the parietal lobe
is the intra- parietal fissure ^ which separates tho convolution
of the parietal eminence from the postero-parietal con-
L — IIP
874
ANATOMY
fintHVOUB SYSTEM — »
Tolution. The occipital is connected with the parietal lobe
by two annectent or bridging gyri, which bridge across the
transverse external part of the parieto-occipital fissure ; the
FlQ. 71
— Side view of tlio Brain in the ekull.*
depth and extent of this fissure vary in different brains in
proportion to the size of these bridging convolutions. The
superior annectent gyrus passes between the postero-parietal
and the superior occipital convolutions, whilst the second an-
nectent gyrus connects the middle occipital with the angular
gyrus. Two annectent gyri alsq pass from the inferior occi-
pital convolution to the lower convolutions of the temporo-
Bphepoidal" lobe. These lobes of the cerebrum, though
named after the bones which form th' vault of the skuU, are
not exactly co-terminous with them. The frontal lobe not
only lies under cover of the frontal bone, but extends back-
wards under the anterior part of the parietal ; for the fissure
of Rolando, which forms its posterior boundary, lies from
1 i to 2 inches behind the coronal suture. The occipital lobe
is not limited to the upper tabular part of the occipital
bone, but extends forwards under cover of the posterior
part of the parietal, for the parieto-occipital fissure lies
about 5 inch in front of the apex of the lambdoidal fissure.
The temporo-sphenoidal lobe not only lies under the
squaraous-temporal and great wing of the sphenoid, but
passes upwards under cover of the lower part of the parietal,
for the Sylvian fissure passes from below obliquely upwards
and backwards across the line of the squamous suture near
its middle. The ariyi covered by the parietal bone so far,
^ The above view of tbe brain in sifu shows the relations of the sur-
face conTolutions to the regions of the skulL , R. fissure of Rolando,
which separates the frontal from the parietal lobe. PO, parieto-occi-
pital fissure between the parietal and occipital lobes. SS, fissure uf
Sylvius, which separates the temporo-pphenoidal from the frontal and
parietal lobes. SF, MF, IF, the aupero-, mid-, and infcro-fronta] sub-
divisions of the frontal area of the skull ; the letters are placed on the
superior, middle, and inferior frontal convolutions ; the inferior frontal
region is separated from the middle frontal by the frontal part of the
curved line of the temporal ridge ; the mid- from the supero-frontal by
an antero-posteriorline through the frontal eminence. SAP, the supero-
antero-parietal area of the skull ; S is placed on the ascending parietal-
convolution, AP on the ascending frontal convolution. lAP, the infero-
antero-parietal area of the skull; I is placed on the ascending parietal, AP
on the ascending frontal convolution. SPP, the supero-postero-parietal
area of the skull ; the letters are placed on the angular convolution.
I PP, the infero-postero-parietal area of the skull ; the letters are placed
on the mid-temporo-sphenoidal convolution; the temporal ridgeseparatcs
the supero- and infero-parietal regions from each other ; a vertical line
drawn through the parietal eminence separates the antero- and postero-
parietal regions. X, the convolution of the parietal eminence, or supra-
marginal gyrus. 0, the occipital area of the skull ; the letter is placed
on the mid-occipital convolution. Sq, the squamoso-teraporal region
of the skull ; the letters are placed on the mid-temporo-sphenoidal con-
volution. AS, the ali-sphenoid region of the skull ; the letters are
placed on the tip of the supero-teniporo-sphenoidal convolution. The
black lines mark the boundaries of diiTerent cranial regions.
then, from being co-terminons with the parietal lobe of the
cerebrum, is trenched on anteriorly by the frontal, poste-
riorly by tlio occipital, and infcnoriy by the temporo-
sphenoidal lobe. The convolutioi." of the parietal lobe
itself are grouped around tne parietal eminence, and in the
interval between it and the sagittal suture. The inner
table of the cranial bone.', is an airaosi exact mould of the
convolutions of these lobes ; but this is not so with the ex-
terior of the skull, the configuration of which is modified
by the formation of ridges and processes for the attachment
of muscles, by variations in the thickness of the diploe,
and by the development of the frontal and mastoid air-
sinuses. Hence the outer surface of the skull does not
correspond in shape to the outside of the brain.
The Central Lobe of the hemisphere, more usually called^
the insula or island of Reil, does not come to the 3irfaC8
of the hemisphere,
but lies deeply within
the Sylvian fissure,
the convolutions
forming the margin
of which conceal it.
It consiata of four or
fivo short convolu-
tions, which radiate
from the locus per-
foratus anticus, siiu-
ated at the inner
end of the fissure.
This lobe is almost
entirely surrounded
by a deep sulcus,
which insulates it
from the adjacert
convolutions, it li(3
opposite the upper
part of the ali-
sphenoid, where it
articulates with the
parietal and squa-
mous-teaipoiil.
Convolutions also
exist on the inner
surface of the hemi-
sphere, and on the
under surface which
rests on the tento-
rium, but these have
no relation to the bones of the cranial vault. They may
be studied in connection with the corpus callosum or
great transverse commissure, which connects the two
hemispheres, and with certain fissures situated on these
surfaces of the hemisphere. The small convolutions which
lie behind the internal part of the parieto-occipital fissure
form the inner convolutions of the occipital lobe, or the occi-
pital lobule (Fig. 73). Those which lie immediately in front
of the same fissure belong to the inner face of the parietal
lobe, and form the quadrilateral lobule. It is customary,
however, to name the convolution ^hich extends forwards
from that fissure along the margin of the longitudinal
fissure to the antepor end of the hemisphere, and which
then turns back to the locus perforatus anticus as the
marginal convolution. This is separated by a fissure called
calloso-marginal, from the callosal convolution or gyrus
fomicatus, which, commencing at the locus perforatus an-
ticus, turns round the anterior end of the corpu£ caUosum,
extends parallel to its upper surface, and then turns round
its posterior end. It is separated from the corpus callosura
by the callosal fissure, at the bottom of which the grey matter
of the gyrus fomicatus termintes in a well-defined cdget
Fio. 72— Orlllal surface of fhe left fron'aj lon«
nrd the bland of Ketl ; the Up of fhc tcmporo-
Bjilienoldal lube t.as been removed to dlsi'lay the
iHttcr. 17, convolution of the merpin of i he h>t:gl-
tuJlnal fissure; 0, olfactory fl';>ure, over which
the olfactory peduncle and lobe are sUuateJ;
TR, tri-radiate fissure; 1" V", convolutions on tha
orbital surface ; 1, 1, 1, L onder surface of Infern.
frontal convolution; 4. under surface of asctrnd-
ii^g frontal, and 5. of ascending parietal convolD-
tlous ; C, ccDtrol lobe or Insula.
ERAIN-I
ANATOMY
875
The callosal convolntion encloses the corpus callosum
within the concavity of its arch, and from its direction js
Fr
FIQ. 73. — Coovolutinns of- the Inner and tentorial surfaces of the left heml-
«pbera t, i, i, CQllo60-ina9cir/4 fissure; /, t, calcarine fissure; m, m, hippo-
campal fissure; n, n, collali/riij fissure; PC, pui-Icto-ocripital fissure; 17, 17,
marpinal convohltion; 18, 18, gyrus fomicatus; 18', quadrilateral lobule;
19, hippocampal gyrus; ly. Us rciurvcd end; 26, occipital lobule; 9, 9, Infe-
rior temporo-spbeooidal convolution.
appropriately called formcatus (arch-shaped). The pos-
terior end of the callosal convolution curves downwards
3nd then forwards, under the name of gyrus hippocampi,
to the tip of the inner surface of the temporo-sphenoidal
lobe. This gyrus is separated anteriorly by a narrow
citrved fissure called hippocampal fissure, from a white
band, the taenia hippocampi, which band possesses a free
curved border, round which the pia mater and choroidal
artery enter the lateral vfentricle through the great transverse
fissure of the cerebrum. The hippocampal fissure is con-
tinuous round the posterior end of the corpus callosum
with the callosal fissure, and at the bottom of the hippo-
campal fissure the grey matter of the gyrus hippocampi
terminates in a well-defined dentated border [fascia den-
(ata). The hippocampal fissure on this surface of the
hemisphere marks the position of an eminence in the de-
scending comu of the ventricle called hippocampus major.
The gyrus hippocampi is separated posteriorly from the
adjacent temporo-sphenoidal convolution by a fissure, named
collateral, which mark's the position on this surface of the
hemisphere of the collateral eminence m the interior of the
ventricle. From the lower end of the parieto-occipital
fissure an ofi'shoot, called the calcarine fissure, passes almost
horizontally backwards in the occipital lobe, which fissure
marks on this surface of the hemisphere the eminence named
calcar avis, or hippocampus minor, in the posterior comu of
the ventricle.
If a horizontal slice be removed from the upper part of
each hemisphere, the peripheral grey matter of the convo-
lutions vrill be seen to follow their various windings, whilst
the core of each convolution consists of white matter con-
tinuous with a mass of white matter in the interior of the
h-smisphere. If a deeper slice be now made down to the
plane of the corpus callosura, the white matter of that
structure will be seen to be continuous with the white
centre of each hemisphere. The corpus callosum does not
equal the hemispheres in length, but approaches nearer to
their anterior than their posterior ends (PI. XVIII. fig. 3,
E. ) It terminates behind in a free rounded end, whilst in
front it forms a knee-shaped bend, and passes downwards
and backwards as far as the lamina cinerea. If the dissec-
tion be performed on a brain which has been hardened in
spirit, the corpus callosum is seen to consist almost entirely
of bundles of nerve fibres, passing transversely across the
mesial plane .between the two hemispheres ; these fibres
•may be traced into the white cores and grey matter of the
convolutions, and apparently connect the corresponding
convolutions in the opposite hemispheres. Hence the
corpus callosum is a connecting or commissural structure,
which brings the convolutions bf the two hemispheres into
anatomical and physiological relation with each other. On
the surface of the corpus callosum a few fibres, the striw
longiludinales, run in the antero-posieiior or longitudinal
Fia. 74. — To show the right ventricle and the left half of the corpus callosiLil.
a, transverse fibres, and &, longitudinal fibres of corpus cjllosuni; c, anterL^r,
and d, posterior comua of lateral ventricle; e, septum lucidum; /, corpus
striatum ; g, tfeuia semlciicularis; A, on.ic thalamus; ir, choroid plexus; I, t«nla
hippocampi; m, hippocampus major; n, hippocampus minor; o, etiiiuentia cot-
lateralis.
direction. If the corpus callosum be now cut through on
each side of its mesial Une, the large cavity or lateral
ventricle in each hemisphere vrill be opened into.
The lateral ventricle is subdivided into a central space
or body, and three bent prolongations or comua ; the
anterior cornu extends forwards and outwards into the
frontal lobe ; the posterior cornu curves backwards,
outwards, and inwards into the occipital lobe ; the de-
scending cornu curves backwards, outwards, downwards,
forwards, and inwards, behind and below the optic tha-
lamus into the temporo-sphenoidal lobe. On the floor of
the central space may be seen from before backwards the
grey upper surface of the pear-shaped corpus striatum, and
to its inner and posterior part a small portion of the optic
tludamus, whilst between the two is tire curved fiat band,
the tcenia semicircularis. Resting on the upper surface of
the thalamus is the vascular fringe of the velum interposi-
tum, named choroid plexus, .and immediately internal to
this fringe is the free edge of tlie white posterior pillar of
the fornix. The anterior comu has the anterior end of tha
corpus striatum projecting into it. The posterior comu
-hSis an elevation on its floor, the hippocampus viiiior, and
between this cornu and the descending cornu is the eleva-
tion called eminentia collateralis.
Extending down the descending comu and following
its curvature is the hippocampus major, which terminates
below in a nodular end, the pes hippocampi ; on its inruff
border is the white taenia hippocampi, continuous above
with the posterior pillar of the fornix. If the toenia bo
drawn on one side the hippocampal fissure is exposed, at
the bottom of which the grey matter of the gyrus hippo-
cainpi may be seen to form a well-defined dentated border
(the 80-cailed fascia dentata). The choroid plexus of the
pia mater turns round the gyrus hippocampi, and enters the
descending comu through the great transverse fissuie be-
tween the tasnia hippocampi and optic thalamus. The
lateral vcutpele is lined by a cylindrical endothelium.
876
ANATOMY
[neevous system —
which is in many parts ciliated, and which rests on a layer
of neuroglia. This lining is continuous through the fora-
men of Monro with that of the third ventricle, which
a^ain ia continuous with the lining of the fourth ventricle
through the aqueduct of Sylvius. A little fluid is con-
tained in the cerebral ventricles, which, under some patho-
logical conditions, -may increase greatly in quantity, so
as to occasion considerable dilatation of the ventricular
cavities.
If the corpus callosum be now divided about its middle
Pio. 75.— A -leepeT dli^ectlQn of the lateral rentricle. and of t>ie velum Inter-
poaitum. a, undf i enrfacp of corpoa callosum, turned back ; 6, b, posterior
pillars of the fornlif turned back ; c, e, anterior pillara of the fornix ; d, velum
iiitcrposittun and veins of Galen; e, fifth ventricle; / /, corpus striatum;
p, p, teeni-. se-nicircularia ; A, ft, optic thalamus; k, chnroid plexus; t, tEeria
bippocaiai.* ; m. hippocampus major In descending corou ; n, hippocampus
isijinr; 0, eminentia coUateralia.
ry. a transverse incision, and the posterior half of this
structure be turned back, the body of the fornix on which
the corpus callosum rests is exposed. If the anterior half
of the corpus callosum be now turned forward, the grey
partition, or septum lucidum, between the two lateral ventri-
cles is exposei This septum fits into the interval between
the under surface of the corpus callosum and the upper
surface of the anterior part of the fornix. It consists of
two layers of grey matter, between which is a narrow ver-
tical mesial space, the fifth ventricle. If the septum be
now removed, the anterior part of the fornix is brought
into view.
The fornix or aroh is an arch-shaped band of nerve fibres
extending in the antcro-posterior direction. Its ante-
rior end forms the anterior piers or pillars of the arch, its
posterior end the posterior piers or pillars, whilst the inter-
mediate body of the fornix forms the summit or crown of
the arch. It consists of two lateral halves, one belonging
to each hemisphere. At the summit of the arch the two
lateral halves are conjoined to form the bodi/; but in front
of the body the two halves separate from each other, and
form two anterior pillars, which descend in front of the
third ventricle to the base of the cerebnim, where they
form. the corpora albicantia, and then enter the substance
of the optic thalamus. Behind the body the two halves
diverge much more from each other, and form the posterior
pillars; each of which curves downwards and outwards
into the descending comu of the ventricle, and. under the
name of taenia hippocampi, forms the free border of the
hippocampus major. If the body of the fornix be now
divided by a transverse incision, its anterior part throwu
forwards, and its posterior part backwards, the great trans-
verse fissure of the cerebrum is opened into, and the velum
interpositum lying in that fissure is exposed.
The velum interpositum is an expanded fold of pia mater,
which passes into the interior of the hemispheres through
the great transverse fissure. It is triangular in shape; its
base is in a line with the posterior end of the corpus callosum,
where it is continuous with the external pia mater ; ita
lateral margins are fringed by the choroid plexuses, which
are seen in the bodies and descending cornua of the lateral
ventricles, where they are invested by the endothelial
lining of thoso cavities. Its apex, where the two choroid
plexuses blend with each other, lies just behind the
anterior pillars of the fornix. The interval between the
apex and these pillars is the aperture of communication
between the two lateral ventricles and the third, already
referred to as tlie foramen of Monro. The choroid plexuses
contain the small choroidal arteries, which supply the cor-
pora striata, optic thalami, and corpora quadrigcmina; and
the blood from these bodies is returned by small veins,
which join to form the veins of Galen (Fig. 75). These veins
pass along the centre of the velum, and, as is shown in Fig.
63, open into the straight sinus. If the velum interpositum
be now carefully raised from before backwards, the optic
thalami, third ventricle, pineal gland, and corpora qoadri-
gemina are exposed.
The optic thalamus is a large, somewhat ovoid body
situated behind the corpus striatum, and above the crus
cerebri. Its upper surface is partly seen in the floor of
the body of the lateral ventricle, but is for the' most part
covered by the fornix and velum interpositum. Its postero-
inferior surface forms the roof of the descending comu of
the ventricle, whilst its inner surface forms the side wall
of the third ventricle. At its outer and posterior part are
two slight elevations, placed one on each side of the optic
tract, and named respectively corpm geniculatum internum
and externum.
The third ventricle is a cavity situated in the mesial
plane between the two optic thalami Its roof is formed
by the velum interpositum and body of fornix; its floor,
by the pons Tarini, corpora albicantia, tuber cinereum,
infundibulum, and optic commissure ; its anterior bound-
ary, by the anterior pUlars of the fornix, anterior commis-
sure, and lamina cinerea ; its posterior boundary, by the
corpora quadrigcmina and posterior commissure. The
cavity of this ventricle is of small size in the living head,
for the inner surfaces of the two thalami are connected
together by intermediate grey matter, named the middle
or soft commissure ; but in taking the brain out of the
cranial cavity this commissure is usually more or less torn
through, and the cavity is consequently eidarged. Imme-
diately in front of the corpora quadrigemina, the white
fibres of the posterior commissure pass across between the
two optic thalami If the anterior pillars of the fornix be
separated from each other, the white fibres of the anterior
commissure may be seen entering the two corpora striata.
The pineatbody b a reddish cone-shaped body, enveloped
by the velum interpositum, and situated upon the more
anterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina. From its broad
anterior end two white bands, the peduncles of the pineal
body, pass forwards, one on the inner side of each optic
thalamus. Each peduncle joins, along with the tsenia
semicircularis, the anterior pillar of the fornix of ita own
side. In its structure this body consists of a vascular
stroma of connective tissue, in the meshes of which
lymphoid cells are contained. Branched corpuscles are
also found not unlike nerve cells. Amylaceous and gritty
BRAIN.]
ANATOMY
877
Ciey
calcareous particles, constituting the brain sand, are
found in it. U^sually it is hollowed out into two or more
email cavities. . The function of the pineal body is not
understood, but both it and the pituitary body, which
po'wess a certain structural correspondence, are usually
referred to the type of the ductless glands.
. The corpora quadrigemina or optic lobes are situated
behind and between the two optic thalami, and rest upon
the posterior surface of the crura cerebri The division
into two lateral halves is marked by a shallow longitu-
dinal fissure, and the subdivision of each half into an an-
terior and a posterior eminence, by a shallow transverse
fissure. The anterior pair of eminences are called nates;
the posterior, testes. From each testis a strong white
band, the superior peduncle of the cerehellum, passes back-
wards to the cerebellum, and stretching between the pair
of peduncles is the valve of Vieussens or anterior medullary
velum. The corpora quadrigemina are tunnelled in the
antero-postefior direction by the aqueduct of Sylvius, which
opens anteriorly into the third ventricle immediately below
the posterior commissure, and posteriorly into the fourth
ventricle under cover of the valve of Vieussens. It is
lined by a cylindrical ciliated endothelium.
Internax Structure of the Cerebrum. — The cere-
bnim is composed both of grey and white matter , the
general relations of these two forms of nerve matter to
each other may be seen by making sections through the
cerebrum. The determination, however, of their minute
structure, and of the relations and connections of the
nerve fibres to the nerve eeUs is, owing to the delicacy
of the organ, one of the most difficult departments of ana-
tomical study. Several anatomists have endeavoured to
trace out the course of the nerve fibres in the organ, and
though our knowledge is by no means complete, yet many
important facts have undoubtedly been ascertained. These
facts have been summarised, and numerous valuable addi-
tions made to them by Meynert in a recent elaborate
memoir, which has been frequently consulted and made use
of in writing the following description.
The Grey Matter of the cerebrum is disposed in three
great groups : a, The grey matter of the cortex of the hemi-
spheres ; 6, the grey matter of the great ganglia of the base
of the cerebrum ; c, the central grey matter which forms
the wall of the cerebral end of the cerebro-spinal tube.
o, The grey matter of the cortex of the hemisphere forms
the superficial part of the convolutions, and is known as
the great hemispherical ganglion, but in some locahties, as
at the loci perforati antici and the septum lucidum, it has
received distinctive names. When a convolution is divided
vertically the grey matter is seen to be confined to the
surface and to enclose a white core. The gray matter
presents a laminated appearance, and as a rule consists of
five or six layers, which are composed of the characteristic
pyramidal nerve cells of the cortex of the cerebrum, of nerve
fibres, of matrix or neuroglia, and of blood-ves.sels. The
most superficial layer consists of neuroglia, in which nerve
fibres extend parallel to the surface of the convolutions.
Ill the deeper layers are found the pyramidal nerve cells,
which lie with their long axes vertical to the surface of
the convolutions, and which contain angular nuclei. From
the observations of Lockhart Clarke, Arndt, Cleland, and
Meynert, there can be no doubt that the pyramidal nerve
cells vary in relative size and in numbers in the different
layers of the grey cortex, and that the largest si:cd pyra-
midal cells Lie in the third and fourth layers. L. Clarke
stated that the cells of all the layers of the posterior or
occipital lobe were small and of nearly uniform size, whilst
in the convolutions anterior to it numerous cells of a much
larger kind were found ; but though it is undoubtedly true
that Urize pyramidal cells are found in the frontal lobe in
considerable numbers, and that the greater numbef of the
cells of the occipital lobe are small and nearly uniform in
size, there is no difficulty in recognising in the occipital
lobe a small proportion of cells, quite equal in magnitude
to the largest cells of the frontal lobe, interspersed amongst
the smaller pyramidal cells. The nerve fibres which ascend
into the grey matter from the white core of the convolution
radiate into its several layers, and are apparently continuous
with the basal axis-cylinder processes of the nerve cells.
According to Cleland, the elongated apices of the cells,
which are directed to the surface of the convolution, are
continuous with the nerve fibres situated in the superficial
layer of horizontal fibres. Immediately subjacent to the
large pyramidal cells numerous small, irregularly shaped
nerve corpuscles, like those of the internal granule layer of
the retina, form the so-called yrani//e layeroi the grey matter.
Fusiform cells, which give o£[ lateral processes, are found
in the deepest Layer of the grey matter, and form the
daustral layer of Meynert. Gerlach has described here,
as in the spinal cord, a network of extremely minute nerve
fibres, with which the branched lateral processes of the
nerve cells are apparently continuous. The neuroglia con-
tains multitudes of small rounded corpuscles. In it also
are found small stellate cells, provided with minute branched
processes, which cells, as Meynert states, are so pellucid,
that in the healthy brain they seem to be ojily free nuclei ;
it is difficult to say whether these cells belong to tho
neuroglia, or are nerve cell elements. The grey cortex of
the cerebrum is much more vascular than the white matter.
The arteries derived from the pia mater pass vertically into
it, and end in a close polygonal network of capillaries ; but
it is also traversed by the arteries, which terminate in tha
capillary network of supply for the white matter.
In the grey matter of the cortex of the occipital lobe
eight layers have been described by Clarke and Meynert.
The increase in number is due to the intercalation of two
additional granule layers, which coalesce and form a dis-
tinct white band in the grey matter, owing, as Meynert
states, to the absence of pigment in the cells of the granule
layers.
The grey matter of the cortex of the island of ReU and
of the convolutions bounding the Sylvian fissure contains a
very large proportion of fusiform cells. They form the chief
constituent of the grey claustrum, situated deeper than tho
grey matter of the island, and separated from the outer part
of the corpus striatum by a thin layer of white matter.
Fusiform cells also occur abundantly in the nucleus amyg-
dalce, a grey mass situated below the corpus striatum,
which in some sections seems as if isolated, but in reality
is continuous with the grey matter of the inferior tempoiV
sphenoidal convolution.
The grey matter of the cortex of the gyrus hippocampi
and of the hippocampus major is apparently destitute of
both the granule and claustral layers of cells. Its super-
ficial layer has been named the nuclear lami7ia, and contains
small and scattered nerve corpuscles. Next this lamina
lies the striatum reticulare, in which the apices of the
numerous pyramidal cells of the third Layer branch and
again unite to form a delicate network. Deeper than the
pyramidal cells is a thick Layer of so-called "granifles,"
which A. B. Stirling recognised some years ago as like
the granules of the rust coloured layer of the cerebellum ;
like them they consist of a well-defined nucleus invested
by delicate branched protoplasm. The grey matter of the
two layers of the septum lucidum, though included be-
tween the corpus callosum and fornLx, is yet in the same
plane as the grey matter of the cortex of the inner surface
of the hemispheres, but is cut off from it by the develop-
ment of the transverse fibres of tho corpus callosum.
The grey matter uf the locus oerforatus anticua contain*
678
ANATOMY
[nKEVO0B BY8T£M —
c1u3tci-n of minute granules and a compact arrangement of
small nerve cella
b, The great ganglia of the base of tbo cerebrum are tbe
corpora striata, the optic thalami, the corpora geniculata,
the corpora quadrigemiua, and the locus niger in each crus
cerebrL
The corpus striatum cerebri consists of two masses of
(;rey matter separated from each other by numerous striio
of white fibres, which ascend from below upwards through
its substance. The upper mass of grey matter projects
into the lateral ventricle, and is called the intra-ventricular
portion or nucleiu caudatu$. The lower extra-ventricular
portion or nucleu) lenticularit forms the outer and lower
part of the corpus striatum, and is separated by the.
claustrum from the island of Keil. Multipolar nerve cells
ore fomid in both the caudate and lenticular masses, and in
the latter cells of largo size have been seen. The optic
thalamus forms an almost continuous mass of grey matter
traversed by nerve fibres, which are not, however, collected
into definite striae. The nerve cells in the giey matter are
both multipolar and fusiform. The external corpus geni-
colatum consists of alternate layers of grey and white
inatter, due to the zig-zag folding of the grey mattor ; the
nerve cells are multipolar, and contain pigment In the
internal corpus geuiculatum the cells are smaDer in size
and fusiform. The grey matter of the corpora quadrigemina
consists of two distinct masses. One, the zonular laynr,
lies near the surface, and contains small multipolar nerve
cells ; the other, the Sylvian or central layer, lies at the sides
of the Sylvian fissure and belongs to the grey matter of the
Wall of the cerebro-spinal tube, and serves as a centre of
origin for the roots of both the"3d and 4th cranial nerves.
The grey matter of the crus cerebri occupies the centre of
the cerebral peduncle. Its cells are multipolar, and contain
dark brown or black pigment, so that the name locxta niger
is applied to this, collection of nerve ceUs,
c, The central grey inatter of the cerebrum is in series
with the grey matter of the floor of the 4th ventricle and
the grey matter of the spinal cord. It is situated around
the Sylvian aqueduct, and at the sides and floor of the third
ventricle, which form the cerebral portion of the cerebro-
npinal tube. That which is situated in relation with the
aqueduct of Sylvius forms the Sylvian or cerUral layer juat
described in the corpora quadrigemina. That which lies in
relation to the third ventricle forms the middle or soft com-
missure, and the well-defined grey layer which covers the
inner waU of each optic (Jialamus ; also the grey masses
situated at the base of the brain between and in front of the
crura cerebri, viz., the pons Tarini, tuber cinereum, lamina
cinerea, infundibulum, and the grey matter of the pituitary
body. By some anatomists the grey matter of the pineal
body is referred to the same category, but Arnold has pointed
out that it is separated by its peduncle from the soft com-
uussure ; and Meynert is disposed to regard it as a ganglion
of origin pf the tegmentum. Both the pituitary and pineal
bodies contain, besides the nervous matter, structures of
the type of the glands without ducts.
The White Matter of the cerebrum consists of tracts or
fasciculi of nerve fibres, of which — a, some connect the cere-
brum with the lower divisions of the encephalon ; , 6, others
connect the two hemispheres together ; c, others connect
different structures in the same hemisphere ; d, others serve
as roots of origin for the more anterior encephalic nerVes.
o, The tracts of fibres which connect the cerebrum with
the lower divisions of the encephalon are caOed peduncular
fibres. The largest of these peduncles are the two crura
cerebri or cerebral pedunclei. Continuous below with the
longitudinal fibre-s of the pons they ascend into the optic
thalami and corpora'striata, &nd their fibres are named the
peduncular fibres. From the corpora striata' and optic
thalami fibres radiate into the convolution.! of the lobes of
the hemisphere and form the corona radiata. To some
exl'ent the fibres of the corona are directly continuous with
those of the cerebral peduncles, but there can be no doubt
that a large portion of the peduncular fibres terminate in
the grey matter of the ganglia of the base of the cerebrum,
and that a still larger number arise from their nerve cella
to aid in the formation of the corona radiata. The direct
continuity, therefore, of many of the peduncular fibres with
those of the corona is broken or interrupted by the inter-
position of the cerebral ganglia, which Meynert has named
ganglia of interruption. The peduncular fibres and those Whit*
of the corona constitute the cerebral portion of the projection ™^l'*f'
system of fibres of Meynert, a term devised to express that
they conduct upwards to the grey cortex of the hemispheres
sensory imjiulses derived from the external world, the
image of which is projected upon the cortex. But it should
also not be forgotten that many of the fibres of tb is system
conduct motor impulses downwards to be propSgated along
tho^ motor cranial and spinal nerves. The peduncular fibres
of the crura cerebri are arranged in two groups, named
respectively cnista and tegmentum, which are separated
from each other by the nefve cells of the locus niger. The
crusta forms the superficial or anterior part of the crus.
Its fibres are in greater part continuous with the longi-
tudinal fibres of the pons derived from the anterior
pyramids of the medulla; but it receives additional fibres
from the grey matter of the locus niger, and from the cells
of the Sylvian layer in the corpora quadrigemina. Some
of the fibres of the crusta pass directly upwards as radiating
fibres to the grey cortex of the occipital and temporal lobes,
but the larger number terminate in the nucleus caudatus
and nucleus lenticularis of the corpus striatum. ■NFrom
these nuclei & great mass of fibres radiates into the cortex
of the fronto-parietal lobes, more especially the frontal, but
a few also, bearing the special name of stria cornea, pass to
the grey matter of the apex of the temporal lobe ; fibres
also enter the convolutions of the insula. In addition to
the radiating fibres, the grey matter of tb? corpus striatum
gives origin to fibres of the middle root of the olfactory
peduncle, and to connecting fibres with the grey matter of
the septum luciduin. The tegmentum forms the posterior
or deeper part of the cms cerebri. Its fibres are continuous
with the longitudinal fibres of the pons derived from the
olivary fasciculi, fasciculi teretes, and posterior pyramids
of the medulla. A few of the fibres of the tegmentum
enter the corpora quadrigemina and corpora geniculata, but
the great majority enter the optic thalami, in the grey matter
of which many evidently terminate, though some may posa
through into the cortex of the hemispheres as fibres of the
corona radiata. But the grey matter of the thalamus gives
origin to numerous radiating fibres : those which arise in
its posterior part radiate into the occipital and temporal
lobes, whilst those proceeding out of its anterior part radiate
into the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes, and the insula.
In the optic thalamus the fornix arises. Its fibres emerge
from the under Siitface of the thalamus, form the corpus
albicans, and then pass backwards as the upper boundary
of the gr«-t transverse fissure to end as the taenia hippo-
campi in the gyrus hippocampi ; hence this convolution has
a special connection with the optic thalamus through the
fornix. In the corpus albicans the fibres of the fornix are
arranged in loops, in the concavities of which nerve cells
are situated. The optic thalamus also gives origin to the
middle root of the optic tract Owing to the connections
of the locus niger, nucleus caudatus, and nucleus lenticu-
laris with the crusta, Meynert has named them the ganglia
of the crusta ; whilst the optic thalami, corpora quadrige-
mina, and geniculata are the ganglia of the tegmentum.
The comoarison of the human br&in with those of different
BRAIN.]
ANATOMY
879
mammals has shown that the development of the hemi-
upheres beara a direct relation to the size of the crusta and
its gangUa, whilst the development of the hemispheres is
in inverse relation to the size of the tegmentum and its
ganglia.
The superior peduncle) of the cerebellum connect that
organ with the cerebrum. They arise in the grey matter
of the verifaiform process, ascend to the corpora quadri-
gemina, and some fibres are even prolonged apparently
into the tegmentum, and through it doubtless into the optic
thalamus.
b, The fibres which connect together the two hemispheres
are called commissural fibres. The largest of these com-
missures is the corpus callosum, which, as has already, been
described, connects corresponding convolutions in the
opposite hemispheres. As its fibres lie on a plene superior
to those of the corona radiata, the two systems of fibres
intersect with each other on their way to the convolutions.
The anterior commissure, though often described as con-
necting the two corpora striata, yet, as Spurzheim pointed
out half a century ago, passes through these bodies to the
convolutions around the Sylvian fissure, and gives a root
of origin to the olfactory nerve. The posterior commissure
passes into the two optic thalami j some of its fibres are
said to extend into the tegmentum, and others into the sub-
stance of the hemisphere.
c, The tracts which- connect different convolutions in the
same hemisphere are named arcuate fibres, or fibroe prdprice.
The arcuate fibres are situated immediately beneath the
inner surface of the cortex of the hemispheres, and connect
together the grey matter of adjacent convolutions. In
some localities they are strongly marked, and have received
special names.
The fasciculus uncmatus passes across the Sylvian fissure,
traverses the claustrum and amygdala, and connects the
convolutions of the frontal with those of the temporo-
sphenoidal lobe. The fillet of the gyrus fornicatus extends
longitudinally in that convolution, immediately above the
corpus callosum, from its anterior to its posterior ends, and
connects two different parts of its grey matter together.
The longitudinal fibres of the corpus callosum, or nerves
of Laneisi, also connect the anterior and posterior ends of
the callosal convolution. The longitudinal inferior fasci-
culus connects the convolutions of' the occipital with those
of the temporal lobe. Longitudinal fibres lie on the inner
surface of the septum lucidum, and extend into the gyrus
fornicatus.
The corpora quadrigemina are connected with the optic
thalami by nervous tracts called brachia, and smaller tracts
ftlso connect the thalami with the corpora geniculata. The
jieduncles of the pineal gland connect that body with the
fornix, and are probably continued into the optic thalamus.
The tania semicircularis is also at one end apparently con-
nected with the optic thalamus, but its posterior termination
is not well ascertained.
The great cerebral ganglia and the central masses of grey
matter are centres of origin for sensori-motor nerves. The
hnmispherical ganglia, again, are the parts of the brain
a&'ociated with the intellectual processes. The question
lias often been put, Are not the individual convolutions
distinct organs, each endowed ^hh special properties 1 and
Tarious arguments based on physiologio^l, pathological, and
anatomical grounds have been advanced in support of this
proposition. In connection with the anatomical branch of
the argument it may be stated that the convolutions possess, '
not only in man, but in all animals with convoluted brains,
great regularity both in position and arrangement ; but
specialisation of form is not in itself a suSicient test of
specialisation of function. A gain, though the convolution/<
hsx.'i^ definite forms thev arc not disconnected from each
other, for the grey matter forms a continuous layer over
the whole surface of the hemisphere. Hence a group of
cerebral convoljltibns diS'ers from a group of muscles, each
member of which is undoubtedly a distinct organ, for each
muscb is isolated from those around it by a definite invest-
ing sheath. As regards internal structure, evidence has
already been given that all the convolutions are not cop-
structed on precisely the same plan, and it has also been
pointed out that the convolutions are not all connected in
the same way with the great cerebral ganglia. These
structural modifications unquestionably point to functional
differences in the several parts in which they are found.
But further, special connections through the arcuate fibres
are established between certain convolutions and not be-
tween others, and it is possible not only that particular
combinations of convolutions through an interchange of
internuncial fibres may condition a particular state of
intellectual activity, but that these combinations associate
various convolutions together in the performance of a given
intellectual act, just as in the muscular system several
muscles are as a rule associated together for the performance
of a given movement. A clue to the special functions of
the convolutions may perhaps be obtained by studying
their connections, just as the action of the members of
a group of muscles is ascertained by examining the direc-
tion \>i their fibres and the attachment of their terminal
tendons.
Mass and Weight of the Brain. — The human brain Weight •(
is absolutely bigger and heavier than the brain of any brain,
animal, except the elephant and the larger whales. It is
also heavier relatively to the bulk and weight of the body
than are the brains of lower animals, except in some small
birds and mammals. Considerable variations, however,
exist in the size and weight of the human brain, not only
in the different races of mankind, but in individuals of the
sam.e race and in the two sexes. The heaviest brains occur
in the white races. The average weight of the adult Euro-
pean male brain is 49 to 50 oz., that of the adult female
44 to 45 oz. ; so that the brain of a man is en the average
fully 10 per cent, heavier than that of a woman. The
greater weight of the brain in man as compared with woman
is not in relation merely to his greater bulk, but is a funda-
mental sexual distinction ; for, whilst there is a difference
of ] 0 per cent, in the brain weight, the average stature of
women is, as Thurnam has calculated, only 8 per cent, less
than that of men. Dr Boyd states that the average weight
of the brain in the newly born male infant is 11 '67 oz. ; in
the female only 10 oz. The exact age at which the brain
reaches its maximum size has been variously placed at from
the 3d to the 8th years by different authors ; but it con-
tinues to increase in weight to 25 or 30, or even 40.
After CO the brain begins to diminish in weight ; in aged
males the average weight is about 45 oz., in females about
41 oz. In some cases the adult brain considerably exceeds
the average weight. The brains of several men distinguished
for their intellectual attainments have been weighed : the
brain of Cuvier weighefl 64| oz. ; of Dr Abercrombio, C3
oz. ; of Frofessor Goodsir, 57J oz.; of Spurzheim, 55 oz. ;
of Sir J. Y. Simpson, 54 oz. ;. of Agassiz, 53'4 oz. ; and of
Dr Chalmers, 53 oz. But high brain weights have also been
found where there was no evidence of great intellectual
capacity. Peacock weighed four male brains which ranged
from 62-75 to 61 oz.; Boyd, a specimen of 60 75 oz.; and
Turner has recorded one of a boy aged fifteen which
weighed 60 oz. In the brains of the insane high brain
weights have also been observed. Buckuill met with a
brai;i in a male epileptic which weighed 64J oz.; Thurnam,
one which weighed 62 oz. ; and in the West Riding Asylum,
out of 375 males examined, the weight of the brain in 30
cases was 55 oz. or upwards, and the highest weights wera
880
A N A T
Gl oz. in a case of senile dementia, 601 oz. in a case of
dementia, and oO oz. in one of mulanchuliu. No case has
03 yet been recorded of the weight of the brain in a woman
possessing intellectual eminence; but Boyd met with a
woman's brain as high as 05'25 oz., and many instances of
upwards of 50 oz. in women where there was no evidence cf
high mental endowment. Skae, in a female monomaniac,
observed a brain which' weighed Cli oz.; and of 300
females examined in the West Riding Asylum the weight
of the brain in 2G cases was 50 oz. or upwards, the highest
weights being 50 and 55 oz. in two cases of mania. The
size and weight of the brain do not therefore, per se, give
an exact urc.thoJ of estimating the intellectual power of the
individual, and a high brain weight and great intellectual
capacity arc not necessarily correlated with each other. It
seems certain, if the human brain, even amongst the most
uncultivated peoples, falls below 30 oz., that this low weight
is not merely incompatible with intellectual power and
activity, but is invariably associated with idiocy or imbe-
cility ; so that the human brain has a minimum weight
below which intellectual action is impossible. Amongst the
more cultivated races the minimum weight-limit of intelli-
gence is, however, in all probability higher than 30 oz. It
has been placed by Broca at 32 oz. for the female, and 37 oz.
for the male brain ; and Tliurnani's numbers are almost the
same. To how low a weight the brain in the microcepha-
lous idiot may fall is well shown in a case recorded by Theile,
where it weighed only 10'6 oz., in Gore's case of 10 oz. 5
gis., and in Marshall's case, 8i oz. But instances are not
wanting in which the brains of idiots have exceeded even
50 oz. Langdon Down observed the brain of a male idiot
aged 22, which weighed 59i oz.; and J. B. Tuke has
recently met with a brain of 60 oz. in a male idiot aged 37,
the capacity of whose cranium was llOi cubic inches. In
the West Riding Asylum tables the brain weights in 10
idiots were not less than 31 oz.,and in 5 cases exceeded 40
oz. As yet the opportunities of weighing the brain in the
coloured races of men have been but scanty. But from a
very extensive series of observations made by Barnard Davis,
not on the brains themselves, but on the cubic capacities of
crania, from which an approximate estimate of the brain
weight may be obtained with a fair measure of accuracy,
the following f.acts are derived : — The average weight of
the male brain in the African races is 45 "6 oz.; of the
female brain. 4 2 '7 oz. : the average weight of the male
brain in the Australian races is 42 '8 oz. ; of the female
brain, 39 '2 oz.: the average weight of the male brain in
the 0;oanic races, 4G'5 oz. ; of the female brain, 43 oz.
The cimclusions which may legitimately be drawn from an
u.ialysis of Barnard Davis's observations are as follows : —
1st, That the average brain weight is considerably higher
in the civilised European than in the savage races; 2d,
That the range of variation is much greater in the former
than in the latter ; 3d, Th.at there is an absence, almost
complete, of specimens heavier than 54 oz. in the exotic
I'aces, so that the higher terms of the series are not repre-
sented ; 4th, That though the male brains are heavier than
the female, there is not the same amount of difference in
the average brain weight between the two sexes in the
uncultivated as in the cultivated peoples.
No reliable determinations have as yet been made of the
exact proportion, as regards bulk and weight, which the
convolutions bear to the corpora striata, optic thahimi, and
corpora quadrigemina, but data are obtainable of the rela-
tive weight of the pons, cerebellum, and medulla to the
entire enccphalon. Between the ages of 20 and 70 the
r.itio of weight of the pons, cerebellum, and medulla, to the
entire brain, is as 13 to 100, and this relative weight is
nrtuully the same in both sexes.
Origin ARKANGfiiifi.sT. and Distribution of the
O I>1 X [nebvous SYSiiii— -■
Encephalio Nerves. — Several pairs of nerves, called Cranial
CRA..VIAL or E.vcEPiiALic, arise from the under surface ora^f'^K
base of the encephalon, and pass outwards through foramina
situated iu the floor of the cranial cavity. Continental
anatomists usually enumerate twelve pairs of cranial nerves;
but because in one locality two of these nerves lie together
and pass through the same foramen, and in another spot
three of these nerves emerge together from the skull, British
anatomists have restricted the number to nine pairs.
These nerves are numbered from before backwards, in the
order in which they are seen at the base of the brain.
The names applied to the individual nerves, and their
numerical designations, according to both the Continental
and British methods, are given in the following table : —
ConllncntRL Diltinh.
Olfactory Nerves, Ist pair Ist p.nir
Optic Nerves 2d ,, 2d „
Oculo-motor Nerves, 3rJ ,, 3rd ,,
Trochlear Nerves 4th ,, 4tii ,,
Trifacial or Trigeminal Nervea,... 5th ,, r>ih „
AMuccnt Nerves, '... 6th ,, 6th „
Facial Nerves (Portio dura), 7th ,, | -.
Auditory Nerves (I'ortio mollis), fth ,, ( "
Glosso-pharyiigeal Nerves 9th ,, j
Pneumogaatric Nerves (Vagus), 10th ,, > 6th ,,
Spinal Accessory Nerves 11th ,, J
Hj-poglossal Nerves, 12th ,, i 9th ,,
These nerves may be arranged in three groups according
to the presence or absence of motor and sensory fibres.
First group. — Sensory nerves, or nerves of special sense:
a, olfactory, the nerve of smell ; b, optic, nerve of sight ;
c, auditory, nerve of hearing.
Second group. —Motor nerves : a, oculo-motor, the prin-
cipal nerve of supply for the muscles of the eyeball; 6,
trochlear, the nerve for the superior oblique muscle ; e,
abducent, the nerve for the external rectus ; d, portio dura,
the nerve for the facial muscles of expression ; e, spinal
accessory, the nerve which gives a motor root to tha
pneumogastric, and supplies the sterno-raastoid and tra-
pezius muscles ; /, hypoglossal, the nerve for the muscles
of the tongue.
Third group. — Mixed nerves : a, trifacial, distributed to
the muscles of mastication, the skin of the face, variou.")
mucous membranes, and to the anterior and lateral surfaces
of the tongue, where it may play the part of a nerve of tha
special sense of taste ; b, glosso-pharyngeal, distributed to
the mucous membrane of the pharynx, to certain palato-
pharyngeal muscles, and to the mucous membrane of the
back of the tongue, where it acts as a nerve of the special
sense of taste; c, the pneumogastric, conjoined with the
internal division of the spinal accessory, i.s distributed
to several muscles, mucous membranes, .md internal
organs.
The consideration of the 1st group of cranial ncnrea
may appropriately be deferred until the organs of sense,
in which they terminate, are described. The anatomy of
the motor nerves is as follows
The Ocido-molor or third nerve springs out of the inner Motor
surface of the crus cerebri. When its fibres arc traced into crani.il
the crus, some are seen to pass to the nerve cells of the '"'^^
locus niger, whilst others sink into the corpora quadri-
gemina, and extend as far as the Sylvian group of large
nerve cells. The nerve, after it has emerged from the
crus, runs forwards in the outer wall of the cavernous
sinus, and enters the orbit through the sphenoidal fissure.
It supplies the levator palpebraj superioris, the superior,
inferior, and internal recti muscles, and the inferior oblique
It contributes the short or motor root to the ciliary ganglion,
and through it influences the iris and ciliary muscles w ithia
the eyeball. It also communicates with the cavernone
plexus of the sympathetic.
CRANIAL NEKVES.]
ANATOMY
881
The Trochlearis or fourth, the sniaUest cranial nerve,
lies at the outer side of the cms cerebri. When traced
backwards to its origin it is seen to sink into the valve of
Vieassens, where its fibres divide into three roots : one
decussates across the valve with a root of the corresponding
nerve on the opposite side; another passes backwards to
the locus cceruleus; the third sinks into the corpora quadri-
gemiAa and reaches the Sylvian group of nerve cells, from
which the third nerve also arises. The fourth nerve runs
forward in the outer wall of the cavernous sinus, enters
the orbit through the sphenoidal fissure, and ends in the
superior oblique muscle. It also communicates with the
cavernous plexus of the sympathetia
The Abducent or sixth nerve springs out of the groove
between the lower border of the pons and the anterior
pyramid of the medulla oblongata. Its roots sink deeply
into the pons, and arise from a nucleus of grey matter at
the floor of the fourth ventricle, common to it and the portio
diirx The sixth nerve runs forward in the inner wall of
the cavernous sinus, enters the orbit through the sphenoidal
fissure, and ends in the external rectus muscle. It com-
municates with the carotid plexus of the sympathetic.
The Portio dura or motor facial portion of the seventh
nerve springs out of the groove between the lower border
of the pons and the restiforra body. Its roots sink deeply
into the pons, and whilst some of its fibres arise from a
grey nucleus, at the floor of the fourth ventricle, common
to it and the sixth nerve, others ascend from a nucleus
which, according to Meynert, lies just on the outer side of
the superior olivary body, and others again decussate
across the median raphe of the pons. An accessory por-
tion, called portio intermedia, which is said to arise from
the lateral columns of the cord, joins the portio dura.
The portio dura enters the internal auditory meatus in the
petrous-temporal bone along with the auditory nerve; but
at the bottom of the meatus it leaves that nerve and enters
the aqueduct of Fallopius along which it is conducted
through the bone to emerge at the stylo-mastoid foramen.
When in the aqueduct it forms a Tcnee-shaped bend, and
expands into a small ganglion, which is joined by the
great, small, and external petrosal nerves, and through the
external petrosal it communicates with the sjrmpathetic.
The portio dura gives off — a. a minute branch to the sta-
pedius muscle ; b, the chorda tympani, which, entering the
tympanum, passes across that cavity, emerges through the
Glaserian fissure, and joins the lingual branch of the fifth
nerve, which it accompanies as fai- as the submaxillary
ganglion ; it gives a branch to the ganglion, and one to
the lingualis muscle. After the portio dura has passed
through the stylo-mastoid foramen it gives off — c, \he poste-
rior auricular branch to the occipital belly of the occipito-
frontalis and to the retrahens aurem muscle, and d, the
digastric branch to the posterior belly of the digastric and
Btylo-hyoid muscles ; and then runs forwards through the
fiarotid gland to the face, where it breaks up into numerous
e) facial branches to f.i;pply the facial muscles of expres-
sion and the buccinator muscle. Th-o facial is also the
secretory nerve for the salivary glands. Through the
chorda tympani it influences the secretion of the submaxil-
lary and sublingual glands, and through the connection
between its lesser petrosal nerve and the auriculo-temporal
in the otic ganglion it influences the parotid gland.
The Spinal Accessory is the lowest division of the eighth
nerve. It springs out of the side of the medulla oblongata,
and from the lateral column of the cervical part of the
spinal cord as low as the fifth cervical nerve : its roots
arise from the intermedio-lateral group of nerve cells in
the cord, and from a nucleus of grey matter in the floor of
the fourth ventricle. The spinal fibres of origin enter the
Bknll through the fonmen roaiiiim. join the fibres from the
1—30
medulla, and leave the cranial cavity through the jugular
foramen. This nerve, purely motor in function, is sub-
divided into two parts, an internal and an external The
external passes obliquely outwards across the side of the
neck, pierces the sterno-mastoid, and ends in the trapezius,
both of which muscles it supplies. The internal joins the
,pneumogastric nerve, of which it forms the motor or acces-
sory root, and is distributed along with it.
The Hypoglossal or ninth nerve springs out of the groove
between the anterior pyramid and olivary body of the
medulla oblongata, in series with the anterior roots of the
spinal nerves. Its roots pass through the medulla to the
floor of the fourth ventricle, to arise from the nerve cells
in two nuclei of grey matter situated close to the median
furrow. This grey matter is in series with the anterior
cornua in the spinal cord. The newe passes out of the
skull through the anterior condyloid foramen, and arches
across the side of the neck to the tongue, to end in glossal
branches for the supply of the intrinsic and extrinsic
muscles of the tongue. It also gives off — a, the descendens
noni branch, which, after been joined by the communicantes
noni from the cervical plexus, supplies the omo-hyoid,
sterno-hyoid, and sterno-thyroid muscles ; b, the ihyro-hyoid
branch to the thyro-hyoid muscle ; c, the genio-hyoid
branch to the genio-hyoid muscle. It communicates in the
neck with the sympathetic, vagus, lingual branch of the
fifth, and cervical plexus.
The group of mixed nerves will now be considered.
The Trifacial or fifth is the largest cranial nerve. It llixeil
springs by two distinct roots out of the side of the pons, craui.il
The smaller or motor root arises from the nerve cells of ,i"<^*f'-
nucleus of grey matter situated in the back of the pons,
near the floor of the upper part of the fourth ventricle.
The larger or sensory root has, according to Meynert, a
complex origin — a, from a nucleus of grey matter in the
pons to the outer side of the origin of the motor root ; 6,
by descending fibres which arise from nerve cells in tho
substance of the corpora quadrigemina, from the grey
matter of the locus csruleus, and from the longitudinal
fibres of the pons ; c, by ascending fibres which apparently
arise from the grey tubercle of Rolando ; d, probably by
fibres which travgj-se and embrace the superior peduncle of
the cerebellum. As the large sensory root of the fifth lies
on the petrous bone it expands into the Gasserian ganglion,
which resembles in structure the ganglion on the postcrioi
root of a spinal nerve. From this ganglion three large
branches arise, named respectively the 1st, 2d, and 3J
divisions of the ganglion.
The \st or Ophthalmic division is the upper sensory nerve
of the face, and divides into three branches, which pass
out of the cranial cavity through the sphenoidal fissure. By
its lachrymal branch it supplies the lachrymal gland, and
the outeV part of the skin and conjunctiva of the upper eye-
lid ; by its frontal branch, the inner part of the skin and
conjunctiva of the upper lid, and the skin of the forehead;
by its oculo-nasal branch, it gives long ciliary nerves to tho
eyeball, and a nasal nerve to tho mucous membrane of
the nose, and the skin of the side of the nose. From the
oculo-nasal nerve arises tho long or sensory root uf the
ciliary ganglion, which lies in the cavity of the orbit, and
which receives also a motor root from the third nerve, and
a root from the sympathetic. This ganglion gives origin to
the short ciliary nerves for the eyeball.
Tho 2d or Superior Maxillary division is the senso y
nerve for the middle part of the face. It leaves tho skuU
by the foramen rotundum, passes across the spheno-maxillaiy
fissure, then lies in the canal in the floor of tho orbit, from
which it emerges on the face through tho infraorbil-il
foramen as the infra-orbital nerve. It gives off a small
orbital branch to a small puvt of the skin of the tcmpla
882
A N A T 0 ]\I Y
[nervous
and that ov(!r tho check bone ; dental branches to the teeth
in tho upper jaw ; palpebral branches to the skin and con-
junctiva of the lower eye-lid ; nasal branches to the skin
and mucous membrane of tho nose ; labial branches to tho
okin and mucous membrane of tho upper lip. It also
gives off, when in the Bpheno-maxillary fossa, splieno-
palatine branches, which form the seniory root of tho
tpheno-palatine or MeckeVe ganglion. This ganglion receives
a motor root through the great petrosal nerve from the
knee-shaped bend of tho portio dura, and a s^Tnpathetic
root from the carotid ple.xus, which runs along with tho
great petrosal, and forms with it the vidian nerve. The
ganglion gives origin to — a, an orbital branch, which supplies
a layer of non-striped muscular fibres, described by H.
Miiller and Turner as developed in connection with tho
periosteum of tho orbit, where it covers the Kpheno-maxilliiry
fissure ; b, upper nasal and naso-palatine branches to tho
raucous membrane of the nose and hard palate ; c, descend-
ing palatine branches to the mucous membrane of the hard
and soft palate; d, pterygo-palatine to the mucous mem-
brane of tho upper part of the .pharnyx.
The 3c; or Inferior Maxillary division passes out of the
skull through the foramen ovale, and as it does so is joined
by the motor root of tho 5th. By the junction a mixed
nerve is formed, which is the sensory nerve for the lower
part of the face, and the skin of tho temple, and the motor
nerve for the musi^les of mastication. Immediately after
passing through tho foramen this nerve divides into a
small and large division, in each of which motor and
sensory fibres are found. The small division supplies motor
masticatory branches to the masseter, temporal, external,
and internal pterygoid muscles ; but further it gives off a
long buccal branch, which, though often described as the
motor'nervo for the buccinator muscle, is really a sensory
nerve for the skin and mucous membrane of the cheek.
The sensory nature of this nerve is proved, not only by
physiological and pathological experiments, but by tracing
its fibres through tho buccinator muscle to the mucous
membrane. Turner has also recorded two cases in which
the long buccal uorvo arose as a branch of the sensory
juperior maxillary nerve. The Iclrye division separates
into three branches — <z, auriculo-temporal, which ascends to
supply tho parotid gland, tbe skin of the auricle, external
meatus, and temple, and the temporo-ma.\illary joint ; 6, in-
ferior denial, vvhich enters the dental canal in the lower jaw,
and supplies the lower set of teeth and the skin and mucous
membrane of tho lower lip; it also gives off a mylo-kyoid
branch to the mylo-hyoid and anterior belly of the digas-
tric muscle; c, lingual or gustatory, which runs forward
along tho side of the tongue to end in the filiform and
fungiform papillae of its mucous membrane. The lingual
branches are sensory nerves of touch, though some physiolo-
gists believe that they are also nerves of taste. Connected
with the branches of tho inferior maxillary division are
two small gangUa, which, like tho ciliarj' and spheno-pala-
tine ganglia, are of a greyish colour, contain nerve cells,
and receive roots from motor, sensory, and sympathetic
nerves. The submaxillary ganglion lies under cover of the
mylo-hyoid muscle, and receives a root from the motor
chorda tympani nerve, a root from the sensory lingual, and
a sympathetie root. It gives branches to the sub-maxillary
and sublingual salivary glands. The otic ganglion lies close
to the Eustachian tube, and receives a root from the mus-
cular nerve to the internal pterygoid, a root from the
sensory auriculo-temporal, and a sympathetic root. It also
receives the small petrosal nerve, by which it is connected
to the knee-shaped bend of the portio dura and to the
glosso-pharyngeal nerve. It supplies the tensor tympani
and tensor jia'ati muscles. The branches of the three divi-
sions ot the fifth cranial nerve, which Dass to the skin oi
tho temple, forehead, and face, freely ooromunicate viih
the branches of the portio dura, which supply tho mu.'ick-a
situated in those regions.
Tho Olosso-pliaryngeal or uppermost division erf the eiglUh
nerve springs out of the side of the medulla oblongata
between the olivary and restiform bodies; its roots arise
from two small masses or nuclei of grey matter in the floor
of the 4th ventricle. The nerve passes out of .tho skull
through the jugular foramen, where it possesses two small
ganglia, named jugular and petrous. It then passes
across tho side of tho neck and gives off carotid branches,
which run along the internal carotid artery; pharyngeal
branches to the mucous membrane of the pharynx ; lonsil-
ilic branches to the tonsil and soft palate ; glossal
branches to the base of the tongue and the circumvillato
papillte, which branches are unquestionably nerves of the
special sense of taste ; muscular branches to the etylo-
pharyngeus and perhaps the constrictor muscles. Through
the jugular and petrous ganglia the nerve communicates
with tho vagus and sympathetic. The petrous gangUon
gives off the tympanic branch or nerve of Jacohson, which
enters the tympanic caviLy, supplies its mucous membrane,
and gives off three communicating branches — one to the
sympathetic ; a second to the great petrosal, and through it
to the knee-shaped bend of the facial ; a third tp the small
petrosal, and through it to tho otic ganglion.
The Pneumogastric or Vagus is the middle subdivision
of the eighth cranial nerve. It springs out of tho side of the
medulla oblongata, between the olivary and restiform
bodies ; its roots arise from a nucleus of grey matter in
the floor of tho 4th ventricle, which nucleus, along with
those for the glosso-pharyngeal nerve, is in series with the
posterior cornu of grey matter in the spinal cord. It goes
through the jugular foramen, is joined by the inner divi-
sion of the spinal accessory which is its niotor root, then
passes down the side of the neck, enters the thorax, reaches
the outer wall of the oesophagus, accompanies that tube
through the diaphragm, and terminates in tho wall of the
stomach. The left nerve lies on a plane anterior to tho
right : it crosses in front of the sirch of the aorta, and is dis-
tributed to the anterior wall of the stomach, whilst the right
nerve supplies the posterior walL Each nerve possesses
high in the neck two enlargements, named upper and lower
ganglia. The branches of the vagxis are numerous and im-
portant The upper ganglion gives origin to the auricular
branch, which traversing a small canal in the petrous tempo-
ral bone, is distributed to tho skin of the back of the auricle.
The lower ganglion gives origin to — a, the pharyngeal
branch, which forms a plexus with the glosso-pharyngeal
and sympathetic nerves, from which the muscles of tho
pharynx are supplied ; 6, the superior laryngeal, which
divides into an external branch to supply the crico-thyroid
muscle, and an internal, which pierces the thjTo-hyoid iflem-
brane, and supplies the mucous lining of the larynx and the
mucous covering of the epiglottis. The trunk of the nerve
gives origin to — a, the recurrent laryngeal branch, which on
the right side turns round tho subclavian artery, and on the
left round the arch of tho aorta, and ascends to the larynx to
supply its intrinsic muscles except the crico-thyroid ; b,
cardiac branches, which arise from the nerve partly in the
neck and partly in the chest, and join the great cardiac
plexus for the heart ; c, pulmonary branches, which arise
in the chest, pass into the substance of the lungs, and form
along with the sympathetic an anterior plexus in front of,
and a posterior plexus behind the root of the lung ; d,
oesophageal branches, which supply the coats of the
oesophagus ; e, gastric branches, which supply the coats
of the stomach, and give important offshoots to the great
solar plexus of the sympathetic situated at the pit of the
stomach.
^ystkm.]
A N A T O M T
883
s eysteni.
Gauglialcd
colli and
bvauches.
Descriptive Anatomy of the Sympathetic Nervous
System.
Syinpaths- The Sympathetic Nervous System consists of a pair of
tic nervous gangUated cords, situated one on each side of the spinal
column ; of three great gangUated prevertebral plexuses
situated in the thoracic and abdominal cavities ; of nume-
rous smaller ganglia lying mure especially in relation with
the thoracic and abdominal viscera j of multitudes of fine
distributory nerves.
Each GangUated Cord of the sympathetic extends along '
the side of the spine from the base of the skull to the
coccyx. In the neck it lies in front of the transverse
processes of the vertebrae'; in the thorax, in front of the
heads of the ribs ; in the abdomen, on the sides of the verte-
bral bodies; and as it descends in front of the sacrum it
Rpprt)ache3 its fellcv, so that in front of the coccyx the two
are united in a single ganglion, the ganglion, impai- (Fig.
G6, c). Each cord consists of a number of ganglia united into
a continuous cord by intermediate nerves. As a rule, the
ganglia equal in number the vertcbrEe of the region. Thus,
in the sacral region there are five ganglia, in the lumbar
five, and in the thorax twelve ; but in the neck there are
only three, named superior, middle, and inferior; of these
the superior is very large, and represents without doubt
several smaller ganglia. From the superior cervical ganglion
the cord is prolonged upwards by an ascending or cranial
offshoot through the carotid canal into the cranial cavity,
and forms a plexus around the internal carotid artery, both in
the carotid canal, named the carotid plexue, and in the inner
wall of the cavernous sinus, named the caveYnoua plexus.
Through branches derived either directly or indirectly from
these plexuses the sympathetic roots for the ciliary and
spheno-palatine ganglia, described in conhection with the
fifth nerve, are derived.
^rom the gangUated cora and its ascending or cranial
prolongation a ccxtianunicating and a distributory series of
branches are derived.
By the Communicating branches this portion of tCe
sympathetic is connected with most of the cranial and
with the anterior divisions of all the spinal nerves, so as to
bring the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic systems into close
anatomical and physiological relation with each other.
It is important also to obbcrve that each communicating
brar.ch contains not only non-medullated nerve fibres from
the sympathetic system to the cerebro-spinal nerves, but
■inedullated fibres from the cerebro-spinal to the sympa-
thetic, so that a double interchange takes place between
the two systems. The cranial prolongation' of the sympa-
thetic and the superior cervical ganglion communicate with
the 3d and 4th nerves, the Gasserian ganglion of the 5th, the
6th, the portio dura of the 7th, the glosso-pharyngeal and
pneumogastric of the 8th, and the 9th cranial nerves, and
with the anterior divisions of the. four upper cervical spinal
nerves. The middle cervical ganglion communicates v/ith
the 5th and Cth cervical nerves, the inferior cervical gan-
glion with the 7th and 8th cervical ner\'es, the twelve
thoracic ganglia with the series of intercostal nerves, the
five lumbar ganglia with the series of lumbar spinal nerves,
the' sacral and coccygeal ganglia with the sacral nerves and
the coccygeal nerve.
The Distributory branches of the gangliated cord are as
!ollows:^-a. Pharyngeal branches from the superior ce2"vical
ganglion, which join the pharyngeal branches of the glosso-
pharyngeal and pneumogastric nerves, to form the pharyn-
geal plexus, which supplies the muscles and mucous
membrane of the pharynx, b, Articular branches from the
upper thoracic and the lumbar ganglia to the articulations
between the adjacent vertebra:, c. Pulmonary branches from
the 34 01 4th thoracic ganglia, which join the posterior
pulmonary plexus, d. Vasomotor branches or (lenri mcllt^,
which supply the muscular coat of the arteries : those which
arise from the cranial prolongation of the superior cervical
ganglion supply the internal carotid artery and its branches
to the brain and eyeball : those which arise from the
superior cervical ganglia itself supply the external carotid
artery and its branches; from the branch accompanying
the facial artery the submaxilliary ganglion derives its
sympathetic root ; from that accompanying the middle
meningeal artery the otic ganglion derives its sympathetic
root : the vaso-motor nerves which arise from the middle
cervical ganglion siipply the inferior thyroid artery, and pass
to the thyroid gland : the vaso-motor branches of the inferior
cervical ganglion supply the vertebral and basilar arteries and
their several branches, which pass to the spinal cord and
the hinder part of the encephaion. Vaso-motor nerves also
arise from the thoracic ganglia, which pass to the thoracic
aorta, from the lumbar ganglia to the abdominal aorta, and
from the sacral ganglia to the middle sacral artery ; the
ganglion impar gives branches to a peculiar vascular struc-
ture, named the coccygeal body, developed in connection
with the end of the middle sacral af«iery ; a body of similar
structure, called intercarotic bod" situated in the angle of
bifurcation of the common carotid ai.ery, receives branches
from the superior cervical ganglion, e, Cardiac branches
from the superior, middle, and inferior cervical and the 1st
thoracic ganglia, which pass into the thorax to join the pre-
vertebral cardiac plexus. /, Splanchnic branches as follows :
great splanchnic nerve, by the union of branches from the
thoracic ganglia, the 3d to the 10th inclusive ; it pierces the
cms of the diaphragm, and passes to the prevertebral solar
plexus ; small splanchnic nerve, also to the solar plexus
from the 10th or llth thoracic ganglia ; smallest splanchnic
nerve, from the 12th thoracic ganglion to the renal plexus.
g, Hypogastric branches, from the lumbar and sacral ganglia
to the prevertebral hypogastric plexus.
The Prevertebral Cardiac plexus (PI. XVII. c) is situated CJangUatod'
at the base of the heart, and is divided into a superficial prever-
part, which lies in the concavity of the arch of the aorta, . ^^
and a deep part between the aorta and trachea. It receives
the cardiac branches of the pneumogastric and the cervical
ganglia of the sympathetic. It contains collections of
nerve cells and a dense plexiform arrangement of nervo
fibres. It gives off branches to the heart, which wind
around the surface of that organ and penetrate its muscular
substance : on these branches minute ganglia are found
which regulate its rhythmical movements. Through these
branches and the cardiac plexus the heart is brought into
connection with both the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic
systems of nervcis. The sympathetic apparently regulates
its contraction, for when this nerve is stimulated the action
of the heart is accelerated. The pneumogastric again exer-
cises an inhibitory or restraining influence on the contrac-
tions of the organ, for when this nerve is irritated the
activity of contraction is diminished, but when divided it
is greatly increased. The cardiac plexus also sends ofisets
to the anterior and posterior pulmonary plexuses for the
supply of nerves to the lungs.
The Prevertebral Solar or Epigastric plexus is situated at
the pit of the. stomach around the cceliac axis, a branch of
the abdominal aorta. It receives -the great and small
splanchnic nerves from the thoracic ganglia of the sympa-
thetic, and some of the terminal branches of the pneumo-
gastric nerve. It contains largo collections of nerve cells,
which form the two semilunar ganglia, and a dense plexi-
form arrangement of ner\'e fibres. It gives origin, either
directly or indirectly, to numerous plexiform branches,
which accompany, and are named after, the abdominal
aorta and its various branches given off to the walls and
viscera of the abdomen proper. In this manner, not ovijl
H84
A N A T O 31 Y
[oUOANS OK SK.VStf
do the arteiics wliich aujiply the abdominal viscera receive
their vaso-motor nerves, but the muscular and mucous
coata of the stomach, intestines, gall bladder, bile ducts,
ureters, and ecminal ducts, and the glandular structures of
the liver, pancreas, kidneys, spleen, and suprarenal cap-''
Bules. It is important also to ob'^ervo that these plexuses
of distribution not unfrcquently contain small ganglia,
and the branches which supply the muscular coat of the
stomach and intestines have minute microscopic ganglia,
with stellate nerve cells lying amidst them. The distribu-
tion of the pneumogastric nerve to the stomach, and its
connection with the solar plexus, enables that nerve to
stimulate its peristaltic contraction, and, according to some
experimenters, that of the small intestine also; but the
precise action of the sympathetic on these organs is still a
disputed question.
The Prevertebral Hypogastric plexus is situated in front
of the last lumbar vertebra. It receives branches from the
lumbar ganglia of the sympathetic, and from the plexus
surrounding the abdominal aorta. It divides into two
parts, which lie one on each side of the rectum, and are
called the pelvic plexuses ; these plexuses are joined by
branches from the sacral gangha of the sympathetic, and
from the 3d and 4th sacral spinal nerves, and contain
email gangliform collections of nerve cells. • From the
pelvic plexuses numerous plosiform 'nerves arise, which
accompany the internal iliac ar£ery and its branches to the
walls and viscera of the pelvis, and are named after them.
These nerves not only supply the vaso-motor nerves for
these blood-vessels, but also the muscular coat and mucous
membrane of the bladder, rectum, and urethra, besides
the prostate gland in the male, and the uterus and vagina,
and in part the ovary, in the female ; in connection with
their distribution to these viscera, minute ganglia are
found lying amidst the nerves, the nerve cells in which
let undoubtedly as cfentres of reinforcement for the origin
of additional nerve fibres.
From the distribution of the branches of the gangliated
cord of the sympathetic, and of the gangliated prevertebral
plexuses, it will be seen that this nerve is especially related
to the blood-vessels and to the viscera . contained within
the great cavities of the body. As the cerebro-spinal sys-
tem is engaged in the supply of nerves to the voluntary
muscles, the sympathetic is the medium of supply for the
iTivoluntary muscular apparatus, both in the coats of the
vessels and in the walls of the hollow viscera. But
though the vaso-motor nerves branch from the sympathetic
ganglia, it must not be supposed that they have no con-
nection with the cerebro-spinal system. The communicat-
ing branches between the sympathetic ganglia and the
anterior divisions of the spinal nerves establish a connection
between them and the cerebro-spinal nervous axis. By
recent experiments, the tract of transmission of the vaso-
motor fibres has been traced along with the anterior roots
of the spinal nerves, through the lateral columns of the
cord to the medulla oblongata, in which the vaso-motor
nerve centre lies a little to one side of the mesial plane,
above the calamus scriptorius. In the distribution of the
sympathetic to the glandular viscera, not only is it im-
portant to attend to their terminations in the muscular
coat of the blood-vessels of the glands, but the termina-
tion of the nerves in connection with the secreting cells
themselves must be taken into consideration. The com-
munications between the cerebro-spinal apd sj-mpathetic
systems, not only through the spinal nerves, but also
through the pneumogastric, are to be kept in mind in con-
nection with the effects produced by varj'ing mental con-
ditions oa the secretions of the glands.
Oroakb of Sense.
The organs of sense are the organs through the inlerm*
diation of which the mind becomes cognisant of the appear-
ance and properties of the various objects in the external
world. These organs are severally named nose, eye, car,
tongue, and skin. Fot the excitation and perception of a
sensation three sets of structures are necessary : a, a
peripheral end-organ ; b, a sensory nerve ; e, a central
organ. The peripheral end-organ is the part of the appa-
ratus to which the stimulus necessary for the production of
the sensation is applied. This stimulus causes nervous
impulses to be propagated from the end-organ along th»
fibres of the sensory nerve to the central organ, in wliich
that nerve terminates at its central extremity. These ner-
vous impulses occasion molecular changes in the nerve cells
of the brain, and the mind becomes conscious of a sensation.
The shape and construction of each organ of sense is adapted
to the application of the stimulus required for the produc-
tion of the particular sensation to which the organ is sub-'
servient. Each organ of sense possesses its own character-
istic form of end-organ. The touch corpuscles of the skin,
the end bulbs found in several mucous membranes, and the
Pacinian corpuscles, are the end-organs occurring in their
several localities; they have the peripheral ends of the
sensory nerves terminating in their substance, and the
axial cylinder of the nerve fibre ends in their interior.
The rods and cones of the retina, the rods of Corti in
the cochlea, the olfactory cells of the nose, and the gus-
tatory bodies in the tongue, are the end-organs belong-
ing to their several organs of sense ; the sensory nerve
fibres which terminate in relation with them have not
yet, however, been traced into actual continuity with
their substance. A stimulus, whatever may be its nature,
applied to any organ of sense can excite only that kind of
sensation for the production of which the organ is subser-
vient. Thus a stimulus applied to the eye, whether it be
the natural stimulus of the waves of light, the mechanical
stimulus of a blow, or an electric stimulus, can only excite
the sensation of light. Stimuli applied to the ear can only
excite the sensation of sound, and in like maimer with the
other senses. In studying the anatomy of the organs of
sense the arrangement of numerous accessory structures,
which assist either in conducting stimuli or in modifiying
their effects, the arrangement and structure of the peripheral
end-organs, and the origin, course, and distribution of the
sensory nerves, will have to be considered.
The Nose, or organ of smell is a large cavity situated in Nose,
the face, between the orbits, above the mouth, aud below
the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. It communicates
by the anterior nares, or nostrils, with the external atmo-
sphere, by the posterior nares with the pharynx, and through
it with the larjTix, trachea, and lungs. It is the proper
entrance to the respiratory passage, is accessory to the pro-
duction of the voice, aids in the sense of taste, and forms
one of the most important features of the face. It is sub-
divided into a right and a left chamber by a vertical mesial
partition, the septum nasi, so that the nose is a double
organ in the same sense as the eyes or ears are double.
The walls of the cavity of the nose are formed partly of
bone and partly of cartilage. The osseous walls are referred
to on page 826. The cartilages form the point, the alse, and
a part of the septum nasi. The mesial or septal cartilage is
triangular in shape, and fits into the interval between the
vomer, the mesial plate of the ethmoid, and the nasal spine
of the superior maxilla. Anteriorly and inferiorly its border
is free, projects on to the face, and forms the colutnna ol
the nose. The lateral cartilages form the tip and ah-e.
Ou each side is an upper lateral cartilage attached hj it#
(lOSE,']
ANATOMY
885
ontet margin to the free edge of the nasal bone and supe-
rior maxilla, whilst by its inner it is continuous with the
anterior border of the septal cartilage. The lower lateral
cartilage curres inwards upon itself, touches its feUow in
the mesial plane at the tip, and forms the anterior and
lateral boundary of the orifice of the nostril It is con-
nected by fibrous membrane above to the upper lateral
cartilage, and behind to the anterior edge of thesuperior
maxilla. In this membrane two to five small cartilaginous
plates, called the epactal cartilages, are often found
imbedded. The skin of the nose which covers the lower
lateral cartilages contains numerous sebaceous follicles,
which open by comparatively large orifices on the surface.
It is closely connected to these cartilages, and to the
muscles of the alae. The lower lateral cartilage forms the
wall of the vestibule or entrance to the nasal chamber, and
the vestibule is lined by a prolongation of the integvmient,
which is studded with numerous short hairs or vibrissw.
Each nasal chamber is lined by a mucous membrane called
the pituitary or Schneiderian. This membrane is prolonged
into the meatuses and the air sinuses which open into
them; posteriorly it is continuous with the mucous lining
of the pharynx, and anteriorly it blends with the cutaneous
lining of the vestibule. The pituitary membrane is thick
and soft, and diminishes the si^e of the meatuses and the
openings of the air sinuses as seen in the skeleton. The
mucous membrane is divided into a respiratory and an
olfactory region. The respiratory region corresponds to the
floor of the. nose, to tie inferior turbinated bone, and to
the lower third of the nasal septum. It is covered by a
ciliated columnar epithelium, and contains numerous race-
mose glands for the secretion of mucus or pituita. It is
also vascular, and the veins which ramify in it have a
plexifonn arrangement. The mucous lining of the air
sinuses is also ciliated, but almost devoid of glands, except
in the antriim, in which region the elands sometimes dilate
into cystic tumours.
The olfactory region is the seat of distribution of the
olfactory nerve and of its peripheral end-organs. It corro-
sponds to the roof of the nose, to the superior and middle
turbinals, and the upper ^rds of the septum.
The mucous membrane is thick; soft, easily
destroyed, of a yellowish brown colour, and
blended with the periosteum. When vertical
sections through this membrane are examined
microscopically the tubular glands discovered
by Bowman may be seen in its vasci^lar con-
nective tissue layer. These glands contain
roundish secreting ceUs with yellowish-brown
pigment-stained contents. The epithelium is
cylindrical, but not usually ciliated, though
patches of ciliated epitheUum ceUs are said
to occur in man. Long, slender, and even
branched processes proceed from the deeper
end of each cell towards or even into the sub-
epithelial connective tissue. The cells usually
contain pigment granules. Between the epithe-
lium cells the characteristic olfactory cells of
Schultze are situated. Each olfactory cell con- f|°- '^"J^'^'^jJ"
eists of a globular or fusiform body, from which olfactory mn-
two long processes arise r one, the periplieral J"^^ ^'^\.
process, passes vertically between the adjacent tiiciium ccii;
cylindrical epithelium cells to the free surface ccii; c,°its'p°ri'
of the mucous membrane: in amphibia, rep- phc«i ; and r,
... , , . , . . , 1 1 , ^'^ central Ta-
llies, and birds it projects beyond the plane ncoso procc«».
of the epithelium as a simple hair-liko struc- (A^"- *""""•)
lure, or subdivided into several slender "olfactory hairs;"
in fish and mammals, man inclusive, it ends, without form-
ing a hair-Lko prolongation, on the general piano of the
mucoua surface. The second or central procest of the olfac-
tory cell extends towards the sub-epithelial connective
tissue : it is finer than the peripheral process, and has not
unft-equently a varicose appearance like a nerve fibre.
In the description ofthe developmentof the brain (p. 864),
the origin of the olfactory bulb and peduncle from the
hemisphere vesicle was referred to. In the adult brain the
olfactory peduncle is in contact with the under surface of
the frontal lobe. It is a white band, which divides in
front of the locus perforatus anticus into three so-called
roots of the olfactory nerve. The external or long root
passes outwards across the Sylvian fissure to the gyrus
hippocampi, and perhaps also to the insula : a few fibres
are continuous with the anterior commissure; but in
mammals, where the olfactory peduncle forms a good-
sized lobe, it receives many fibres from the commissure.
The middle or grey root contains white fibres which
proceed from the corpus striatum. The internal or
short root has been traced into the anterior end of the
gyrus fomicatus; hence the inner and outer roots of
the olfactory peduncle are connected with the anterinr
and posterior extremities of the arch-shaped gyms. The
olfactory bulbs rest on the upper surface of the cribri-
form plate of the ethmixd, one on each side of the
crista galli. The bulb consists both of grey and white
matter, and sometimes retains the central cavity lined by
a ciliated epithelium. Thd grey matter contains fusi-
form and pyramidal nerve ceils imbedded in neuroglia (the
stratum gclatinosum of L. Clarke). Between it and the
central cavity is the white matter formed of nerve fibres
interspersed vrith " granules," similar to those seen in
the pist coloured layer of the cerebellum. Between the
grey matter and the surface is the stratum glomendosum of
Meynert, which apparently consists of coils of the olfactory
nerve fibres with interspersed " granules. " The olfactory
nerve fibres form the first pair of cranial nerves or nerves of
smell; they leave these glomeruli in from 15 to 25 bundles,
and enter the roof of the nose through the holes in the cribri-
form plate (PI. XIX figs. 1, 2); they lie in grooves in the
bones of the olfactory region, and form a network from which
bundles of fine non-medullatcd fibres arise that enter the
mucous membrane and run between the glands into the
epithelial layer. These nerves have a varicose appearance,
and though their terminations have not been precisely
ascertained, it is believed that they are connected with
the central processes of the olfactory cells, which celb are
therefore regarded as the peripheral end-organs of the
olfactory nerve fibres. The mucous membrane of the nose
also receives branches from the 1st and 2d divisions of the
5th cranial nerve. Their mode of termination in that
membrane is not known, but they are associated with the
sense of touch, and not with the special sense of smeU.
The Eyeball, globe of the eye, or organ of vision, is a
complex optical apparatus situated in the cavity of the
orbit, imbedded to a largo extent in loose fat, and with
several muiscles attached to it. Its form approximates to
the spheroidal, but it actually consists of segments of two
spheres, the posterior of which is the larger.
The eyeball consists of three coats or tunics, which
enclose three translucent refracting media. The first or
external coat consists of a posterior, white, opaque part,
the sclerotic, which corresponds in its area with the posterior
larger segment of the ball, and of an anterior, translucent
part, the cornea, which corresponds in its area with the
anterior smaller segment of the eyeball Piercing the
sclerotic coat is the optic nerve, which enters the globe
about -Jth inch to the nasal or inner side of its antero-
posterior axis. The second or middle coat, or tunica
vasculosa, consists of a posterior part or choroid, the area
of which corresponds almoat exactly with the sclerotic;
88G
ANATOMY
[organs of sense —
this coat possesses anteriorly numerous folds, the ciliary
piocesses, which are continuous with the iris, a structure
which lies behind the cornea. The third or internal or
nervous coat is named the retina, and in it the optic nerve
p^a. 77.— Dlaeramroallc flection fhrouch llie cj cbal. c. conjuncuva; co, comeR;
S(, ecklt'tlc; cA. cjiorolil; fc, ciliary iiiocC88r»: mc, ciliary muscle; 0, Ojitic
nerve; II. retina; I.lrlB; ag. anterior chainticr ot oyucuuB Imiiinur; L,lens;
V. vltrcoufl body ; Z. zunulu of Zinn, tlio ciliary process (jclng removed to bhow
It; p. canal ot I'etli; r/i. yellow spot. Iho dotted iinu behind the cornea re*
prcflcnia Ita poslcrior epUlicUum.
terminates. The enclosed refracting media occupy the
axis of the globe, and, are named from before backwards
Ihe aqueous humour, crystalline Uns, and vitreous body.
clei-otio The Sclerotic coat, called from its white appearance the
D&t. whito of the eye, is a firm, unj-ielding fibrous membrane,
which forms the posterior Jths of the outer coat of the
eyeball. It is thicker behind than in front, and where
pierced by the optic nerve it has a cribriform structure, as
the bundles of nerve fibres do .not pass through one large,
but several small openings. The sclerotic consists of tho
white fibrous form of connective tissue, intermingled with
a small proporti&u of elastic fibres. The bundles of white
fibres lie in two directions; some pass in the meridian of
the globe from the optic nerve towards the cornea, others
lie parallel to its equator. The sclerotic is joined by
accessory fibres behind, derived from the perineurium of
the optic nerve, where the nerve pierces it ; and in front
from th^ tendox^ of the recti aud obliqui muscles, v/hich are
inserted into it. In the cetacea the sclerotic possesses extra-
ordinary thickness. In fish and amphibia it consists largely
of cartilage, and in birds a ring of bone is developed around
its anterior margin. It is the protecting coat of the eyeball
Cornea. The Cornea forms the translucent anterior ^th of the
outer coat of the eyeball. It is almost circular in form,
and is blended at its circumference with the anterior border
of the sclerotic. Its anterior surface is convex, and covered
by the conjunctival epithelium. The forward projection
of the cornea is always greater in young than in aged
persons. Its posterior surface is concave, and bounds the
chamber in which the aqueous humour is contained : if the
chamber be punctured, and the humour evacuated, the
cornea loses its translucency, its tension, and its forward con-
vexity, and becomes flaccid and opaque. It has considerable
thickness, and can be readily spUt up into laminiE. When
antero-posterior sections are made through it and the
epithelium on its anterior and posterior surfaces, four
distinct series of structures may be seen, vi^., the anterior
epithslium, the proper tissue of the cornea, the posterior
elastic lamina, and the posterior epi-(endo)-thelium.
The anterior epithelium of the cornea, often called the con-
junctival epithelium, is stratified. The deepest layer, which
lies next the cornea, is formed of elongated cells, which lis
vertically to the plane of the surface of the cornea. The
more superficial layers are squamous cells, often with fluted
surfaces and serrated or spinous edges. Tho intermediate
•layers are irregular in shape, and often possess, as Cleland
pointed out, long digitate processes, which interlock with
those of tho adjacent cells.
The proper tissue of the cornea is a modified form of
connective tissue. When examined fresh it sijiijuurs as it
perfectly homogeneous, but after a time, and mors espe-
cially if hardened in alcohol, chloride of gold, and othei
reagents, it is seen to consist of cells and an intercellular
matrix. The cells consist of two kinds,— those which
belong to the cornea, and those which have migrated
into it. The proper cornea cells or com<a corpuscla were
first seen by Toynbee, and have been carefully studied
by numerous subsequent observers. They are largo stel-
late, flattened cells, and lie v.dth their surfaces parallel to
the surfaces of tho cornea ; they possess many branching
processes, and tho processes of adjacent cells anastomose
to form a cell network. They consist of nucleated masses
of protoplasm, which Kiihne showed to be contractile, and
are apparently destitute of a cell wall. In vertical sections
through the cornea tho corpuscles seem as if shaped like
elongated spindles. The migrating cells of the cornea were
first seen by Von Recklinghausen. They resemble white
blood corpuscles, and possess active amoeboid movements,
so that they can wander through the corneal tissua . In a
healthy cornea they have migrated out of the marginal
blood-vessels; but in an inflamed cornea, where their num-
ber is greatly increased, they are in part white corpuscles
derived from the blood, and in part produced by prolifera-
tion of the proper cornea corpuscles. The intercellular
matrix of the cornea consists of a laminated substance, the
lamellae being arranged parallel to the surfaces of the cornea.
The lamellae consist of fasciculi of extremely delicate fila-
ments ; immediately under the anterior epithelium the
fasciculi decussate with each other, and at the circumference
of the cornea the fasciculi run into the connective tissue of
the sclerotic. Bowman described a translucent structureless
layer or anterior elastic lamina between the conjunctival
epithelium and the cornea proper, but it is doubtful if this
layer exists as a constant arrangement. Bowman and
other observers have injected tubular spaces in the cornea
which are apparently situated between the lame)l«e. The
exact nature of these spaces is somewhat doubtful, but
Thin believes them to be lymph-vessels traversing its sub
stance, for he has seen an endothelial lining similar to the
endothelial cells of the lymphatics. It is probable that
these spaces serve as the channels for the migrating cor-
puscles to wander through. Thin also describes the proper
cornea corpuscles as lying in lacunae, which communicate
with each other and with the lymph- vessels. The posterior
elastic lamina forms a distinct translucent, structureless
layer adherent to the back of the proper tissue of the cornea,
from which it may be stripped off without much difficulty.
^Vhen torn across, the edges curl inwards towards the
corneal tissue. It is from i^-g to ^-^j th inch thick, and
resists the action of various reagents. This lamina thins
off at its circumference and splits into fibres, which become
continuous with the pectinate ligament of the iris.
The posterior epithelium of the cornea, also called tht
endothelium of the aqueous humour, forms a single layer of
polygonal cells on the back of the posterior elastic lamina.
It is continuous with the endothelial covering of the pec-
tinate ligament and of the anterior surface of the iris.
I The cornea is not in the adult traversed by blood-vessels,
though in the fcetus a layer of capillaries lies near it«
I anterior surface. Jn the adult, however, the margin o*
EYE.]
A N A T 0 I\l Y
887
tho cornea 13 penetrated by a zone of capillary loops derived
from the arteries of the conjunctiva ; these loops, according
to Lightbody, are invested by perivascular lymph spaces.
The venous canal of Schlemm runs round the circumference
of the cornea, at the junction of its deeper layers with tho
sclerotic. Leber states that it is not a simple canal, but
a plexiform arrangement of veins. The nei-ves of the
cornea first seen by Schlemm have been carefully examined
by recent observers. They arise from the, ciliary nerves,
and enter the margin of the cornea in from twenty to forty
fasciculi, which run from the circumference to the centre
and to the anterior surface of the cornea, and give ofl"
numerous branches. The nerve fibres soon lose their
medullary sheath, and branch ; adjacent branches then
communicate, and form plexuses which possess nuclei at
the points of intersection of the nerves. From these
plexuses delicate branches again arise, some of which
penetrate between the cells of tho anterior epithelium,
whilst others end in the proper tissue of the cornea.
Kiihne stated that the terminal fibres ended in the cornea
corpuscles, but this statement has not been confirmed.
The Choroid coat forms the largest portion of the middle
coat of the eyeball. It lies immediately internal to the
sclerotic, and extends as far forward as the corpus ciliare,
or annulus albidus, where it forms the ciliary processes ; it
is pierced posteriorly by the optic nerve. It has a deep
black colour, from the numerous pigment cells it contains,
and is abundantly provided with blood-vessels and nerves.
The Corpus ciliare, or annulus albidus, is a greyish-white
ring which surrounds the anterior border of the choroid
close to the junction of the sclerotic and cornea. It consists
of two portions — an e.xternal, the ciliary muscle, which lies
next the sclerotic, and an internal, the ciliary processes
(Plate XIX. fig. 4). These processes, about 80 in number,
are folds, separated from each other by furrows which
extend forwards in the meridional direction as far as the
ills, and form collectively a zone-like plated frill around
the circamference of the iris. On the one hand, they are
continuous with the vasculo-pigmentary structures of the
choroid ; on the other, with the vasculo-pigmentary struc-
tures of the iris.
The Iris is a circular, flattened disc-shaped diaphragm,
situated behind the cornea, in front of the crystalline lens,
and bathed by th^ aqueous humour. By its circumference
or ciliary border the iris is not only continuous with the
ciliary processes, but is connected by fibres, termed
ligamentum pectinaium,'vi\\,\i the posterior clastic lamina of
the cornea. The iris is the structure which gives the
characteristic colour to the eye — blue, grey, brown, hazel,
as the case may be. It is perforated at, or immediately to
the inner side of, its centre by a circular aperture, the
pupil, tho size of which is regulated by tho contraction or
relaxation of the muscular tissue of the iris.
Tho structure of the several divisions of the middle coat
wdl now bo considered. Tl e Choroid coat has its inner or
anterior surface formed by a distinct pigmeutary layer of
hexagonal pigment cells (Fig 43). In the eyes of Albinos,
though the cells are present, they contain no pigment. In
many mammals also, the pigment is absent from the' inner
surface, so that the choroid passcssos a beautiful iridescent
luatrc, the tapeturn lucidam. In i-uminant animals and in
the horse tho iridescence is due to the reflection of tlie light
by tho bundles of the connective tissue stroma, but in cats
from polygonal nucleated cells, which Schultze states con-
tain double refracting crystals. Next the inner pigmen-
tary layer is the lamina vitrea, the elastic layer of Kulliker.
It forms a translucent membrane, described by some as
Btnictureless, but by Kolliker as faintly fibrous, which is
intimately connected with tho stroma of the choroid. Tho
Uroina consists of a plexiform arraiigement of bundles
of connective tissue, in the intervals between which nuniR
reus stellate pigment cells are situated, which give to the
entire thickness of the choroid its black appearance. This
stroma connects the outer surface of the choroid with the
inner surface of the sclerotic, and forms the lamina fusca.
Ramifying in the stroma are the blood-vessels and nerves.
The vessels of the choroid are arranged in two layers. Next
the lamina vitrea is a plexiform capillary layer, the meshes
of which are so minute, and the vessels so compacted to-
gether, as to give the appearance of avascular membrane, long
known as the membrana Etiyschiana. The capillaries radi-
ate like minute stars from the terminal twigs of the choroidal
arteries and veins. The choroidal arteries and veins form
a layer external to the capillaries, i.e., next tlie lamina fusca.
The arteries are the short posterior ciliary branches of tho
ophthalmic artery, which pierce the sclerotic close to the
entrance of the optic nerve, and, running forwards in a tor
tuous manner, divide dichotoniously before ending in the
capillaries. The veins of the choroid are arranged in a
series of remarkable whorls, named the venae vorticosce,
which receive the blood not only from the capillaries of the
choroid proper, but from those of the iris and ciliary body ;
they discharge their blood by means of from 4 to 6 veins
into the ophthalmic vein. The ciliary muscle is the greyish
white structure which forms the outer part of the ciliary
body. It was at one time called the ciliary ligament, but
its muscular nature was discovered almost simultaneously
by Bowman and Briicke. It consists of smooth involuntary
muscle, the fibres of which are arranged in two layers.
The outer and thicker part of the nmscle consists of fasci-
culi, which arise close to the canal of Schlemnl, i.e., opposite
the junction of the sclerotic and cornea, and radiate from
before backwards in the meridian of the eyeball, between
the ciliary processes and the sclerotic. The inner part of
the muscle forms a ring-like arrangement of fasciculi close
to the circumference of tho iris, and is often called the
annular muscle of Miiller. Iwanoff has shown that in
long-sighted persons (hypermetropic) the annular muscle
is strongly developed ; whilst in short-sighted (myopic)
eyes its fasciculi are very feeble. The Ciliary Processes
have on their inner surface a black pigmentary layer of
cells continuous with that of the choroid. Tlie vitreous
layer is also present, but according to II. Miilbr is no
longer smooth but reticulated. The stroma does not con-
tain so large a proportion of stellate pigment cells as in
the choroid. The arteries have been carefully studied by
Leber; they are the long posterior ciliary branches of the
ophthalmic, and the anterior ciliary branches of the muscu-
Jar branches of the ophthalmic. They pierce the sclerotic,
run forwards, and at the anterior border of the ciliary
muscle form by their anastomoses the circulns artei-iosus,
which gives origin to the arteries for the ciliary processes
and the iris. The arteries for the ciliary jirocesses ate
short, and divide into tortuous br.inches, which frequently
aiKistomose, and form highly complex vascular plexuses,
from which arise veins that join the vena; vorticosai.
Before the long ciliary arteries contribute to the formation
of the arterial circle they send branches to the ciliary
muscle, and recurrent branches to the anterior part of the
proper choroid coat.
Tho iris has its anterior surface covered by a layer of
cells continuous with the endothelium of the aqueous
humour. This layer is continuous at the pupillary border
with a thick layer of cells filled with black pigment granules,
the uvea, which covers the posterior surface of the iris, and
is continuous at its ciliary border with tho pigmentary layer
of the ciliary processes. The connective tissue stroma o(
the iris also contains stellate pigment cells. The variations
in colour of the iris in dilferent eyes depends upon the dis-
tribution and amuuut of the pign[eut iu the uvea and the
888
A i>r A T 0 M Y
[organs op sense —
Ritina.
stellate cells: in dark-coloured eyes, both are filled with
dark pigment granules ; whilst in light-coloured eyes the
stellate cells of the stroma are either devoid of pigment or
only faintly coloured. The iris contains numerous fasciculi
of involuntary or non-striped muscular fibre arranged in
two directions. Circularly arranged fibres surround the
aperture of the pupil, and form the sphincter muscle, by
the contraction of which the size of the pupil is diminished.
Smooth muscular fibres also radiate from the pupillary to
the cihary border of the iris and form the dilatator muscle.
The muscular nature of these fibres in the human iris was
long disputed, but was satisfactorily demonstrated in 1852
by Lister. Jerophecf has also described circular fascioili
surrounding the ciliary border. In birds and reptiles the
muscular tissue of the iris consists of transversely striped
fibres. The arteries of the iris arise from the circulus
arteriosus, and run radially forwards towards the pupil,
where they anastomose and form the circulus iridis minor.
They possess relatively thick external and muscular coats.
The capillaries form a plexus not bo compact as that of the
choroid coat. The veins of the iris end in the venie vorti-
cosa;. In the fcetus the pupil is closed in by a delicate
membrane, membrana pupillaris, into which the blood-
vessels of the iris are prolonged. This membrane disap-
pears by absorption during the later months of embryo life.
The nerves of the middle coat of the eyeball are the long
ciliary branches of the ophthalmic division of the 5th and
the short ciliary branches of the ciliary ganglion (PL XIX.
fig. 7, \). They pierce the sclerotic near the optic nerve,
and run forward in the lamina fusca of the choroid. They
give off branches to the choroid which form in it a plexus
in which H. Miiller found nerve cells. From this plexus
delicate branches pass to the muscular coat of the choroidal
arteries. The ciliary nerves then enter the ciliary muscle,
and form plexuses with interspersed nerve cells, from
which branches pass to the muscular fibres. Other branches
of the ciliary nerves en'er the iris, and form plexuses, from
which branches proceed to the muscular tissue.
The Retina is the delicate nervous coat of the eyeball
which lies immediately internal to the choroid, and extends
Fill 78— niscmmmatlc necli™ IliroiiBli the retlm to thow the several layers
«lmli arc nuraljerca as In tlie teit. CI. the radial flbres ol the supporting con-
I nective tissue.
from the place of entrance of the optic nerve as far forward
as the ciliary processes, where it forms a jagged border, the
ora sen-ata. In the living eye it is translucent and colour-
less, but shortly after death it becomes grey : it is soft and
so easily torn that it is difficult to display it in a dissection
without injury. Its inner or anterior surface, concave
forwards, is moulded on the vitreous body, and presents
the following appearances : — Almost exactly in the antero-
posterior axis uf the eyeball is a transversely oval yelloio
spot, about -3>jth inch in its long diameter, which amongst
mammals is" found only in man and apes, though, as Knox
and Hulke have shown, it exists in reptiles ; in the centre
of thb spot is a depression, the fovea centralis ; about Jth
inch to the inner side of the yellow spot is a slight elevation,
the papilla optica, which marks the disc-like entrance of
the optic nerve into the retina ; here the fibres of the nerve
radiate outwards and forwards to the ora serrata, and
branches of the arteria centralit retince accompany then.
The retina is highly complex in structure, and consists
of nerve fibres and cells, of peripheral end-organs, of con-
nective tissue, and of blood-vessels, arranged in several
layers. Max Schultze, who is the chief authority on the
subject, recognises ten layers, but includes among these the
layer of hexagonal pigment cells just described as the inner
pigmentary layer of the choroid. If this layer be omitted,
nine layers may then be recognised, and, following Schultze,
be named from before backwards as follows: — 1. Mem-
brana limitans interna ; 2. Layer of optic nerve fibres ; 3.
Layer of ganglion cells ; 4. Internal granulated (molecular)
layer; 5. Internal granule layer; 6. External granulated
layer : 7. External granule layer ; 8. Membrana limitans
externa ; 9. Bacillary la^er (Fig. 78).
The nervous elements of the retina will first be con-
sidered. The optic nerve ^hres (2), where they pierce the
sclerotic, as a rule lose the medullary sheath, and radiate
outwards as non-medullated fibres from the optic disc to the
ora serrata immediately behind and parallel to the memr
brana limitans interna. These fibres vary greatly in size,
and are frequently varicose. When any of the optic nerve
fibres retain the medullary sheath the retina is there ren-
dered opaque. Immediately behind the nerve fibres is the
layer of ganglionic nerve cells (3). These cells are either bi-
polar or multipolar. In the living eye the cell substance
is hyaline and the nucleus transparent, but after death the
substance both of the body of the cell and the processes
assumes a fibrillated appearance, like the axial cylinder of
an optic nerve fibre. One process, the central process, ,
extends into the layer of optic nerve fibres ; and another,
the peripheral, into the internal granulated layer. The
interv.al granulated iayer (4) contains the branching pro-
cesses of the nerve cells, some of which apparently become
continuous with an arrangement of excessively fine fibrils,
probably nervous in their nature. These filixils are inter-
mingled with a delicate plexus of connective tissue. The
inte-nial granule layer (5) contains numerous fusiform
nucleated enlargements, the so-called internal granules,
arranged in superimposed strata ; from each fusiform
enlargement a fibre proceeds jn two directions, one centrally
into the internal granulated layer, and one peripherally into
the external granulated layer. These fibres possess vari-
cosities, and resemble the optic nerve fibres. The external
granulated layer (6) is very thin, and consists of an ex-
panded network of minute fibres, with nuclei situated at
the points of intersection of the fibres. Krause has called
it the membrana fenestrata. The external granule layer
(7) contains numerous fusiform nucleated enlargements,
the so-called external granules, arranged in superimposed
strata : from each enlargement a fibre proceeds in two
directions, one centrally into the external granulated Liyer,
and one peripherally through the laembrana limitans externa
to the bacillary layer, where it becomes continuous with
the anterior end of either a rod or a cone, as the case may
be. Hence these fibres of the external granule layer are
called by Schultze rod and cone fibres, and the external
granules are nucleated enlargements of these fibres, 'i htse
fibres possess varicosities Uke those of the internal granule
layer.
The bacillary layer (9) or membrane of Jacob consists
of multitudes of elongated bodies arranged side by side
like rows of palisades, and vertically to the surfaces of
the retina. . Some of these bodies are cylindrical, and
are named the rods of.the retina; others flask-shaped, and
named the cones of the retina : the rods equal in length
the entire thickness of the bacillary layer; the cones are
shorter than the rods, and are interspersed at regular
intervals between them ; the apex of each cone is directed
towards, but does not reach, the plane of the posterior oi
choroidal surface of the retina. The posterior or outer end
of each rod rests against the pigmentary laver of the choroid.
EVE.]
ANATOMY
889
The anttirior or inner endj of both rods and cones are con-
tinuous with the rod and cone fibres of the external granule
layer, as already described. Each rod and cone is sub-
divided into an outer strongly refractile and an inner feebly
refractile segment By the action of various reagents the
outer segments both of the rods and cones exhibit a trans-
verse striation, and ultimately break up iuto discs. Hensen
has described a longitudinal striation in the outer segments,
!»nd Eitter has stated that both in the outer and inner
segments of the rods an axial fibre exists. Max Schultze
lias also seen the inner segments of both rods and cones
longitudinally striped on the surfaca Modifications in the
relative numbers and appearances of the rods and cones
liave been seen in the eyes of various vertebrata. In birds,
for example, the cones are much more numerous than the
rods, whilst the reverse is the case in mammals generafly.
In the cartilaginous fishes the cooes are entirely absent ; so
also, as Schultze has shown, in the bat, hedge-hog, and
mole ; whilst in reptiles the bacillary layer is exclusively
composed of cones. In all the vertebrata, except the
mammalia, the twin or double cones described by Hannover
probably exi'it. In the amphibia, lens-shaped bodies have
been described in the inner segments of the cones. The
rods and cones are the peripheral end-organs in connection
with the fibres of the optic nerve, and their apparent rela-
tion to these fibres is as follows : — The optic nerve fibres
are continuous with the central processes of the ganglion
cells of the retina, the peripheral branching processes of
which pass into the internal granulated layer, where they
may possibly become continuous with the central processes
of the inner granular layer. The peripheral processes of
the inner granular layer enter the external granulated layer,
but it is difficult to say whether or not they become con-
tinuous with the central processes of that layer. There
can, however, be no doubt that the peripheral processes of
this layer are directly continuous with the rods and cones
of the bacQlary layer. The entire arrangement is sometimes
called the radial nervous fibres of the retina.
In addition to the nervous structures just described, the
retina contains a delicate supporting connective tissue like
the neuroglia of the brain and spinal cord. Not only does
it lie between the fibres, cells, and so-caUed granules in the
several nervous layers, and form in them a radial arrange-
ment of supporting fibres, but it constitutes the two limitary
membranes of the retina. The membra^ia limita.ns externa
(8) is excessively thin, and appears in vertical sections
through the retina as a mere line between the bacillary and
external granular layers, continuous on the one hand with
the connective tissue which passes for a short distance be-
tween the rods and cones, and on the other with the connec-
tive tissue framework of the external granule layer.
The memhrana limitans interna (1) covers the anterior
surface of the retina, and lies next the vitreous body ; its
posterior eurf.ice blends with the radial arrangement of
connective- ttssue "letween the optic nerve fibres, but its
anterior or hyaloid surface, as J. C. Ewart has recently
Btiown, possesses a mosaic appearance, like that of a layer
of squamous endothelium.
The yellow spot exhibits gome structural differences from
the rest of the retina. It owes its colour to the presence
of yellow pigment deposited in the more' anterior layers of
the retina. Except at its central depression, the fovea
centralis, it is thicker than the surrounding parts of the
retina ; but it is much softer, a condition which is due to
the almost complete absence of 'the layer of optic nerve
fibres, and a diminution in the amount of the supporting con-
nective tissue ; the membrana limitans interna is, however,
relatively stronger In the fovea centralis itself the rods of
the bacillary layer have entirely disappeared, and are
replaced by cones which are distinguished by their close
arrangement, and the more slender fijnn and increased
length, especially of their outer segments. The external
granule layer is well marked, and tie central fibres belong-
ing to it, instead of passing vertically forwards, incline vexy
obUquely or almost horizontally outwards to the internd
granule layer, which, together with the layers anterior to it,
is so thin as almost to have disappeared. In the yellow spot
surrounding the fovea the bacillary layer is also composed
of cones which are not, however, so slender or so long as
at the fovea itself. The layer of nerve cells and the inner
part of the external granule layer are thicker than in the
rest of the retina. The yellow spot is the ^rt of the
retii»a most sensitive to light.
At the ora eerrata or anterior border of the retina the
nervous layers, including the rods and cones, cease to
exists The radial connective tissue and internal limiting
membrana are present ; from the radial tissue a layer of
cells is prolonged forward in contact with the deep surface
of the ciliary processes as the pars ciiiaris retinue.
The retina is supplied with blood by the arteria centralis,
which, traversing the axis of the optic nerve, reaches the
retina at the optic disc. In the retina it branches dicho-
tomously in the nerve fibre layer, avoiding however the
yellow spot, and its terminal twigs reach the ora serrata.
The capillaries form in the more anterior layers of the
retina a distinct network, which does not enter the external
granule and barillary layers, but penetrates the yellow
spot, though not the fovea centralis. The. blood is conveyed
from the retina by the central vein which accompanies the
artery in the optic nerve, and opens either into the
ophthalmic vein or directly iuto the cavernous sinua The
veint and capillaries of the retina have been described by
His as completely invested by perivascular lymphatic
sheaths, whilst the arteries only possess such sheaths for a
limited part of their course.
The Optic Nerve itself passes ftom the orbit through the Nerve oj
optic foramen into the cranial cavity, ^rhere it arises from ''B''''
the optic commissure. This commissure is a flattened band
formed by the junction of the two optic tracts. Each tract
winds backwards around the tuber cinereum and crus
cerebri to arise from the optic thalamus, corpora quadrige-
mina, and geniculata ; and some observers also state that
it derives fibres from the tuber cinereum and Itimina Mnerea.
In the commissure an interchange takes place between the
fibres of opposite nerves and tracts, so that not only does
an optic nerve contain fibres derived from the tract on its
own side, but from the opposite tract, and it has even been
stated that fibres pass across the commissure from one optic
nerve to the other, and from one optic tract to the other.
The Aqueous Humour \s a, limpid watery fluid, containing Rofractii\
a little common salt in solution, which occupies the space moJia.
between the cornea and the front of the crystalline lens.
In this space the iris lies, and imperfectly divides it into
two chambers, an anterior and a posterior, which commu-
nicate with each other through the pupil The anterior
chamber, of some size, is situated between the iris and
cornea ; but as the iris is in contact with the front of the
lens, the posterior chamber is reduced to a mere chink
between the circumference of the iris and that of the lens.
The Crystalline Lens is situated behind the iris and
pupU, and in front of the vitreous body. It is a trans-
parent bi-convex lens, with its antero-posterior diameter Jd
less than the transverse, its posterior surface more convex
than the anterior, and with its circumference rounded. It
consists of a capsule and the body of the lens enclosed by tiu
capsule. The lens capsule is a transparent, smooth, struc-
tureless, and very elastic membrane, about twice as thick
on the anterior as on the posterior surface of the lens. If
is non-vascular in the adult, though in the fcetus a branch
of the central artery of the retina which traverses the
I. — 112
890
ANATOMY
loROAVS OF SENSE — ■
vitreous humour, ramifies in its posterior portion. A
single layer of polygonal cells lies between the body of the
lens and the anterior portion of the capsule. The lens body
is softer at ita periphery than in its centre. It is built up
of concentric layers, and on both the anterior and posterior
surfaces lines are to bo seen radiating from the central pule
of each surface towards the circumference of the body.
The radiated pattern varies in different animals. In the
human foetus there are usually three lines, but. in the adult
they are more numerous. The lines on one surface do not
lie immediately opposite those on the other, but are inter-
mediate. By the action of strong spirit aud other reagents
the body of the lens can he S]>lit up from tha periphery
towards the centre in the direction of these lines, so that
tliey mark the edges of appo.sition of its cuncentric laminai.
Each lamina consists of numerous hexagonal fibres about
yj'jjjjth inch wide, which extend from one surface to the
other over the circumference of the lens, so that a fibre
which begins at the polar end of a radius on the one surface
terminates at the circumferential end of a radius on the
opposite. The edges of the fibres are siimous in man, but
denticulated ir many animals, especially fishes, so that the
fibres, not only in the same, but in superimposed layers,
are closely interlocked. The lens fibres are nucleated, a
structural fact which gives a clue to their true'nature, aud
they arc now regarded as peculiarly modified elongated
cells. Babuchin states that he can trace the transition from
the cells of the layer between the lens-body and capsule
to the proper lens fibres. The lens-body is non-vascular
and non-nervous. The surfaces of the lens Ijecome more
flattened in old age, and its substance hardens and is less
transparent.
The Vitreous Body is much the largest of the refractmg
media, and occupies the largest part of the space enclosed
by the tunics. Anteriorly it is hollowed out to receive
the posterior convexity of the lens, but posteriorly it is
convex," and the retina is moulded on it. It is as trans-
lucent as glass, jelly-like in consistency, and when punctured
a watei-y fluid drains out. Its minute structure is difficult
to ascertain, but as it, like the^ subcutaneous tissue of the
embryo, contains rounded, stellate, and fusiform cells, it is
customary to refer it to the gelatinous form of connective
tissue; concentric lamella;, and even a radiated arrangement
of fibres, have also been described. It has been customary
abo to consider it as invested by a delicate structureless
membrane, the hyaloid membrane ; but this is now regarded
as belonging to the retina, where it is known as the mem-
hrana limilans interna. Almost opposite the ora serrata a
membrane springs from the vitreous body, passes forwards
for some distance in relation to the deep surface of the
ciliary processes, but separated from them by the pars
ciliaris retinse, and then incliiies inwards to become attached
to the anterior surface of the capsule of the lens close to its
circumference. It is so closely connected at its origin with
the membrana limitans that it is difficult to recognise it as
a distinct membrane. It is named the suspensory ligament
of the lens, or zonule of Z inn, and contains fibres, which run
in the meridional direction. Where it leaves the vitreous
body a narrow space is enclosed between it aud that body,
■which space surrounds the circumference of the lens, and
is called the canal of Petit. From the jelation of the
suspensory ligament to the ciliary processes it has a plicated
surface, and when these processes are toru away from it a
portion of the pigment of the processes is often left behind,
so that the zonule is sometimes named the ciliary processes
of the vitreous body.
The eye an The Eyeball is an optical instrument, constructed on the
optical pij^n of ^^ijg c^niera obscura. The sclerotic forms the wall
' of the chamber. The choroid represents the black lining
for absorbing the surplus rays of light. The cornea,
aqueous humour, lens, and vitreous body are the trans-
lucent media which, like the glass lens of the camera
obscura, bring the rays of light to a focus. The retina is
the sensitive plate on which the optical picture is thrown.
In considering the relation of the retina to the visual rays,
it must be kept in mind that the place of entrance of
the optic nerve is insensible to light, and that the most
sensitive part of the retina is the yellow spot, with its
fovea centralis, where the optic nerre fibres arc absent, but
where the bacillary layer reaches its maximum 6i/.o. It is
clear, therefore, that the rods and cones of this layer, and
not the optic nerve fibres, are the structures in the retina
which are stimulated by the light ; and it is probable, as
was suggested many years ago by Goodsir, that these rods
and cones are impressed by the light, not as it enters the
eye directly, but as it is reflected backwards from the
choroid along their axes. The iris is the diaphragm which,
by opening or closing the pupil, admits or cuts off the
ray8.of light. The ciliary muscle represents the adjusting
screw of the camera ; through its attachment to the ciliarj-
I>rocesses and their relation to the suspensory ligament of
the lens, it is able to act upon the lens aud modify the
curvature of its anterior surface ; for when the eye is to be
accommodated to the vision of near objects tho anterior
surface of the lens becomes more convex than when distant
objects are being examined.
It has already been stated on p. 8G4 that the retina is Develop-
formed in the primary optic vesicle, which grows forwards '""'' ''
to the integument. By the involution and growth of the
skin at this spot a hollow is produced at the front of tha
vesicle, which gradually deepening forms a pouch, the
secondary optic vesicle, in which the involuted part of the
skin is lodged. From the included sub-epidermal tissue
the vitreous body is derived ; from the included epidermis,
the lens ; whilst the cornea sclerotic and iris are produced
by the subcutaneous connective tissue. The optic nerva
and retina are formed from the primary optic vesicle and
its peduncle, and it is i)robable that the bacillary layer is a
special development of its internal epithelial lining. The
choroid coat again is derived from the pia mater. Hence
the eyeball is compounded of structures derived partly from
the integument and partly from the embryo brain.
Accessory Pauts tu the EyEBiLU — In rektion to the
eyeball several accessory parts are found.
The Eye-Brows are projections of the integument, from
which short, stiff hairs grow.
Tho Eye-Lids, or patpebrce, are two movable curtains, Eyelids,
an upper and a lower, which protect the front of the globe.
Between each pair of lids is a horizontal fissure, the palpe-
bral fissure. From the free margins of the two lids project
short hairs, the eye-lashes or cilia ; the upper set curve
downwards and forwards, the lower set upwards and for-
wards ; they also protect the front of the globe. Each
eye-lid consists of skin ; of the fibres of the orbicular
sphincter muscle; of a thin plate of fibro-cartilage, the
tarsal cartilage, to the inner end of which a fibrous band,
the tendo palpebrarum, is attached, this tendon springing
from the ascending process of the superior maxilla ; and
of the conjunctiva. Between the conjunctiva and the tarsal
cartilage is a layer of glands, the Meiboviian glands ;■ each
gland consists of a short duct, which expands at its sides
into small sacculL The sacculi contain short' columnar
cells ; these secrete a sebaceous material, which escapes
through the orifice of the'duct at the border of the eye-lid.
The Conjunctiva is a mucous membrane, which forms the Coo-
posterior layer of the eye-lid, and is reflected on to the j-Jnctira
anterior part of the sclerotic. At the inner angle of junc-
tion of the eyelids is a soft reddish elevation of the
conjunctiva, the c^runrula lachrymalis, and immediately
external to it is a vertical fold, the plica semilunaris, the
SAK.]
ANATOMY
891
Minclos of
eyeball.
rudiment of the third eye-lid, or membrana nictitans, so
well developed in birds. The palpebral conjunctiva has
smaU papillce scattered over its surface ; its apithelium is
stratified, with scaly cells on the free surface and elongated
cells in the deepest layer. In the sub-epithelial tissue are
small branched mucous glands, which are numerous in the
caruncula. Little masses of adenoid tissue (p. 84^) with
lymphatic vessels are also found in it, and the conjunctiva
of the front of the eyeball is thinner than the palpebral part.
It is not glandular, and its ner^'es terminate in end-bulbs
(p. 862). The palpebral conjunctiva, and in part that of
t!i9 eyeball, receive their blood-vessels from those of the
eye-lids, but the portion of the conjunctiva next the cornea
io supplied by the arteries of the sclerotic coat.
The Lachrymal Apparatus is engaged in the secretion
of the tears, and in conveying them away from the front
cif the globa The lachrymal gland occupies a depression
in the outer part of the loof of the orbit. It is smaller
than an almond, is sub-divided into lobules, and belongs to
the group of compound racemose glands. It consists of
the ramifications of short ducts, which terminate in small
^•icculi The wall of each eacculus consists of a delicate
membrana propria, and the cavity contains the polyhedral
secreting cells. Outside the membrana propria is a
capillary network derived from the lachrymal arte.y, but
(;iannuzzi and Boll have recently described a space between
this network and the membrana propria which th'jy believe
to be continuous with the lymphatic system. I'fluger has
described nerves as terminating in connection with the
secreting cells. The excretory ducts of the gland are from
six to eight, and open on the back of the upper eye-lid.
The tears are washed over the surface of the globe by the
involuntary wink-
ing of this lid.
When the secre-
tion is increased
in quantity, in
the act of crying,
the tears flow over
the cheek, but in
crdinary circum-
ttances they are
conveyed away by
two slender tubes,
the lachrymal
c-tnals, which open
byminute orifices,
the puncta lachry-
n.xlia, one at the
inner end of the rio.79— LBchrTinoJconalsBudduct. Lorblcnlarmoscle;
f rseborder of each ^- Ifichrymai canal; 3, puncnira; 4. caruncula: 6.
... ^, lachrymal sac; 5, lirchrymal duct: 7, anguLir artery.
eye -lid. These
tubes open at their opposite ends into a small reservoir,
the lachrymal sac, situated in a hollow in the lachrymal
bone. From this sac a duct, the nasal or lachrymal duct,
proceeds which opens into the inferior meatus of the nose,
and here the tears mingle with the mucous secretion of
that cavity.
Muscles of the Eyeball. — ^The sclerotic coat of the eyeball
has six muscles inserted into it. Four of the muscles are
called recti, and are situated, one superior, one inferior, one
external to, another internal to, the globe. They all arise
from the rim of bone which bounds the optic foramen ; the
external and internal muscles are inserted vertically into the
sides of the sclerotic, but the superior and inferior recti
have oblique insertions into its upper and lower aspects.
The other two muscles are called ohliqui. The superior
oblique arises along with the recti, passes to the inner end
of the upper border of the orbit, where its tendon goes
through a pulley, and is. directed tack to bo inserted
obliquely into the upper and outer part of ihe sclerotic
The inferior oblique arises from the lower border of the
orbit, passes outwards and upwards to be inserted obliquely
into the sclerotic. These muscles roll the eyeball in the
orbit, and, without entering into a minute analysis of their
actions, their office may be stated generally as follows :
The internal rectus rolls it inwards, the external outwards,
about its vertical axis ; the superior rectus rolls it upwards,
the inferior downwards, about its transverse horizontal axis,
though from the obliquity of their insertions they give it
at the same time a slight inward or out./ard movement as
the case may be ; the superior and inferior oblique roll the
globe around its antero-posterior or sagittal axis, the superior
upwards and outwards, the inferior downwards and out-
wards.
Periosteal Muscle of the Orbit. — The periosteum of the
orbit contains, as H. Miiller and Turner have described, a
layer of non-striped muscular fibre in the part which covers
over the spheno-maxillary fissure. In man it is rudimen-
tary, but in the sheep, deer, elephant, <tc., where the
osseous wall of the orbit is deficient, this muscle forma a
well-defined structure. It has been suggested that it acta
as a orotractor muscle of the globe.
The Ear, or organ of hearing, is a compler acoustic ap- Ear.
paratus, situated in connection with the tem]joraI bone.
It is divided into three parts, named external, middle, and
internal ear.
The External Ear consists of the pinna or auricle and F.xtem.iJ
the external auditory meatus. The auricle is the oblong ear.
convoluted body situated ijt the side of the head. Its
incurved outer border is named the helix. Within tliis lies a
curved ridge, the anti-helix, in front of which is a deip
hollow, the concha, which leads into the external meatus.
The concha is bounded in front by a prominence, the
tragus, and behind by a smaDer prominence, the anti-tragus ;
below the anti-tragus is the lobule, which forms the most
depending part of the auricle. The framework of the
auricle is formed of yellow elastic fibro-cartilage invested
by integument, except the lobule, which consists merely of
a fold of integument containing fat. Attached to the car-
tilage are not only the three auricular muscles referred to on
Fio. eo.— The ear as acen In section, a, hcUi : b, antl-trogno : c antl-liollx ; <
concha; e, lobule;/, maulold prnccBB ; y, portio dura; A. otylold proccaa; k,
Intcmiil carotid ancry; (, Euotachlan tube; n», tip of petrout process; n, eiter.
nal auditory itieatiis; o, membranl tympani; p. tyTapaniim ; 1, points tc mal-
leaa; 3, to incus; .^t. to stapes; 4, to cochlea; 6, 6, 7, tbo three somlclrcular
ennali ; 6 and 9, portio dnra and portio molUa.
page 836, but also certain smaller muscles callid the proper
mu.sclc3 of the pinna. ThiLs the greater muscle of the helix
is placed on its anterior border ; the lesser muscle of the
892
A N A T O IVI Y
[OBOAXS OP SENSE —
hflix is situated where it arises out of the concha ; the
mutole of the tragus lies on the front of that prominence ;
the miac/e of the anti-tragua is placed on the back of that
prominence ; the transverse muscle on the pualerior or
cranial surface of the auricle.
The i,'xtermal Meatus leads from the bottom of the concha
into the temporal bone, and is separated from the tympanum
or middle ear by the membrana tympanL It is a crooked
passage one and quarter inch long, inclined at first forwards
and upwards, then downwards and inwards. The wall of
the outer end of the passage is formed of fibro-cartUage
continuous with the cartilage of the auricle, whilst that of
the deeper end is formed of the plate-like tympanic part
of the temporal bono. The passage is lined with integu-
ment continuous with the skin of the auricle, in which are
situated numerous hairs, together with ceruminous glands
which secrete the well-known yellow " wax."
Middle enr, The Tympanum, or Drum, or Middle Far, is a ctiamber
irregularly cuboidal in form, situated in the temporal bone
between the bottom of the meatus and the internal car.
The outer wall is formed of the membrani tympani, which
inclines obliquely downwards and inwards at the bottom
of the external meatus, at an angle of 55° to the axis of
the meatus, whilst the membranes in the two cars form
with each other an obtuse angle of 130° to 135°. The tym-
panic membrane is attached to a groove at the bottom of
the meatus, and is concave on its outer, convex on its inner
Burface. It consists of three layers : an external tegumen-
tary, continuous with the skin of the jneatus, which con-
tains no hairs or glands ; an intern.al mucous, continuous
with the mucous lining of the tympanum ; and an inter-
mediate membrana propria, which consists of unyielding
fibres arranged both radially and circularly. The radial
fibres radiate from the point of attachment of the handle
of the malleus. The membrana propria is usu.-illy said to
be destitute both of nerves and vessels, but Kessel states
that nerves, blood, and lymph vessels exist in it as well as
in the mucous and tegumentary layers. Immediately in
front of the membrana tj-mpani is the Glaserian fissure.
The inner wall separates the tympanum from the labyrinth,
and presents the following appearances : a rounded elevation
OT promontory caused by the first turn of the cochlea; on
the surface of which promontory are grooves for the
lodgment of the tympanic plexus of nerves ; above the
promontory is an oval opening closed in by a membrane,
the fenestra ovalis, which corresponds with the vestibule ;
behind and below the promontory is a round opening closed
in by a membrane, the fenestra rotunda, which corresponds
with the tympanic passage in the cochlea. The floor of
the tympanum is a narrow chink between the inner and
outer walls ; and the roof is formed by the anterior surface
of the petrous-temporal bone. At its anterior wall the
tympanum opens into the Eustaclnan tvbe, a canal which
communicates with the nasal compartment of the pharynx
immediately behind the inferior turbinah The waU of the
tympanic end of this tube is formed of bone, that of the
pharyngeal end of a curved plate of hyaline cartilage,
which is connected to the bone by fibro-cartilage ; its
pharyngeal orifice is dilated into a trumpet-shaped mouth ;
through this tube the ciliated mucous membrane of the
nasal part of the pharynx is prolonged into the tympanum.
The cartilaginous wall of the tube does not completely
surround it, but is completed by a fibrous membrane, and
a layer of voluntary muscle, named by Riidinger the dila-
tator tubae. Above the tympanic orifice of the Eustachian
tube is a fine canal, through which the tensor tympani
muscle enters the tympanum. At its posterior wall the
tympanum communicates with the air-sinuses in the mastoid
temporal ; here also is found a small hollow eminence,
the pyramid, through a hole at the apex of which the ten-
don of the stapedius muscle pasaeii ; and a foramen y^•Uid^
transmits the chorda tympani nerve.
The tympanic cavity contains three small bone», named
malleus, incus, and stapes, arranged so as to form an
irregular chain, stretching across the cavity front the outer
to the inner waU.
The Malleus or hammer is the most external bone. In
it may bo recognised ahead separated by a constricted neck
from an elongated handle. Close to the junction of tho
neck and handle a long slender process projects downward*
and forwards to be inserted into the Glaserian figure, and
near the root of the long process a short process projects
outwards. By its handle the malleus is intimately con-
nected with the centre of the membrana tympani; by its heat
it articulates with the incus ; whil.st ligamentous filireis
pass from it upwards, forwards, outwards, and backwards
to the tympanic walls.
The Incus, or anvil-shaped bone, possesses a body and
two processes ; on the anterior surface of the body ia a
saddle-shaped hollow in which the head of the malleus fits;
the short process projects almost horizontally backwards,
and is attached by a ligament to the posterior wall of
the tympanum ; tho long process extends at first down-
wards and then inwards, to end in a rounded projection,
named os orliculare, through which it articulates with the
stapes.
The Stapes, or stirrup-shaped bone, possesses a head and
neck, a base and two crura ; the head articulates with the
03 orbiculare of the incus ; from the constricted neck the
two crura curve inwards to the base, which ia attached to
the fenestra ovalis. The joint between the malleus and
incus is diarthrodial and saddle-shaped, and the articular
surfaces are enclosed by a capsular ligament. The joint
between the incus and stapes is also diarthrodial, and pos-
sesses an investing capsular ligament. Toynbee and Riid-
inger have described the base of the stapes and the margin
of the fenestra ovalis as each invested- by hyaline cartilage.
Between these plates elastic fibres extend in a plexifomi
manner, and the intervals between them are occupied by
fluid ; the joint seems, therefore, a modified amphiarthrosis.
The bones are moved on each other at these joints by small
muscles. The tensor tympani arises from the apex of the
petrous temporal, and the cartilage of the Eustachian tube
enters the tyinpanum at its anterior waU, and is inserted
into the malleus near the root. The laxator tympatii
muscle arises from the spine of the sphenoid, and the car-
tilage of the Eustachian tube enters the tympanum through
the Glaserian fissure, and is inserted into the neck of the
malleus. The stapedius arises within the pyramid, enters
the tympanum through the hole at its apex, and is inserted
into the neck of the stapes. The tjonpanum is lined by a
mucous membrane continuous with that of the Eustachian
tube, which invests the tympanic ossicles, ligaments, and
muscles, and is prolonged backwards so as to line tho
mastoid air-sinuses. The epithelium covering this mem-
brane, where it lines the floor and the adjacent part of the
anterior, posterior, and internal walls, consists of ciliated
columnar cells ; but the epithelium covering the roof, tho
promontory, the memtrani tympani, and the tympanic
ossicles, is tessellated. In the sub-epitheb'al connective
tissue the blood and lymph vessels and nerves of the
tympanum ramify. Kessel has recently described in it
certain peculiar bodies, which consist of a central axial
band with a series of capsules, possessing a fibrillar struc-
ture, arranged concentrically around the axis j the functioa
of these bodies is not known.
The formation of the auricle and external meatus is well
adapted for coUecting and transmitting sound- vibrations
inwards to the middle ear and labyrinth. These vibrations
strike the membrana tympani, and are propagated Ijy the-
X^B.]
ANATOMY
893
chain of bonea across the tjnnpanic cavity to the labyrinth.
The pressure of the vibrations on the tympanic membrane
forces that membrane inwards, so that its inner surface
presses on the handle of the. malleus, the effect of which is to
rotate the hammer about its axis ; but by the ligamentous
attachment of the malleus to the tympanic walls and to the
incus, and, as Helmholtz has shown, by the interlocking of
cog-like processes connected with the articular surfaces of
the two bones, the range of movement is so limited that the
pressure on the malleus is transmitted through the incus
upon the stapes, which presses, therefore, on the mem-
brane of the fenestra ovalis, so that the movements of
the membrana tympani are thus transmitted to fluid within
the labyrintL The tensor tympani muscle tightens the
tympanic membrane by drawing the handle of the malleus
inwards, and stUl further adapts the structures for the
t ransmission of sound- vibrations. An antagonistic muscle,
the laxator tjrmpani, has also been described. There is
some difficulty in determining the action of the stapedius,
bat if, as is probable, it draws the stapes from the fenestra
ovalis, it will diminish the pressure of the chain of bones
on that membrane,
fntemal The Internal Ear, named the Labyrinth, from its com-
^^- plex construction, is the part of the auditory apparatus in
which the nerve of hearing is distributed, and where the
peripheral end-organs are situated. It is imbedded in the
petrous bone, and is divided into three parts, viz., vestibule,
semicircular canals, and cochlea, each of which consists of an
osseous and a membranous portion (PI. XIX. figs. 8, 9, 10).
The Vestibule lies immediately internal to the tympanum,
between it and the bottom of the internal auditory meatus ;
behind it are the semicircular canals, and in front is situated
the cochlea. It is the part of the labyrinth which first
appears in animals, and is therefore the most constant part
of the organ. In the myxinoid fishes a single semicircular
canal is superadded to the vestibule, in the lamprey two
canals, but in other fishes and in the higher vertebrates three
canals exist. In amphibia, reptiles, and birds the cochlea
is small and rudimentary in comparison with its develop-
ment in mammals. The osseous vestibule is an ovoid
chamber about ^th inch in diameter. In its outer or
tjonpanio wall is i)x& fenestra ovalis ; in its inner are small
auditory foramina, which transmit from the internal
meatus the vestibular branches of the auditory nerve ;
behind these holes is the opening of a minute canal, the
aqueductus vestihuli ; its anterior wall communicates with
the scala vestibuli of the cochlea, and into its posterior
wall open the five orifices of the three semicircular canab.
The Semicircular Canals are named superior, posterior,
and external The superior and posterior are sometimes
called the vertical canals, and the external the horizontal
canal, but, as Crum Brown has shown, the superior and
posterior lie in planes equally inclined to the mesial plane
of the head, and the external is in a plane at right angles
to the mesial plane. Further, the canals in the two ears
have definite relations to each other; for whilst the superior
canal of each ear is nearly paraDel to the posterior canal
of the other, the external canals in both ears lie nearly
in the same plane. The canals are bent, forming nearly
§ds of a circle, and would have had six openings into
the vestibule had not the contiguous ends of the superior
and posterior blendecj together to open by a common orifice.
The opposite end of each of these canals and the outer end
of the external canal dilate close to the vestibule to twice
their usual diameter, and form an ampulla. The osseous
vestibule and semicircular canals are lined by a periosteum
invested by a tessellated endothelium, and contain a little
fluid, the perilymph. In this fluid the membranous laby-
rinth is suspended.
The membranous vestibulr is formed of two small sac- like
dilatations, the waUs of which are directly continuous with
each other, though the cavities are separated by ap^ter-
mediate partition. The upper and posterior dilatation,
named utriculus, is larger than the lower and anterior,
named sacculus. The sacculus is continuous with the
ductus cochlearis of the membranous cochlea, and both
sacculus and utriculus communicate by slender tubes with
a short diverticulum lodged in the aqueductus vestibuli, to
which the name of ductus vestibuli may be given. The
membranous semicircular canals are about §d the diameter
of the osseous. Their walls are continuous with that of
the utriculus, and they open by five orifices into it. Each
has an ampulla within the ampulla of the osseous canaL
Both the sacculus and utriculus are in places attached to
the periosteal linings of the osseous vestibule, and delicate
ligamentous bands connect the
membranous semicircular canals
to the periosteal lining of the
tubes in which they are con-
tained. The wall of the mem-
branous vestibule and canals con-
sists of a delicate fibrous mem-
brane lined by a tessellated endo-
thelium. The inner part of this
membrane has a vitreous or hya-
line lustre, and gives origin in the
canals to short papillae which pro-
ject into the lumen. The mem-
branous vestibule and canals are
distended with the fluid endo-
lymph. The sacculus, utriculai,
and ampuUae are specially modified
in connection with the peripheral
termination of the vestibuLar
branches of the auditory nerve.
The membranous wall forms in
each of these dilatations a project-
ing ridge, the cjnsta acoustica, to
which calcareous particles, the
otoliths, which may be either amorphous or crystalline,
are adherent. The endothelial investment of the crista
is elongated into columnar cells, and intercalated between
them are fusiform cells, the auditory cells, each of which, as
Schultze and other observers have described, possesses a
peripheral and a central process. The peripheral process
projects beyond the plane of the free surface of the endo-
thelium into the endolymph as the auditory hair, whilst
the central process extends into the sub-endothelial tissue,
where the nerve plexus belonging to the terminal branches
of the auditory nerve ramifies, and with which it is probably
continuous. These auditory cells are, therefore, the peri-
pheral end-organs of the vestibular branches of the auditory
nerve, and their general arrangement is not unlike that of
the olfactory cells of the nose.
The Cochlea is by far the most complex part of tho
labyrinth. It is about
:Jth inch long, and
shaped Uke the shell
of a common snaQ :
its base lies near the
internal meatus, and
its apex is directed
outwards. The osse-
ous cochlea is a tube
wound spirally two
and ahalf times round
a central pillar or
modiolus. Both the pillar and the tube diminish rapidly
in diameter from the base to the apex of the cochlea
The tube ia imperfectly divided into two passages by a
Fio 81. — el, colamntr etui
coveriTE the crista aco^iitica.
p. peripheral, and e, cecrr^i
procewes ,of anditcry cells,
n. nerve flbn s. iA/ter Hud
inffer.)
Fio. 82. — Diagram of the mcmbranoos Inbyrll Ih.
DC. ductus cochlearis; dr. ductus reumeas; S,
Bucculus; U, utriculus; de, ductus Tcatibal'j
SC. scmlclrcuJar counla (A/lrr Waldcytr.)
804
ANATOMY
[OROANS OP SENSE — '
plate of bone, the oatecut tpiral lamina, which, springing
from the modiolus, winds spirally arouud it, and projects
into the tube. When the membranous cochlea is in its
place the division is completed by a membrane, the mem-
branous spiral lamina, or basilar membrane, which bridges
across the interval between the free edge of the osseous
spiral lamina and the outer wall of the tube, to which
it is attached by the spiral cochlear ligament. These
passages are called acala tympani and scala vestibuli.
liut another membrane, the membrane of Ixeissner, also
arises from a denticulated spiral crest, limbus or crista
spiralis, attached to the vestibular border of the free edge
of the osseous spiral lamina, and extends to the spiral liga-
ment at the outer wall of the tube, on the vestibular aspect
of the basilar membrane, so as to enclose a passage between
it and the basilar membrane, called scala intermedia or
ductus cochlearis. The membrane of Eeissner is formed
of delicate vascular connective tissue, with an endothelial
(Tlo. 83— TraiisTerae section through the tat)u of the cochlra. m, modiolus; O.
uuter wall of cochlea ; SV, scala Testlbult ; ST, scala tympani ; DC, ductus
cothk-arls; mil, membrane of Rilssner; bm, basilar membrane; ci, crlata
spiralis; i\ spiral ligament j sg, spiral ([anfillon of auditory nerve; oc, organ of
of CorU.
layer on eacli of its two surfaces. The scala tympani or
lower passage, widest at the base of the cochlea, begins at
the inner wall of the tympanum, into which it would have
opened through the fenestra rotunda, had not the fenestra
been closed up by a membrane. The scala vestibuli or
upper passage, also widest at the base, communicates with
the cavity of the osseous vestibule. At the apex of the
cochlea these two scala; communicate with each other
through a small hole, the helicotrema. As the scala vestibuli
opens into the osseous vestibule, the perilymph is continued
into it, and through the helicotrema into the scala tympani.
The ductus coclilearis is the membranous cochlea, and its
walls are formed of the basilar membrane next the scala
tympani, of the membrane of Reissner next the scala
vestibuli, and of the spiral ligament next the wall of the
cochlea, which connects the two membranes together. It
follows the spiral windings of the cocWea, terminates at the
apex of the spiral in a closed end, whilst at the base it
communicates with the sacculus of the membranous vesti-
bule by a slender tube, the canalis reuniejis ; hence the
membranous cochlea contains endolymph. The termina-
tion of the cochlear branches of the auditory nerve and the
arrangement of the peripheral end-organs in relation to
tncm are to be looked for in the basilar membrane. These
parts have been repeatedly investigated and described in
elaborate monographs, the titles of which are given as an
appendix to Waldeyer^s article on the cochlea in Strieker"!!
Uandbuch der Lehre von den Geweben, Leipsic, 1872. The
general results only of these investigations will be given
herfi, and the original memoirs may bo referred to for
further details.
On the surface of the basilar membrane directed to the Oi^an of
ductus cochlearis a remarkable arrangement of celb exists, Co'"-
which presents an appearance that has been compared with
the key-board of a pianoforte, and has been named the organ
of Corti ; it consists of the following parts: — Some of these
cells, distinguished by their elongated curved form, arc
arranged in two groups, an inner and an outer. The cells
of the inner group rest by a broad foot on the inner part of
the basilar membrane, close to its attachment to the tpiral
lamina, project obliquely forwards and outwards, and
expand into a dilated head : the cells of the outer group
also rest by a broad foot on the same membrane, incline
forwards and inwards, and fit into a depression in the head
of the cells of the inner group : these two groups of cells
form the rods or pillars of Corti, and by their juxtaposition
arch over an excessively minute canal enclosed between
them and the' basilar membrane, which may be name 1 tho
canal of Corti. The inner rods are, however, more numerous
than the outer, and Pritchard has shown that the rods
increase in lengtWrom the base to the apex of the cochlea.
Immediately internal and almost parallel to the inner group
of these rods, and adjacent therefore to the crista spiralis,
is a row of compressed conical cells, which possess at their
anterior ends short stiff hair-like processes; they are the
inner hair cells of Deiters. Immediately external and
almost paraUel to the outer group of rods are four or five
rows of hair cells, the outer hair cells, which are a'tachid
by their bases to the basilar membrane, whilst from the
opposite extremity a brush of hairs projects through the
reticular membrane. The outer hair cells are, according to
Waldeyer, relatively of large size in man. The reticular
membrane of Kolliker is a delicate framework perforated
m R
Fio. 64. — Vertical tra-isverse section tbrouftli the basilar membrane c d orjtas of
ConL bm. et. $1. Ac, as in flg. 63; i. inner hair cell; tr. Inner, ad or, ontur
rod of Corti ; o, outer hair cells ; ip. supporting cells; en, cochlea: nerre; ee,
canal of Corti; rm, reticular meiBbrane; ml, membrana tccturic (Adapttd
from Watdeyer.)
by rounded holes. It extends parallel to the basikr meiB
brane from the inner rods of Corti to the external row of
outer hair cells, and through the holes in it the hair, of the
latter project. It obriously acts as a support for the
anterior ends of these cells, and binds together these
important elements of the organ of Corti The interval
between the outer hair cells and the spiral ligament is
occupied by cells of a more or less columnar form, the
tapportinq cells of Hensen. Covering over tho organ of
TONGUE.]
ANATOMY
895
Corti, and separating it from the endolymph of the ductus
cochlearis, is the menibrana tectoria, which springs from
the crista spiralis close to the attachment of the membrane
of Reissner, passes outwards superficial to the membrana
reticularis, and ends externally at the spiral ligament.
Nerve of The origin, course, and distribution of the auditory nerve
hearing. in the labyrinth will now be considered. The auditory
nerve is the portio mollU of the seventh cranial nerve. It
appears at the base of the brain at the lower border of the
pons Varolii Traced to its origin its roots wind round the
restiform body to the floor of the 4th ventricle, where they
form the strije acoustic*, and sink into the grey matter of
tlie floor. Some of the fibres arise from an inner, others
from an anterior collection of nerve cells, whilst others again
are connected with the cells in the restiform body, and
probably with the flocculus of the cerebellum. Where the
nerve emerges at the lower border of the pons it contains
a cluster of nerve cells. The auditory nerve passes down
the internal meatus, and divides into a vestibular and a
cochlear division. The vestibular division enters the vesti-
bule, and divides into five branches for the sacculus, utricu-
lus, and three arapullje of the membranous semicircular
canals. Each branch enters a crista acoustica and forms a
plexus, in the meshes of which nerve cells are imbedded.
FroTi this plexus fine non-medullated fibres arise, which
enter the layer of cells on the surface of the crista, where
they anastomose and "form a very delicate plexus, from
which fibres spring that in all probability join the central
processes of the auditory cells.
The cochlear division enters a canal in the axis of the
modiolus, and gives off lateral branches, which pass into
the canals situated in the osseous spiral lamina. Here they
radiate outwards to the membranous spiral lamina, and
have connected with them collections of nerve cells forming
the spiral ganglion. Beyond the ganglion they form a flat
plexiform expansion, from which delicate nerves pass
through a gap in the edge of the osseous' lamina into the
organ of Corti. In this organ the nerves, as Qottstein and
VValdeyer have described, are arranged in two groups of
fibres ; the inner group become continuous with the deep
end of the inner hair cells ; the outer group pass across
the canal of Corti and end in the outer hair cells. Hence
these cells are the peripheral end-organs of the cochlear
branch of the auditory nerve, or the auditory cells of the
cochlea.
The perilymph of the laoyrinth is set in vibration by the
movements of the tympanic ossicles and the fenestra ovalisj
motion is thus communicated to the membranous labyrinth
and the endolymph which it contains. The auditory hairs
and cells would thus be set in motion, and the vestibular
branches of the auditory nerve would be stimulated to con-
duct sound-impulses tc> the brain. The movements of the
perilymph in the scala tympani and of the endolymph in
the ductus cochlearis would set in vibration the basilar mem-
. brane, and the auditory cells resting on it, by which the
cochlear branches of the auditory nerve would be stimulated
to conduct sound-impulses to the brain. It has been custom-
ary for physiologists to regard the vestibule as the part of
the labyrinth by which «ound or mere noise is determined;
the cochlea, as the part which determines variations and
degrees of sound, as musical notes or harmony; the semi-
circular canals, as determining the directions from which
sound proceeds. But within the last two years experiments
and arguments have been advanced almost simultaneously
by Crum Brown and Mach in favour of the view that the
semicircular canals act as peripheral end-organs for the sense
of rotation, by which sense the axis about which rotation
of the head takes place, the direction of that rotation, and
its rate, are determined.
lu the account of the development of the skeleton, p.
831, it was stated that the external meatus, tympanum, Develop-
and Eustachian tube are the remains of the first branchial ™^'>* °':
cleft of the embryo, that the tympanic ossicles are formed *"'
in the first and second visceral arches, and that the petrous
bone is ossified in the cartUaginous basis craniL The
membranous labyrinth apparently arises as an invagination
of the integument at the upper end of the second branchial
deffc. The invaginated fold then closes in to form a shut
sac, the primary auditory vesicle. Out of this vesicle the
three divisions of the labyrinth are successively produaed,
and become enclosed by the petrous cartilage, which when
ossified forms the osseous labyrinth. The epidermal invest-
ment of the invaginated tegumentary sac becomes trans-
formed into the special cell structures within the mem-
branous labyrinth, and the sub-epidermal connective tissue
forms its fibrous waU. The cochlear and vestibular nerves
form at the same time as the labyrinth, and become
connected through the trunk of the auditory nerve with the
brain.
The ToNOtTE, situated on the floor of the cavity of the TonguS)
mouth, is the chief organ provided for the excitation of
the special sense of taste, but the under surface of the soft
palate participates to some extent in this property. The
tongue is also highly endowed with the sense of touch.
The structures concerned in the excitation of taste and
touch are situated in the mucous membrane which envelopes
the tongue. The tongue is also a muscular organ, and
plays an important , part in articulation, mastication, and
deglutition. Its shape is flattened from above downwards,
so that it presents an upper surface or dorsum and a lower
surface. Its posterior part is broad, forms the base or root
of the organ, and is attached to the hyoid bone. Its ante-
rior extremity or tip is more or loss pointed, and its lateral
margins or sides are rounded.
The muscles connected with the tongue are arranged in
pairs, and form three distinct groups, viz., accessory, extrin- .
sic, and intrinsic muscles. I'he accessory muscles are the
stylo-hyoid, digastric, mylo-hyoid, genio-hyoid, omo-hyoid,
sterno-hyoid, and thyro-hyoid, already referred to on page
836, which act upon the hyoid bone, and thus indirectly are
concerned in the movements of the tongue. The extrinsic
muscles pass from adjacent parts into the substance of the
tongue, and are as follows : — The stylo-glossus arises from
the tip of the styloid process and the stylo-maxillary liga-
ment ; it runs forwards .ilong the side of the tongue to the
tip. The hyo-glossus is divided into three parts ; a, basi-
glossus, which arises from the body of flie hyoid ; h, cerato-
glossus, from the great cornu of the hyoid ; c, chondro-
glossus, from the small cornu of the hyoid. The fibres
from those origins ascend into the side of the tongue. The
genio-hyo-glossus arises from the upper tubercle of the
symphysis of the lower jaw, its fibres radiate into the sub-
stance of the tongue along its whole length from base to
tip ; this muscle is separated from the corresponding mvuscle
of the opposite half of the tongue by a mesial septum of
fibrous tissue. The palato-glossus arises in the substance of
the soft palate, and descends to the tongue in the anterior
pillar of the fauces. The intrinsic muscles lie in the sub-
stance of the tongue itself, and are as follows : — The lingua-
lis superior (noto-glossus), consisting of longitudinal fibres,
which extend from the base to the tip beneath the mucous
membrane of the dorsum ; the Ungualis inferior, consisting
of longitudinal fibres, which extend from the base to the tip
along the under surface between the hyo-glossus and genio-
hyo-glossus; transverso" inusculai fibres, which spring from
the mesial fibrous septum and curve outwards and upward.i
to the sides ot the toDgiio ; vertical fibres, which pass through
the substance of the tongue from the dorsum to the under
surface. The eTtriiidii: and intrinsic mus:lea car not mlj
890
A N A T O 1\I Y
lone ASS OF 8ENSK
move the entire tongue within the cavity of the mouth,
jirotrude it between the lips, and again retract it, but can
modify its form ; thus the dorsum can be flattened, made
convex or concave, the margins can bo raised or depressed,
and the tip elevated or depressed.
The mucous membrane of the tongue forms a part of the
general mucous lining of the mouth; it covers the dorsum,
tip, sides, and under surface; is reflected from the under
surface to the floor of the mouth, where it forms tho fra-nnm
or bridle of the tongue, and is reflected also from tho base
to tho epiglottis as the /rcvna of tho epiglottis, as well as
over the tonsils and anterior palatine jiillars. This mem-
brane has its free surface elevated^ into multitudes of fine
processes, called the papillco of the tongue, some of which
are simple, others compound. The simple ]>apillce are
situated on the back part of tho dorsum and tho under sur-
face of tho mucous membrane, as well as scattered between
the compound papiIKe; they are simple conical elevations
of tho membrane. 'I'he compound papilla: are arranged in
three groujis, named liliform, fungiform, and circumvallate
papillaj. The filiform papilla;, elongated and thread-like,
are the smallest and most numerous, and cover the dorsum
in front of tho circumvallate papillaj. The fungiform or
club-shaped are scattered over the anterior and middle
parts of the dorsum, and at tho tip and sides. Tho
circumvallate papillae, seven to twelve in number, form a
V-shaped figure on the dorsum towards its base ; a depres-
sion in the mucous membrane, called foramen c<xcum,
marks the ape.^ of tho V. These are the largest papillae ;
each is sunk in a vallum or trench-like depression of the
mucous membrane, which isolates it from the surrounding
surface. Tho compound character of these papill;e is due
to each having projecting from it numerous small sccondarj-
papillaj. Tho epithelial covering of tho filiform papilla; is
characterised by the peculiar modification which the tessel-
lated epithelium of the mouth has undergone; the cells
have become cornified and elongated into dense, imbricated
brush-like proces.se3. In the carnivorathc epithelium is so
hardened as to form sharp spines, with the points turned
backwards, which give to the tongues of these animals a
rough prickly character. In the fungiform and circumval-
late papilhe the inequalities between the secondary papUK-e,
which project from them, are filled up by the tessellated
epithelium, so that the surface of the compound papilla'
has a smooth appearance. Both the simple and comijouud
Fio. 85.— Sectlnn throngh > piBtotory laiuetla of tho rabbit's tonCTe. O imsla-
toiy bulbs .ltu»lc(J m Kp. II, c ep,.hell«l layer of ll,o mucms membrane ■ V capil-
lary blood-vcssclB Id tlio aub-cplthcllal cunnectlve tissue. IFvmi a pirpmalwn
oy A. B. Stirling.)
papill^ are highly vas?ular; the lingual artery not only
supplies the muscular substance of the tongue, but gives
off fine branches to the mucous membrane. These branches
end in capillaries, which form simple loops in the simple
papilU-B, but in the compound papilhe the capillaries are so
multiplied that each secondary papilla has a capillary loop
within it. The tongue is provided with several nerves.
The hypo-glossal nerve supplies its muscular structure, but
Fio. 8C.— 1. •operfldaj
the inferior lingualis apparently receives a branch from the
chorda tympani of the facial The lingual branch of the
fifth is distributed to tho mucous membrane of the anterior
two-thirds of tho tongue : it breaks up into minute branches,
which enter the fungiform and filiform papilla;, but their
exact mode of termination has not been precisely ascertained,
though end-bulbs and gustatory bodies are said to have
been seen in connection with some of the terminal branches.
The glossal branch of the glosso-phar)'ngcal is distributed
to the mucous membrane of the root of the tongue and of
tho circumvallate papilla;. In connection with its terminal
branches peculiar flask-shaped organs, called gistatory bvlbt
or bodies, have recently been described by Loviin, Schwalbe,
and Engelmann, in the sides of the circumvallate papilla;.
These have been found in large numbers' in lamellatcd
folds of the mucous membrane of the posterior part of tho
side of tho rabbit's tongue, which folds may appropriately
therefore be called gustatory lamella. Mhen sectious aro
made through one of these folds, or through a circumval-
late papilla and the trench which surrounds it, numerous
fiaskshaped gustatory bulbs may be seen
in the epithelium, which covers the side
of tho papilla and the opposite side of
the trench. The bottom of each flask is
iie.xt tho sub-epithelial tissue, whilst its
short neck opens on the surface by a
mouth, the gustatory pore ; similar bodies,
though in much smaller numbers, have
akso been seen in the fungiform papilla;.
Each gustatory body consists of two diffe-
rent forms of cells, named covering cells cavtiing c<.-i!t"oi"
and gustatory- cells. The covering cells ^^^^^ X\°i
are elongated, nucleated spindles, which, p- "• i^ripber.i, and
r ■ , . . , , f c. Its central procesa
arranged m layers, form the envelope of
each gustatory bulb, and reach from tho. bottom to the
mouth of the flask ; they enclose the gustatory cells.
The gustatory cells are attenuated, homogeneous, and
highly refractile cells, which possess an elliptical nucleated
body with two processes, a central and peripheral These
cells occupy the a.vis of tho gustatory bulb. The peri-
pheral process, broader than the central, sometimes ends
in a short hair-like tip, which almost reaches the gus-
tatory pore ; the central process extends to tho base of
the flask, and often divides into small branches. This jjervo of
process is varicose, and not unlike the axial cylinder tast«.
of a nerve fibre. The branches of the glosso-pharyngeal
nerve, which aro distributed to the back of the tongue,
enter the circumvallate papillas, and form a minute plexus,
with groups of nerve cells interspersed in it, from which
bundles both of medullated and non-medullated fibres pass
to the basis of the gustatory bulbs ; and it is believed thai
the finest non-medullated fibres are continuous with the
peripheral processes of the gustatory cells, which are there-
fore regarded as the peripheral end-organs of the nerve of
taste, and by "the excitation of these bodies gustative or
taste sensations are produced. As the glosso-pharyngeal
is the nerve distributed to the circumvallate pajiillae, where
these gustatory bulbs are especially found, it is therefore
the special nerve of taste ; but as these bulbs have also
been sparingly seen in the other papilla, where the lingual
nerve is distributed, that nerve probably acts in a minor
degree as a nerve of taste, though its special function is
undoubtedly that of a nerve of touch. The gustatory
bulbs are not penetrated by blood-vessels, but, as Fig. 85
shows, the vascular sub-epithelial tissue is prolonged
upwards along the sides of the bulbs almost as far as the
plane of the gustatory pore. Key, Beale, and other
observers have described special modifications of the
epithelium in connection with the terminations of the g'jsta-
tory nerves in the frog. Tho mucous membrane of tuf
SKIN.]
A N A T O Bl Y
897
tongue contains numerous small tubular or branched
glands, more especially on the dorsum near its root, which
secrete mucus. Depressions also occur in this part of the
mucous membrane,- around the walls of which groups of
lymphoid cells are collected in the sub-epithelial connective
tissue, which have an arrangement closely resembling the
stracture of the adjacent tonsils, and form an example of
adenoid tissue.
The Skin, or Integument, invests the entire outer surface
of the body, and contains structures by the excitation of
which the properties of things are determined by the sense
of touch. The skin also contains accessory structures, as
the nails, hairs, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. The
skin consists of a non-vascular cuticle or epidermis, and of
a vascular and sensitive cerium, or cutis vera.
The Cuticle, Epidermis, or scarf skin, forms the outer
covering of the skin, and protects the cutis. It is a
laminated structure, and consists of numerous layers of
cells superimposed on each other. As these cells cover
a free surface exposed to the air, they belong to the epithe-
lium group. The thickness of the cuticle varies in diffe-
rent localities from yV^h to j-J^th inch ; where the skin
is frequently exposed to pressure, as in the soles of the
feet, the cuticle is the thickest and hardest ; and the
hands of those accustomed to manual labour have a hard
and horny cuticle. The increase in thickness in these
localities is for the purpose of protecting the highly sensi-
tive cutis from injury. The outer surface of the cuticle in
many parts of the body, especially the palm of the hand and
the fingers, is marked by ridges and furrows ; the ridges
indicate the position and arrangement of the papiUas of the
cutis, whilst the furrows are due to the sinking of the
cuticle into the spaces between the rows of papillaa. The
mouths of the sweat glands open on the surface of these
ridges. The cuticle is divided into two strata. The super-
ficial homy stratum consists of layers of flat-, polygonal scales
like a tessellated epithelium ; the cells in the superimposed
layers firmly adhere to each other by their surfaces, and in
vertical sections this stratum presents a fibrous appearance ;
but the cells may be readily isolated by digestion in a caustic
alkali. The deeper or mucous stratum, or rete Malpiyhii,
lies next the cutis, and closely follows the undulations of
its papillary surface. The cells forming the layer next the
cutis are columnar in shape, those in the layers immediately
succeeding are rounded or cubical, whilst those next in
order are, polygonal, and not unfrequently possess pointed
processes or prickles projecting from ■ them, hence the
name, 7>ricWc mWs, employed by Schultze. The cells which
lie next the homy stratum assume the scale-like form. It
is in the cells of the mucous stratum that the colouring
matter of the skin is found, which in the fair races of men
forms the isolated coloured spots called freckles and moles,
but in the dark races the pigment granules are uniformly
distributed through the cells of this stratum. The super-
ficial cells of the homy stratum of the cuticle are continually
being shed, so that the cells of the deeper layers gradually
approach the surface, and new cells are continually being
formed in the deeper part of the rete Malpighii. The
cuticle is closely adherent to the cutis in the healthy living
ikin, but on the application of a blister, or when putrefac-
ion sets in after death, it separates from it
The Cutis vera. — When the cuticle is removed the surface
of the cutis is seen to be studded with multitudes of minute
elevations, the papillae of the skin. These papilliE are
either simple conical structures, or compound with two or
three branches. They are largest-in the palm and sole,
being from •^^-^^'^ to j-Jjth of an inch high, and are arranged
in ridges, but more usually they are much shorter and
irregularly distnbated The cutis is formed of connec-
1-ai
^lO. 87. — Vertical £.i k
lieous tissua Ai, Im
b the Bkln and anbrnt^
riy Btratum, and rm, reteJlulplglil
of cuticle: pp, papilla; of cutis; (, a touch trfrfueclfr
with n, a Dttrve Hbre; be, a blood and Ic, a lymib
capillai7; c(, .conntctlTe subcutaneous tissue:/, ('t
lobule: f, a sweat ([land with its duct.
tive tissue, in which stellate connective tissue corpu.-irle.s
and elastic fibres are abundant. The deeper surface of t>ie
connective tis
sue of the cutis
is reticulated,
and is continu-
ous vith the
bundles of con-
nective tissue
that form the
areolar subcu-
taneous tissue.
In the papilliB
themselves the
fibres of the
connective tis-
sue are not so
well marked,
and the surface
of the papillae
possesses more
of a homoge-
neous aspect,
which gives
rise to the ap-
pearance de-
scribed as a
basement
membrane.
The cutis is
highly vascu-
lar ; the small arteries which go to the skin give off branchea
to the lobulee of fat in the subcutaneous tissue, then pene-
trate the cutis, and form a plexus from which capillaries
arise, which enter the papUlEB, and form vascular loops v/ithin
them. The lymphatic vessels of the skin are numerous;
they form a plexus in the cutis, which Lies beneath the
vascular plexus, forms, as Neumann's injections show, a
network around both the sebaceous and sweat glands, and
gives off capillary loops into the papillae. The nerves of
the skin are the cutaneous branches both of the spinal and
of certain of the cranial nerves, the origin and distribution
of which have already been described. They run through
the subcutaneous tissue, and enter the deep surface of the-
cutis, where they divide into branches. As these pass Nerves o|
towards the papillae they unite to form a nerve plexus, tou.It.
from which smaller branches arise to enter the papiUae,
and terminate, more especially in the skin of the palm of
the hand, fingers, and sole, which are the surfaces most
sensitive to touch impressions, in the tactile or touch
corpuscles. The touch corpuscles discovered by Wagner
and Meissner are the peripheral end-organs of the nervea;
of touch. They may be single or compound ; are usually"
ovoid inform, not unlike a minute far cone; and are trans-
versely marked, from the transverse direction of the nuclei
of fusiform cells which form an investing capsule. Each
single corpuscle and each division of a compound corpuscle
is penetrated by one, and, according to Thin, by never
more than one, meduUated nerve fibre, but the exact mod*
of termination of the axial cylinder of the fibre has not
been ascertained. Virchow and other German observers
have stated that the papills which contain capOlaries do
not contain ner^-es or touch corjiuscles, and vice versa ; but
Dalzcll and Thin have shown that certainly the mnjoritv
of papillce that contain nerve fibres and touch corpuscleB
are also vascular papill:E. Non-meduUatcd nerve fibres,
ascend to the surface of the. cutis, ami. according to Lan-
gerhans, pass into the rete Malpighii between the cells of the
mucous layer.
Avails. — On the back of the last j.haianx of each tixumb, Xail*
S98
ANATOMY
[ORO
ANS OP SEXSIf,
6 tiger, and toe in situated a firm horny curved plate, the
Hull. Each nail rests on a bed, the surface of which is
formed of the cutis, which also overlaps the side and root
f^f the nail ; thus the nail fits into a groove formed of the
cutis something after the manner in which a watchgla-ss
fits into its rim. A nail is merely a s[)ccial modifica-
tion of the cuticle, the cells of the superficial stratum of
which are more horny, harder, and more firmly adherent
to each other than in the cuticle proper. Deeper than the
horny stratum is the rete Malpighii of the nail, the cells of
which are soft, as in the cuticle itself. The cutis forming
the bed of the nail is studded with papillae, which are
arranged in almost parallel rows, and are highly vascular.
Nails grow both in length and thickness : the increase in
thickness is due to the formation of nerve cells on the bed
of the nail ; the increase in length takes place through the
formation of nail cells at its root, and as the nail is thus
slowly pushed forward it requires to bo cut at intervals.
At the root, sides, and below the free border of the nail the
cuticle is continuous with the substance of the nail itself.
Hair. — Projecting from the surface of the skin are multi-
tudes of elongated cylindrical horny structures, the hairs.
In the skin of the scalp, the arrapits, and the pubis, they
are long and numerous; but in the eye-brows, eye-lashes,
vibrissoB of the nostrils, and surface of the body generally,
they are short. They are stronger and thicker in the skin
of man than of woman, more especially on the cheeks,
lips, and chin. Hairs do not grow from the skin of the
palms and soles, the back of the ungual phalanges, and the
surface of the upper eyelids. Each hair is partially em-
bedded in a depression of the skin, called a hairfuUicle. The
deeper end of the follicle is somewhat dilated, and has in it a
papilla, the hair papilla. The wall of the hair follicle is
formed of the constituent structures of the skin ; the outer
part of the wall belongs to the cutis, and has been described
Sls arranged in three layers, the external, middle, and inner
layer of the hair follicle. The external and middle layers are
formed of connective tissue, with blood-vessels ; whilst the
inner, sometimes called the vitreous layer, is transparent
and homogeneous, and continuous with the so-called base-
ment membrane of the cutis. The inner part of the wall of
the hair follicle, or the root-sheath, belongs to the cuticle,
and consists of two layers, the outer and inner root-sheaths.
The outer root-sheath is continuous with the rete Malpighii,
and consists of cells simjlar to those of that stratum. The
inner root-sheath is continuous with the horny stratum of
the cuticle, and consists of elongated scale-like translucent
celU in which no nuclei can be seen.
A hirir possesses a root, a shaft, and a tip ; the root is
embedded in the hair follicle, whilst the shaft and tip form
the free projecting part of the hair. In the human hair
the substance of the hair is composed of a Jibrous-looking
horny material, which by the action of strong sulphuric acid
is resolved into elongated, closely compacted, fusiform cells,
which in coloured hairs contain pigment granules. In the
thicker hairs the cells in the axis of the hair are polygonal,
(joutain air, and form a central pith or medulla. The hair
is invested by imbricated scale-like cells, which form the
hair cuticle. In diflferent animab the size and relative pro-
portion of the cells of the cuticle, medulla, and fibrous part
of the hair present many modifications. The wool of the
sheep has its cuticle scales, with well-defined serrated
margins, so that the hair of this animal is well adapted for
felting into cloth ; in the bat, also, the cuticle cells are
large and strongly serrated. The bristles of the pig, again,
have the fibrous part of the hair largely developed. In
the deer tribe the hair consists of polygonal medulla-like
cells, which contain air. The root of the hair dilates at its
deeper end into a bulb which embraces the hair papilla.
It is softer in texture than the shaft, so that the ceUuki
stnicture of the hair is more easily demonstrated. Next
the papiDa the cells are like those of the rete Malpighii,
but when traced onwards to the shaft they are seen to
become difTerentiatcd, both in structure and composition,
into the proper hair cells. The root b enveloped in a special
sheath, termed the iheath of Huxley, composed of nucleated
cells, which sheath, in the more superficial part of the
follicle, blends with the internal root-shcatL The hair
papilla bears to the hair the same relation as a papilla of
the cutis has to its investing cuticle, so that a hair is to be
regarded as a specially modified cuticular structure. The
human hair papilla is vascular, but no nerves have been
traced into it In the tactile hairs of the mammalia, how-
ever, nerves have been traced into their papilla;.
The bristles, feathers, claws, hoofs, the honiy envelope of
the horn cores in the hollow horned ruminants, and various
tegumenlary spines and scales, present in many animals,
are, like hairs and nails, special modifications of the
tegunieiitary system.
Each hair follicle has opening into it the excretory dnct
of a small gland, named a sebaceoum gland. This gland
consists of the excretory duct, and of from two to twenty
grape-like saccular expansions which open into the duct.
The wall of the sacculi and of the duct is continuous with
the vitreous layer of the outer wall of the hair follicle.
Capillary blood-vessels are distributed on the outer wall of
the sacculi. The sacculi are almost entirely filled with
polygonal cells containing drops of fat, which cells are
continuous with the epithelial lining of the gland duct and
the cells of the outer root-sheath. These glands secrete a
fatty material, which lubricates the surface of the hair.
Sometimes a small parasite, called Acarus /olliciUorum, is
found in a sebaceous gland.
Some years ago Kolliker described one or two bundles
of smooth muscular fibres extending from the wall of the
hair follicle to the deep surface of the cutis; these muscles,
named arrectores pili, by their contraction erect the hairs,
that is, cause them to become more prominent, and produce
the condition of skin, called cutis anscrina or goose skin,
well known to occur when cold is applied to the surface of
the body.
Hairs are developed about the 4vh month of embryo life,
within depressions in the cutis, which form the future hail
follicles, filled with cells similar to, and continuous with,
those of the rete Malpighii A papilla forms at the bottom
of this depression, around which the cells become arranged
in a bulbous expansion. The cells, in line with the bulb,
elongate and harden, and group themselves so as to form
the shaft of the young hair, which at this stage is .com-
pletely buried within the follicle. A rapid production of
new cells takes plate at the bulb, the hair consequently
increases in length, iind is pushed outwards through the
superficial horny stratum of the cuticle, which had closed
in the mouth of the depression or foUicle in which the hair
is produced. At the same time, the more external cells
within the follicle are pushed outwards towards its wall,
and form the cells of the root-sheath. When a hair is
pulled out of its follicle the cells of the root-sheath are
drawn out along with it. A new hair will be developed
at the bottom of a follicle from which the hair has been
shed as long as cells continue to be formed around the
papilla. When the growth of cells ceases within the hair
follicles then permanent baldness is the result.
The sebaceous glands are developed as bud-like oflTshoota
from the hair follicles, filled, like the foUicles themselves,
with cells continuous with those of the rete Malpighii
Instead of the cells'in these buds dilferentiating into a,
hair, they become filled with fatty particles, and the wall
of the bud Assumes the characteristic sacu£'ated form Ol
the gland.
VOL. I.
Fi^.2
ANATOMY
/ V J.
PLATE XX
Fig. J.
- - ..^
Mscera of Oust £ Ahdomai
Liver & Kidneys
Aorly
ENCYCLOP/EOIA BRITANNIC*. NINTH EDITION.
VASCULAE SYSTEM.]
ANATOMY
800
Sweat Sweat Glands, or sudoriparous glands, are tound generally
GUmds. distributed throughout the skin, but are most abundant in
the palms and soles, where they number 2500 to 3000 in
each square inch. In the skin of the back, again, there
are only between 400 and 500 in the square inch. Each
gland consists of a ball-like body lying in the subcutaneous
tissue, from which a tubular duct proceeds through the
skin to open on its free surface. The ball is composed of
a convoluted tube continuous "with the tubular duct, and
terminating in a blind end. The wall of the gland tube
consists of a delicate nucleated membrane lined by columnar
aecreting ceUs. It is surrounded by connective tissue
containing capillary blood-vessels. As the gland-duct
pierces the cutis it passes between the papillae; in its course
through the cuticle it pursues a spiral direction, and has its
walls formed, not of a distinct membrane, but of the cuticle
cells themselves. The epithelial lining of the duct is
continuous with the cells of the rete Malpighii of the cuticle.
In the axilla and groin the sweat glands are much larger
than in the skin generally. The sweat glands arise as
flask-shaped pouches of the rete Malpighii projecting into
the cutis, which in course of time become elongated into
tubes, and the cells contained in which become the secreting
cells of the gland.
Vasculae SrSTEM.
Teasels. The human body and the bodies of all the more highly
organised animals are traversed by numerous tubes or pipes,
technically called Vessels, some of which in man are nearly
an inch in diameter, others so small as to require a micro-
scope for their examination, others again of every interme-
diate size. In connection with the vesseb is a central organ,
the Heart. The heart and the vessels collectively constitute
the Vascular System. Of these vessels some contain blood,
and form the Blood- vascular system ; others contain lymph,
and iorm the Lymph-vascular system. The lymph-vascular
system is not independent of the blood-vascular system,
but communicates with it at several points. The vascular
system is a hydraulic apparatus, possessing a pump, pipes,
and valves. The heart is the pump, which works, not by
the movements of a piston, but by the contraction of its
muscular walls ; the vessels are the pipes, which convey
the contained fluid, and they are provided in certain locali-
ties with valves for modifying its flow.
Blood- Vasculae System. — The movement of the blood
in the blood-vascular system is called the circulation of t)u
blood. In the lower Vertebrata the heart is a single organ,
and the blood flows from it through the vessels back again
into the part of the heart from which it had proceeded,
forming a simple circulation. In man and the higher ver-
t-ebrates the heart is a double organ, i.e., it consists of a
right and left portion, intimately united to, but not directly
communicating with, each other. The blood which flows
from its right side passes through vessels which traverse
the lungs, and is conveyed to the left side of the heart ;
whilst the blood which flows from the left side passes
through vessels which traverse the body generally, and is
conveyed to the right side of the heart. This is called a
double circulation ; that which appeilains to the lungs is
the pulmonic circulation ; that which appertains to the
body generally is the systemic circulation. The vessels
which carry the blood away from the heart are called
arteries ; those which convey it back to the heart are veins.
The arteries and veins do not communicate directly with
each other, but through the intermediation of a network
of extremely minute vessels, the capillaries. Hence, both
in the pulmonary and systemic circulation, the blood in its
passage from the arteries into the veins must go through
capillaries. The blood which flows from the left side of
the heart into the systemic arteries is pure or arterial blood ;
as it traverses the systemic capillaries it parts with certain
of its coi^stituents to nourish the organs and tissues, and
as it receives from them waste products it becomes impure-
blood ; in which condition it flows back to the right side of
the heart by the systemic veins as venous blood ; henca
the right side of the heart is often caUed the venous side.
The blood which flows from the right side of the heart
along the pulmonary artery is this impure blood ; as it
traverses the pulmonary capillaries it is purified by the
action, of the air in the lungs, and is changed into arterial
or pure blood, in which condition it flows back by the
pulmonai7 veins to the left side of the heart, which conse-
quently is called the arterial side. The object of the
pulmonary circulation, therefore, is to reconvert into pure
blood the blood which has been rendered impure during its
passage through the systemic capillaries.
The Heart. — The heart is a hollow muscle contained Heart
in the cavity of the chest, and enclosed within a bag called
the Pericardium. The pericardium, with its enclosed heart
occupies the space called mediastinum, between the twt
lungs ; it lies therefore behind the sternum, and in front of
the spinal column, but projects more to the left than to the
right side of the mesial plane. The bag of the pericardium
is formed externally of a strong fibrous membrane, which is
attached below to the central tendon of the diaphragm, but
blends above with the sheaths of the great vessels which pass
to and from the heart. When the bag is cut open its inner
surface is seen to possess a smooth glistening serous aspect,
for it is lined by a layer of squamous endotheHum, which
layer is continuous with the serous membrane that invests
the heart, and forms the visceral layer of the pericardium.
The continuity of the serous lining of the bag with the
serous investment of the heart takes place where the great
blood-vessels pierce the fibrous bag.
The heart lies obliquely from above downwards, from
right to left, and from behind forwards. For descriptive
Fio. 88.— The Thoracic Viscera.
In (hl8 dlagTom the hinga are (umM to the ilde, and the perlcarflium n
moved to display the heart, a, upiier, a', lower lobe of left Iuhr; 6, uppers
y. middle, 6", lower lobe of riKlit lung; c. trachea; d. arch of aorta; *
Buptrlor vena cava; / pulmonary artery; g. left, nnd h, right auricle; *. rlRhu
and t, left ventricle; m. Inferior vena cava; n, descending aorta; 1, innominate
artery ; 3. rtght, and 4, left common camtld artery ; 3, right, and 6, left aub-
clavlan artery; 6, 6, right arid left Innominnre vein; 7 and-9, left and right
internal Jngular veins; 8 and 10. left and right aul.clavian velna; 11, 12. 13, left
pulmonary nrtcry, bronchu^ and vein ; 14. 15, 16. right pulmonary bronchoa
artery, and velu; 17 and 18, left and right coronary ancriea.
purposes it may be regarded as posFes.sing a base, an apei.
an anterii5r and a posterior surface, .i right anf^. left border!
The base lies backwards, upwards, r.nd to the right, opjiosite
900
A N A T 0 M Y
[VASCULAB
the 4th to tho 8th (lomal veitehrse. Tho «pei u directed
lurwarda, downwards, and to tho left, opposite to the iutcr-
▼al between tiio 5tb and 6th left ribs. The heart ba« on
its surface grooves which indicate its division internally
into four chambers, two in its right half, two in ita left
half. The right chambers are the right auricle and riglit
ventricle. The left chambers are the left auricle and le/t
ventricle. All these chambers are lined by a emcwtb
membrane, the endttrardium^ which is continuous on the
one hand with tho lining membran^of the veins, on tb&
other with tho lining membrane of the arteries.
Tho Right Auricle occupies the right part of the base of
tho heart It consists of a largo dilated porti6n, the tinu$
vrnnsus, and of a sihall ear-shapod appendage, the auricula.
Its muscular wall is smooth internally, except in the auri-
cula and adjacent anterior wall of the sinus venosus, where
It is thrown into parallel ridges like the teeth of a comb,
and named, musculi pectinati. Into the sinus venosus open
tho great sj-stemic veins or vcmo cavas. Tho superior vena
cava conveys to the auricle the systemic blood that has
been circulating in tho body above tho diaphragm ; it opens
by a patent mouth into the upper and back part of the
sinus venosus. Tho inferior vena cava conveys to the
auricle the blood that has been circulating in the parts of
the body below the diaphragm ; it opens into the lower and
back part of the auricle, and at its mouth is a rudimentary
valve, the Eustachian valve. Close to its orifice is the
mouth of another large vein, the coronary venoiu tiniu,
which also possesses a small valve. Several minute open-
ings, the foramina Thebesii, scattered over the inner wall
of tho auricle, are the mouths of small veins ramifying in
the wall itself. Through these various orifices the venous
blood pours into the auricle, and then flows into the right
ventricle through a large orifice of communication between
them. The right auricle is separated by a partition, the
auricular sepium, from the left auricle. On the surface of
this septum is a depression, the fossa ovalis, surrounded by
a raised border, tho aunulus ovalis, with which border the
inner end of the Eustachian valve is continuous. Before
the birth of the child the septum is perforated by a hole,
called /oramere ovale, through which the blood flows directly
into the left auricle, but this foramen is obliterated after
the birth of the child.
The Biffht Ventricle fotms the right border, a large part
of the anterior surface, but only a small part of the posterior
surface of tho heart. It is shaped somewhat like a flattened
cone, its apex being directed downwards towards the apex
of the heart, its base to the corresponding auricle. The
inner surface of its wall is very irregular, owing to the
muscular bundles being. elevated into strong ridges, caUed
tolutnnce camece. Two, or it may be three, of these fleshy
columns project like nipples or big papillae into the cavity of
tho ventricle, and are called musculi papillares. Attached
to the free apex of each papillary muscle are several fibrous
threads, the chordce tendinece, which, by their opposite extre-
mities, are connected to the segments of a large valve situ-
ated around the opening between the right auricle and
ventricle. The right auriculo-ventricular opening, situated at
the base of the ventricle, is sufficiently large to admit" three
fingers, and possesses a valve which consists of three large
pointed segments or cusps (hence the name tricuspid given to
it), between which three small intermediate cusps lie. One
of the large cusps lies opposite the anterior wall of the ven-
tricle, another opposite tho posterior, whilst tho third is
between the auriculo-ventricular and pulmonary openings.
The cusps are flattened triangular folds of membrane con-
nected by their bases around the opening ; when the valve
\fi not in action the apex of each cusp hangs pendulous in
the ventricle : one surface is smooth, and looks to the cavity
of the ventricle, the other surface is rouy.h and directed to
its wall ; to thii rougli (urf»ce, to the apex, and to the edp'..-.
of the cusp, the chordae tendincs are attached. Ai the
musculi papillares, from which the chordae tendineae Eprin^j,
lie opposite the intervals between the cusps, the chortL*
tendiueie from any given papillary muscle divide them-
selves into two groups, one for each of the two ciup(j
bettreen which it is situated. Atteuiion hai reccatly bev.'B
ria. 89.— Cavities of tl.e right side of th« Tleut.
a. rop^rior, ftn*! b. Inferior *eni ca»a ; «, »rch of lorti ; 4. pnlmonirr arlrrri t,
right. aDd /. left auricular appcndase: ff. f< l^a oralis : A. Eullachlao valtee
k, mnath of coroDFiry Telo ; I, m, n. cQ*pi of ihe tricuspid TaJre; 0, o, i «pll-
larr maacles; p. acmllunar valre; q. corpus Araoiil ; r, iQDOja.
drawn by RoUeston to a Dand which passes from tho base
of the anterior papillary muscle to the septal wall of the
ventricle. As it prevents over-distension of the ventricle,
ho has named it tho moderator band. The base of this
ventricle forms to the left and in front of the auriculo-
ventricular opening, a funnel-shaped prolongation, the conut
arteriosus, from which the pulmonari/ artery arises, through
the intermediation of a strong fibrous ring. Surrounding
the mouth of this artery is a valve called semilunar, which
consists of three semilunar segments. Each segment is
attached by its convex border to the artery where it springs
from the ventricle. The opposite border is free, and pos-
sesses at its centre a minute nodule, the corpus Arantii,
from which slender threads curve outwards at the free
border and in the substance of the valve to strengthen it
A thin lunated portion lies immediately within the free
border. One surface of the valve is convex, and directed
to the lumen (i.e., the space contained by the walls) of the
artery; the other is concave, and directed to the wall of the
artery, and between it and the wall is a pouch named tinus
of Valsalvfu The pulmonary artery extends upwards and
to the left for about 1 j inch, and then divides into two
■branches, one for each lung. The right ventricle b com-
pletely separated from the left by the ventricular septum,
which passes obliquely from left to right, and from before
backwards, so that it forms the posterior wall of the right
ventricle and tho anterior wall of the left.
The Left Auricle occupies the left part of the base of
the heart, and, like the right au-icle, consists of a dilated
sinus venosus and an ear-shaped auricula. , Its muscular
wall forms a smooth surface internally, except in the
auricula, where the ridge-shaped musculi pectinati occur.
Opening into the sinus are the orifices of th^ four pulmoyictrj
veins, two from the right, two from the left lung : thtsa
SYSTEM.!
orifices are without valves. At the lower part of thj
auricle ia the large orifice of communication between it
and the base of the left ventricle.
The Left Ventricle forms the left border, the apex, «
large part of the posterior surface, but only a small part
of the anterior surface of the heart. It is conical in form,
its apex is at the apex of the heart, the base at the corre-
sponding auricle. As in the right ventricle, the inner surface
of its wall is elevated into fleshy columns, two of which
project like nipples into the cavity and form musculi
papilLares, which have chordae tendinece connected with
them. The ^eft auriculo- ventricular opening is large enough
to admit two fingers. It possesses a valve, which consists
•of two large pointed segments or cusps, between which two
small intermediate cusps lie, hence it is called the bicuspid
valve ; and as these cusps are placed one in front of the
other like (.he segments of a bishop's mitre, the name mitral
vcUve is often given to it. The cusps agree in shape, general
arrangement, and mode of attachment with those of the
tricuspid valve, but they are stronger ; and as the more
anterior segment lies obliquely between the auricular and
aortic orifices, both its surfaces are smooth. From the base
of this ventricle the great systemic artery or aorta arises
through the intermediation of a strong fibrous ring. The
mouth of the aorta is surrounded by a three segmented
semilutiar valve, similar to the semilunar pulmonary valve,
tut with thicker and stronger segments, and possessing
more strongly marked sinuses of Valsalva. The base of
each ventricle has therefore two openings in it, one for
communication with the auricle, the other with the great
artery arising from the ventricle. The auriculo-ventricular
openings are the most posterior, and almost in the same
plane ; the aortic opening lies in front 6f the interval
between the two auriculo-ventricular, and the pulmonary
opening is in front of the aortic.
The walls of the cavities of the heart are formed of
striped muscular fibre, over the contractions of which the
will exercises no controL The fibres are collected into
fasciculi, which have a reticulated arrangement, and the
fibres themselves branch and again unite to form a compli-
cated network. The fibres of the walls of the auricles are
distinct from those of the ventricles, so that the auricular
and ventricular compartments are connected together, not
by an interchange of muscular tissue, but by an intermediate
ring-like arrangement of fibres of connective ti.ssue. The
muscular fasciculi of the auricles are arranged in two strata.
The deeper stratum consists of fibres proper to each
auricle, some of which run obliquely in the wall, others
form the musculi pectinati, surround the auricula, and are
prolonged in rings into the coats of the vense cavaa and
pulmonary veins, whilst fibres extend longitudinally and
obliquely along the waU of the coronary venous sinus. The
superficial stratum consists of fasciculi, which run obliquely
from one auricle to the other on both the anterior and
posterior surfaces, and are said to be prolonged into the
auricular septum.
The muscular wall of the ventricles is much thioJier than
that of the auricles, and the wall of the left ventricle
is about three times thicker than the right. The
fibres vary in their direction in difTcrent parts of the
thickness of the ventricular walls. The superficial ex-
ternal fibres run obliquely from above downwards, and
from right to left, and on the anterior surface of the ven-
tricles dip into the anterior ventricular groove to enter the
septum, whilst on the posterior surface they extend across
the posterior ventricular groove ; at the apex of the heart
they turn inwards in a whorl-like manner, and, as was
known to Lower and Gerdy, become continuous with
superficial fibres on the inner wall of the ventricle ; at the
Ixuta of the ventricles tbey turn round the border of the
A N A T O M Y
901
auriculo-ventricular openings, and, as Pettigrew has shown,
'become continuous with these superficial internal fibres,
which run in the reverse direction. The internal fibres are
also prolonged into the musculi papillarea, the chords?
tendineaB springing from which serve therefore as tendons
of insertion for these muscles. If the substance of the
wall be now dissected the fibres situated in the centre of
the wall are seen to lie in the horizontal plane. Various
anatomists have described these fibres of the ventricles as
arranged in layers. Lower recognised two layers spirally
crossing each other ; Haller, three ; Wolfi', three in the right
and six in the left ventricle. Pettigrew at one time
believed he could dissect nine layers, but has subsequently
reduced the number to seven — three external, a fourth (ir
central, and three internal He conceives that the fibres
of the three external layers run in a spiral direction from
left to right downwards, the first layer being more vertical
than the second, and the second than the third, whilst the
fibres of the fourth or central layer are horizontal. Ihe
three internal layers also nin spirally, but in the reverse
direction from the external, with which they become con-
tinuous both at the base and apex. The subdivision of the
ventricular wall into such precise and determinate layers
as is implied in the descriptions of Pettigrew is, however,
to some extent an artificial procedure. There can be no
doubt, as his dissections so beautifully show,- that the
direction of the fibres in the ventricular wall varies at
different depths; but owing to the reticulated arrangement
of the fibres, not only are those connected together which
lie in one of the so-called layers, but they also anastomose
with the fibres in the layer contiguous to it on either
aspect. Hence when one layer is peeled off, that imme-
diately subjacent exhibits, not a smooth face, which it
would have done had the definition of the layers been dis-
tinct, but a rough appearance, due to the tearing through
of intermediate connecting muscular fibres. Owing to
these connections the substance of the waU of the ventricle,
as Henle's dissections show, may, with the exception of
the superficial internal and external fibres, be split up into
lamellte, which extend either horizontally, obliquely, or in
an arched manner through the wall between its two sur-
faces ; and the surfaces of those lamellse are not parallel to
the wall of the ventricle, but are directed upwards and
downwards.
Except at the fibrous rings, where both the white and
yellow fibres are distinct, the connective tissue of the heart
is small in quantity. The endocardial lining consists of
connective tissue with elastic fibres, with a layer of endo-
thelium on the free surface ; and Schweigger-Seidel has
also described smooth muscular fibres in it. Hence, as
Luschkahas stated, the endocardium represents not merely
the inner coat of the blood-vessels but all the structures of
the vascular wall. Purkinje described fibres beneath the
endocardium, which are now regarded as imperfectly formed
striated muscular fibres. The valves are folds of the endo-
cardium, enclosing fibres continuous with those in the
fibrous rings : the cuspidate auriculo-ventricular valves
receive fibres from the chord£e tendineae.
The heart is well supplied with blood, not by the blood
which flows through its cavities, but by two special coro-
nary arteries which ramify in its walls, and end in nume-
rous capillaries lying between the fibres. From these
capillaries the coronary veins arise, which join to foim the
coronary venous sinus. Lymphatic vessels occur both in
the endocardium and pericardium, and apparently ramify
in the muscular wall. The nerves of the heart have been
dissected especially by Sc.-\rpa, Remak, Lee, and Pettigrew,
and numerous small ganglia described ia connection with
them (see p. 883).
The blood flows along the great veins into the aaridea,
002,
A N A T 0 iM Y
[v.\SCULAR SVSTEM —
and is forced by the contraction of their muscular walls
through the auriculo-ventricular openings, the valves of
which open outwards, into the ventricles. When the ven-
tricles are distended their muscular walls contract and force
the blood into the arteries — the right ventricle into the
pulmonary artery, the left into the aorta — the valves at the
mouth of each artery opening outwards to allow of the
free passage of the fluid. To prevent, during the ventricular
contraction, the regurgitation of blood into the auricles, the
auriculo-ventricular valves arc floated away from the sides
of the ventricle across their respective openings, and by the
apposition and slight overlapping of their edges temporarily
close the openings, llie tilting upwards of the valves into
the auricles is prevented by the contraction of the musculi
pajiillarcs, and their connection with the cusps of the valve
through the chordiO tendinea;. Pettigrew htis shown that
casts of the ventricular cavities, more especially of the left,
have the form of a double cone, spirally twisted from right
to left, and has described the blood as forced in spiral
streams against the under surface of the segments of the
valve, which are twisted and wedged into each other so as
to prevent regurgitation. The propulsion of the blood into
the arteries distends the clastic walls of those tubes ; but
when the ventricular contraction has ceased, the elastic wall
recoils, and the blood is propelled onwards in the circula-
tion. The regurgitation of the blood into the ventricles i^
prevented by the closure of the semilunar valves, the seg-
ments of which are thrown across the arterial orifices
through the pressure exercised on the column of blood in
the lumen of the artery and in the sinuses of Valsalva.
Arteiie-s. Tke Arteries. — These vessels were named arteries by the
older anatomists, on the supposition, now known to be
erroneous, that they contained air. The term is now
employed to express a blood-vessel, which, arising either
directly or indirectly from the heart, conveys blood away
trom that organ. Arteries divide and subdivide into smaller
vessels in their course, and to the individual branches
descriptive names are applied. Some of these names
express the position of an artery, as subclavian, axiUary ;
others, the organ in which it is distributed, as pulmonary,
hepatic ; others a peculiarity in its course, as circumflex,
coronary. The branches of arteries may be either collateral
or terminal. The collateral branches arise from the sides
of the parent artery either at an acute, a right, or an obtuse
angle. Terminal branches arise at an acute angle by the
bifurcation of the parent artery, which is the most common
form, or by the breaking up of the artery into a cluster
of branches. Branches which arise either from the same
artery or from different arteries may be distributed in a
common locality, may there unite together, and form what
is called an inosculation or anastomosis, so that the blood
from one artery may thus flow from it into another. The
most common anastomosis is by the formation of loops
between adjacent branches, but sometimes, as when the *<vo
vertebral arteries join to form the basilar, a convergence
of two almost straight arteries takes place ; and in other
cases, as where the two anterior cerebral arteries are joined
together by the anterior communicating, a connecting
braach passes transversely across the mesial plane. A more
complex form of anastomosis is when an artery (and a
similar arrangement is sometimes found in veins) rapidly
f ubdivides into numerous branches, which may again join
to form a trunk either with or without the formation of a
plexus. This is ctlled a rcte mirabile, an arrangement not
uncommon in the cetacea, in the internal carotid arteries
of ruminants, in the mesenteric arteries of the pig, in the
urteries of the limbs of the sloths and lemurs, and in the
arterial system of fishes. The only examples of a rete in
the human body are the convoluted Malpighian tufts of the
kidney and the arterial distribution in the coccvgeal body.
The distribution of the pulmonary artery will be con-
sidered in the anatomy of the lungs. That of the aorta
will now bo briefly described.
The Aorta (Plate XX. figs. 2, 3, a) lies in the cavities of the Aorta,
thorax and abdomen, and arises from the base of the left ven-
tricle. It ascends forwards, upwards, and to the right as far
as the level of the second right costal cartUage, then runs
backwards and to the left to reach the left side of the body
of the 4th dorsal vertebra, and then descends almost verti-
cally to reach the left side of the body of the 5th dorsal ver-
tebra. It forms, therefore, an arch, well known as the arc/i
of the aorta, which arches over the root of the left lung, and
which has attached to its concave surface a fibrous cord,
known as the obliterated ductus arteriosus, which connect*
it with the left branch of the pulmonary artery. The aorta
continues its course downwards in close relation to tho
bodies of the lower dorsal vertebrae, then passes througit
an opening in tho diaphragm, enters the abdomen, anJ
descends in front of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae aa
low as the 4th, where it is usually described as dividing
into the two terminal branches, the common iliac arteries.
At the angle of bifurcation, however, a long slender
artery, called the miJJIe tacral, is prolonged downwards in
front of the sacrum to the end of the coccyx. In aniinaU
with long tails this artery can be recognised as a direct
continuation of the aorta, prolonging it downwards in front
of the caudal vertebra;, whilst the iliacs are seen to b«
collateral branches ; but in man, where the coccyx is rudi-
mentary, and the lower limbs largely developed, the iliac
arteries which supply those limbs are so big as to obscure
the true signification of the middle sacral artery, and appear
themselves to be the terminal branches of the aorta. The
branches which arise directly from the aorta may bo
arranged in four groups. — 1st, Branches for the supply of
the viscera of the thorax and abdomen proper ; 2d, branches
for the walls of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis; 3d,
branches for the head, neck, and upper limbs ; 4th, branches
for the lower limbs, pelvic walls, and viscera.
The branches of the aorta which supply the viscera of Viscer.-J
the thorax are the coronary, the oesophageal, the bronchial, braDcket
and tlie pericardial The coronary arteries, two in num
ber, are the first branches of the aorta, and arise opposite
the right and left segments of the semilunar valve, from
the wall of the aorta, where it dilates into the sinuses of
Valsalva. The mouths of these arteries are closed by the
opening outwards of the aortic valves during the ventricular
contraction. The elastic recoil of the aorta following that
contraction not only closes the aortic valves, but drives the
blood into the coronary arteries. These arteries break up
into branches in the muscular walls of the heart, and the
sudden turgescence of its walls, which results from the fill-
ing of these vessels, is, according to Briicke and Garrod,
the cause of the dilatation of the ventricular cavities.
The bronchial arteries are two in number ; one accooi-
panies each bronchial tube, and supplies the tissues of the
lung.
The oisophagcal arteries, three or four in number, supply
the coats of the oesophagus.
The pericardial branches are very small arteries which
supply the back of the bag of the pericardium.
The branches of the aorta which supply the viscera of
the abdomen arise either singly or in pairs. The single
arteries are the cceliac axis, the superior mesenteric, and the
inferior mesenteric, which arise from the front of the aorta ;
the pairs are the capsular, the two renal, and the two
spermatic or ovarian, which arise from 'its sides. The
single arteries supply viscera which are either completely
or almost completely invested by the peritoneum, and the
veins corresponding to them are the roots of the vena
portie. The p.i)r8 of arteries supply >Tscera developed
ARTERIES.]
A N A T O lil Y
903
beMnd the peritoneum, and the veins corresponding to them
are rootlets of the inferior vena cava.
The cceliac axis is a thick, short artery, which almost
immediately divides into the coronary, hepatic, and splenic
branches. The coronary artery subdivides into an oesoph-
ageal branch for the lower end of the oesophagus, and a
gastric branch for the coats of the stomach. The hepatic
artery ends in the substance of the liver ; but gives off a
ct/stic branch to the gall bladder, a pyloric branch to the
stomach, a gastro-duodenal branch, which divides into a
superior pancreatico-duodenal for the pancreas and duode-
num, and a right gastro-epiploic for the stomach and
omentum. The splenic artery ends in the substance of the
spleen ; but gives off pancreatic branches to the pancreas,
'vasa brevia to the great end of the stomach, and a left
gastro-epiploic to the stomach and omentum.
The superior mesenteric artery gives off an inferior
pancreatico-duodenal branch to the pancreas and duodenum ;
about twelve intestinal branches to the smaU intestines,
which form in the substance of>the mesentery a series of
arches before they end in the wall of the intestines ; an
ileocolic branch to the end of the ileum, the caecum, and
beginning of the colon ; a right colic branch to the ascend-
ing colon ; and a middle colic branch to the transverse colon.
The inferior mesenteric artery gives off a left colic
Tjranch to the descending colon, a sigmoid branch to the
sigmoid flexure of the colon, and ends in the superior
haenwrrhoidal art?ry which supplies the rectum. The
arteries which supply the coats of the alimentary tube
from the oesophagus to the rectum anastomose freely with
each other in the wall of the tube, or in its mesenteric
attachment, and the anastomoses are usually by the forma-
tion of arches or loops between adjacent branches.
The capsular arteries, small in size, run outwards from
the aorta to end in the supra-renal capsules.
The renal arteries pass one to each kidney, in which
they for the most part end, but in the substance of the
organ they give off 8maU^)?r/ora<tre^ branches, which pierce
the capsule of the kidney, and are distributed in the sur-
rounding fat.
The spermatic arteries are two long slender arteries,
•which descend, one in each spermatic cord, into tiS^scrotura
to supply the testicle. The corresponding arteries in the
female, called the ovarian, do not leave the abdomen ; they
supply the ovaries.
TTie branches of the aorta which supply the walls of the
thorax, abdomen, and pelvis, are the intercostal, the lumbar,
tiie phrenic, and the middle sacraL
The intercostal arteries arise from tlje back of the
thoracic aorta, and are usually ten pairs. They run down
the sides of the vertebral bodies as far as the commence-
ment of the intercostal spaces, when each divides into a
dorsal and a proper intercostal
branch ; the dorsal branch
passes to the back of the thorax
to supply the deep muscles of
tUe spine ; the proper inter-
costal branch runs outwards
in the intercostal space to
Bupply its muscles, and the
ilower pairs of intercostals also
give branches to thediaphragm
arid wall of the abdomen.
The lumbar arteries arise
from the back of the abdomirial
aorta, and are usually four
pairs. They nfn down the
sidcB of the lumbar vertebra;,
and divide into adr/rsal branch, which supplies the deep mus-
ses of the back of thd loins, and an abdominal branch
Fio. 90.— Dlai^am of a pair of inter-
costBl artcrluB. Ao, the aorta trans-
vufBtly divided, giving off at tach
aide on Intercnatal aitery; PB, tlio
posterior or dorsal brancli; AB, ttie
anterior or proper Intercostal
bmneh; IM, a tranavvrso section
Uiroogb tJiQ Interna) mamillary
artery.
which runs outwards to supply the wall of the abdomen.
The distribution of the lumbar and intercostal arterier
exhibits a transversely-segmented arrangement of the vas-
cular system, similar to the transversely-segmented arrangp-
ment of the bones, muscles, and nerves met with in these
localities, but more especially in the thoracic region.
The phrenic arteries, two in number, pass to supply the
under surface of the diaphragm.
The middle sacral artery, as already stated, is rather the
continuation of the aorta than a branch. As it runs down
the front of the sacrum it gives branches to the back of the
pelvic wall.
The statement has frequently been made that the viscera!
and parietal branches of the aorta do not anastomose with
each other. Injections made by Turner have, however,
shown that, both in the thoracic and abdominal cavities,
slender anastomosing communications exist between the two
sets of branches. In the abdominal cavity a wide me-rbed
plexus of small arteries, named by him sub- or extra prri-
toneal plexus, lies in the fat outside the peritoneum. It com-
municates, on the one hand, with the perforating branches
of the renal arteries and with slender branches of the capsu-
lar, spermatic, colic, and pancreatic arteries, and in the re-
gion of the diaphragm with the hepatic artery. On the other
hand, it communicates with the phrenic arteries, the lower
intercostals, the lumbar branches of the aorta, and with the
ilio-lumbar, circumflex ilii, and epigastric branches of tha
iliac arteries, which also go to the wall of the abdomen.
In the pelvis also the visceral superior hcemorrhoidal artery
anastomoses with the middle and lateral sacral arteries.
The extra-peritoneal plexus, supplies the fat and lymphatic
glanils lying outside the peritoneum, and it also gives oiigiii
to vasa vasorum for the coats of the aorta and vena cava.
This plexus may, when the visceral branches of the aorta
are obstructed, aid in an important manner in carrying on
the circulation. In a subject examined by J. Chiene, id "he
dissecting room of the University of Edinburgh, where the
cceUac axis and the superior and inferior mesenteric arte.ies
were obliterated at their origins, the blood flowed into these
arterie^ and the viscera they supplied through a gieat
enlargement of the arteries of this plexus. In the thoracic
cavity a similar plexus, named the extra-pleural plexus, lies
between the pleura and pericardium, which communicates
on the one hand with the internal mammary arteries, and
on the other passes in front of the root of the lung to join
the bronchial system of vessels. Another portion of this
plexus joins on the one hand the intercostal arteries near
the dorsal vertebrje, and on the other passes to the lung
at. the back of its root.
The branches for the head, neck, and upper limbs arise
as three large arteries from the transverse part of the aoiTa ;
they are named arleria innominata, left common carotid,
and left subclavian. The arteria innoniiiuLta is the largest ;
it passes, upwards and to the right, to the roc* of the neck,
and then di\'ides into the right common carotid and the
right subclavian. The carotid arteries supply the two sides
of the head and neck ; the subclavian arteries the two
upper extremities.
The subclavian artery is the commencement of the great Subolavian
arterial trunk for the upper limb. It passes across the root 'S'^'""-
of the neck and under the clavicle, when it entei-s the arm-
pit, and becomes the axillary artery ; by that name it
extends as far as the posterior fold of the axilla, when it
enters the upper arm, takes the name of brachial or
humeral artery, and courses as far as the bend of the elbow,
where it bifurcates into the radial and ulnar arteries.
From the subclavian part of the trunk the following
branches arise : — a, Verlahral, which enters the foramen at
the root of the transverse process of the Cth cervical
vertebra, ascends through the corresponding foramina in
904
A N A T O M Y
[VASCHLAB
Carotid
the vertebrae above, lies in a groove on the arch of the
atlas, and enters the skull through the foramen magnum,
where it joins its fellow to form the basilar artery ; it
jfives .off muscular branches to the deep muscles of the
neck, ipinal branches to the spinal cord, meninqeal branches
to the dura mater, and an iiiferior cerebellar branch to the
under surface of the cerebellum. The basilar artery,
formed by the junction of the two vortebrals, extends from
the lower to the upper border of the pons Varolii ; it gives
off collaterally tran.sufrse branches to the pons, auditory
branches which accompany the portio mollis to the internal
ear, inferior cerebellar branches to the under surface of the
cerebellum, whilst it breaks up into four terminal branches,
viz., two euperior cerebellar to the upper surface of the
cerebellum, and two posterior cerebral which supply the
tentorial aspect of the temporo-sphcnoidal lobes, the occi-
pital lobes, and the posterior convolutions of the parietal
lobes. 6, 7'/iyroi(/ cwM, which immediately divides into the
inferior thyroid, the suprascapular, and the tramvorse
cervical branches ; the inferior thyroid supplies the thyroid
body, and gives off an ascendiny cervical branch to the
muscles of the nock ; the suprascapular supplies the mus-
cles on the dorsum seajiulaj ; the transverse cervical sup-
plies the trapezius and the muscles attached to the vertebral
border of the scapula, c, Internal mammary, supplies the
anterior surface of the walls of the eldest and abdomen,
and the ujiper surface of the diaphragm, d, Superior inter-
costal supplies the first intercostal space, and by its deep
ceroical branch the deep muscles of the back of the neck.
The axillary artery supplies long and thi>rt thoracic
branches to the wall of the chest and the pectoral muscles ;
an alar thoracic branch to the fat and glands of the axilla ;
an acromial thoracic to the parts about the acromion ;
anterior and posterior eircumjiex branches to the shoulder
joint and deltoid muscle ; a subscapular branch to the
muscles of the posterior fold of the axilla.
The brachial artery supplies muscular branches to the
muscles of the upper ariu ; a nutrient branch to the
humerus ; tujyerior and inferior profunda branches and an
anastom'iiic to the muscles of the apper arm and the region
of the elbow joint.
The ulnar artery extends down the ulnar side of the
front of the fore-arm to the palm of the hand, where it
curves outwards towards the thumb, and anastomoses with
the superficial volar and radial index branches of the radial
artery to form the superficial palmar arterial arch. In
the fore-arm the ulnar gives off the interosseous arteries,
which supply the muscles of the fore-arm and give nutrient
branches to the bones ; two recurrent branches to the region
of the elbow ; carjxit branches to the wrist joint : in the
hand it gives a deep branch to the deep muscles of the
hand, and from the superficial arch arise digital branches
to the sides of the little, ring, and middle fingers, and the
ulnar border of the index finger.
The radial artery extends down the radial side of the
front of the fore-arm, turns round the outer side of the
wrist to the back of the hand, passes between the Ist and
2d metacarpal bones to the palm, where it joins the deep
branch of the ulnar, and forms the deep palmar arterial
arch. In the fore-arm it gives off a recurrent branch to the
elbow joint ; carpal branches to the wrist joint ; and mus-
cular branches, one of which, named s^iperficialis voia,
supplies the muscles of the thumb and joins t)ie ulnar
artery : in the hand it gives off a digital branch to the
thumb, and one to the radial side of the index, interosseous
branches to the interosseous muscles, perforating branches
to the back of the hand, and recurrent branches '.o the
wrist.
The common carotid artery runs np the neck by the side
of the windpipe, and on a level with the upper border of
the tnyroid cartilage divides into the internal and external
carotid arteries.
The internal carotid artery ascends through the carotid
canal in the temfwral boYie into the cranial cavity. It
gives off an ophthalmic branch to the eyeball and other
contents of the orbit, and then divides into the anterior
and middle cerebral arteries. The middle cerebral artery
extends outwards into the Sylvian fissure, and suitjilica
the island of Keil, the orbital part, and the outer face of
the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the teiliporo-sphe-
noidal lobe ; it also gives a choroid branch to the choroid
plexus of the velum intefpositum. The anterior cerebral
artery supplies the inner face of the hemisphere from the
anterior end of the frontal lobe as far back as the internal
parietooccipital fissure. At the base of the brain not only
do the two internal carotids anastomose with each other
through the anterior communicating artery, which passes
between their anterior cerebral branches, but the internal
carotid on each side anastomoses with the posterior cerebral
branch of the basilar, by a posterior communicating artery.
In this manner a vascnlar circle, the circle of Willis, ia
formed, which permits of freedom of the arterial circula-
tion by the ana.stonu>Bes between arteries not only on the
same side, but on opposite sides of the mesial plane. The
vertebral aud internal carotid arteries, which are the
arteries of supply for the brain, are distinguished by lying
at some depth from the surface in their course to the organ,
by having curves or twists in their course, whereby thf
force of the flow of blood is retarded, and by the absence
of large collateral branches. Further, as the ophthalmia
artery is a branch of the internal carotid, the circulatiot
in the eyeball is in sympathy with that in the brain.
The external carotid artery ascends through the upper
part of the side of the neck, and behind the lower jaw into
the parotid gland, where it divides into the internal
maxillary and temporal branches. This artery gives oS
the following branches : — a, Superior thyroid to the larynx
and thyroid body ; b. Lingual to the muscles and mucous
membrane of the tongue, and to the sublingual gland ; e,
Facial to the face, palate, tonsil, and sub ma.xillary gland ;
d, Occipital to the sterno-mastoid muscle and back of the
scalp ; e. Posterior auricular to the back of the ear and the
adjacent part of the scalp ; /, Superficial temporal to the
scalp in front of the ear, and by its transverse facial branch
to the back part of the face ; g. Internal maxillary, giving
muscular branches to the mudcles of mastication, meningeal
branches to the dura mater, dental branches to the teeth,
and other branches to the nose, palate, and tympanum ; k.
Ascending pharyngeal which gives branches to the pharynx,
palate, and tonsils.
The common iliac artery, after a short course, divides lYiei.
into the internal and external iliac arteries. The internal B.vslem.
iliac enters the pelvis and divides into branches for the
supply of the pelvic walls and viscera, including the organs
of generation, and for the great muscles of the buttock.
The external iliac descends behind Poupart's ligament into
the thigh, where it takes the name of femoral artery. The
femoral descends along the front and inner surface of the
thigh, gives off a jirofunda or deep branch, which, by its
circumflex and perforating branches, supplies the numerous
muscles of the thigh ; most of these extend to the back of
the limb to carry Mood to the muscles siiuftled there. The
femoral artery then runs to the back of the limb in the
ham, where it is called popliteal artery. The popUteal
divides into two branches, of which one, called anterior
tibial, passes between the bones to the front of the leg, an4
then downwards to the upper surface of the foot ; the other,
posterior tibial, continues down the back of the leg to the
solo of the foot, and divides into the irttemal and external
plantar arteries ; branches oroceed from the external plan-
SYSTEM. I
ANATOMY
905
tar artery to the sides of the toes, and constitttte the digital
arteries. From the large arterial trunks in the leg many
branches proceed, to carrv blood to the different structures
in the limb,
-dtnicture The wall of an artery consists of several coats. The
t! arteries, outermost is the tunica adventitia, composed of connective
tissue; immediately internal to this is the yellow elastic
coat ; within this again the musatlar coal, formed of invol-
untary muscular tissue, the contractile fibro<:ells of which
are for the most part arranged transversely to the long axis
of the artery ; in the larger arteries the elastic coat is much
thicker than the muscular, but in the smaller arteries the
muscular coat is relatively strong ; the vaso-motor nerves
terminate in the muscular coat. Internal to the muscular
coat is the elastic fenestrated coat, formed of a smooth elastic
membrane perforated by small apertures. Most internal of
Fio. 91. — DUgram nf the structure of an artery. A.fiintca adventitia; E, elastic
C04t; M. irmscular ooat; F, leoestrdteil coat; Ea, einlotllelllim conlliiuous witll
tbe endoiheUal tvdll of C, the capillunea.
all is a layer of endothelial cells, which form the free surface
over which the blood flows. The arteries are not nourished
by the blood which fluws through them, but by minute
vessels, vdsa vasorum, distributed in their external, elastic,
and muscular coats.
CapUlarits. The Capillaries. — These are the minute tubes which con-
nect together the terminal branches of the arteries and the
rootlets of the veins. They vary in diameter in different
localities from y^jth to sjVijth inch. They are arranged
in more or less compact uetwoi ks, which lie in the interstices
ibetween the tissues of the part or organ. The vascularity
F.tt, 93 — CapUlai7 Net\'Ovk m cue Web of the Foot of the Frog fA. Thomeon).
of a tissue depends upon the relative proportion of the
capillaries that it contains. Some tissues, as adult cartilage,
the cornea, epithelium, and endothelium, are destitute of
capillaries, i.e., are non vascular. The capillary wall is very
simple in structuia ; in the smallest capillaries it consists
merely of a layer oi endothelial cells, continuous with the
endothelial lining of the arteries and veins ; in the larger
.capillaries a delicate tunica adventitia is superadded. Tbe
transition from a capillary to a small artery or a small vein
is tnarked by the development of a muscular and an elastic
coat in the wall of the blood-conveying tube.
The Veins. — The veins convey the blood from the peri- Viins.
phcry back to the heart, and in their course inciease in size,
by junction or anastomosis with each other. In most of
the veins delicate valves are found, each of which consists
of two semicircular segments, and a pouch-like dilatation
of the wall of the vein is opposite each segment. When
the blood flows along the veins, the valves lie against tho
wall of the vessel, but if pressure be applied to a vein so
as to obstruct the onward flow of the circulation, then the
blood passes into the pouch between the wall of the vein
and the valve adjacent to the seat of pressure, when the
yalve closes so as to stop regm'gitation. The valves are
found especially in those veins where the circulation ia
likely to be interfered with either by the pressure of the
muscles on the veins during their action, or by the pres-
sure of blood caused by gravity, and are usually seated
at the points of confluence of veins. They are absent
in the Veins of the lungs, of the brain, and of several of
the abdominal viscera. Some of the veins lie in the sub-
cutaneous fat, and are called superficial veins, others lie
amidst the muscles, and form the deep veins. The deep
veins accompany the arteries and are named after them \
the superficial veins do not accompany arteries ; frequent
anastomoses take place between the superficial and deep
veins.
The veins are arranged primarily into two groups — the
Pulmonary veins and the Systemic veins. The distribution
of the pulmonary veins will be given in the anatomy of the
lungs.
The Systemic veins consist of the coronary venous system ;
of the system of the superior vena cava ; of the system of
the inferior vena cava ; and associated with the inferior
vena cava is the portal venous system. The arrangement
of the coronary vein has been described in the anatomy
of the heart.
The system of the Superior Vena Cava consists of both
superficial and deep veins, and ia arranged as follows : —
The superficial veins of the hand commence at the tips
and sides of the fingers, from which they proceed along the
back of the hand, beneath the skin of which they may be
distinctly seen. They then ascend along the fore-arm, form-
ing three large veins : tho radial, on the outer side ; the
ulnar, on the inner ; and the median, in the middle of the
front of the fore-arm. At the bend of the elbow the median
divides into two branches, of which one joins the radial
to form thj cephalic, the other joins the ulnar to form the
basilic. Into one or other of the two branches of the
median the surgeon generally makes an opening when ha
is desirous oi drawing blood from the patient. The cephalic
and basilic veins terminate by joining the deep or axillary
vein. The oommunications between the superficial and
deep veins are not, however, confined to the point of ter-
mination of the former, but occur at vaiious parts of their
course.
The deep veins J>1 the hand commence at the tips of tho
fingers, and pass as digital veins up"the sides of the fingers
to the palm of the hand, where they form an arch cor-
responding to the arterial arch of the palm ; from this they
extend upwards along the front of the fore arm, as far as
the bend of the elbow, closely accompanying the arteries of
the fore-am, and ^ecei^^ng from the muscles numerous
small branches corresponding to the small arteries sent to
those muscles. At the bend of the elbow two brachial
veins result from the junction of these different veins of the
fore-arm, which pass up the inner side of the upper-arm,
closely accompanying the brachial artery as far as the
ai mpit, where they join to form a single large vein, ths
I. — 114.
90G
ANATOMY
[VASCUI-AB
axillary. Thoy receive in their course many small branches
fiom the muiscios. The axillary vein also receives the
cephalic and basilic veins. Thus, a single large trunk con-
veys 4way all the blood that has bean circulating through
iha upper limb. This largo vein passes as the suhctavian
vein behind the clavicle, and reaches the lower part of the
oide of the nock, where it is joined by the largo veins that
return the blood from the head and neck.
The veins that return the blood from the inner and Outer
parts of the head and neck are called the external and
internal jugular veins. The external is the smaller, and
may commonly be seen beneath the skin on the side of the
neck. It returns the blood that has been circulating .on
the outer part of the head, and must be regarded as a
superficial vein. The internal jugular returns the blood that
has been circulating on the face, in the brain, and cranial
blood-sinuses, and in the deeper parts of the nock. It
accompanies the carotid artery, and must thus be regarded
as a deep vein. By the junction of the jugular and sub-
clavian veins at the root of the neck a large brac/iio-cephalic
vein on each side is formed ; these gradually converge, join,
and form a single trunk, the superior vena cava, which,
after a short course enters the upper part of the right
auricle of the heart. The veins corresponding to the inter-
costal arteries, which run between tha ribs, do not open
directly into either the superior or inferior vena cava, but
pass to form the azygot vein, which begins in the cavity of
the abdomen, then enters the cavity of the chest, and, as it
courses upwards, gradually increases in size by receiving
the various intercostal veins, until it finally terminates
by joining the superior vena cava.
The system of the Inferior Vena Cava consists of both
superficial and deep veins, and is arranged as follows : —
The superficial veins of the foot are separated from the
deep veins by the strong membrane or fascia which binds
down the muscles. They commence by very fine branches
arising from the capillaries of the skin. On the back of
the foot the digital veins proceeding from the skin of the
toes form an arch, from the inner side of which a vein,
called the Ion;; saphena, arises. This passes upwards along
the inner side of the leg and thigh, increasing consider-
ably in size iu its course, owing to the number of veins
joining it from the extensive surface of the skin of the
limb. It terrain.ates, at the upper part of the thigh, by
passing through a hole in the fascia, and joins the femoral
vein. From the outer side of the same arch arises the
rxtemal saphenous vein, which runs up the hack of the
leg to the ham, and pierces the fascia to join the popliteal
vein. The deep veins begin both on the back of the foot
and in the sole. Those which arise on the back of the
foot form the anterior tibial veins, and accompany the
anterior tibial artery ; they receive a considerable number
of branches m their upward course, which proceed from
the great mass of muscles l^dng on the outer side of the
leg. The veins which begin in the sole of the foot accom-
pany the plantar arteries, and then pass upwards, along
the inner side of the ankle-joint, to reach the back of the
leg, along which they ascend as the posterior tibial veins,
closely accompanying the posterior tibial artery, and receiv-
ing in their course numerous small veins that proceed from
the muscles of the calf of the leg. At the upper part of
the leg the anterior tibial veins- pass to the back of the leg,
and join the posterior tibial veins. The large popliteal
vein, formed by their junction, ascends behind the knee-
joint, lying in the ham, along with the popliteal artery.
It leaves the upper part of this space, and, passing to the-
inner side of the thigh, ascends as the femoral vein along
with the femoral artery as far as Poupart's ligament, when
it euters the cavity of the abdomen. At the upper part
pf the thii;h it receives the profunda vein, correspond-
ing to the deep artery of the thigh, which conveys bad
the blood that has been carried by that vessel to the
numerous largo and important muscles of the thigL The
femorJ vein is also joined at this spot by the long saphena
vein/' When the femoral vein enters the cavity of the
abdomen it becomes the external iliac vein. The external
iliac vein receives the smaller veins which ramify in the
lower part of the walls of the abdomen, as well as the largo
inte)~nal iliac vein, which corresponds to the internal iLac
artery, and by their junction the common iliac vein is
fonned. The two common iltac veins gradually converge,
and, about the level of the last vertebra of the loins, join
to form a single largo vein, the inferior vena cava. 'iTio
inferior vena cava aacends at the back of the abdominal
cavity lying on the right side of the aorta. Several veins
open into it ; some corresponding with the parietal branches
of the abdominal aorta, othera with the capsular, renal, and
spermatic arteries. The greater number of the veins pro-
ceeding from the organs contained in the cavity of the
abdomen do not open directly into the vena cava, but form
a largo vein called portal. The vena cava passes through
the diaphragm, enters the cavity of the chest, and terminate?,
by opening into the right auricle of the heart.
The Portal system of veins is formed by the veinti
which proceed from the large and small intestines, froii»
the stomach, pancreas, and spleen ; they formi the inferior
mt.ienteric, superior mesenteric, splenic, and gastric veins,
which join together in the neighbourhood of the pancrcai.
to form the portal venous trunk. The portal vein theo
ascends to the under surface of the liver, which it entcrt.
at the portal transverse fissure. In the substance of the
liver it subdivides into branches just hke an artery, and
the finest branches terminate in the lobules of the liver in
a plexus of capillaries. From this plexus the rootlets of
the hepatic veins arise, which joining together form the
large hepatic vein, which opens into the inferior vena cava
before it i)ierccs the diaphragm. Retzius has pointed out
that an extra-peritoneal venous plexus exists iu the abdo-
minal cavity, which connects the rootlets of the portal vein
with those of the veins of the parietes of the abdomen.
The wall of a vein possesses the same number of coats
as that of an artery, but the coats are thinner. Veins are
also extensively provided with valves, which are absent
from the arteries except at the mouths of the aorta and
pulmonary artery.
Lymph-Vascular System. — This subdivision of the Lymplm.
vascular system consists partly of small tubes or vessels, t"-'-
the lymph vessels, and partly of collections of lymphoid or
adenoid tissue (p. 849), the lymph glands. The lymph
vesseb or lymphatics are tubes with delic.ite transparent
walls, which convey the fluid called lymph and chyle.
They arise in the tissues and terminate by joining the
venous system, so that their contained fluid flows towards
the heart. They resemble veins in having a course from
periphery to centre; in possessing valves, which are generally
two in number and semilunar in shape ; in being dividi d
into a superficial and a deep set — the superficial lymphatics
being situated, like the superficial veins, in the subcutaneous
tissue ; the deep lymphatics accompanj-ing the arteries and
■deep veins. Lymphatics differ, however, from veins in
possessing in their course gl.mdular enlargements, in haWng
thinner coats, in being almost uniform in size, and not
uniting into larger vessels as they pass onwards in their
course. As a rule they are like fine threads, and their
main trunk, the thoracic duct, is not bigger than a crow-
quilL The lymph-vessels are divided into lacteal or chyle
vessels and lymphatics proper.
The lacteal or chyle vessels, named from the milk-like
chyle which they contain, arise in the minute processes
called intestinal villi, which project from the free surfijCe
voz.z
ANATOMT.
^^7JipAa£o lasiiiUir System,
FLATFm
-'im
SYBTKM.]
A N A T O I\I Y
907
of the mucous membrane of the small intestine into the
lumen of the bowel The lacteals from adjacent villi form
a network- in the submucous coat of the intestine, from
which larger lacteals arise, which pierce the muscular coat,
and then run between the folds of the mesentery to the
((■jsterior wall of the abdomen, where, opjiosite the body of
the first lumbar vertebra, they join the deep lymphatic
vessels of the abdomen to form the thoracic duct.
The li/mpliatic vessels proper correspond so closely in
their distribution in the extremities and in the head and
neck with the veins of those parts, that a special descrip-
tion of their arrangement is not necessary, the more so as
a general representation of these vessels is given in Plate
XXI. The superficial and deep lymphatics of the lower
limbs enter the abdominal cavity, and are joined by the
lymphatics of the pelvis. They ascend in front of the
bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, join the lacteal ves.seU to
form the thoracic duct, the place of junction being marked
by a dilatation of the duct called receptacutum chyii. The
Tijoi,-i ic thoracic duct passes through the opening in the diaphragm
<laci which transmits the aorta, ascends in front of the bodies
of the dorsal vertebrae, receives in its course the deep
lymphatics of the luft half of the chest, reaches the root of
the neck on the left side, is joined there by thfi deep and
6U])erhcial lymphatics of the left upper limb and left side
of the head and neck, and opens into the great veins at the
angle of junction between the left internal jugular and sub-
clavian. This duct conveys, -therefore, the chyle during
digestion, and the lymph contained in the lymph-vesi^els
below the diaphragm and in the lymph-vessels situated to
the left side of the mesial plane in the parts of the body
above the diaphragm. The lymph-vessels on the right side
of the supra-diaphragniatic parts of the mesial plane do not
join the thoracic duct, but converge tc. the root of the neck
on the right side, where they join to form the right lym-
phatic duct, which opens into the angle of junction of the
right internal jugular and subclavian veins.
The mode of origin of the lymph-vessels has long been
a vexed question amongst anatomists. The lacteal vessels
were at one time supposed to arise by open mouths on the
free surface of the intestinal villi, and this idea has been
revived in a modified form by some recent observers, who
conceive that the lacteals are continuous with a network
formed by the anastomoses of processes proceeding from
the deep ends of the goblet cells, the mouths of which cells
open on the free surface of the villus. The lymph-vessels
piHper are in some localities continuous with the serous
cavities (p. 84i?) ; in others they arise within the textures
and organs. The most minute lymph-vessels, called lymph-
cajnllaries, like the blood-capillaries, have walls formed of
a single layer ol elongated endothelial cells. These capil-
laries take their rise in the connective tissue of a part or
organ, and probably spring from spaces, or juice canals,
between the bundles of the connective tissue, which bundles
■ are invested by an endothelial layer of cells. The juice
canals are, therefore, a network of minute canals, situated
outside the blood-vessels, which allow the tissues to be
permeated by a nutrient juice derived from the blood.
In some localities, as the brain and eyeball, the blood-
vessels have been describc'd'as enclosed in tubular spaces,
called peri-vascular canals, in which cells like the corpuscles
of the lymph have been seen, and which are believed to be
continuous with the lymphatic system. The researches of
Ludwig and some of his pupils into the minute structure
of the lachr}'raal gland, the glands of the skin, and the
testis, have shown that lymph-capillaries lie in close rela-
tion to the secreting structures of these glands.
The coats of the lymph vessels resemble in structure
those of the veins, but they are thinner and more trans-
parent. The valves are small and numerous.
The lymphatic glands are small bodies, varying in size
from a pea to an almond, situated in the course of the
lymph-vessels in several regions of the body. They are
found especially in the groin, armpit, mesentery, back of
the abdomen, roots of the lungs, and side of the neck (Plate
XXI.) Entering one end of each gland are lymph- vessels,
named vasa ajfcrentia, ai^d emerging from the opposite end
of the gland are the lymph-vessels named vasa efferentia.
Each gland is invested by a capsule of connective tissue,
which sends processes into the substance of the gland to
divide it into compartments; it consists of jdenoid tissue,*
and the meshes of its retiform connective tissue contain
multitudes of lymph corpuscles. Each gland is permeated
by a network of minute canals, which are continuous with
both the vasa afferentia and efferentia; the gland, therefore,
is traversed by a stream of lymph which washes the lymph
corpuscles out of the meshes of the reticulum, and in this
manner these corpuscles find their way into the lymph. The
lymph glands are, therefore, centres of origin for the IjTiiph
corpuscles. The collections of adenoid tissue, forming the
sohtary and Peyer's glands of the intestine, and found in
the tonsils and other localities (p. 849), are also without
doubt centres of formation for the lymph corpuscle-s.
Blood-Vasculak Glands. — Intimately associated with Klood
the vascular system are certain organs to which the names viscnlar
of bluod-vascular glands, or glands without ducts, are R'^""*-
applied. These organs are the spleen, the thyroid gland,
the thymus gland, the suprarenal capsules, and portions of
the pituitary and pineal glands. The Spleen is situated
in the cavity of the abdomen between the stomach and the
diaphragm. It is invested by peritoneum, and has a fibro-
elastic coat in which involuntary muscular fibro-cells aro '
formed. This coat sends multitudes of fine trabeculai into
the interior of the organ, which subdivide it into numbers
of minute compartments, in which the red, highly vascular
spleen pulp is contained. This pulp consists of collections
of small spherical masses of adenoid tissue, forming the
Malpighian corpuscles, of the terminal branches of the
splenic blood-vessels, and of the lymph-vessels, together with
numerous cells, some of which are red blood corpuscles,
others lymph cori)uscles, others contain pigment granules
or fat, others contain in their interior numerous blood cor-
puscles. The arteries of the spleen in part end in ca[iil-
laries from which the veins arise, but more frequently they
open into lacunte or blood spaces, which give origin to the
veins. The Thymus gland, best seen in infancy and child-
hood, lies in the cavity of the thorax near the base of the
heart. It consists of two lobes, each of which is composed
of lobules of adenoid tissue, to which numerous lymph-
vessels may be traced. In the adult it is converted into a
mass of fat. The Thyroid gland is situated in the neck at
the front and sides of the windpipe. It consists of multi-
tudes of minute closed follicles, each of which is lined by
a layer of cells. The Supirarenal capsules, two in number,
lie in the abdomen one above each kidney. They contain
cells, some of which are arranged in columns, others in a
reticulated manner, and are well provided with blood-
vessels, nerves, and lymphatics.
Development of the Vascular System. — The vascular Develor
system is formed in the middle or mesoblast layer of the "^f"' °f
early embryo. The c«lls of the mesoblaft lose their origi- 5;'*f"lf'^
nal spheric.il form and become stellate, the processes of
adjacent cells unite together and form a netwoirk, and the
nuclei rapidly increase in numbers. The peripheral part
of the protoplasm of the stellate cells dilTerentiates into a
wall of nucleated protoplasm, and forms the wall of the
blood-vessels, whilst the central part of the protoplasm
Uquefies, and the nuclei contained in it become the blood-
corpuscles. If the vessel remains as a capillary, its wall
assumes merely the character of a single layer of endi>
908
A N A T O 31 y
[vascular srsTEM.
theUal cells ; but if it becomes an artery or a vein, a further
JifforentiatioQ of the mcsoblast celU iDto the muscular and
clastic coat3 and the tunica adveutitia tikes place. The
heart appears immediately below the head iu the form of
a colleclion of cells in the splanchnopleurc hiyer of the
mcsoblast. It X3 believed that thcao cells form in the first
instance a solid mass, the central part of Avhich liquefies
to form blood and blood-corpuscles, whilst the peripheral
cells form the wall of a tube. The heart tube now preseuta
two constrictions, which indicate its division into an auricle^
^a ventricfe, and a bulb u$ arteriosus. The single ventricle
then subdivides into two by the gradual growth of the
septum from the apex to the base, and about the eighth
weeic of embryo-lifo the right and left ventricles are com-
pletely separated from each other. A septum then begins
to form in the originally single auricle, but its growth is
not completed until after the birth of the child, so that
during fa'tal life the cavities of the right and left auricles
communicate with each other through a hole in the
septum, named /ora7nfn ovale. The pi-imitive aortte, right
and left, arise from the ductus arteriosus, and extend up-
wards to the 1st pair of visceral arches, into which they
piss and arch backwards to the sides of the spinal column,
where they form the dorsal aortce Four additional pairs
of arterial arches then spring from the primitive aurlai
below the Ist pair, and the wliule are enumerated from
above downwards as the 1st, 2d, 3J, 4th, and 5th pairs uf
vascular arches. Each arch communicates behind with
the dorsal aorta of its own siJe. The two dorsal aortae
then approximate and blend with each other to form the
descending thoracic and the abdominal aorta. A longitu-
dinal septum also forms within the bulbiis arteriosus itself,
which divides it iuto two vessels : the one, the ascending
aorta, becoming continuous with the cavity of the left ventricle
and with tho 1st, 2d, 3d, and -llh pairs of vascular arch^ ;
the other, the pulmonary artery, becoming continuous with
the cavity of the right ventricle ;ind with the 5th pair of
vascular arches. The 4th left vascular arch enlarges to
form the transverse part of the arch of the aorta, and the
left subcbvian artery springs as a collateral branch from it.
Tho 4th right arch forms the innominate, and the com-
mencement of the right subclavian artery. The 3d pair
of arches form the two internal carotid arteries; each com-
mon carotid is formed from the part of the jjrimitive aortd
which connects the 3d and 4th arches with each other;
whilst the external carotid is an enlargement of that part
of the primitive aorta which runs upwards from the 3d to
the 1st \-i3ceral arch. From the 5th left vascular arch,
which is now continuous' with the pulmonary artery, two
collateral branches arise, which proceed one to each luug,
and form the right and Jeft pulmonary arteries, whilst the
terminal part of this arch joins the end of the transverse
part of the arch of the aorta, and forms the ductus arteriosus.
During feutal life, tho lungs being inactive, tho blood of
the right ventricle which passes into the pulmonary artery
almost entirely flows through the ductus arteriosus iuto the
aorta. But when the child is born, and the lungs come
into play as respiratory organs, thenthe blood of the right
ventricle tlows iuto the lungs through the right and left
imlmonary arteries, and the ductus arteriosus, being no
longer required, shrivels up into a slender fibrous cord.
The capillaries, veins, and lymphatics are also produced by
a histological dififereutiation of the cells of the mesoblast
In order to complete the exposition of the subject, the
Digestive, Respiratory, lleproductive, and Urinary systems
of organs have still to be considered. These will be dealt with
in dcLiil under other headings in the succeeding volumes.
(w. T.)
At.rnABETlCAL COXTE.VTS.
Al'domtnal mtisrlc^. 8"*).
At'hlllini. 806.
A-lipo3t) lUtuu. (i6L
Altjinus. 814.
Alcxaiidriun scliool. 801.
Alnphi.l^thro9l'^ S33.
Aiiklo. 830, 841.
Aoito, 002.
A|>pciidicular sUcIcton,
»-»6.
Arubian school, 80/*.
^luchiioiil inutci. ^''li.
Ai-.inzi, 803.
Ajetsus, 80.»
Ariatotlc. SOO.
Arm. 827; j-.hiU 839
Aitei-li;^. 90i.
Aitiruiitinti, 83i.
AsoIliu\ All.
liL-'rentCLT, soti
U.rgfiTi. 8U.
r-ii'hat. 81C
Ulood, 845; ciiculHtlon of,
899.
Clood-vascular
907.
gUiidN
H-.'iii. 814.
Urain, 8i;4. 860; wcl;;ht
of, 679
Pt oast-bone, x.'i
K'f^ithinK, Saa.
Hi'logna schn.it, 805
Camiier, SIS.
Ca|»lIUiie», S'lS,
C'u'pul bunes. 8-^7 , JuiIlI^
839.
Can llaac 851
Cell*. 845.
I'llsiu. 802
Ccrcbellam, 871.
Cer-vbro - eplDid oerres,
863.
^erebmm. 872; littcroal
atructoio of, 877
CiTv'cnl YCrtobrx. S'.'O
Clicuk. 8J5.
Clicaulilun. 815
Clicst. 822.
Clijle, 64C.
Ctrnilatiuil uf blond.
Cluvicle, 826.
Coccyx. 821.
Collur bone. 82G.
CoirinB. 813.
CotumbUA, 800.
C"inpnrtttivo nimtoiiiy,
790. 813. 818.
Coipusclcs, 84A.
Coiti, orfran uf b'J4.
Cu»-per. 813.
Ci allium, 822.
duikatiank. 615.
Cuticle-. 897.
Pi^Hiiitioiia. 799
DcBlutitlon. 8;w.
Durclopmuiit. «-!'>. 642.
8S3, 858, 88H Uu7.
Dianhiosee. 8:iJ.
Dii,-its. 823; Jointl of,
nionU, 81 L
huisal vcilc-br.-*, 821.
I)niin of oar. S'J2.
Dubois, 807.
T>iira tDutcr, ^t'-A.
Ouvcrmiy, 812.
Rar. 891.
KIbow joliil, 8W
Kndothelluin. sig.
Kiiclish sclio*.!. 817.
Ki'iEhctiui^. 847.
Eiu-^istratua. 801.
Kthinoid boiic. &1\.
Etitnne. 807.
Eustaihiua, 80s.
Ezprcsbioo, muscles of,
856.
Eyeball, 8S5; uiuchiA,
891.
EyoILK R^'O.
Kabriclu*. W)0.
Facu. 826.
Fiilhipiua, 803.
Kut. 8.M.
Vciiiur. 829,
Fibruua ti^isuca, 8:^0.
Fibula. 829.
Fi'ldlLTs* masclea, 810.
Fliik'cra, hli; Joliiis of,
8J9.
Font, 830; jninl* of, 841.
ForcheaJ. 824.
Fix-nch Bchonl. 807. 816.
Frontal bone, b24.
Galen. 80;L
Gcn^a, 815.
OeiTDan sihool, 817.
Gllason, 811.
Graaf, 812.
IL>ir, 898
llallcr. 814.
Hand. 827: Joints nf. 830.
lUivcy, 810.
IlBurirli. 8-J8.
llcud, 822: Joints and
niusclca. »* 'li.
rirarinK. SyS.
Heart, 81*9.
Ilcnle. 817.
Hcmphllo.'i. Rft?
Ili'Maon. 61:..
Illp Julnl. hiO.
inppocrari--.. 7'jO.
lUatory. Tjv,
numeiua, (■n.
Hunter, J. BI5.
Hunter. W. 814,
Hyuld bone. S.'i.
Ilium. 82S
Ischium, g2V
Jaw, 855.
Joints, 832.
Knee. 829. «40.
Lachrymal bune, 625;
Slaad, 8ul.
I-ictcala, 906.
LcapliiR. U-2.
Lccuwciilit'cA. 812.
Moutaud. 814.
Life,"843.
Limb, lower. 62.'i: joint »
and muscles, K40: up-
per, 826; juiuis and
muscles, Sitti-
Listcr, J. J., 818.
Locomotive orRan-^.' 820,
Lumbar veitebra:. t)21.
Lymph, 84 C
Lymphatics, 90C
Malar bone. 825.
Malpighi. 812.
Jlurintts. 8ij2.
Marrow. 8M.
MascAfinl, 815.
MaxUla. 8J5
Meckel, 814. Mi, 81/.
Medulla obboicata. t)70
Metacarpua. H.'8.
Microscope. Bl7.
&luudino. 8U5.
Monro, 8l\
&[orgaf;iil_ Sl3.
Mouth. S37.
Mneoiis Dicnibrnnca,
847.
Muacloa. 813,
Muscular ti--««uc 6M.
Museums. BlO.
Nails. 897.
Neck, 82 L
Kervca, ccrcbto-8pln&J,
8C3.
NeiTcni sysfrn. 8j8;
sympathetic. H83.
Nose. 825. SS-i
K<.3tril9. 820
Kutk. 81 L
Occipital bone e?\
Olfactory oerve. (soS.
Cplic nei^e. 8a9.
C hba^iius. 801
Ofrscou.* »r»tem, 8?0 ;
ti»)>uc. 85J.
Ovum. 844.
I'aclnlan cnrpusclct, SC2.
ralttie, 825.
l'a!ryI^ 8I5l
Parietal booe, 624.
Patella, 8-29.
PaulL, 811.
Pecquot. «1L
Pelvis, 629.
Perlotfvum. 8M.
PcrBpicBlton. ^y9
Pharyiii. 8:j7.
Pia mitfcr, 8CSi.
PiiOnent. 851.
Klexna. nervous, S**"
PuIybUN 800.
Pons Varolii. 871
Poi-tnl vein. 9f>6.
Protoplasm. 8i3L
Pubi^ 828.
Quain, 817.
Kadms. 827.
Rcplrolory mosclcs. SC5.
iCetiiia. 883.
iai>a. 822.
Kidlcjr, 813.
l:urTus, 802.
Running. 642
i;uy»rh, 812.
Sacrum. 621.
Santodni. 813.
S^npula. 826.
Scarpa. 616.
Secreting k'iands. R13.
Sense oican'.. k»4.
Serous membraacs. 81S.
Scrretuv 810.
Shin. 829
ShouJ.'cr. 826; Joint. 8C3
Sight, 889.
Skelston. 620
Skin. B47. 897
Skull 823.
Suiell. 865.
SSrrmering. 818
Special aoaiomy, 619.
Si'tienoid booe, 823.
Spinal cord, 865; Qerve^
S67.
Spine, 820; masde*. M&
Splint bone. 829.
Stcoo, 612.
Siernum, 822.
Suturea. 832
Swallowing. 63S;
Sweat glan>la^ hti.
Tarsus, MO.
Taste, 896.
Temporal bone. 824,
Termtnnlogy, I'J^.
Thigh. 82;^.
1 1bia, 629.
TL^saes, b42; couuecMvc^
849.
Toes, 830.
Tongue. 89»
Tonsil. 8«7
Touch, ftv;,
TymparuTD, 892.
tins, 827.
fvaJa, 837.
Valsalva. SIT
Varoliua, 80:
VaecuJar sysiem.. ■W,
developiueat, MI
>'eins, 905.
Venebrie, 82a
Vesatioi, 807.
\'i<'UAaenB, 813.
Voluntary mriBClet. 6*3
Involuntary. 858.
Vomer, 825
Walking. 84L
Walter, 816.
Wesling, 811.
Wharton, 611.
WUlla, 811.
Wlnslow, 8!1
Wrist 627; Jolfl's 83»
lion, 814
E.VD OF VOLUME FIRST.
APPENDIX
AMERICAN REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS
TO THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
{XINTH EDITION.)
A DICTIONARY OF
I ARTS, SCIENCES AND GENERAL LITERATURE
BY
W. H. DE PUY, I)D., LL.D.,
ASSISTED BY A CORPS OF TRAINED WRITERS.
CHICAGO
R S. PEALE COMPANY
1892
CoPYRKillT 1891
By K. S. Peale & Co.
PREFACE.
rpHE inestimable value of the Encyclopedia Britannica does not need restatement.
-*- Treating, as the great work does, " of all the vaiious kinds of knowledge," and em-
bodying the results of the labors of more than twelve hundred leading scholars, each one
a master-specialist in his class, and a recognized authority on the subject of which he
treats, and all having at their command ample time as well as abundant materials
for the elucidation of the topics assigned them, it was no marvel that, when the work
appeared, it attracted immediate attention, and early came to be regarded as peerless
in its line.
That so large and costly a work should have successfully passed through nine edi-
tions, each edition a great improvement on its predecessor, and each one receiving an
ever-increasing patronage on the part of a discriminating public, is a fact suggestive not
only of the real merit of the work itself, but also of the growing appreciation on the part
of the people as to its standard and permanent value. The open field for the "Britan-
nica" has therefore widened, and th^ desire for its possession deei)ened in all directions,
with the lapse of passing years.
The announcement, therefore, on the part of the present Publishers, that, taking ad-
vantage of the recent discoveries in photo-engraving, and in all departments of book-
printing, by which the cost of book-making may be greatly reduced, they would be al)le
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nica at a gi-eatly reduced cost to the buyer, was hailed with the greatest satisfaction by
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Only one thing remained to meet the full, felt, pi-esent want of the public— a want
growing out of the fact of the world's rapid progress. Since the close of the record of
the world-renowned latest edition of the EncyclcjPedia Britannica, the advances in all
branches of human information have been marvelous, both in respect of number and
8 PREFACE.
practical utility. The facts, reaches of histoiy, discoveries in science, multiplied economic
questions and conclusions in all departments of human industry, which were matters of
interesting' record ten years ago, have proved to be the pivotal points of remarkable
revnlutions characterizing the whole decade. The record of these revolutions, and of the
facts of this later history, constitute the aim of these Revisions and Additions.
In nieotiiifj: this recognized need, the whole field of information furnished by the vol-
umes of the Bkit.vnnk'a has been carefully explored, so as — first, to avoid all unnecessary
repetitions; second, to make all needed revisions and additions to the many articles,
thus bringing the record in all cases down to date ; and. third, to furnish the many thou-
sand new topics which the progress in Science, Art, and History requires.
The Editor of these Rkvisions and Additions returns hi.s sincerest and heartiest
thanks to his staff of assistants for their faithfulness in the work assigned them ; to the
speciid contributors for the efficient aid which they have rendered ; to the officers and
employes of our National Government and of other governments, who have kindly re-
sponded to requests for documents and other information ; to the officers of vai-ious in-
stitutions for reports jn-omptly furnished : and especially to the Publishers for their gen-
erous outlay of funds in bringing this work to an early successful completion.
W. H. D.
AMERICAN REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS
TO THE
EFCYCLOP/EDIA BRITAKNICA
AACESEN-AARON'S BEARD.
AAGESEN, SvEND, a Danish historian, who ai
the beginning of tue 13th century wrote a
history of Jjenmark down to 1187.
AALESUND, a coast town in the province of
Romsdal, Norway, built ou three small islands.
Population, about 6,000.
AALl PASHA, Meiiemed Emin, a distinguished
Turkish statesman, born in 1815. Entered the
Turkish foreign office in 1830. lurKish ambassador
at London in 1844. Appointed minister of foreign
affairs in 1845, serving as such thfee terms between
1846 to 1853. He became chancellor of the divan
m 1845, pasha in 1856, and grand vizier in 1852,
holding this latter position several times. He was
closely identified with the extensive reforms in the
government of the Ottoman empire under the
sultans Abdul Medjid and Abdul Aziz. He repre-
sented the Porte at the conferences of Vienna and
Paris in 1855, and signed the treaty of Paris in
1856. He presided at the conference of the Euro-
pean powers called to settle the Roumanian diffi-
culties in 1864. During the absence from Con-
stantinople of the sultan in 1867, who was engaged
in making a tour of the Continent, Aali Pasha
acted as regent of the empire, and was active in
suppressing the Cretan rebellion in 1867-68, and
in repressing the efiCorts of the Egyptians to de-
stroy the supremacy of the Porte. He died
Sept. 6, 1871.
AALL, .T.\Kon, a distinguished Norwegian histo-
rian and statesman, was born at Porsgrund July 27,
1773. Whih- studying divinity at Copenhagen he
became interested in the pursuit of natural
science; and in 1797 he set out to make the tour of
the scientific schools of Leipsio, Kiel and Got-
tingen. In Germany he became acquainted with
the great geologist Werner; and in 1709, having
spent the winter at the celebrated academy of
mines in Freiberg, he returned to Norway and in-
vested his patrimony in the purchase of the im-
mense iron works of Naes, in the Arendal ore
region. From this time on until his death, Aug. 4,
1844, his life was one of vast and varied activity
sind usefulness. In 1814 he took a very proinineni
part in the framing of the free constitution of
Norwav ; and for 14 years, 1816-30. he was a leading
member of the Storthing. In 1832-36 he published,
in three volumes, entitled I'rcsi-id and Fast, a re-
daction of his own numerous and important maga-
zine articles on the history and antiquities of
Norway. In 1838-39 appeared his standard trans-
lation of Snorre Sturleson's Hchnakringla. His
Ki'miniscences (1844-45) is a Tast repository of relia-
ble data concerning the contemporaneous history
of the Scandinavian peninsula.
AALTEN, a town is the jirovinceof Guelderland,
Netherlands, about 30 miles east of Arnhem, on
the river Aar. Population (1880) 6.591.
AAM, AuM or Awm, a Dutch li(|uid measure of
varying value. The standard or Amsterdam aam
is 41 gallons for wine and about 38 gallons for oil.
The aam is in limited use in other continental
countries, in some of which it shrinks in capacity
to about 36 gallons. In Germany it is written
ahm, and sometimes, though erroneously, ohm.
AARESTRUP, Carl Ludwig Emil, Danish physi-
cian and poet, born Dec. 4, 1800. A volume of his
poems was published in 1838, and another post-
humously in 1863. Hie died in 1856.
AARON, Samuel, a Baptist clergyman and edu-
cator, born at New Britain, Pa., in 1800. Ordained
in 1829. Established an enviable reputation as a
teacher in Tremount Seminary, near Norristown,
Pa., and the Mount Holly Institute, in New Jersey.
He was also the author of various text-books. Died
April 11, 1865.
AARON'S BEARD, a small creeping shrub be-
longing to theclassof evergreens. There are three
species: (a) Sdxifrdgn sdriiwntosa. A domesticated
house-plant, easily cultivated in hanging pots. The
loaves, which are bright and hairy, grow alternately
from long, drooping stems. The (lowers resemble
those of the London Pride. ((>) U iipericnm cahic.i-
num, commonly called "Rose of Sharon," was orig-
inally found in the S. E. of Europe. It ischaracter-
ize>d by a prostrate, creeping stem, which, from
July until September, is decorated with large,
bright yellow '.lowers bearina many stamens. This
1[)
A A K to — A B A T T 1 S
flower is the largest of tlip order. (<•) Clernporion
hir/nl'iH, is nn annual of S. Kiinjpcan nativity, and is
easily cultivated. Its flower, wliicli is a purplish
capitulum, resembles that of Tragopogou (Goat's
Beard), to which plant it is related.
AAKS, .I.\c-on .Jonathan, Norwegian linguist,
born in Ohristiania July, 12, 1837. He wrote sev-
eral text-hooks, and numerous important papers
on language and mythology.
AASKN, IvAK A.vi)ki;as, a distinguished Xor-
wegian writer, horn at Orsteen iu isi:5. Author
of "Det Norske f«)lkesprogs gramiiialik" (1,S4S),
"Ordbog over det Xorske folkesprog," (1.S.52), and
"Norske Ordsprog" (l.S.jd). The Drontheim Asso-
ciation of i^eiences became his patron and supported
him while he devoted hini.self to an exhaustive
study of the Norwegian dialects, enabling him to
visit all jiarts of the country while in the pursuit of
his studies.
AASYJCR, a group of small islands about 10
miles from the coast of Norway, under the arctic
polar circle. During the month of December they
are inhabited by over 10,000 herring fishermen, the
islands being almost deserted during the balance of
the year. The lishing season lasts only about three
weeks, (luring which time 200,000 kegs of herring
are cauglit.
AB, a .Jewish month — the 11th of the civil year,
and the 5th of the ecclesiastical year.
ABABDEH, one of the nomadic negro tribes of
Upper Kgypt and Nubia, principally employed as
guides through t!ie desert.
ABACK, a nautical phrase. A ship or her sails
are said to be hiid aback when they are placed in
such a position as to receive the Avind from aliead,
pressing the sails a^inst the mast, and retarding
or checking the speed of the ship. Tliis is done in
cases where immediate retreat is necessary, or
■where there is danger ahead; or to give the' ship
sternway. The sails are taken aback when placed
in such position through the force of the wind. To
brace aback is a term used when the yards are to be
swung round by means of braces, thus checking the
ship's progre.ss.
ABACO, the largest of the Bahama Islands.
Length 80 miles. Area 90 sij. miles. Lat. 26° 18'
N., long. 7t)° 57' \V. Its chief town is Carleton. It
is also called Great Abaco. Little Abaco lies west
of the northern portion of Abaco.
ABACOT. an anli(iue cap of state, made to resem-
ble a double crown, formerly w'orn by the English
kings.
Ai5AD, a name given to several of the kings of
Moorish Spain. Abad I, the first Moslem king of
Seville, reigned 1023-42. The last of the dy-
nasty, Abad III, died in 1095.
ABADDON, a ne!)rew word used in rabbinical
legends to denote the deepest place in hell. As
used in the Apocalypse it denotes the angel of the
abyss, the bottomless pit. Usedjjy .lob as a poeti-
cal term for .'^heol. the kingdom of shadows.
Synonymous with the .Vmodeus of Tobit iii, S, and
the Apollyon of Rev. ix, 11.
ABAISSE, Abaissed or Abased, in heraldry,
is applied to the depression of a bearing below its
definite or usual position in the shield ; also to the
wings of eagles when open, but having their tips
inclined downwards to the points of the escutcheon.
ABALONE (BoT.), a name given in California to
species of Ilaliiilia, particularly //. Crachcrodii.
ABANCOURT, o', Ciiaki.es Frerot, French engi-
neer, who spent many years in Turkey in the em-
ploy of the French government. Distinguished as
the author of several maps of Eastern Europe.
ABANCOURT, D',Cit aki.es Xavier Joseph Frax-
QUEViLLE, a minister of Louis XVI, of France, in
1792. Born at Douai 17.58, died Sept. 9, 1792, having
been rnurdered by a mob at \'ersailles. He was a
nephew of the celebrated CUlonue, and an ardent
royalist.
ABANDONMENT, in law, is the relinquishment
of a possession, privih'ge, or claim ; or the volun-
tary desertion of^ a wifi^ by the husband, a husband
by the wife, a child by the parent, etc. In maritime
law, the relini)uishmeiit of a sliij) and freight,
either or both, and surrender of the same t(j a
creditor, by which act the owner may avoid obli-
gations far in excess of the value of the ship and
3argo. In marine insurance, the surrender to the
insurers of all the property saved from loss by
perils of the sea, thereby entitling the insured to
indemnification for a total loss. For a further
discussion of this subject see Britannica, Vol.
I, p. 4.
ABARBANEL, Abrabanel, or Abravaxel, Isaac
BEX JEiiunAH, a celebrated .Jewish writer, born at
Lisbon 1437. He was employed by the Portuguese
government in affairs of state during the reign of
Alfonso V, but subseijuently was accused of treason
and his projx'rty confiscated. He fled to Spain in
14S3, and died at \'enice in bODS. He wiote several
critical and doctrinal commenlarii's on the Bible.
ABARC.V, JoAtjrix, a bishoj) and leader of the
absolutist party of Spain, born in 17M». He be-
came prime minister of Don Carlos, but, falling
into disfavor, was banished, and died in 1.S44.
AB.\RIM, a range of mountains on the east side
of Jordan, opi)osite 'Jericho, ill the land of Moab.
These mountains have an elevation of nearly 3.000
feet above the Mediterranean, and more than 4,(XX)
feet above the Dead Sea. The summit of the range
was formerly supposed to be level, but recent ex-
plorers have found considerable ineijualities of
surface. Mount Nebo, the highest point, and still
called Mount Neba or Nebbeh, is believed to be the
point from which Moses obtained his view of
Palestine.
AI'.ASCAL, Jose Ferxaxdo, a Spanish com-
mander, Jjorn irr 1743. He became connected
with the army in 17(i2; was at one time intendant
of New (ialicia, and in 1804 became viceroy of Peru.
The Peruvians recognized him as an able and pop-
ular ruler, and in 1812 he was given a marquisate.
He died at Madrid in 1821.
AliATEMENT, in heraldry, is the name com-
monly applied to a series of marks, nine in number,
which were ])laced upon a knight's coat of arms,
designating his unfitness to bear the symbol of
honor. There were three signs of particular signifi-
cance : Delf It'iiiie, which was a sign of revoked chal-
lenge ; point-d-poinl, denoting a coward ; ;/».ss«7 itiniii-
<f)-, drunkenness. The greatest disgrace that could
be bestowed upon a knight was to have his shield
turned upside down. A complete analysis of these
signs would be unnecessary, as they were very
little used.
ABATEMENT, in law, is the removal or destruc-
tion, as of a nuisance; the suspension, diminution,
or failure, as of an action or legacy; and the entry
upon land by a stranger after the death of its
former owner and liefore the entry of the heir or
devisee. The term also applies to a reduction
sometimes made in the amount of a tax. In reve-
nue law the term is used to designate a reduction
of duties on damaged goods. For a further discus-
sion of this subject, see Britannica, Vol.1 , p. 5.
ABATTIS (Fr.), a bulwark or species of in-
trenchment consisting of trees felled and laid side
by side with the tops towards the enemy. Usually
the ends of the branches are cut off and sharpened,
and sometimes the trunks are fixed in the earth
to give greater stability to the obstruction.
A BATTUTA — ABBOT
11
A BATTUTA, in music, denotes the end of an ad
lihitum movement, and directs the performer to
return a tempo primo. It is confined chiefly to reci-
tatives.
ABA-UJVAR. a county of Hungary. Area, 1109
sq. miles. Bounded by the counties of Borsod,
Torna, Zeniplin, Saros and Zips. Its chief town is
Kaschan, and its population (ISSO) 162,756. The
country is mountainous, and the soil specially
favorable for grape culture. Gold, silver, iron and
copper are among its mineral products.
ABBADIE, d'Axtoixe Thomsox and Arxould
Michel, two brothers who became famous as
travelers and explorers. Antoine was born in Dub-
lin in 1810 and Arnould in 1815. They were edu-
cated in France, and from 1837 to 1848 made exten-
sive explorations in Abyssinia and Upper EgyjJt.
On their return the elder brother published a cata-
logue of Ethiopian MSS., the Gi'odcsie d'Ethiopie
and a Dictionary of the Amarinna (Amharic)
language. The, younger published the Douze Ans
daiin la Haute Ethiojiie. They have a collection of
234 Ethiopia and Amharic manuscripts, one of the
largest collections in Europe.
ABBAXDOXAMEXTE, in music, directs the per-
former to sing or play with abandon, having less
regard to time than to the expression of musical
feeling.
ABBAS, Abbas-Ibx-Abd-il-JIooltalib, the pa-
terriil un tie of Mohammed, and the founder of the
dynasty )f Abbasides. Born at Mecca 566. He
opposed lohammed at first, but. subsequently be-
coming converted, became one of the principal pro-
moters of the Mohammedan religion. Died in 652.
ABBAS PASHA. Viceroy of Egypt, and a grand-
son of Mehemet Ali. Born at Yedda in Arabia in
1818. He ascended the vice-regal throne at Cairo
on the death of his uncle. Ibrahim Pasha, in 1848.
He was a bigoted, indolent and sensual ruler, bit-
terly opposed to foreigners and their civilization.
He was found dead, probably murdered, .July 13,
1854. He was succeeded by his uncle. Said Pasha.
ABB.A.TE, XiccoLo dell', a famous fresco-
painter, born at Modena_ in 1512. The principal
work by him now in existence is an altar piece in
Dresden. He died at Paris in 1571.
ABBATUCCI, Carlo, or Charles, a Corsican
general, who served in the French army under the
Republic. Born 1771 ; died 17%.
ABB.VTUCCI, Charles, a counsellor of state
under Napoleon III. In .June, 1872. he was elected
to the National Assembly. Born 1816.
ABB.VTUCCI, GiACOMo Pietro, or .Jacques
Pierre, a Corsican who became a general of divi-
sion in the French army. Born 1726; died 1812.
ABB.\TUCCI .Jacques Pierre Charles, a Cor-
sican, who became a distinguished French lawyer,
and was at onetime (1852) appointed minister of
justice bv Louis Napoleon. Born 1791 ; died 18.57.
ABBEVILLE COURT HOUSE, a thriving post-
village of South Carolina, county seat of Atabeville
county ; contains excellent schools and a number of
churches, and carries on a brisk locol trade in gen-
eral merchandise.
ABERDEEN, an important and rapidly growing
city of South Dakota, county seat of Brown county ;
lies in the heart of a region of romarkal)le fertility,
and is noted for its public improvements, its good
schools, its financial, ooinmereial and manufactur-
ing enterprise, and the sulistanlial character of its
growtli and i)rosperity. Population in 1.S90, 3,1.82.
AlilLENE, a thriving city of Texas, county seat
of Taylor county, is an important live-stock market.
AP.BE. Clkvel.vxd, American meteorologist and
astronomer, born in New York city Dec. 3, 1838.
^e was graduated at the New York Free Academy
taught mathematics in Trinity Latin School, and
then studied astronomy under Briinow, Gould and
Struve. In 1868 he was elected director of the
Cincinnati Observatory, and inaugurated a system
of daily meteorological reports by telegraph with
weather predictions. The favor with which this
project was received was brought to the attention
of congress, and the secretary of war was directed
to provide for taking meteorological observations
at military posts with the design of giving warning
of any approach of storms. As it was his duty to
prepare "probabilities," Prof. Alib^ became popu-
larly known as "Old Probaliilities." and under his
direction the service reached the high degree of
efficiency that it has since maintained. He has writ-
ten for numerous periodicals, cyclopfedias. and books
of reference on astronomical and meteorological
subjects.
ABBETT, Leox, governor of New Jersey, born
in Philadelphia in 1836. Removed to New Jersey
very early in life, and for many years has been a
member of the New York bar. He early entered
politics, and served three terms as a member of the
New Jersey legislature, subsequently becoming
State senator, and for three years was president of
the senate. In 1883 he was elected governor of the
State after a bitter contest. In the winter follow-
ing the expiration of his term he was a candidate
for the election to the U. S. senate, but was de-
feated. He is now serving his second term as
governor, having been elected in 1889.
ABBEVILLE TREATIES, so-called because of
the meeting of Henry III of England and Louis IX
of France at Abbeville, May 20, 12.59, to conduct
negotiations for a treaty of peace. The final terms
of the treaty were settled in Paris.
ABBEY, Edwix Austix, American artitt, born
in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1852. He studied at the
Pennsylvania Academy, and later devoted himself
to drawing illustrations for books and magazines.
In 1875 he took up water-color work, and in 1883
removed to London, where his studio now is.
Among his notable pictures are The Stay:- <>lhcr,
The Evil Ei/e, Lady in a Garden, Iloxe in Octulirr,
and The Widower. Mr. Abbey is a 'member of the
New York Water-color Society, of the New York
Etching Club, of the Tile Club, and of the London
Institute of Water-colors.
ABBEY. Richard, a Jlethodist clergyman and
author, born in Western New York in 1805. Re-
moved to Mississippi in 1825. and in 1844 joined the
^Mississippi Conference of the Methodist Episcopal
Church South. He is the author of numerous
religious books, and has been an extensive news-
paper and review writer.
ABBIATI, a famous Italian painter. Born at
Milan 1640; died 1715.
ABBITIBBI, or Abbitibbe, a lake, river, and
trading-station in British North America.
ABBON, The Crooked (Lat. Ahho Cernuus), a
French monk of St. (iermain-des-Pres, who wrote an
epic poem descriptive of the siege of Prfrisbythe
Northmen (88.5-.887). Died 923.
ABBOT, Ariel. D. D.. a Congregational and Uni-
tarian minister, born at Wilton, N. H., 1765. CTradu-
ated at Llarvard in 1787. Author of a History of
Andorer. Died 1.8.59.
AP.BOT, Ariel, D. D., a Congregational minister,
born at Andovor, Mass., 1770. "(iraduated at Har-
vard in 1792 ; died 1829. Author of Litters from Cuba.
A volume of his sermons have also been published.
ABI50T, Bexjamin, LL. D., an eminent educator,
born at Andover. Mass.. 1762. Graduated at Har-
vard in 17.88. For half a century he was principal
of Phillips .\cademy at Exeter. N. H., and num-
bered among his pupils Daniel Webster, Alexander
12
ABBOT— ABBOTT
KznA ABBOT.
H. Everett, Edward Everett, Lewis Cass, Jared
Sparks, George Bancroft, and others o£ world-\vid«
fami'. Uied lH4ii.
A.liiJOT. EziiA, D.D., LL.D., American Biblical
critic, born in Jackson, Ma., April iS, IHl.!). He was
graduated at liowdoin CoUese in 1.S44), ajid taught
scIkjdI until l.Soli, when be
became assistant librarian
at Harvard. In 1371i he be-
eanie profegBor of Xew Tes-
tanioiit criticism and inler-
PBetation in the Divinity
School at Ganiliridge, which
position he held till his
death. Mr. Abljot'.'S most
important work was a small
• volume on Tin: .Inllwrnhip
iif I III- Fourth t.'u.ip.l (L8S0).
lie waw a I.'nitaxian, and
contributed largely to the
perio(lical.-i of that denom-
ination. Ho also furnished
papers for the " North American Review" ajid the
Journal of the American Oriental Society," and
was a member of the American committee to revise
the New Testament. He died in Cambridge, JLiss.,
March 21. 1.SK4.
AiJBUT, Fk.\.\cis Ellingw.ooi), American philoso-
Eher, born at Boston, Mass., Nov. 0, 18>16. After
eing graduated at Harvard College iii ISO!), he
studied theology and became a Unitarian clergy-
man. In ],S70 he left the m in istrv- however, and
published "The Index," a Boston journal of free
thought. He has- written much on metaphysical
sul)j(H'ts, and has published .Scioitifif: Tlmism.
ABI'ttT, IIknuy LAnco.H, American soldier, born
in Beverley. Mass., Aug. 13, l.SoJ. (Iradualedat West
Point in 18.54; made brevet second lieutenant of
topofjraphical engineers ; served in the office of the
Pacihc railroad surveys in ^\'a6hing1;on, and later
on the hydrographic survey of tiie Mississippi river
delta. During the civil war he was engaged in
military engineerijig and brevetted brigadieiy
general. In 18.S0 he was appointed lieutenant-
colonel of engineers. He has been a member of
various boards connected with fortifications and
harbor and river improvements. He invented, the
U.S. system of submarine mines for coast and river
defense, and published numerous military articles.
ABBOT, JoKL, an American naval officer, born in
Westford, Ma.ss., Jan. IS, 1793. He wai* appointed
midshipman at the outbreak of the second war
with England, and served under Com. Rogers and
Com. Macdonough, The last-named officer, learn-
ing that the English had accumulated a large
supply of spars at Sorel, he asked Abbot if he were
willing to die for his country. "Certainly, sir ; that
is what I came for," was
the answer. Young Ab-
bot then entered the
enemy's lines, disgiused
as a Jjriliish officer, lo-
cated the spars, and
destroyed the m. H e
encountered such hard-
ships during this expe-
dition that when he re-
ported he was in a state
of prostration. For this
and similar exploits he
was promoted to a
lieutenancy, and con-
gress voted him a hand-
some sword. In 1818 he
took charge of the oO-gun pirate craft, jUmana
captured by Com. Stocton. On the voyage to Bos-
JOEt -UBBOT.
toahiftcuew mutinied, and the prisoners, during a
terrible gale, wrenched their irons off. Lieut.
.Vbbot regained command, however, and Ijrought
his ship safely to port. In 1S.!8 he was i)ronioted
to commander, and from 183!) to 1H42 wsis in com-
mand of the Boston na.vy-y,ard. In \^W> he com-
manded the Mitiiiliiitwn, and during the critical
period of the relations between the 1 nited States
and Chijia he discharged s<'veral delicate diplo-
matic duties. He died in Hong Kong, China, Dec
14, 1855.
ABB( )T, Joel, M. D., born at Bridgefield, Conn.,
17(i(i. Removed to Georgia in 17!M, where he en-
gaged in tho prai-tice of nu'dicijie. Member of the
(jeorgia legislature Ln 18(JH, aiid U. S. congressman
LHll)-25. Died 182U.
-ABBOT, JosBiMi Uaije, an educator, born at ^'il-
ton, N. H., ISOi Tutor at Bowdoin College 1826-27;
professor of mathematics and modern languages at
Phillips .\c,idemy, lH27-;io. Subs<'riuently became
])riiicipal of a ladies' semiiutry at Boston, and later
at the head of the Beverley High .'School. He was
for many years the recording secretary of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and was
one of Dr. J. E. Worcester's assistants in. tlie prepa-
ration of his Dictionary.
ABBOT, Samlei., merchant, born at Andover,
Mass., ]7.'J2. He was one of the founders of the
jVjidover Theological Semijiary, to which he gave
.t2().000 during his lifetime, and!f(100,000 at lis detiih.
Died 1«2.
ABBOT, Waj-tku, U.. S. naval officer, iiorn in
Massachusetts, in 1843. .V gradual^; of the Navai
Academy in I8(il, he became an ensign in 18112, lieu-
tenant in 18U4, and lieutenant-commander in 18(36.
He served <>n board the MigKifmijipi. and yiiv Iroiv
xiih'H during the civil war, aiid: died at FunchaJ,
Miideira. in IS".'!.
ABBOT OF Misrule, a name given in Scot-
land during the middle ages to the master of revels,
Ako called the "jVbbot of Unreason" and the "Ab-
bot of Fools."
ilBBOTT. Austin, Be.njamin, Yacghan and Ed-
w.uiD.sons of Jacob. The first two are lawyers and
writers of some note, aiid the third was editor of
the "Congregationalist." but has since become a
clergyman of tiie P. E. Church.
A BBOTT, Chakles, Loud TENTJiunEX, an eminent
English jurist, born at Canterbury, in 17()2, In 1802
he published a treatise on Merchant Ships and Sea-
mca. In 181 (i he became one of the judges of the
court of common pleas. In 1S18 he was knighted,
and became chief-justice of the. king's bench. He
was raised to tlie peerage in 1827, and became one
of the most influential members of the House of
Lords. Died, in 1832.
ABBOTT, Edwi.n A., D.D., an English theologian
and philologist, born at London in 1838. He ob-
tained a fellowship at St. .John's, Cambridge, was
master at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and
at (Jlifton College, and heaximaster of tlie City of
London School. Author of numerous works, the
best known being bis Bacon and Essex (1877) and
Francis Bacon (1S.S5).
ABBOTT, Jacob, Americaii autlior, born in Hal-
lowell. Me., Nov. 14, 1803. He was graduated aX
Bowdoin College in 1820, and studied theology at
/Indover, Mass. He was a remarkably voluniinous
writer and acquired a large measure of popu-
larity from the simplicity and earnestness- of nis
tliought. He adilressed himself principally to
the young, and nearly all his books have been re-
peatedlv republished in England. He died in
Fariniugt^n, Me., Oct. 31, 1879.
ABBOTT, Jo. American congressman, liorn near
Decatur, Morgan county, Alabama, Jan. 15. 184tX
ABBOTT — ABBREVIATIONS
13
He was educated in the public schools of his native
State, and private schools in Texas, to whieh State
he had accompanied his family in 1853. He served
as lieutenant in the Twelfth Texas cavalry, of the
Confederate army. In 186(3 he was admitted to the
bar, and in IS(ii) was elected to the State legisla-
ture, serving one term. In February, 1879, he was
appointed .Judge of the Twenty-eighth Judicial
District, and in November of the following year was
elected to the same position. In 1886 he was elected
to tlie Fiftieth congress of the United States, and
in 1888 received a re-election to the Fifty-first.
ABBOTT, John Joseph Caldwell, Canadian
statesman, born in St. Andrews, Argenteuil county,
Canada East, March 12, 1811. He was educated at
St. Andrews and McGill Colleges, was admitted
to the bar in 1847, and in 1859 he was elected as
representative to the Canadian Assembly. Mr.
Abbott is considei-ed one of the best authorities
on commercial law in Canada.
ABBOTT, John Stephens Cabot, American his-
torian, born in Brunswick, Me., Sept. 18, 1805. In
1,S25 lie was graduated at Bowdoin College, studied
theology, and continued his pastoral labors until
1844, when he retired to devote himself to liter-
ature. His principal works are : Kings and Queens,
or Life in the Palace; The French iRevolution of 1789;
The History of Napoleon Bonaparte; Napoleon at St.
Helena; The History of Napoleon III; A Histon/ of
the Civil War in America; Romance of Spanish His-
tory; The History of Frederick the Second, called
Frederich the Great; Histories of Austria, Eitssia,
Spain and Itah/,; Lives of the Presidents; and Practi-
cal Christianity. Many of his works have been
translated into foreign languages. He died in Fair
Iltiven.C'onn., June 17, 1S77.
ABBOTT, Joseph Carter, American journalist
and soldier, born in Concord, N. H., July 15, 1825.
He studied law and was admitted to the bar in
1852. He edited the " Daily American," and later
the Boston "Atlas and Bee," continuing to dis-
charge the duties of adjutant-general of New
Hampshire, to which office he had been appointed
in 1855. He joined the Know-Nothing party, and
was a member of a commission for adjusting the
boundary line between Canada and Kew Hampshire.
When the civil war broke out Abbott obtained a
commission as lieutenant-colonel of the Seventh
New Hampshire volunteers. He distinguished
himself on several occasions, and in 1863 was pro-
moted colonel. He commanded his regiment till
1864, when he was brevetted brigadier-general,
which post he held till the end of the war, when he
removed to Wilmington, N. C, where he was elected
U. S. senator for a partial term. Under President
Orant he served as collector of the port, and as
inspector of ports under President Hayes. He died
in Wilmington, Oct. 8, 1882.
ABBOTT, Lyma.v, D. D., American clergyman,
born in Roxbury, ^lass., December, ]8.?5. He was
graduated at the University of the City of New York ;
studied law and practiced with his three brothers
under the firm-name of Abbott Brothers. They
published several legal works, and wrote for many
law and commercial magazines. Later Mr. Abbott
withdrew from the firm, and became a Congrega-
tional clergyman. He has since been connected
with several missionary journals, and has published
numerous works. He is at present the editor-in-
chief of the " Christian Union," and pastor of
Plymouth Church, Brooklyn.
ABBOTT, Robert Osborne, American surgeon,
bom in Pennsylvania in 1824. His entire life was
given up to arduous labors in the military field and
hospital. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., June 16, 1867, a
\ictim of over-work.
ABBREVIATIONS.
A. America.
A. or a. Answer: Acre; Alto; Ac-
cepted {-in commerre);
iiTadn the metric system).
A. or®. <Ad.) To or at.
& or aa. (Ana.Gr. an:!). Of each the
same quantity (in medi-
cin< ).
A.A. Associate Of Arts.
A.A.A. {Avialgama) Amalgama-
tion. See A.M.M.
A.A:G. Assistant Adjutant-Gen-
eral.
A.A.P.S. American Association for
the Promotion of Sci-
ence.
A.A.S. (Academlx .imrricantE f^o-
cius) Follow of the
American Academy.
A.A.S.S. {.icaitntii;r Antitiuiir/nnn^ So-
cietftt/s .S'oc('f(.f) Member
of the American Anti-
quarian Society.
\.B. {Artlvm liiirr{[r.aiirrus)'Bn<r-h-
clor of Arts. See iJ..4.
.1.//'. Able-ljodiefl seamen.
Abljr. or Abbrev. Aljlireviated, Abbrevia-
tion.
A.B.C.TF.M. American Hoard of Com-
missioners for Foreign
Missions.
A.H.H.M.S. American Baptist Home
Missionary Society.
Abl.orabl. Ablative.
A.'K.'M.U. American Baptist Mission-
ary T'nion.
Ahp. Archbishop.
Abr. Abridged, Abridgment.
A.B.P.S. American Baptist I'ublioa-
Unn Society.
A.'I^S. American Bible Society.
^Dc. About.
A.C. ATch-chancellor(/l7i(c Chris-
tmn) Before Christ.
Acad, Academy.
Acad. Nat. Sei. Academy of Natural
Science.
American Congregational
Association.
Accusative.
.\ccount.
American Colonization So-
ciety.
American Congregational
Union.
Archduke {Anno Domini)
In the.ycarof our Lord.
Adverb.
Aid-de-Camp.
Adiective.
Adjutant.
Ad lib. or ad libit. {Ad Hbitmn) At pleas-
ure.
Admiral. Admiralty.
Admiralty Court.
Administrator.
Admiiristratrix.
Adv. or adv. Advocate; Advent; Adverb.
— { Ad vntnrem) At,0T0u,
the value.
Advertisement.
(^Ctatis) Of nge.
Associate of the Faculty of
Actuaries.
American and foreign
liilile Society.
Af. or A. fir. Firkin of .\le.
Af. or Air. Africa, African.'
American and Foreign
Bible Society.
American and Foreign
Christian I'nlon.
A.G, Adjutanl-Geucral.Aecouut-
ant-(;oneral.
Ar. (Argcutum) Silver.
Agl. AgricnItuTui.
A.C.A.
Ace. or ace.
Ace. or Acet.
A.C.S.
A.C.U.
A.D.
Ad. or Adv.
A.D.C.
Adi. or adj.
Adjt.
Adm.
Adm. Ct.
Admr.
Admx.
Advt.
M. or JEt.
A.F.A.
A.F.B.S.
A.F.B.S.
A.'F.C.U.
Agl. Dept. Department of Agriculture,
Agr.or Agric. Agriculture, Agricultural.
A.G.S.S,
American Geographical
and Statistical Society.
Agt.
Agent.
A.H.
{Aitno IJegirir) In the year
of the Hegira.
A.H.M.S.
American -Home Mission-
ary Soeietj'.
A.I..V.
Associateof the Institute of
Actuaries.
A.K.C.
Associate of Kings College,
London.
Al.
Aluminium.
Ala.
Alabama.
Alas.
Alaska.
AITian.
Albanian.
Aid.
Alderman.
Alex.
Alexaudor.
Alf.
Alfred.
Alg.
Algebra.
Alt.
Altitude.
A.M.
(Ariiunt ]IIaaif!trr) Master
of Arts. .See M. A— (Ante
Meridiem ) Before noon.
— {Anno Muiidi) In the
year of the world.— (jlne
ilaria) Haril May.
Am.
American.
A.M.A.
American Missionary Asso-
ciation.
Am.Assn.Sci. American Association for
the Advancement of
Science.
Amb.
Ambassador.
.\nier.
America. American.
•■Vmer. .-Vend
. -Vmerican Academy.
.\«ier.l'hil.Soc. American Phllo'soiihloal
Sociotv.
A.M.G.
Assistant alaJor-Generftl,
A.^I.M.
{AiiinUnma) Amalgamation.
Sec A.A.A.
Amt.
Amount.
An.
(-■Uiiio) iuthe.,.ar.
14
A B B Pv I-: A' I A T I 0 N S
Anal. AimlywiB, Analytic.
Anat. Anatomical, Anatomy.
Aiic. Ancient, Anciently.
Angl. Antrllcan.
AnK.-Sax. Ant!lo-.Saxon.
Ann. Aunaled. Annaln.
Anon. Anonymons.
Ans. nr ana. Answer.
A.N.S.S. Associate of the Normal
School of Science.
Ant. or Antlq. Anllqultlcs, Anikinarian,
Anthrop. AnthrojioloKy, .Vnlhropo-
logical.
Aor. or nor. Aorlst.
A.O.S.S. (Auttrit'anx Orinitalh So-
cirtdlh Soeiux) Member
of the American Orien-
tal Society.
A.O.U. American Ornithologists'
Union.
A. P. Associate Presbyterian.
Ap. Apostle.
Apl. or Apr. April.
A.P.A. American Protestant Asso-
ciation.
Apo. ApORce.
Apoc. Apocalypse, Apocrypha.
Apocryphal.
App. Appendi.x.
Approx. Ai»proxnjuitely.
A.P.S. Associate of the Pharma-
ceutical Society.
Aq. (A<iU(i) Water.
A.Q.M. Assistant Quartermaster.
A.Q.M.G. Assistant Qnartcrniasler-
General.
A.R. (Anno licyni) In the year
of the relRn.
Ar. Arrive, Arrival; Arabic.
A.K.A. Associate of the Royal
Academy.
Arab., Arabic.
Aram. Aramaic.
Arch. Architecture.
Archieol. Archieology.
Archd. Archdeacon.
A.K.II.A. Associate of the Royal Hi-
bernia!! Academy.
Arlth. Arithmetic. Arithmetical.
Ariz. Arizona.
Ark. Arkansa.-.
Arm. Armenian. .Vrmoric.
Armor. Armoric.
A.R. P. Associate Reformed Pres-
byteriiiii.
Arr. Arrived, Arrivals,
A.R.R. (Anno Rtoi'i Rfyift or He-
ginse) 'In the year of the
King's (or Queen's)
reign.
A.R.S.A. Associate of the Royal °^^
ciety of Arts ; Associf fl
of the Royal Scottish
Academy.
A.R.S.L. Associate of the Royal So-
ciety of Literature.
A.R.S.M. Associate of 'he Royal
School of Mines.
A.R.S.S. {Antifjtiartorum Mrf/iie So-
ciHatis Socius.) Fellow
of the Royal Society of
Antiquaries.
Art. or art. Article.
As. Arsenic.
A.S. (Anno Sattifis) In the year
of Salvation.
AS.,A-S.,A.-S.,A.S., or A. Sax. Anglo-
Saxon.
A.S.A. American Statistical Asso-
ciation.
Assn. Association.
Asst. Assistant.
A.S.S.U. American Sunday School
Union.
Assyr. Assyrian.
Astrol. Astrology, Astrological.
Astron. Astronomy, Astronom-
ical.
A.T. Archtreasurer.
A.T.S. American Tract Society;
American 'Temperance
Society.
Atty. Attornev.
Atty.-Gen. Attornev-General.
An. (^«;ifs)"rrench Ells.— (Jii-
rum) Gold.
A.U.A. American Unitarian Asso-
ciation.
A.U.C. (Anno Urbis Condiltv or .46
Urbe Conilita.) In the
year from the building
of the city, i. r. Rome.
Aug. August.
Aug.oraug. Augmentative.
Aust. Austria, Austrian.
Austral. Australia, Australasia.
Auxll. Auxiliary.
A.V. Authorized Version.
Av. Average.
Av. orAve. Avenue.
Avoir. Avoirdupois.
A.Y.M. Ancient York Masonry,
B,
B,
b.
B.A.
Bass (In music). Bay, Rook,
Buron, Boron, British.
Born.
British America; Bachelor
of Arts. See A.B,
Ba. Barium.
Bal. Balance.
Bank. Banking.
Bap. or Bapt.Ba])tist.
Bar. Barleycorn; Barley; Baro-
meter.
Barb. Barbadoes.
Bart, or Bt. Baronet.
Bat., Batt. or Bn. Battalion.
Ubl. Barrel.— bbls. Barrels.
B.C. Before Christ; Board of
Control; British Co-
luml^ia.
B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law.
B.D. Bachelor of Divinity.
Bd. Bond; Bound.
Bdls. Bundles.
Bds. (Bound in) Boards; Bonds.
Be. (Beryllium) Glucinum.
Beds. Bedfordshire.
Belg. Belgium ; Belgio.
Belli. Benjamin.
Berks. Berkshire.
B. is h. (F. JIachrlier fles Letlres.)
Bachelor of Letters.
B.F. or B. fir. Firkin of beer.
B.I. British India.
Hi. Bismuth.
Bib. Biblical.
Bibliog. Bibliographv.
Biog. BiograiJhv, hiogranhical,
Biol. Biology, Biological.
Bisc. Biscavan.
BIsh. Bishop.
Bk. Bank,Book,Bark(avessel).
Bkts. Baskets.
B.LL. (liaccfdaurfiun Le/jnm) Bach-
elor of Laws.' See LL.B.
Bis. Bales.
B.M. (Hacfalaiir ens Mcdicinx)
Bachelor of Medicine.
B.M.B..MUS. (Bacralnu reus Musicx)
Bachelor of Music.
An. Battalion.
Bnk. or bnk. Bank.
B.O. Buyer's Option.
Koliem. Bohemian.
lior. Boron; Borough.
Bot. Botany, Botanical, Botan-
ist; Bought.
B.O.U. British Ornithologists'
Union.
Bp. Bishop.
B. P. Beatiis Paulus, or Petrus.
Bque. Barijue.
Br. orbr. Bromine; Brig.
Braz. Brazilian.
Brig. Brigade, Brigadier.
Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General.
Brit. Britain. British.
Bro. Brother— Bros., Brothers.
B.S. Bachelor of Surgery.
B.Sc. (Baeeolnvreux Seientia:)
Baclielor of Science.
B.S.L. Botanical Society, London.
Bt. Baronet.
Bucks. Buckinghamshire.
Bus. or Bush. Bushel.
B.V. (Beiita I'trr/o) Blessed Vir-
gin.— (Bene vale) Fare-
well.
B.V.M. Blessed Virgin Mary.
Ex., bxs. Box, boxes.
Canada; Carbon; Cartons;
Conductor: Caesar ;
Caius; Church; Con-
gress; Consul; Centi-
grade; Catholic. — (Cen-
tum) A hundred; Cent;
Centime. — (Congius) A
gallon.
Cor Cap. (C(ipul) Chapter.
C. or cub. Cubic.
C.A. Chief Accountant; Con-
troller of Accounts;
Chartered Account-
ant.
Ca. C a 1 c I u m.— ( Circa ) About.
Cal. Cal Ifornia; Calendar.—
(Colindu) Calends.
Com., Camb. Cambridge.
Cunibs. Cambridgeshire.
Can. C'anada.
Cant. Canticles; Canterbury.
Cantab. (CoiitohrigieniiiKj Of 'Cam-
bridge.
Cuntuar. (Canhiaria) Canterbury.
Cap. Caiiltal.— (Cap«() Chapter.
Caps, or caps. Capitals.
Capt. Captain.
Car. Carat.
Card. Cardinal.
Carp. Carpenter.
C.A.8. (Conneetieuttenjth AcmUmix
SociuH.) Fellow of the
Connecticut Academy
of Arts and Sciences.
Cash. Cashier.
Cat. Catalogue.
Cat. or Catal. Catalan.
Cath. Catholic; Catharine; Ca-
thedral.
C.B. Companion of the Bath.
Cape Breton.
Cb. Columnlum.
C.B.S. Confraternity of the Bless-
ed .Sacrament.
C.C. Gains College; County
Commissioner: County
Court; Crown Clerk;
Contra Credit. (Compte
Couranlc) Account Cur-
rent.
CC.[L.J Carlsslmus; Clarissimusi
Clrcum.
C.A.C. Chief Clerk of the .\dmi-
raltv.
C.C.C. Corn us Chrlsti College;
Christ's College, Cam-
bridge.
C.C.P. Court of Common Pleas.
Cd. Cadmium.
C.D.S.O. Coal pan ion of the Distin-
guished Service Order.
C.D.V. Csrte-de-vlslte.
C.E, Civil Engineer.
Ce. Cerium.
Cel. Celsius.
Calt. Celtic.
Csnii. Centigrade. — (Centum) A
hundred.
Cert.,Certif. Certify; Certificate.
Cf. or cf. (C'oii/f r) Compare.
C.G. Captain of the Guard;
Commissary - General;
Consul-General; Coast
Guard.
Cg. Centigram.
C.G.H. Cape of Good Hope.
C.II. Court-house; Custom-
house; Captain of the
Host.
Ch. Church; Chapter; Chal-
dron.
Chal. Chaldron.
Chal. or Chald. Chaldee, Chaldaie,
Chaldean.
Chanc. Chancellor.
Chap. Chapter.
Chas. Charles.
Ch.Clk. Chief Clerk.
Chem. Chemistry, Chemical.
Chin. Chinese.
Chr. Christopher; Christian,
Chron, Chronicles, Chronology.
C.I. Order of the Crown of In.
dia.
Cic. Cicero.
CLE. Companion of the Order of
the Indian Empire.
Cir. (Circa. Circum) .\bout,
Circ. Circuit.
Cit. Citation; Citizen.
Civ. Civil.
C.J. Chief Justice.
CI. Cler^man; Clerk; Chlo-
rine.
el. Centiliter.
Class. Classical.
Cld. or eld. Cleared.
Clk. Clerk.
CL.S.C. Chautauqua Literary and
Scientific Society.
ABBREVIATIONS
15
CM.
Cm.
C.M.G.
emi.
C.M.S.
Co.
CO.
Coad.
Common Meter; Certifi-
cated Master; Corre-
sponding Member. —
( Chimryix Mag i s ( <■ )•)
Master in Surgery.
\<_'oiigrcgatioMUsionum)
Lazarist Fathers.
Centimeter.
Companion of the Order of
St. Michael and St.
George.
Commercial.
Church Missionary Society.
Cobalt ; Company ; County.
Crown Office; Colonial Of-
fice; Criminal Office.
Coadjutor.
Coch. or Cochs. (Cnchlearr) A spoonful.
CO.D. ■ " "
C of G.H.
Col.
Coll.
Compar.
Comr.
Com. Vir,
Con.
Conch.
Con. Cr.
Cong.
Cash (or Collect) on Deliv-
ery.
Cape of Good Hope.
Colonel: Colossians; Colo-
nial; Column.
College, Collector, Collec-
tion, Colleague.
Coll. or Colloq. Colloquial.
Col. or Colo. Colorado.
Com. Commissioner; Commo-
dore ; Committee ; Com-
merce; Common; Com-
mander.
Com. or Comm. Commentary.
Comp. Compare, Comparative;
Compound. C o m -
pounded. Composition,
Comptroller.
Comparative.
Commissioner.
Com. and Nav. Commerce and Naviga-
tion.
Common Version.
(Contra) Against ; In oppo-
sition.
Conchology.
Contra Credit.
Congress, Congregation,
Congregational, Con-
gregationalist. — (Con-
gins) A gallon.
Conj. or conj. Conjunction.
Conn. Connecticut.
Con. Sect. Conic Sections.
Const. Constable: Constitiiitiou.
Contr. Contracted, Contraction.
Cop. or Copt. Coptic.
Cor. Corinthians.
Cor. Mem. Corresponding Member.
Cornwall, Cornish.
Corollary.
Corresponding Secretary.
Charity Organization So-
ciety.
Cos. or cos. Cosine.
Cosic. or cosic. Cosicnnt.
Coss. {Consuli'.^i) Consuls,
CP. Common Pleas; Chief Pa-
triarch; Clerk of the
Peace ; Court of Probate.
CP. or C Pass. {Ctutiivgntio Passiam's)
Passionist Father.
Clerk of the Privy Council.
Common Particular Meter.
{Custom Privati L^igill/)
Keeper of the Privy
Seal; Congregational
Publishing Societv.
Credit, Creditor; Chro-
mium.
(CarotuK Kex) KingCharles.
— {Carolina Rcqlna)
Queen Carolina. — {Ciris
Romnnus) A Roman
Citizen.— (C'ustos Rotn-
lorum) Keeper of the
Rolls.
Crescendo.
Criminal.
Crimiruil conversation, or
Adultery.
(Call ntliirium Rotulorrm. Pa-
trnliiim) Calendar of
the Patent Rolls.
Crystal, or Crystal log. Crystallography.
Cs. Cirsiuni; Cases.
CS. Court of Sessions ; Clerk of
Sessions; Clerk to the
Signet; Civil Service. —
{(itMo^ SiqUli) Keeper
of the Seal.
Confederate States of
AnuTlca; Confederate
States Arjnv.
Corn.
Corol
Cor. Sec.
C.O.S.
CP.C.
CP.M.
CP.S.
Cr.
CR.
Ores.
Crim.
Crim. con.
C.R.P.
C.S.I.
Csks.
C.S.N.
C.SS.R.
Ct.
Ct. or ct.
CT.
C.T.A.U.
Ctl. or ctls.
Cts. or cts.
Cu.
Cub. or cub.
Cur. or curt.
CV.
C.W.O.
Cwt. or cwt.
Cyc. or cylo.
Companion of the Star of
India.
Casks.
Confederate States Navy.
( Congregatio Sanctissimi Rr-
demptoris) Redempt-
orist Fathers.
Connecticut ; Count ;Court.
Cent.— (Ccn(iim) A hun-
dred.
Certificated Teacher.
Catholic Total Abstinence
Union.
Cental or Centals.
Cents.
{Cuprum) Copper.
Cubic.
Current (i. f. this month).
tjommon Version.
Cash with order.
(L. crntum, a hundred, and
Eng. weight): Hun-
dred-weight; Hundred-
weights.
Cyclopaedia.
D.
D.[L.]
Deus; Dominicus; Dux.
D.
Didymium ;Duke ;Duchess ;
Dowager; Dose; Dutch.
Day; Died; Dime: Daugh-
D. or d
'ter; Depvity ; Degree. —
(Dfjnarius or Denarii)
A penny or pence.
Da.
Davyum.
Dan.
Danish; Daniel.
Dat. or
dat.
Dative.
D.C.
District of Columbia. — Da
capo ) Again, or From the
beginning.
D.C.L.
Doctor of Civil (or Cauou)
Law.
D.C.S.
Deputy Clerk of Session.
D.D.
{Divinitaii!^ Doctor) Doctor
of Divinity.
D.D.D.
(Dono dfdit dcdicavit) He
gave and consecrated
as a gift.
D.D.S.
Doctor of Dental Surgery.
Dea.
Deacon.
Dec.
December: Declination ;
Declension.
Def. or
def.
Definition.
Deft.O'
deft
Defendant.
Deg. or
degs
. Degree, Degrees.
Dekag.
Dekagram.
Dekal.
Dekaliter.
Dekam
Dekameter.
Del.
Delaware ; Delegate.
Del. or
del.
{Delineamt) He (or she)
drew it.
Dem.
Democrat; Democratic.
Den.
Denmark.
Dep.
Deputy: Deponent.
Dept.
Department: Deponent.
Der.
Derived; Derivation; De-
rivative.
Dent.
Detiteronomv.
D.F.
Dean of the' Facultv; De-
fender of the Faith.
D.r.M.S.
Domestic and Foreign Mis-
sionary Society (of the
P. E. Church).
Dft. or
dft.
Defendent.
D.G.
(Dei Gratia) By the grace
of God.— (Deo gratias)
Thanks to God.
Eg.
Decigram.
D.H.
Deadhead.
Di.
Didymium.
Dial.
Diafectic.
CSjV.
Diam. or diam. Diameter.
Diet. Dictionary: Dictator.
Dim. or Dirnin. Diminutive; Dimin-
uendo.
Dio. Diocese.
Diosc. Dioscorides.
Dis. Discipline.
Dis. or dis. Distance; Distant.
Dis. or Disct. Discount.
Disp. Dispensatory,
Diss. Dissertation,
Dist. District.
Dlst. Atty. District Attorney.
Div. Dividend :Division ;Divide;
Pivided; Divisor.
Dl. Deciliter.
D. Lit. Doctor of Literature.
D.L.O. Dead Letter Oflicc.
D.M. Doctor of Music; Doctor of
Medicine.
Dm. Decimeter.
D.M.B. (Doctor Medicinx Dentalis)
Doctor of Dental Sur-
gery.
(Doiuiiiti!^ no:^ter Papa) Our
Lord Pope.
(Ditto) The same.
Document.
Dollar.
Dollars.
(Deo Optimo Maximo) To
God, the Best, the
Greatest.
Domestic Economy.
Doric.
Dozen.
Doctor of Philosophy. See
P.D, and Ph.D.
Distributing Post Office.
Deponent; Department,
Debtor; Doctor.
Dram ; Drams.
(Dal Segno) From the Sign.
Doctor'of Science.
(Dcce.'^sit sine protc) He
died without issue.
(Doctor Theologix) Doctor
of Divinity.
Duodecimo (12 leaves).
(Deo volente) God willing.
Doctor of Veterinary Medi-
- cine.
(Lot. Denarius and Eng.
weight) Pennyweight:
Pennyweights.
Dynamics.
E.
East: Eastern (Postal Dis-
trict, London); Earl;
Edinburgh: Erbium;
English: Episcopal.
Eagle, Eagles.
Each.
Erbium.
Ebenczer.
(Etjoraeuni) York.
Eastern Continent; East-
ern Central (Postal Dis-
trict, Loudon); Estab-
lished Church.
Eccl. or Eccles. Ecclesiastes; Ecclesiaii-
tical.
Ecclesiasticus.
Eclectic.
Economy.
English 'Church Union.
Editor.
Edition.
D.N.P.P.
Do. or do.
Doc.
Dol. or dol.
Dols. ordols
D.O.M.
Dom. Econ.
Dor.
Doz. or doz.
D. P.
D.P.O.
Dpt.
Dr.
Dr. or dr.
D.S.
D.Sc.
D.S.P.
D.T.
Duo., 12 mo.
D.V.
D.V.M.
Dw"t. or dwt.
Dyn.
E. or e.
Ea.
Eb.
Eben.
Ebor.
E.G.
.Ecclus.
Eclec.
Econ.
E.C.U.
Ed.
Ed. or ed
Ed. or Edin. Edinburgh.
Edm. Edmund.
Eds. Editors.
E.D.S. English Dialect Society.
Edw. Edward.
E.E. Errors excepted ; Ells Eng-
lish.
E.E.D.S. Early English Dialect So-
ciety.
E.E.T.S. Early English Text Society.
E. Fl. Ells Flemish.
E. Fr. Ells French.
E.G. (Exempli Gratia) For ex-
ample.
Egypt. Egyptian.
E.I. East Indies; East India.
E.l.C or E.I. Co. East India Company.
E.I.C.S. East India Company's Ser-
vice.
E.L. Evangelical Lutheran.
Elec. Electricity; Electrical.
Eliz. Elizabeth.
E. Lon. East Longitude.
E.M. (liguilnm M<i!iister) Miister
of the Horse.
Em. Emma: Emily : Emanuel.
Emp. Emperor; Empress.
Encv. or Encvc. Encyclopiedia.
E.N.'E. iSast, North East.
Eng. England, English : Engrav-
ing.
Engin. Engineering.
Eng. Dept. Department of Engineers.
Ent. or Entom. Entomology.
Env. Ext. Envov Kxtraordinary.
E.o.d. Evcrvotlu'rday. (Printer's
.Wvertisiug .Mark.l
e.o.w. Everv other week. (I'rin-
te'r's Advertising Mark.S
Ep. Eiilstlc.
Eph. Epbeslans; Ephraim.
Epiph. Epiiihany.
Ejiis. Episcopal.
IC
A B B R E \' T A T I 0 N S
Kq.nrcq. Kqiiul; Kquivalcnt.
E(iuiv. or equlv. Eqtilvuluut.
Kr. Krbiuiri.
U.S. KIIh Sicotch.
Kad. Kmlriui.
K.S.K. KuHt,. South KaHt.
Ksp., csp, or CHiiet*. Ivspoclully.
Esq. or Eaqr. Lsiiulro.
£sc!ti. or £8qrB. Ks<|ulres.
EstU. EHtluT.
E.T. English TninBlatlonH.
elal. (H alibi) And elsewhere.
—(it alii or iitiu:) Aud
o t h e rH . — [Somelliucs
improperly written et
<iIk,\
Etc., etc. or &c. (Kt avlert, cxlma or
riif' ra) And othern ; and
HO Mirth.
Ethnol. EthnohiBy; EtbnolORicuI.
et saj.j sq, or Wf/iy. {ft Hcquenlcft or *'( se-
nuenlin) And the fol-
low ing.
Etym. or Etymol. KtynioloRy.
Ex. Example ; Exception; Ex-
OtlllH.
Exc. Excellency; Exception.
Exch. Exchequer; ICxchanf^e.
Ex. Doc. Executive Uocumuut.
Exec. Executor.
Exccx. Executrix.
£'x. Or. (Erimnli Gratin) For ex-
ample.
Exofl. E.\oduH.
E.xon. Uixouia) Exeter.
Exr. Executor.
Exx. Executrix.
Ez. or Ear. Ezra.
Ezok. Ezeklel.
E.& O.E. Errors and Omissions Ex-
cei»ted.
F.
F. French ; Fellow : Folio ; Fri-
day; Fluorine; Faliren-
heil.
F. orf. Feminine; Franc. Francs;
Florin, Florin-;; Farlh-
iu(i, FiirlhinKs; Foot,
Feet.— (/'ia() Let it be
made.
Fahrenheit.
Free and Accepted ^Ia.sous.
Farrier; Farthing.
Fellow of the Society of
Arts; Fellow of the An-
tiquarian Society.
Fellow of the .\nli(]inirian
Society of Kilinbur^li.
Fellow of the Anthroiiolog-
ical Society, of London.
Free IJnptist.
Fellow of the liotanlcal
Society, of Edinburgh.
Free Church of Scotland.
Foolscap.
Fellow of the Cambridge
i'hiloHophical Society.
Fellow of the Chemical So-
ciety.
(Fidei Ihjensor or Dejai9a-
trix) Defender o'f the
Faith.
(Fcrrtnu) Iron.
Flemish Ells.
February.
(fa-it) He (or She) did it.
Fellow of the Educational
Institute of Scotland.
Feminine.
Ferdinand.
B'ellow of the EntomoIoKi-
cal Society- ; Fellow of the
Ethnological Society.
Feudal.
Felicissimus; Fratrcs.
Fellow of the Faculty of
Actuaries.
Fellow of the Faculty of
Physicians aud Sur-
geons.
F.F.V. First Families of Virginia.
f Humorous.]
F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological
Socit^tv.
F.II.S. Fellow of the Horticultural
.Sorietv.
r.l.A. Fellow of" the Institute of
Actnarie«.
F.I.C. Fellow of the Chemical In-
stitute.
Fahr.
F.A.M.
Far.
F.A.S.
F.A.S.E.
P.A.S.L.
F.B.
F.H.S.E.
F.C.
Fcp. or fop.
F.C.P.S.
F.C.S.
F.D.
Fe.
F.E.
Feb.
Fee. or fee.
r.E.I.S.
Fem.or fem
Ferd.
F.E.S.
Feud.
F.F.IL.l
r.F.A.
F.F.P.S.
Fid. Def.
Fi. Fa.
Fig. or fig.
Fin.
Finn.
Fir. or fir.
FI.
FI. or fl.
Fla.
FI. E.
Fleni.
F.L.B.
F.M.
Foreign
KFiilfl De/rnmr or Defcnim-
trti't Defender of the
FiUth.
i^i>ff FttcidH ( Legal phrase).
Figure, Figures: Figura-
tive, Figuratively,
Finland.
Finnirih.
Firkin.
F.K.Q.C.P.I. Fellow of the King's and
Queen's College of Phy-
BiciauH, Ireland.
Flemish.
Florin, Florins.
Florida.
Flemish Ells.
Flemish.
Fellow of the Llnnsean So-
ciety.
Field Marshal
Mission.
F.O. Field OUicer.
Fo., fo.,Fol. or fol. Folio.
F.O.B. Free on board.
For. Foreign.
Fort. Fortification.
F.P. Fire Plug.
F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological
Society.
Fr. France; trancis; French.
Fr. From.
F.K.A.S. Fellow of the Koyal Astro-
nomical Society; Fel-
low of the Koyal Asi-
atic Societv.
F.R.C.P. Fellow of the lioyal College
of Physicians.
F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians, Edin-
burgh.
F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College
of Surgeons.
F.R.C.S.E. Fellow of the Royal College
of Surgeons, Edin-
burgh.
F.R.C.S.I. Fellow of the Royal College
of Surgeons, Ireland.
F.E.CS.L. Fellow of the Royal College
of Surgeons, London.
Fr.-E. French Ells.
Fred. Frederic, Frederick.
Freq. or freq. Frequentative.
Fellow of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society.
Fellow of the Royal His-
torical Society ; l^ellow
of the Royal Horticul-
tural Society.
Friday.
F.R.G.S.
F.R.H.S.
Fri.
Fries. oj'Frs.Fricsic, Frisian.
F.R.S. Fel low of the KoyalSociety.
F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal So-
ciety, Edinburgh.
Fellow of the Royal So-
ciety. London ; Fellow
of the Koyal Society of
Literature.
Fellow of the Koyal Statis-
tical Society.
Fellow of the Society of
Art.s, orof Antiquaries.
Fellow of the Society of
Antiqnilrics, Edin-
burgh.
F.S.A. Scot. Fellow of the Society of
Antiquaries of Scot-
land.
Fellow of the Statistical
Society.
Foot, Feet ; Fort.
Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin.
Fathom.
Furlong.
Future.
Free-will Baptist.
Fellow of the Zoological
Society.
F.R.S.L.
F.E.S.S.
F.S.A.
F.S-A.E.
F.S.S.
Ft. or ft.
F.T.C.D.
Fth. or fth.
Fur. or fur.
Fut. or lut.
F.W.B.
F.Z.S.
G. Genitive; Glucinum;
Guide; German.
G.org. Guinea, Guineas; Gulf.
G. Gram.
Ga. Georgia: Gallium.
O.a. Go ahead.
G.A. General Assembly.
Gael. Gaelic,
tijil. GnJatians, Galen.
Gal. o»' gal. (iji lion. Gallons.
Galv. Galvanism.
G.A.R. Grand Army of the Repub-
li<-.
G.B. Great liritain.
G.U.& I. (ireat llrilaiu aud Ireland.
G.C. Grand Chapter; Grand
Conductor.
G.C.B. Grand Cro^s of the Bath.
G.C. 11. Grand ('toss of Hanover.
G.C.L.U. Uran<l Cross of the Legion
of Honor.
G.C.M.G. Grand Cross of St. Michael
and .St. George.
G.C.S.I. * Grand Commander of the
Star of India.
G.D. Grand Duke; Grand
Duchess.
G.E. Grand Encampment.
Ge. (ieruiaulum.
Gen. Genesis; General; Geneva
or (Jenevan.
Gen. or gen. Genitive: Generally .Genus,
Genera, Generic.
Gcneal. Genealogy.
Gent. Gentleman.
Geo. George.
Geog. Geography, Geographer,
Geographical.
Geol. Geology, Geological, Geol-
Geom. Geometry, Geometer, Geo-
metrical.
Ger. or Ger. Gerund.
Ger. or Germ. German.
Gi. orgi.
Gill, Gills.
G.L.
Grand Lodge.
Gl.
Glucinum.
Gloss.
Glossary.
G..M.
Grand Master.
G.M.K.P.
Grand Master of tha
Kuightsof St. Patrick.
G.O.
General Order.
Go. or Goth
. Gothic.
Gov.
Governor.
Gov.-Gcn.
Governor-General.
Govt.
Government.
G.P.
(Gloria Puiri) Glory to ths
Father.
G.P.il.
Grand Past Master.
G.P.O.
General Post Odice.
G.K.
Graiul Recorder— ( Gcorriiua
liei) George the King,
Gr.
G reece, G reek.
Gr. orgr.
Grain, Grains; Gross;
Great.
Gram.
Grammar.
Gris.
Grisons.
Gro. or gro. Gross.
G.S. Grand Secretary; Grand
Scribe; Grand Sentinel.
G.T. Good Templars; Grand
Tvler.
Gtt. orgtt. (Gvitu or Gutta:) Drop,
Drops.
Gun. Gunnery.
H.
H. Hydrogen.
H. or h. High.Height ; Harbor; Hus-
band; Hour, Hours.
Ha. Hectare.
Hab. Habakkuk.
Hab. Corp. (//oiifo* cnpuf) You may
have the body.
Hag. Haggai.
Hants. (A Contraction of Ilanlei-
Fliirr) Hampshire.
H.B.C. Hudson's Bav Company.
H.B.M. His (or Her) Britannic
Majesty.
H.C. House of Commons; Her-
alds' College.
H.C.M. His (or Her) Catholic
Majesty.
Hdkf. or hdkf. Ilandkerchief.
H.E. ( lliir cs! or llic est) That is,
or this is.
Heb. or Hcbs. Hebrew, Hebrews.
H.E. I.e. Honorable East India Com-
panv.
H.E.I.C.S. Honorable East India Com-
pany's Service
Her. Heraldry.
Herp. Herpetologv.
Hf.-bd. or hf.-lxl. Half-bound.
Hg. {Iluilrarijj/rum) Mercury.
n.G. Horse Guards.
Hg. Hektogram.
H.H. His (or Her) Highness; Hit
lioliness (the Pope).
Hhd. or hhd. Hogshead. Hogsheads.
Hier. (Jlirrunolyma) Jerusalem.
ABBREVIATIONS
17
His (or Her) Imperial High-
ness.
Hilary.
Hindoo, Hindostan,Hindo-
stanee.
Hippocrates.
History, Historical.
(Hie facet) Here lies.
{Hie Jaett Scnuliux) Here
lies buried.
House of Lords.
Hektoliter.
His (or Her) Majesty; Hal-
lelujah Meter; Home
Mission.
Hektometer.
(Hoc Monumentum. Posuit)
Erected this monu-
ment.
His (or Her) Majesty's
Steamer, Ship or Ser-
vice.
House.
Hon. or Honble. Honoratle.
Hond. Honored.
Hor. or Horol. Horolosr.
Hort. ■" ■ '
H.I.H.
Hil.
Hind.
Hipp.
Hist.
H.J.
H.J.S.
H.L.
HI.
H.M.
Km.
H.M .P.
H.M.S
Ho.
Hos.
H.P.
H.P.il.
H.R.
Hr. or hr.
H.R.E.
H.R.H.
H.E.I.P.
H.S.
H.S.H.
H.S.S.
H%-dro3.
H.Y.M.A.
Hypoth.
Horticulture, Horticultu-
ral.
Hosea.
High Priest ; Horse-power ;
Half-pay.
Hallelujah Particular
Meter.
House of Representatires.
Hour.
Holy Roman Empire (or
Emperor).
His (or Her) Royal High-
ness.
(Hie Rcquiescii in Pace)
Here rests in peace.
(Hie .•iilus) Here lies.
His (or Her) Serene High-
ness.
(Historix Sncietatis Socii/s)
Fellow of the Histor-
ical Society.
Hun. or Hun?. Hungary. Hungarian.
Hund. or huud. Hundred, hundreds.
Hunts. Huntingdonshire.
Hvd. Hydrostatics.
Hydraul. Hydraulics.
Hydrostatics.
Hebrew Young Men's Asso-
ciation.
Hypothesis, Hypothetical.
I.
I. Iodine, Island.
lb., lb., Ibid, or ibid. (Ibidem) In the
same place.
I.e. or I. X. Jesus Christus.
Xce.orlcel. Iceland. Icelandic.
Ich. or Ichth. Ichthyology.
Icon. Iconographic.
Id. Island.
Id. or id, (Idem) The same.
I.D.N. (In Dei Nomim) In the
name of God.
Id. T. Idaho Territory.
I.e. or i.e. (Id. Est) That is.
I.G. Inside Guardian.
I.H.S. (Ie>ius [or ./':.?«.«] Hominum
Salviilor) Jesus the
Saviour of Men. See
J. H. S.
111. Illinois.
Illust. lUustriition,
Imp. Imperial; Imperaonal; Im-
ported *-(/mpera(or)
Emperor.
Imp,,lmp.,Imperf. or imperf. Imperfect.
In. Indium.
In. or in. Inch. Inches.
Inch, or Incho. Inchoative.
Incog. (Ineofjnito) L'nknown.
Ind. India', Indian. Indiana.
Ind., ind., Indie, or indie. Indicative.
Ind. T. or Ind. Ter. Indian Territory.
Inf. or luf. Infinitive.
In lim. or in lim. (/(iLt'mtne) At the out-
set.
In loc. or in loc. (In loco) In its place.
I.N.R.I. {legun [or Jmutt} Xazareiius,
' Hex luflxorum [or Juds-
orum]) Jesus of Xaza-
reth. King of the Jews.
Ins. Inspector.
Ins. or Insur. Insurance.
Insep. or insep. In.'^eparable.
Insp.-GeD. Inspector-General.
Inst.
instant (the present
month); Institute, In-
stitution.
Int. or int.
Interest.
Int. Dept.
Depaj-tment of the In-
terior.
Intens.
IntensiTe.
Inlerj. or interj. Interjection.
luternat.
International.
Intraus. or intrans. Intransitive.
In trans.
(In transitu) On the pas-
Int. Rev.
sage.
Internal Revenue.
Introd.
Introduction.
Inv.
Invoice.
la.
Iowa.
lo.
Idaho.
I.O.F.
Independent Order of For-
esters.
I.O.G.T.
IndependentOrderof Good
Templars.
Ion.
Ionic.
I.O.O.F.
Independent Order of Odd
Fellows.
I.O.S.M.
Independent Order of the
Sons of Malta.
I.O.U.
I owe you (an acknowledg-
ment for money).
I.P.D.
(In Prseseittia Dominorum)
In presence of the
Lords.
Ipecac.
Ipecacuanha. ,
I.Q.
( Idem Quod) The same as.
Ir.
Ireland. Irish. Iridium.
I.R.O.
Internal Revenue Office.
Irreg., Irreg
. Irregular.
I.S.
Inside Sentinel ; Irish So-
ciety.
Is. or Isa.
Isaiah.
Is., Isl. or isl. Island.
I.T. Inner Temple; Indian Ter-
ritoiT-
It. or Ital. Italian, italic, Italy.
Itin. Itinerary.
J.
J.A.
Jac.
J_i.G.
Jam.
Jan.
Jap.
Jas.
Jav.
J.C.
J.C.D.
J.D.
J.D.
Jer.
J.G.W.
J.H.S.
J.J.
Jno.
Join.
Jona.
Jos.
Josh.
Jour.
J.P.
J. Prob.
Jr. or jr.
J.R.
J.U. (or V.
Jud.
Judg.
Jul.
Jnl. Per.
Jun.
Jun., jun
Jus.
Just.
J.W.
K.A.
Judge, Justice; Julius.
Judge Advocate.
Jacob.
Judge Advocate-General.
Jamaica.
January.
Japanese.
James.
Javanese.
JesusChrist ; JusticeClerk ;
Jul ius Cfesar.— (Juris-
coHSultus) Juriscon-
sult.
{Juris Civilis Doctor) Doctor
of Civil Law.
{Jurium Doctor) Doctor of
Laws.
Junior Deacon.
Jeremiah.
Junior Grand Warden.
(Jesus Hominum Salvator)
Jesus, Saviour of Man-
kind. See IM.S.
Judges or Justices.
John.
Joinery.
Jonathan.
Joseph.
Joshua.
Journeyman; Journal.
Justice' of the Peace.
Judge of Probate.
Junior.
(Jacobus Rex) King James.
'.) D. (Juris Vtrivsque Doctor)
Doctor of both Laws. —
(i. e. the Canon and the
Civil Law.
Judith; Judicial.
Judges.
July; Julius; Julep (In
medicine).
Julian Period.
June.
, Juur. or junr. Junior.
Justice.
Justinian.
Junior Warden.
K.
King, Kings; Knight.—
( Kitllum) Potassium.
Knight of St. Andrew (In
Russia).
Kal. Kalends.
K.A.N. iCnight of St. Alexander,
5ievsky (in Russia;.
Kan. or Kans. Kansas.
K.B. Knight of the Bath (in
Great Britain) King's
Bench.
KJ.A. Knight of St. Bento d'Avis
(in Portugal).
K.B.E. Knight of the Black Eagle
(in Russia).
K.C. Knight of the Crescent (in
Turkey); Kings Coun-
cil. 1
K.C.B." Knight Commander of the
Bath (in Great Britain).
K.C.H. Knight Commander of
Hanover.
K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of St.
Michael and St. George
(in the Ionian Islands).
K.C.S. Knight of Chas. Ill of
Spain.
K.C.S.I. Knight Commander of the
Star of India.
K.E. Knight of the Elephant (in
Denmark).
Ken. or Ky. Kentucky.
K.F.
Knight of Ferdinand (in
Spain).
Knight of St.Ferdinand and
Merit tin Sicily).
Knight of the Garter (in
Great Britain).
Kilogram. Kgs. kegs.
Knight of the Grand Cross
(in Great Britain);
Knight of the Golden
Circle (in the United
States).
Knight of the Grand Cross
of the Bath (in Great
Britain).
K nig lit of the Golden
Fleece (in Spain or Aus-
tria).
Knight of the Guelphs of
Hanover.
Knight of Gustavus Vasa
(iu Sweden).
Knight of Hauover.
Kings.
Kilderkin.
Kilogramme; Kilometre,
Knight of St. Joachim.
(Ger. koniglich, kaiserlieh)
Roya! and Imperial.
(Karissimus) Very dear,
Ku-Klux-Klan (orClan),
Kiloliter.
K.L. or K.L.A. Knight of Leopold of
Austria.
Knight of the Legion of
Honor (in France),
Knight of Malta.
Kilometer.
Kingdom.
Knight of Merit of Hol-
steiu.
Knight of Maximilian
Joseph (in Bavaria).
Knight of Maria Theresa
(in Austria).
Know-Nothing.
Knickerbocker.
Knight of the Royal North
Star (in Sweden).
Knight of St. Patrick (in
Ireland); Knight of
Pythias.
Knight of the Red Cross.
Knight of the Red Eagle
(in Prussia).
Kansas.
Knight of the Sword (in
Sweden).
Knight of St. Anne (in
Russia).
Knight of St. Esprit (In
K.F.M.
K.G.
Kg.
K.G.C.
K.G.C.B.
K.G.F.
K.G.H.
K.G.V.
K.H.
Ki.
Kil. or kil
Kilo.
K.J.
K.K.
K.K.
K.K.K.
KI.
Ki.H.
K.M.
Km.
Km.
K.M.H.
K.M.J.
K.M.T.
K.X.
Knick.
K.N.S.
K.P.
K.R.C.
K.R.E.
Ks.
K.S
K .K.
K.S.E.
K.S.F.
K.S.F.M.
K.S.G.
K.S.H.
K.S.J.
K.S.L.
France).
Knight of St. Fernando (in
Spain).
Knight of St. Ferdinand
and Merit (in Naples).
Knight of St. George (In
Russia).
Knight of St. Hubert (in
Bavaria).
Knight of St. Januarius (in
Naples).
Knight of the Sun and Lion
(in Persia).
18
A B 13 R E \M A T I 0 N S
K.S.M.ikS.Ci. KiiU'lit oi St. Mlcbool and
!5t.(JeorKi;(ln tbu Ionian
IhIiiiuIk).
K.S.P. KiilK'litof St. Stunlalttiis of
Poliinti.
K.S.S. Kiiliilit of tlio Sword o(
Swuden: Knlf^bt of tho
Southern Star (lu Bra-
zil).
KJi.W. KiiJKlit of St. Wludlmiir (In
Kiissia).
Kt. KulKht.
K.T. Kiilirhts Templar; Knight
>of the Thistle (In Scot-
land).
K.T.S. KniKlit of the Tower and
Sivoril (Iti Portugal).
K.W. KniKlit of William (lu the
NY'tlurrlaucU).
K.W.E. KniKlit of the White Eagle
(111 Poland).
Ky. Kentucky.
L.
L. Ladv; Latin; Law; Left;
Lord: I/IMilum; IjOm-
dou. — (After titles)—
(I.ibi'r) Hook.
L. or 1. Lake; I.<atltude: League,
I..eacuerf: Ijine, Lines;
fjlnk, Iilnk.s.
L., 1^1)., lb., or tb. ( IJhra) A jiound in
weight.
L., 1., or f . A pound sterling.
L. Liter.
La. liOuifllana; Lanthanum.
L.A.C. Licentiate of the Apothe-
caries' Company.
L.A.II. l^icentlate of the Apothe-
caries' Hall.
Lam. Lamentations.
L.A.S. I, ord Advocate of Scot-
land.
Lat. Jjatin.
Lat. iir lat. liatltude.
L.C. Lord Chamberlain ; Lord
Chancellor.
L.C. Lower case.— (Loco citato)
In the place before
cited.
L.C.B. Lord Chief liaron.
L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice.
L.('.M. Least Common Multiple.
Ld. Lord.
L.D. Lady Day ; Light Dragoons.
L.D. Low Dutch.
Ldp. or Lp. Lordehi]).
L.D.S. Licentiate of Dental Sur-
gery.
Lea. or lea. League.
Leg. (Lci/dti}) Smoothly.
Leg. or Legis. LcKlshiture, Legislative.
Lin. Lineal ( Uight-liue Measure).
Lett. Lettish.
Lev. Leviticus.
Lex. Lexicon.
Lexicog. Lexicography.
L.G. Life Guards.
L.G. Low (iernum.
L.Gr. Low Greek.
L.H.A. Lord High Admiral.
L.H.C. Lord High Chancellor.
L.H.D. (L itte rar iDti liuituiunrum
Doctor, OF lu Lillrnis
Human iorlhu^ Doctor)
D.ictor of Humanities.
L.H.T. Lord High Treasurer.
L.l. Long Island; Light In-
fantry.
Li. or L. Lithium."
Lib. Librarian, Library,
Lib. or lib. (Lilier) Kook.
Lieut. or Lt. Lieutenant.
Lieut-Col. Lieutenant-Colooel.
Lieut.-Gen. Lieutenant-tienerai.
Lieut.-Gov. Lieutenant-Governor.
Linn. Linnaeus; Linnsean.
Liq. Liquor.
Lit. Literatuie, Literary.
Lit. or lit. Literally.
Lit. D. or Litt. D. Doctor of Literature.
Lith. Litliuanian.
Lith, or lith. Lithograph.
Liv. or liv. Livre.
L.L. orL.Lat. Low Latin; Law Latin.
LL.B. {Lcgum liaccntaurcua) Bach-
elor of I^aws. See B.LL.
LL.D. (Lrijiiiit Doctor) Doctor of
La.vs. See B.LL.
LL.M. Ma.'ter of Laws.
LL.l. Lord Lieulenant of Ireland.
L.M. Long Meter,
Lbn., Lond. London.
Lon., Ion., Long, or long. Longitude.
Loq. (Loquitur) speaks.
Lp. or Ldp. Lordsblj).
L.P. Lord Provost; Large Paper,
L.P.M. Long I'articniur Jletcr,
L.P.S. Lord I'rivy Seal.
L.U.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal
College of Physicians.
L.R.C.S, Licentiate of the Royal
College of Surgeons.
L.S, Left Side.— (/,ocu» Hiyilli)
Place of the Seal.
L.S.A. Licentiate of the Apothe-
caries' .Socielv.
L.S.D.,£.8.d. or l.s.d. ( Liljra, Solidi, De-
narii) I'ounds, shil-
lings, pence.
Lt. or Lieut. Lieutenant.
Lt. Inf. Light Infantry.
Lutb. Lutheran.
Lv. orlv. Livres.
M.
M
Marquis; Monday; Middle;
Monsieur; Meter. —
(Mlllc) Thousand.—
(Miriilics) Meridian or
Noon.
m. . Married.
M.orm. Masculine; Moon; Month,
Months; Minute, Min-
utes; Mill, Mills; Mile,
Miles; Member; Medi-
cine.— (Ma n in uluff) A
handful.— (jVmcr) Mix.
— iMiittura) Mixture. —
{Mettsura) Measure: By
measure.
M.A. Military Academy; Master
of Arts. See A.M.
Mac. or Mace. Maccabees.
Maced. Macedonian.
Mach. Machinery.
Mad. or Madm. Madam.
Ma^. Magazine.
Maj. Major.
Maj. or maj. Jlajority.
Mai.-Gen. Maior-tieneral.
Mai. Malachi.
Man. Manage: Manual.
Manuf. Manufacturing.
Mar. March: Maritime.
March. Marchioness.
Marg. Trans. Marginal Translation.
Marq. Marquis.
Mas., mas., Masc. or masc. Masculine.
Mass. Massachusetts.
M.Ast. S. Member of the Astronomi-
cal .Society.
Math Mathematics, Mathemati-
cian, Mathematical,
Matt. Matthew.
M.B. {Mcdicinx Bacrnlaureus)
Bachelor of Medicine.
See B.M. — (Muttine llac^
calaurcuy) Bachelor of
Music.
M.C. Member of Congress; Mas-
ter of Ceremonies : Mas-
ter Commandant.
Mcli. March.
M.C.S. Madras Civil Service.
M.D. {Mediciii:r Doctor) Doctor
of Medicine.
Md. ^Maryland.
Mdile. Mademoiselle.
M.E. Methodist Episcopal; Mili-
tary :Mining or Mechan-
ical Kngineer; Most Ex-
cellent.
Me. Maine.
Meas. Jleasure.
Mech. Mechanics. Mechanical.
Med. Medicine. Medical.
M.E.G.H.P. Most Excellent Grand
High Priest.
Mem. Memorandum.Memoranda.
— ( yti tnnito) Remember.
M.E.S. Methodist Episcopal South.
Mess. & Doc. Message and Documents.
Messrs. or M.M (Messieurs) Gentlemen;
Sirs
Met. Metaphysics,Metaphy9ical.
Metal. Metallurgy.
Metaph. Metaphysics
Meteor. Meteorology, Meteorologi-
cal.
Meth Methodist.
Meton. Metonymy.
Mex. Mexico, Mexican
Mfd. Manufactured.
Mfg. Manufacturing.
M.KH. Master of Foxhounds.
M. ft. {ilitliirafltit) Letu niixturo
i>e made.
Mg. Magnesium.
Mg. or mgr. Milligram,
M.G. Maior-(ieneral.
M.-G. or M.-Ooth. Mtt-so-Gothlc.
Mgr. Monslgnor; Magistrate.
.M.H.G. MId.lle High Germuu.
M. Hon. Most Honorable.
M.U.S. Massachusetts Historical
Society : .Member of the
Historical Society.
Ml. or ml. Mill, Mills.
MIc. MIcah.
M.I.C.E. Member of the Institute of
Civil Engineers.
Mich. Michigan: Michaelmas.
Mid. .Midshipman.
Mid. or mid. Middle (voice).
Mil, Military.
M.I, -M.E. Member of the Institute of
Mining Engineers.
MIn. • Mineralogy, Mineraloglcal.
Mln. or mln. Minute: Mining.
Minn. Minnesota,
Mln. Plen. Minister Plenipotentiary.
Misc. Miscellaneous.
Miss. Mississippi.
Ml. Milliter.
M.L.G. Middle Low German.
Mile. Mademoiselle.
M.M. Their. \liijesties.—(J/f«»fcur»)
<;entlemen or Sirs.
Mm. Millimeter.
M.M.[L.] Magistrl; Martyres; Matrl-
monium ; Merltlsslmus.
Mme. Madame.
M.M.S. Jloravian Missionary So-
ciety.
M.M.S.S. (Matoinchusettcnsig Mcdicinx
SocictatiK Sociuf) Mem-
ber of the Massachu-
setts Medical Society.
Mn. Manganese,
M,N.A.S. Member of the National
Academy of Sciences.
Mnfg. Manufacturing.
M.N.S. Member of the Numismati-
cal Society.
Mo. Missouri; Molybdenum.
Mo. or mo. Month,
Mod. Modern.— (J/odcraio) Mod-
erately.
Moham. Mohammedan.
Mon. or Mond. Monday.
Mons. Monsieur or Sir.
Monsig. Monsignore.
Mont. Montana.
Mort. or mort. Mortgage.
Mos.ormos. Months,"
M.P. Member of Parliament;
Memtjer of Police; Mu-
nicipal Police; Metho-
dist Protestant.
M.P.C. Member of Parliament in
Canada.
M.P.P. Member of the Provincial
Parliament.
M.P.S. Member of tlie Philological
(or of the Pharmaceuti-
cal) Society.
Mr. Mast^'r or Mister.
M.R. Muster of the Rolls.
Mr, Millier.
M.R.A.S. Member of the Royal
Asiatic Society; Mem-
ber of the Royal Acade-
my of .Science.
M.R.C.C, Member of the Royal Col-
lege of Chemistry,
M.R.C.P. Member of the Royal Col-
lege of Preceptors:
Member of the Royal
College of Physicians.
M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal Col-
lege of Stirgeons.
M.R.C.V.S. Member of the Royal Col-
lege of Veterinary Sur
geons.
M.R.G.S. Member of the Royal Get
graphical Society,
M.R.I. Member of the Royal In
stitution.
M.R.IA. Member of the Royal Irish
-Academy.
Mrs. Mistress.
M.R.S.L. Member of the Royal So-
ciety of Literature.
ABBREVIATIONS
19
U.S.
MSS.
MS.
Mt.
M.T.C.
Mtg or mtg.
Mts.
Mus.
Mus. B.
Mus. D.
Mus. D.,Mui
M.W.
M.W.P.
M.W.G.C.P.
M.W.G.M.
M.W.S.
Myg.
Myl.
Mym.
Myst.
Myth.
{Memorise Sacrum) Sacred
to the memory; Master
of Surgery.
Mauuscripts.
ISIanuscript.
Mouut or Mountain.
Marcus Tullius Cicero.
Mortgage.
^Mountaius.
Music, Mu.sical: Museum.
Bachelor of Music.
Musical Director.
;. Doc.oi-Mus. Doct. Doctor
of Music.
Most Worthy.
Most Worthy Patriarch.
Most Worthy Uraud Chief
Patriarch.
Most Worthy Grand Mas-
ter; Most Worshipful
Grand Master.
Memher of the Wernerian
Society.
Myriagram.
Myrialiter.
Myrianieter.
Mysteries.
Mythology, Mythological.
N.
N,
Noon; North, Northern
(Postal District, Lon-
don ) ; Note; Name ;
New; Number; Nitro-
gen; Norse.
N. or u. Noun; Neuter; Nail, Nails.
N.A. North America, North
American.
Na. {Natrium) Sodium.
Na. or na. Nail, Nails.
N.A.D. National Academy of De-
sign.
Nah. Nahum.
Nap. Napoleon.
N..\.S. National Academy of Sci-
ences.
Nat. Natural; Natal; National.
Nath. Nathaniel, or Nathanael.
Naut, Nautical.
Nav. Naval.
Navig. Navigation.
N.B. North Britain, North Brit-
ish ; New Brunswick. —
(iVofa bene) Note well,
or take note.
Nb. Niobium.
N.C. North Carolina; New
Church.
N.r- No date.
N.DaK. North Dakota.
N.E. North-East, North-Eastern
(I'ostal District, Ixin-
don); New England.
Neb. Nebraska.
Neh. Nehemiah.
Nem. Con. or nem. con. (Nrmine contra-
diirnte) No one contra-
dicting; Unanimously.
Nem. Diss. [Nemii^r dlssentiente) No
one dissenting; Unani-
mously.
Neth. Netherlands.
Neut.orneut. Neuter.
Nev. Nevada.
New M. New Mexico.
New Test. New Testament.
N.F. New French; Newfound-
land.
N.G. New Granada; Noble Grand.
Ng. Norwegian.
N. Gr. New Greek.
N.H. New Hampshire.
N. Heb. New Hebrew.
N.H. U.S. New Ilami>shire Historical
Society.
Ni. Nickel.
N.J. New .Jersey.
N.l. or u.l. {Noil li'iitii) It ajtpeara not;
The case is not clear.
N.I-. New Latin.
N.L. or N. Lat. North Latitude.
N. Mex. New Mexico.
N.N.E. Nortli. North-Kast.
N.N.W. Nortli, North-West.
No. Norium.
No. or no. {Numero) Number.
N.O. New Orleans.
Nol. Pros. {Nolle I'roseqal) Will not
Prosecute, or Prosecu-
tion Abandoned.
Mom. vr nem. Ncmiuative.
Noncom. Noncommissioned.
Noncon.ornoncon. Noucontent,«.c., dis-
sentient (House of Lords).
Non obst. or non ohst. {Non obstante)
Notwithstanding.
Non Pros., Non pros. (Niiii iirofeqiiitur)
He does not prosecute;
A j u cl g m cut entered
against the plaiutiff
wlieu he does not ap-
pear to prosecute.
Non seq., non seq. {Non scQaitur) Itdoes
not follow.
N.O. P. Not otherwise provided for.
Nor. or Norm. Norman.
Nor. Fr. or Norm. Fr. Norman French.
Norw Norway; Norwegian.
Nos , aos. {Math) Numbers.
Not 3. Nottinghamshire.
Nov. November.
N.P. New Providehce; Notary
Public.
N.P.D. North Polar distance.
N.R. North River.
N.S. Nova Scotia; New School;
New Style (since 17.'j'2);
Numismatic Society. —
{Notre Seigneur) Our
Lord.
N.S.J.C. {Noster Salvatnr Jesus Cliris-
tus) Our Saviour Jesus
Christ. — {Notre Seigneur
Jisu- Christ) Our Lord
Jesus Christ.
N.T. New Testament.
N.u. or n.u. Name unknown.
Num. or Numb. Numbers.
Numis. Numismatics.
N.V. New Version.
Nux vom. Nnxvomica.
N.V.M. Natlvitvof the Virgin Mary
N.W. North -West; North -West-
ern (Postal District,
London).
N.W.E.C. North-Western Education
Commission.
N.W.T. North-West Territory.
N.Y. New York.
N.Y.H.S. New York Historical Society.
N.Z. or N.Zeal. New Zealand.
o.
0.
Ohio; Oxygen; Old.— (Of-
tavius) A pint.
Ob. or Ob. {pbiit) Died.
Ob. or Obad. Obadiah.
Obj. or obj. Objective, Objection.
Obs. Observatory.
Obs. or obs. Obsolete. Observation.
Obsoles. Obsolescent.
Obt. or Obdt. Oliedient.
Oct. or 8vo. Octavo.
Oct. October.
O.F. Odd Fellows.
O.G. Outside Guardian.
O.H.G. Old High German.
O.H.M.S. On His (or Her) Majesty's
Service.
O.K. All correct; ("Oil Korrect").
01. {111,11 III) Oil.
Old Test. old Testament.
O.L.G. Old Low German.
Olym. Olympiad.
O.M. Old measurement.
O.P. {Oriliiii.i I'ririiieolorum) Do-
minican Fi'iars.
Op. Opposite; Opus; Opera.
Opt. Optics.
0|)t. or opt. Optative.
Ore.orOreg. ('regon.
Ord. Ordinance; Ordinary.
Orig. ororig. Original. Originally.
Ornith. Ornithology, Oruitliblogical.
O.S. Old School, Old Style (pre-
vious to 1752) ; Outside
Sfjiitiiiel.
Os. Osmium.
O.S.B. {Orilo Sanet! Beuedicti)
Order of Saint Benedict.
O.S.F. {Ordinitt Saiicti Francisci)
Franciscan Friars.
O.T. Old Testament.
O.U.A. Orderof United Americans.
O.U.A.M. Order United American
Mechanics.
Oxf. Oxford.
Oxf. Gloss. Oxford Glossary of Archi-
tecture.
Oxon. (Oj-imia) Oxford.
Oxouien. uLniiiiriiKiy} Of Oxford.
Oz. or oz. Ounce, Ounces.
P.
P.orp. Page; Part; Participle;
Post ; Pole ; Phospho-
rus; Pint: Penny; Pipe;
Parliament. — ( Ponderc)
By weight. — {Pugillus)
A Vugit. — {Pater)
Father.
Pa. Pennsylvania.
P.a. Participal adjective.
Paint. Painting.
Pal. or Paleon. I'uleontology.
Par. Parat'raiih.
Pari. Parliauieut, Parliamentary.
Part, or part. Participle.
Pass, or pass. Passive.
Pathol. Pathologv.
Pat. Of. Patent Oilice.
Pavt. or payt. Payment.
Pi." , _. .
P.B.
P.C.
PC. P.
P.C.S.
P.Cyc.
P.D.
Pd.
P.E.
Pe.
P.E.I.
Penn.
Pent.
Plumbum) Lead.
{Pliilusophix Bari'alaitreus)
Bachelor of Philosoiihy.
Privy Council (or Council-
or); Police Constable;
Principle Conductor. —
{Patres Conseripti) Con-
script Fathers.
Past Chief Patriarch.
Principal Clerk of Session.
Penny Cyclopaedia.
{Philnsophix Doctor) Doctor
of Philosophy.
Paid ; Palladium.
Protestant Episcopal.
Pelopium.
Prince Edward Island.
Pennsylvania.
Pentecost.
Per. or Pers. Persia. Persian.
Per an. or per an. ( Per annuin)yiy the year.
Per cent, per cent. Per ct. or ])er ct. {Per
centum) By the hundred.
Perf . or perf . Perfect.
Peri. Perigee.
Persp. Perspective.
Peruv. Peruvian.
Pet. Peter.
P.G. Past Grand.
P.G.M. Past Grand Master.
Pg. Portuguese.
Phar. or Pharm. "i'harmacy, Pharma-
copa'ia.
Ph.B. {Philosophia' Baccalaureus)
Bachelor of Philosophy.
Ph.D. {Philosonhia- Doctor) Doctor
of Philosophy.
Phil. Philip: Philii.pians: Philo-
soiihy. Philosopher; Phi-
losophical : Philemon.
Phil, or Phila. Philadelphia.
Philem. Philemon.
Philol. Philology.
Philom. {Pli i III in athcs) Lover of
learning.
Philomath. (PhiUiniiithimaticus) Lover
of nutthematics.
Philos. Philosophy, Philosophical.
Phil. Trans. Philosophical Transactions.
Phon. or Phonet. Phonetics.
Photog. Photography.
Photom. Photometry.
Phren. Phrenology, Phrenological.
P.H.S. Pennsylvrtuia Historical
Society.
Phv. Phvsical.
Phys. Physics, Physical; Physi-
ology, Physiological.
Physiol. Physiology.
Pinx. or pins. ( P i H .r (■< ) He (or She)
jiainted it.
P.J. Police Justice.
Pk. or pk. Peck.
Pkgs. Packages.
Pks. or pks. Pecks.
P.L. Poet Laureate.
Pl.orpl. Place; Plate; Plural.
P.L.B. Poor Law Board.
P.L.C. Poor Law Commissioners.
Plff. PlaintilT.
Plin. Pliny.
Plup. or pluf. Pluj)erfect.
Plur. or plur. Plural.
P.M. Postnuister; Past Master;
I'ast Midshipman. — ( Post
Meridiem ) .\hernoon.
P. M.G. or P.M. Gen. Postmaster-General
P.O. Post-Otlice; Province oi
Oulurio.
P.O.D. Post -Oilice Department-,
Pay on Delivery.
Poet. Poetry, Poetical.
3J0
A B B R E ^^ I A T I 0 N S
Pol. Poll«h.
Pol. Econ. or I'ollt. Econ. Polltlciil
Kt;onoiiiv.
P.O.O. Post-Ollli-e Order.
Pop. ur pop. Popiiliitlou, Popular, Pop-
ularly.
Port. Porlugiil, PortliKiit'sc.
Po3., pos., Poss. or potM. Possessive.
Pot. Poltlo.
p.p. Piigos.
P.p. I'sflt participle.
P.P. Popish Priest; Parish
Priest. — (P«(tr I'alHas)
Father of His Coiiutrv.
P.P.C, {Pour prtmire conf/ij To
take leave.
Pph. or pph. Pamphlet,
p.pr. Present participle.
P.Q. Previous (juestion; Prov-
inee of Quebec.
Pr., Prs. Pair, Pairs.
Pr. Priest; Prince; Provencal.
Pr. or pr. Propositiou; Pronoun;
Price; I'resent.
Pr.,pr. or P. (Per) Jiv the.
P.U. Prtee KIiir; Porto Rico.—
iPni>tilit.f linmanus) The
iionian f*eople.
P.R.A. President of the Royal
Academy-.
P.R.C. (Post Homuimm fnuclUum)
After tha building or
Kouie.
Prcb. Prebend.
Pref. or pref. Prefix, Preface, Preferred.
Prep, or prep. Preposition.
I'res. President; Presbyterliin.
Pres. or pres. Present.
Pret. or pret. Preterit,
Prim. Primary.
Prin. Prliieiples.
Prln. Principal, Prlneli)ally.
Print. Priutlng.
Priv. or priv. Privative.
P.K.N. (Pro re Data) According to
the occasion.
Prob. or prob. Problem ; Probably.
Prof. Professor.
Proc. Proceedings.
Pron.orpron. Pronoun; Pronominal;
Pronounced, Pronunci-
ation.
Pron.a. or pron.a. Prouominal Adjectix-e.
Prop, or prop. Propositioa; I'roperly.
Proa. Prosody.
Prot. Protestant.
Pro tern, or pro tern. (Pro tempore) For
the time being.
Prov. Proverbs; Proverbially;
Provost ; ProTince; Pro-
vincial.
Prox. or pros. (Pro.r/mo) Next; Of the
next month.
P.R.8. President of the Royal So-
ciety.
P.R.S.A. President of the Royal
Scottish Academy.
Prus. Prussian: Prussia.
P.S. Permanent Secretary;
Principal Sojourner ;
Privy Seal.— (Pos( scrip-
turn) Postscript.
Ps. or Psa. Psalm, Psalms.
Psychol. Psychology.
Pt. Platinum.
Pt.orpt. Pint; Par t ; Pav ment:
Point; Port.
P.t. or p.t. Post? town.
P.T. Pupil Teacher.
P.T.O. Please turn over.
Pub. Public; Published, Pub-
lisher, Publishing.
Pub. Doe. Public Documents.
Pulv. (Pulfis) Powder.
Pun. or pun. Puncheon.
P.v.orp.v. Post village.
P.W.P. Past Worthy Patriarch.
Pwt. or pwt. Pennyweight.
Pxt. or pxt. (Pinxit) He (or She)
painted it.
Pyro-elect. Pyro-electricitiy.
Q.
Q., Question; Quintos.
Q.orq.. (Quadraiis) A farthing.
Q. or qu. Query; Question; Queen;
. ^ Qulntus ; Quintins.
Q.B. Queen's Bench.
Q.C. Queen's Council (or Goun-
- , , sel); Queen's College.
Q.d.orq.d. ( Qnas i Di cat) As if he
should say.
Q.e. or q.e,
Q,E,D.
Q.K.F.
Q.8.I.
Q.l.orq.l.
Ql.
Qni. or-qm.
Q.M.
Q.Moss.
Q..M.-G.
Q.P. or q.pl,
Qr. or qr.
Qrs. or qra.
Q.S.
Q.B. or q.s.
Qt. or qt.
Qts. or qts,
Qu.
Qu. or Qy.
Ques.
Q.v. or q,v.
Qy
R.
(Qiind est) Which is.
(<iut>it rrilt ftr.munntrwtduju)
Whhdi wort to bu dem-
onslrftteil.
(QiuhI I rut racicndiim)
Which was to be done.
(Quod criit iiivienJvm)
Which was to be fouad
out,
( Qyinntain littU) As mucb
Ks you please.
Quintal.
(Kluiiiiuulo) By what means.
Qiiarturniuster.
Queen's Messenger.
Quartermuster-Goneral.
((luanluin placet) A&uiuch
OS you please.
Quarter (2t> pounds) ; Quire.
—(Itnadram) A farthing.
Quarters; Quires.— ((^uu-
drauls) Furthiugs.
Quarter Sessions.
Quarter Section .— ( Quart-
turn eufflcit) A sufficleuti
quantity.
Quart; Quantity.
Quarts.
Qnecn; Question.
(QiinTi) Query.
Question.
(Quod vide) Which see.—
Qtmnium vis) As much
as yoit will.
Query.
B.
Railway; Rare; Rhodium;
R(-aumur.— (A'ex) King
( J: e !/ i na) Queen.—
(liccipe) fake.
R. R (5 a.u ni u r Thennometrie
scale.
R. iJcc/w.jirescription.
R. orr. Rood, Roods; Rod, Rods;
Rises; River; Read ;
Right ; Rector ; Resides ;
Retired.
R.A. Royal Academy (or Acade-
mician); Royal Artil-
lery; Rear Admiral;
Right Ascension; Rus-
sian-America; Royal
Arch ; Roval Arcanum.
R.A.C. Royal Areh Chapter.
Rad. or rad. (Radix) Root; Radical.
R.A.M. Royal Academy of Music;
Royal Arch Mft*on«.
R.A.S. Royal AgriculturalSociety.
Rb. RuMdlum.
K.O. Roman Catholic.
R.C.A. Reformed Church in
America.
R.C.Ch. Roman Catholic Church.
R.D. Royal Dragoons; Rural
Dean.
R.E, Royal Engineers; Royal
Exchange ; RightExeel-
lent ; Reformed Episco-
pal.
Rcc. or R. Recipe.
Reed. Received.
Recpt. Receipt.
Rec. Sec. Recording Secretary.
Rect. Rector; Receipt.
Ref. Reformed, Reformer.Refor-
mation ; Reference.
Ref . Ch. Reformed Church.
Reg.,Regr. Register, Registrar; Regu-
lar.
Reg. Prof. Regius Professor.
Reg. or Regt. Regent.
Regt. Regiment.
Rei. Religion, Religions; Rela-
tive.
Rem. Remark, Remarks.
Rep. Representative; Republic;
Report, Reporter; Re-
public, Republican;
Rcpts. Reports.
Res. Resolution.
Retd. Returned.
Rev. Revelation; Revolution;
Review; Revenue; Re-
vise.
Rev. or Eevd. Reverend.
Revs. (Plural of) Reverend.
Rev. Ver. Revised Ver.«ion.
Rev. Stat. Revised Statutes.
R.F, Rex Francorum.
E.G.G. Royal Grenadier Gusrda.
Rh. Rhodium.
R.H.A. Royul Uibumlan .\cademy;;
Royal Uorse Artillery.
Rhet. Rhetoric. Ilhetorlcul.
R.H.G. Koyai Home Guards.
R.H.S. Royal Humane Society.
R.I. Rhode island.
Rich, or Rlchd. Richard.
R.I.n.S. Rhode island HlBloricai
.Society.
R.I.P. (Jhiruieeiat in Pace) May He
„, , „, ("'■ She) rest In peace.
Rlv. or rlv. River.
It JI. Royal Marines ; Royal Mall;
Kesldent Mugistrule.
R.M.A. Royal .Militarv (or Marine)
Asylum: Royal Marine
Artillerv.
R.M.L.I. Roynl .Maiine Light Infantry.
R.M.S. Roval .Mall Steamer.
R.N. Royal .Savy.
K.N.O. {Jiiddarc rif Xordstjerne)
Night of the Order ok
the Polar Star.
R.Js.R. Royal Xavol Reserve.
140. {licclo) lUght-hand page.
Ro.orro. Rood.
Robt. Robert.
Rom. Romun, Romans.
Rom. Oath. Ronmn Catholic.
R.P. Regius Professor.- (;?e».
piiblica) Republic; Re-
formed Presbvterian.
R.P.D. Rovttl Purple Degree.
Rpt. Report.
R.R. Railroad.
R.S. ItecordlngSccretary;
Right side ; Revised
statutes.
Rs. Rupees,
R.S.A. Royal Society of Anti-
quaries; Royal Seottisk
Academy.
R.8.D. Roval Soeietv of Dublin.
R.S.E. Royal .Society of Edln-
bnrgii.
R.S.-L. Royul Society of Londoa.
R.S.S. (lit-nix SocieUUis Sociiim)
Fellow of the Royal
Society.
R.S.V.P. (lUpiiadet s'il vims plait)
-Vnswer, If vou please.
Rt. Hon. Right Horuirable.
Rt. Rev, Right Reverend.
R.T1S. Roljgioi's Tract Society.
Bti Wpiui. Right Worshipful.
14u. Ruthenium ; Runic : Rus-
sia, Russian.
R.V. Revised Version.
R.W. Right Worthy; Right Wor-
shipful.
R.W.D.G.M. Right Worshipful Deputy-
Deputy Grand Jlaster.
R.TC.G.M. Right Worshipful Grand
Master.
R.W.G.S. Eight Worthy Grand
.Secretary.
R.W.G.R. Right Worthy Grand Kep-
rcsentative.
R.W.G.T. Eight Worthy Grand
Treasurer: Right Wor-
shipful Grand Templar.
E.W.G.W. Eight Worthy Cirand
Warden.
E.W.J.G.W. Eight Worshipful Junior
Grand Warden.
R.W.O. (Rlddarc nf Wasa Ordtn)
Knight of the Order of
Wasa.
E.W.S.G.W. Eight Worshipful Senior
Grand Warden.
Ey. Eailway.
S.
S. Sign; South; Seutheru
(Postal District, Lon-
don); Sulphur; Saint;
Sunday; Saturday;
Slgnor: Saxon; Scribe;
Sextus; — (Hcmis) Half.
S. or Sab. Sabbath.
S. ors. Second; Shilling; Sun;
Set«; See; Solo; stem;
Section; Series; Singu-
lar; Son; Succeeded.
S..\. South .\m erica; Souca
.Africa ; South Australia.
S.A.orsji. (Sccundem Arlem) Accords
ing to Art.
Sam. .Samuel ; Samaritan,
Saml. Samuel.
ABBREVIATIONS
21-.
SanSi, Sansk. or Sano. Sanskrit.
{Soaic talis Aiiliquanorum
S&eius) Ifellow of the
Society of Autiquarie&.
Saturday.
Saxou ; Saxony.
iSUliium) Autimony..
South Britain (j. c. Euglana
and VVaies-).
Southern Baptist Convea-
S 0 u t li Carolina.— (6e7ia«is
Conmllum) A decree of
the Senate.
S. Caps, or S. C. Small Capitals
S.A.S.
Sat.
Sax.
. Sb.
S.B.
S.B.C.
s.c.
'(HcUioct) To wit: namely
being, understood.
Scandium.
{SciUpsU) ,Be (or bhe) en-
graved it.
Scaudimxvian.
(Scandnliim magnatum) Ue-
famatory expressions
injurious- to persons of
dignity.
Bachelor of Science.
Doctor of Science.
(i<vh<iliui,i) A note,
sch. or schr. Schooner.
Science.
Scire facias.
iSciiicet) To wit: namely
being understood.
Student of the Civil Law.
Sclavonic.
(Sacra Csimrrn Majsstas)
Imperial Majesty.
Scotland , Scotch, Scottish.
Scruple, Script., Scripture,
Scriptural.
Sculp, or sculp. (Sculpfit) He (or She)
engraved it.
Sculp, or sculpt. Sculpture.
So. or sc.
Sc.
So. or Sculp
Scand.
Scan. Mag.
Sc. B.
Sc. D.
Sch
Sch
Sci.
Sci. fa.
Soil., soil.
S.C.L.
Sclav.
S.C.M.
Scot.
Ser. or scr.
S.D.
S. Dak.
S.D.U.K
S.E.
9e.
.Soaiop Destcon.
.South Dakota.
Society for the Diffusion of
Useful Knowledge.
South-East; .South-Bastern
(Postal District, London).
^^. Selenium.
Sec. or Sec'y. Secretary..
Sec. or sec. Second, Section.
Sec. Secant.
Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation.
Sect, or sect. Section. ,
Sen Senate, Senator; senior.
Sen. or Sept. September; Septuagint.
<5pn or sea (.tcQunUcs or SVouenao)
Seq. or seq. t - ^j^^ jjj„o^^,ing . tte nest.
Sen. Doc. Senate Document.
Ser. Series.
Serb. Serbian. .
Serg. or serj. Sergeant, or Serjeant.
Serv. Servian.
Serv. or Servt. Servant.
Sess. Session.
S G. Solicitor-General.
Sh., sh., S-. or s. Shilling
Shak.
S.H.S.
81.
S.I.M
Slav.
Sid. or sld.
8.M.
Sm.
S.Mj:.
Seller's Option.
Society.
Song of Solomon.
Sons of Temperance.
Solomon; Solution.
Solicitor-General.
Spain, Spanish; Spirit.
(Sim prole) Without issue.
ISociiitalis Philos op h i c x
•1 m erica n. x Hnnu s)
Member of the American.
Ehilosophical Society;
Societv for the Prevention
of 'Cruelty to Animals.
Societv for the Prevention
of Crueltv to Children.
Societv for the Promotion
of rtiristian Knowledge.
Specific, or specif. Specihcally
S.O. or s.o,
Soc.
S. of SoU
S. of T.
Sol.
Sol. -Gen.
Sp.
8. P.
S.P.A.S.
S-.P.C.A.
S.P.C.C.
S.P.C.K.
Shakespeare.
iSiici'tatis Hislarix Socius)
Fellow ot the Ulstorical
Society.
Silicinm. Silicon.
Society tor the Inoreosa of
the Ministry (P.E.
Church).
Sing, or sing. .'ilnBular.
S.J Society of .Tesus.
S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court,
skr. Sanskrit.
S L Solicitor at Law.
S Lat. orS.L. South Latitude.
Slavonic, Slavonian, Slavic.
Sailed.
State Militia; Short Mter:
Sergeant .Major; Sons of
Malta.
Samarium.
(Suiiala MaUr Ecclcsia) Holy
Mother Church.
{Sa MajiKt/- IwpfriaU) His
(or Her) Imperial Ma-
jesty.
SM Lond. Soo. (.S'onfrfad'* Mediae, l.on-
(llnienaia Socius) Mem-
ber of the London Med-
ical Society.
S M M. (Sancla .Mater .Maria) Holy
Mother Mui-y.
9-.N. orsn. (Srcu :i il " m Snturnm) Ac-
cording to -Nature,
gn. (Slamnun) Tin.
S.M.I.
Societv for the Propagation
of the Gospel.
Specific gravity.
Short Particular Meter.
(Senalus Pimulasque Boma-
mis) The Senate and
People of Rome.
Society for the Promotion
of 'Religion and Learn-
ing (P.E. Church). ^
(sine prole sunirstili ) With-
out surviving issue..
Seaport. . , . ,
(Ser/acns, .■leguentcs) And
the following,
oq. ,;, »4. Square. . . , ».
Sq ft. or sq. ft. Square foot or feet
So in., or sq. in. Square inch or inches.
S.P.G.
Sp. gr.
S.P.M.
S.P.Q.R.
S.P.R.L.
s.p.s.
Spt.
Sq., sqq.
Sq. or sq.
Sq m or sq. m. Square mile or miles.
So r. or sq. r. Squaxe rod or rods.
Sq yd.orsq.yds. Square yard or yards.
Sr , Sir. or Senior; Strontium
(Sacrum Romuiiiim Imprrium)
Holy Roman Empire.
(Sociitalus Rrqi;e Socius)
Follow of the Royal So-
ciety.
(Scilicet) Namely.— (Semis)
Half.
Sessions.
Saints.
Sunday School; Saint Sim-
pllcius (the mark on the
collar of the Chief Jus.
tlce of England).
Solicitor Supreme Court.
ISanctissiiniis Do m i iiu s)
Most Holy Lord— a title
of the Pope.
South, South-East.
South; South-West.
Saint ; Street ; Stone ; Strait.
(Stet) Let it Stand.
Statute ; Statutes ;Statuary.
Sons of Temperance.
Bachelor of Sacred Theol-
ogy.'
(Sacne ThcolofiiR- Doctor)
Doctor of Divinity;
Doctor of Sacred The-
ology.
Ster. or Stg. Sterling. , . „ ,
8 T P (,S'rtiTri;i' riiralonne Professor)
■ ' ■ Professor of Theology.
Str. Steamer.
Subj.orsubj. Subjunctive.
Subst. or subst. Substantive ; Substitute.
Suff. or suff. Suttix.
Su. Goth. Suiv. Gothic.
Sun. or Sund. Sunday.
S.R.I.
S.R.S.
SS. or S3.
Ss..
Ss.
S.S.
S.S.C,
SS.D.
S.S.E.
S.S.W.
St.
Stat.
S.T.
S.T.B.
S.T.D.
Supreme.
Superior Court.
Superior; Supplement; .Su-
perfine; Superlative.
Supplement.
SuperiiiU-ndent.
Surgctin ; Suii^ery.
Surgeon-General.
Surveying; Surveyor.
Surveyor-General.
(Sab I'occ or iwrbn) TTtider
the Word (or title).
(Sanctita.i Vestra) Your
Holiness ; (SnvctaVirgo)
Holy Virgin.
South-W est ; Sonth-Westem
(Postal District, Lon-
don) ; Senior Warden.
5,„. Swedish, Sweden.
Swlt., Swltz. Switzerland.
Syn. or syii. Svnnnym, Synonymous,
avnop. Synopsis.
Sjr. Syria, Syriac.
Sup.
Sup. Gt..
Sup.
Snpp.
Slijit.
Surg.
Surg.-Gen.
Surv.
Surv. Gen.
S.v. or s.v.
S.V.
S.W.
Sw.
T Tenor; Titus- TulUus;
Tuesday.— ('/««') Adl'
togetlier.
Tort Town; Township; Terri-
tory; Ton; Tun; Testa-
ment.
Ta Tantalum.
Tab Table; Tabular statement..
T.A!.'H. Total Abstinence Brother'
hood.
Tal. qual. or tal. qual. ( Talis qunlis) Just.
as they come; average:
quality.
Tan. or tan. Tangent.
Tart. Tartaric.
Tb Terbium.
T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
Te. T'ellur'iura.
T E. Topographical Engineers^
Tel.' or teleg. Telegraphy.
Tenu. Tennessee.
Ter. Territory.
Term, or term. Termination.
Test. Testament.
Tent. Teutonic.
Tex. Texas-. .
Text Rec. (Teitus Beceiptus) Received.
Text.
Tt or tf. Till forbidden (Printers'
advertising mark).
Xh. Thursday; Thomas; Tho-
rium.
Theo Theodore; Theodosia.
Theoi. Theology, Theological.
Theoph. Theophilus.
Theor. or theor. Theorem.
Thess. Thessaionians.
Tho. or;Thos.Thomas.
Thurs. Thursday. , ,, ,
T.H.W.M. Trinity High-water MarK^
Ti. ' ' Titani'um.
Tier, or tier. Tierce.
Tim; Timothy.
Tit. Titus; Title.
Th. Tho Ilium.
T 6 Turn Over.
Tob'. Tobit; Tobacco.
Tom. Tome or volume.
Tonn. or toun. Tonnage.
Topog. Topography ; Topographical.
To. Township.
Tr Translation: Translator;
Transpose; Treasurer;
Trustee; Terbium.
Trans Traaisactions; Translated;
Translation ; Transla-
tor.
Trav. Travels.
Treas. Treasurer. .
Trig. Trigonometry; Trigono-
niolrical.
Trin. Trinity.
T.T.L. To Take Leave.
Tu.' Thubium.
Tu. or Tues. Tuesday. ,
Turk. Turkey, Turkish.
Tvii. or TjTO. Typographer.
Typog. Typography ; Typographical.
U.
U Uranium.
u'b United Brethren.
U C' Upper Canada.— (D'rfis
Voiidita) Year of
Rome.
U.E.r.C. United East India Compa-
ny.
U G R R. Unde'rground Railroad.
U'j 'd (Utri usque Ju ris Doctor)
' ■ ■ Doctor of Both Laws
(I. e.. the Canon and the
Civil Law).
U K United Kingdom.
v'.k'.A. Ulsler liing-at-Arms.
Vlt.ornlt.(Ultimo) Last; of the last
month.
Urn. Unmarried.
Unit. Unitarian.
Univ. University.
Univ. or urdv. Universally.
U p United Presbyterian.
u'piC. United Presbyterian
Churohi
„ 3 (ut suprn) .\s above.
u's United States.
U'SA. United Stales of America;
United Statoa A*my.
V s L United italea LuKCtioiu
U'SM. Uuilud States Moil; United
States Marine.
22
A B B R E y I A T I O N S
U.S.M.A. United States Military
AciidiMiiy.
U.S.N. Unllud .■SlatfS Navy.
U.S.R. UhIkt of tliu Siiailut Rod.
U.S.S. Uulted .'5tat«a Senate;
United States Ship {or
Steamer).
U.S.S.Ct. Uulted States Supreme
Court.
U.S.V. United States Volunteers.
U.8.W. (Ger. thid m weiter) And so
forth.
U Utah.
U.T. Utah Territory.
Ux. (Uxor) Wile.
V.
V. Vanadium : Vletorla; Vis-
count.
V. or V. Verb ; Verse ; Village ; Voca-
tive ; Volume ; Violin.—
( IVf/f) See.
V. or V. ( Vrrmut) .Vpainst.
V. ( I'c II r r II li His I'encrandus)
Venerable.
V.A. Vlee-.\dmiral; Vicar-Apos-
tle.
v.a. Verb active.
Vu. Virginia.
Val. Value.
Var. or var. Vurli'ty.
Var. leet. (Varia lectio) DllTerent
reading.
Vat. Vatican.
V. aux. Verb au.\iliary.
Vb.n. Verljal noun.
V.t;. Vice-Chaneeilor: Vlee-
Cliairmau; Victoria
Cross.
V. del. Verb defective.
V. dep. Verli deponent.
V.D.L. Van l>ieman's Land.
V.D.M. {Vn-bi Dei Minister) Minis-
ter of the Word of God.
Ven. Velierubie.
Ver. 07- ver. Verse; Verses.
Veter. Veterinary.
V.G. Vicar-General ;Vlee-G rand.
V.G. or v.g. ( I'l r(n' qrutia) For exam-
pie.
V.i. Verb Intransitive.
Vice-Pres. Vice-President.
Vid. or vid. ( Viile\ See.
Vjl. Viihitrc.
V. Imp. Verb impersonal.
y. irr. Verb irregular.
Vis. or Vise. Viscount.
Vltr. Vitruvius.
Viz. or viz. ( Viilelicct) Namclv;To-wit.
v.u. Verb neuter.
Vo. ( Vrrm) Left-hand page.
Voc. or voc. Vocative.
Vol. or vol. Volume.
Vols, or vols. \'olumes.
V.P. Vice-President.
V.lt. (Virtnrin Jteyiiia) Queen
Victoria,
v.r. Verb reflexive.
V. Uev. Very Reverend.
V.R. P. Vcstra Jievcrenil iesimtt
PaternitaK) Your Very
Reverend Paternity.
Vs. or vs. ( VerHUK) Against.
V.S. Veterinary Surgeon.
Vt. Vermont,
v.t. Verb transitive.
Vul. Vulgate.
Vulg. or vulg. Vulgar, Vulgarly,
vv.li. {Variie lectiome) Various
readings.
W.
\V. Western (Postal District,
London) ; WilUani ;
Wednesday ; Welsh;
Warden. — ( Wol/mm i-
um) Tungsten.
W. or w. Week.
W.A. West Africa; West Au-
stralia.
Wall. Wallachia.
\\'ash. Washintiton.
W.B.M. Women's Hoard of Mis-
sions.
W. B.M.I. Wonien'sBoard of Missions
of the Interior.
W.C. Western Continent; West-
ern Central (Postal
District. London).
W.C..\. Women's Christian' Asso-
ciation.
W.C.T.U. Women's Christian Tem-
neranee Union.
Wed. Wednesday.
Westm. Westminster.
Wf. or \vf. Wrong font.
W.G.C. Wortliy Grand Chaplain
(or Conductor).
W.G.G. Worthy Grand Cluardian;
Worthy Grand Guide.
W.G.II. Worthy Grand Herald.
W.G.M. Worthy Grand Marshal.
W.G.S. Worthy Grand Sentinel.
Wlif. or whf. Wharf.
W.II.M.A. Woman's Home Missionary
Association.
Wk. or wk. Week.
W.I. West India; West Indies.
Wluton. (Wintonieneis) Of Win-
chester.
Wis. Wisconsin.
W. Long. West Longitude.
Wni. Wllliani.
W..M. Worshijiful Master.
W..M.S. Wesleyun Missionary So-
ciety.
W..\.W. Wesi-.Sbrth-West.
W.P. Wortliy I'atrlarch.
Wp. Worship.
Wpful. Worshipful.
W.K. William (AVj-) King; West
Hiding.
W.S. Writer to the Signet.
W.S.W. West-South- West.
Wt. or wt. Weight.
W.Va. West Virginia.
Wyo. Wyoming.
X.
Xa. Kxainlned.
-K.orXt. Christ.
Xm.orXmas. Christmas.
Xn.orXllau. Christian.
Xnty. or Xty. Christianity.
Xper. or Xr. Chrlstoiiher.
Y.
Y.
Yttrium.
V. or yr.
Year.
Y.B. or Yr.B
. Yearbook.
Yd. or yd.
Yard— yds. Yards.
Ye or ye.
The, Thee.
Ym. or ym.
Them.
Y.M.C.A.
Young Men's Christian As-
sociation.
Y.M.C.U.
Young Men's Cbrlstian
Union.
Yn. or yn.
Then.
Y.P.S.C.E.
Young People's Society of
Christian Endeavor.
Yr. or yr.
Their.
Yr.
Your, Year.
Yrs.
Yours, Years.
Vs. or vs.
This.
Yt. or vt.
That.
Y.W.C.A.
Young Women's Christiau
Association.
Z.
Zttch.
Zachary.
Zech.
Zeehariab.
Zeph.
Z.ti.
Zei>haniab.
Zotiiogicttl Garden.
Zn.
Zinc.
Zoiil.
Zoiilogy. Zoological.
Zr.
Zirconium.
The following abbreviations are used by horse-'
men :
b.
hik.
br.
c.
eh.
f.
AHnREVI.\T(;)UY SIGNS indicating weights or
■measures. Tlie following arljitrary signs indicate
apothecaries' weights:
Bav.
g.
Gelding.
Black.
gr.
tiray.
Brown.
h.
Horse (stallion)
Colt.
m.
Mare.
Chestnut.
ro.
Roan.
Filly.
s.
Sorrel.
3. Scruple.
S. Ounce.
lb.
Drachm.
Pound.
The prescriptions of physicians are written in
Roman notation, a small j being used for small i
wlien final. Thus, 2 scruples are written 9 ij ; 7
■drachms, 5 vij ; 12 ounces, ,5 xij.
Ancient ajiorheciiries and physicians carefully
concealed from others all knowledge of the mixtures
given as medicines, and hence Latin names were
given, and arbitrary signs used to express the
(juantity.
In apothecaries' fluid measure the following
signs are used :
M or MR Minim (about equal to a drop of water),
f 5 Fluid drachm.
f 5 Fluid ounce.
O. Pint. (Latin nc/ai'iMs, meauiug one-eighth.)
C.orC'onp. Gallon. (Latin coiipiiis.)
In medicine R means "take," and aa "of each."
ABBT, Thomas, a distinguished German writer,
born at Ulm in IT.'iS, and died in ITlili. In Ids
twenty-third year lie was apjiointed to the chair of
mathematics in the Rinteln University. In the
same year he published. On Dying for Om'f: I'nllwr-
Unid; and the year before his early death his prin-
cipal work, on Merit.
ABl), a common Arabic word meaning slave or
servant. It is generally used in a religious sense,
and is placed as a sort of prefix to the names of
persons: as. .\bd-allali, "Servant of God ;" Abd-
el-K;uier. "Servant of tlie IMiglity One ;" Abd-uUatif,
or .\bd-allatif. "Servant of the Gracious One." Tlie
Hebrew and Syriac word used in the same sense
is "Kbed."
ABD-EL-HAMin. the adopted name of T)r Cou-
RET,anoted French t raveller, born in 1S12. His first
tour of importance was through Eypt, the Nile
country, .Vbyssinia. and the Ked Sea. He adfipted
the habits and customs of the East, changed his
name, and becam(> a Mohammedan. Later, while
travelling in Persia, he was held as a prisoner of
State, and was released only upon the intervention
of the French government, in whose interest he
next undertook an expedition to the .Soudan. In
1855 he published, in 3 volumes, ^fedina ct !a Mekke;
also ilimoire d Sapoltoit III.
A B D - U L - A Z I Z — A B E L I T E S
23
ABD-UL-AZIZ, born Feb. 9, IcSSO. In l-Sfil suc-
ceeded his brother. Abd-ul-Medjid. who was the
thirty-first sultan of tlie Ottoman Turks. His reign
was weak and corrupt, characterized bj- numer-
ous insurrections. His professions of liberality
upon accession to the throne lasted but a short
time, and his people soon saw that his promise
of governmental reform would come to naught.
He taxed the people heavily, and with the
money equipped his army extravagantly, beauti-
fied the capital, and went on pleasure-seek-
ing journeys or costly hunting expeditions. In 1807
he paid a visit to western Europe, but his disap-
pointed subjects gained no benefit from the expe-
dition. During this reign the neglected govern-
ment had a severe struggle to maintain its exist-
ence. First there broke out the Cretan insurrec-
tion, then came the struggle between Eoumania
and Servia for complete control ; and, lastly, the
Mohammedan dispute arose, and caused a great
deal of disturbance. In 1871 the Sultan attempted
to secure the throne for his son in place of his
nephew, to whom the Turkish government gave the
right. At last his subjects became thoroughly
dissatisfied; and, in 1875, through his financial diffi-
culties and the intrigues into which he had entered
with Russia, revolts were raised in Bosnia, Herze-
govina and Bulgaria. A conspiracy forced him
first to dismiss his minister, and afterward, May 30,
1876, to himself abdicate the throne. His tragic
death, which occurred four days later, probably
resulted from treason.
ABD-UL-HAMID II., reigning Sultan of Turkey ;
born Sept. 22,1842(15 Shaban, 1245), the second son
of Sultan Abdul Medjid ; succeeded to the throne
on the deposition of his elder brother. Sultan Murad
V, Aug. 31, 1876. Children of the Sultan:—
I. Mehemmed-Selim Eflfendi, born Jan. 11,1870. II
Zeki^ Sultana, born ,Ian. 12, 1871. III. Naim(5 Sul-
tana, born Aug. 5, 1876. IV. Abdul-Kadir Effendi,
born Feb. 23, 1878. V. Ahmed Effendi, born March
14, 1S78. VI. Nailt^ Sultana, born 1883. VII. Mehem-
med Burhaneddin Effendi, born 1885. Brothers
and sisters of the Sultan :
I. Mohammed Murad Effendi, born Sept. 21, 1840 ;
proclaimed Sultan of Turkey on the deposition of
his uncle. Sultan Abdul-Aziz, May 30, 1876 ; declared
by the council of ministers to be suffering from
idiocy, and deposed from the throne, Aug. 31, 1876.
II. I)jemil<J Sultana, born Aug. 18, 1843: married,
June 3, 1858, to Mahmoud-Djelal-Eddin Pasha, son
of Ahmet Feti Pasha.
III. Mehemmed-Keshad Effendi, born Nov. 3,
1844 ; heir-apparent to the throne.
IV. Medihie Sultana, born Nov. 21, 1851; married
to the late Mahmud Pasha, son of Halil Pasha.
V. Suleiman Effendi, born Nov. 21, 1860.
VI. Fehim6 Sultana, born Jan. 26, 1861.
VII. Wahieddin Effendi, born Jan. 12, 1862.
The present sovereign of Turkey is the thirty-
fourtli, in male descent, of the house of Othman,
the founder of the empire, and the twenty-eightli
Sultan since the conquest of Constantinople. By
the law of succession obeyed in tlie reigning fam-
ily, the crown is inherited according to seniority
by the male descendants of Othman, sprung from
the Imperial harem. The harem is considered
a permanent State institution. All children born
in the harem, whether offspring of free women or
of slaves, are legitimate and of equal lineage. The
Sultan is succeeded by his eldest son, but only in
case there are no uncles or cousins of greater age.
It has not been the custom of the Sultans of Tur-
key for some centuries tu contract regular mar-
riages. The inmates of the harem come, by |)ur-
chase or free-will, mostly from districts beyond the
limits of the empire, the majority from Gircassia.
From among these inmates the Sultan designr.te ;
a certain number, generally seven, to be "Kadyn."
or Ladies of the Palace, the rest, called " Odalik," re-
maining under them as servants. The Superintend-
ent of the Harem, always an aged Lady of the
Palace, and bearing the title of " Haznadar-Kadyn."
has to keep up intercourse with the outer world
through the Guard of Eunuchs, whose chief, called
" Kyzlar-Agassi," has the same rank as the Gtrand
Vizier, but has the precedence if present on State
occasions.
ABD-UR-KAHMAN (1778-1859). Sultan of Fez
and Morocco. He ascended the throne upon the
death of his uncle, in 1823. At that time the
country was disturbed by insurrections and for-
eign wars, brought aliout by the hostility of his
suh)jects, and the first four years of his reign were
spent in settling domestic disputes. War was threat-
ened with Austria, because her sailors refused to
pay the tribute formerly levied on them by the
government of INIorocco, insuring them against
the attacks of Moorish pirates. The controversy
was settled by Abd-ur-Rahman, who pronounced
this requirement unjust and ordered it abolished.
The Sultan afterwards engaged in the religious war
under Abd-el-Kader, against the French in Algeria,
which movement was concluded in tlie battle of
Isly (1844).
ABECEDARIANS, a small sect of Anabaptists
in Germany, founded by Storch. They were espe-
cially noted for their fanatical ideas with regard
to education. Their teaching was that the merest
rudimentary learning was unnecessary, and that it
lead to evil consequences. The Lord, they said,
would communicate sufficient knowledge to sucli
as desired to read the Bible.
ABEEL, D.vviD, American missionary, born in
New Brunswick, N. J., June 12, 1804. He was
graduated at Rutgers College, entered the minis-
try, and became a missionary to China. He was
one of the most successful in the missionary field
of the early Americans, but his health gave way
and he returned to die, in Albany, N. Y., Sept. 4,
1846.
ABEGG, Julius F. H., a German writer on juris-
prudence, was born at Erlangen, March 27, 1796.
From 1826 until his death in 1868 he was professor
at Breslau. His works on criminal legislation are
numerous and important, and have exercised a vast
inrtuence, especially in Germany and the Scandina-
vian Peninsula.
ABEL DI-; PUJOL, Alexandre Dexis, French ar-
tist, born at Valenciennes, Jan. 30, 1785. His most im-
portant works are decorations in various public
buildings of note ; but he has also painted numer-
ous celebrated pictures. He died Sept. 28, 1861.
ABEL, Sir Frederick Augustus, chemist, born
in London 1827. His main study was the science of
explosives. He made numerous discoveries in
this science, and in 1866 pulilished them in a
work called (luii-CoHon. Subsequently, lie wrote:
The Modern Ilintory of Gvnpoirtler; fiiexjiloxiir.
Arjents; Rettenrches in Explosives; and, in 1S84, Klec-
triciti/ Applied to Explosives Purposes. He also wrote,
with the assistance of Colonel Bloxam. a Hand-
book of Chemistrii. Through some chemical arrange-
ment he produced, from blasting gelatine, a very
powerful and more easily manageable explosive,
lie was kniglited in 18S,",, and the same year re-
ceived at Oxford the degree of D.C.L. He hasbeen
elected associute member of the ordnance com-
mittee, chemist to the war department, and
chemical referee to the government.
ABELITES, an ancient sect of Christians in
North Africa, so named from the Patriarcli AbeL
21
A B E L ]. — A J} E Y A X C E
who, as they said, not l)egettinK children, was not
a |>riii)agatnr of original sin. They married, Ijiit
remained childless — adoptinj; children, whom they
educated in tlieir belief.
-MIKLL. AuLXAif S., American journalist, born
in East Providence, K. I., ISOO. He Ijegan life as a
cleric, but in 1822 "became an apprentice in theollice
of the Providence " Patriot." After becoming thor-
oughly proficient in all tlie details of a printing
ollice, he removed to Boston, and later to New Y(jrk,
where he secured emi)loyment. Here lie made the
ac(|uaintance of Azariali 11. Simmons and William
M.Swain, practical printers like himself, and as-
sociating liimself with
them under the lirm-
name of Swain, Abell &
Simmons, removed to
Philadelphia and
started the "Public
Ledger" as a daily penny
paper, the first number
appearing March 25,
Itv^ti. The following year
-Mr. Al)ell went to Balti-
more and started the
Baltimore "Sun," the
p?" ) first number appearing
' ' May 17, hSiZ. This pa-
per was successful from
the start, and in lo()4
Mr. Abell disposed of his interest in the "Ledger"
and devoted his whole attention to the "Sun," be-
coming its sole proprietor in l.SOS. AVith the most
sovereign contempt for sensationalism, scandal and
petty gossip, he had the true spirit of enterprise.
His firm was the first to adopt the great Hoe ro-
tary printing machines; and the first extended
despatch over the experimental telegraph line be-
tween Jiallimore and Wasliiiigton was the Presi-
dent's message, printed in the "Sun." Died April
ly, 1.S8S.
ABENAKIS. See Algonquins, in this volume.
ABENACilll, Abnaki or Tarranteens were the
former Algoncjuins of ilaine. They were impla-
cably hostile both to the Indians and to the colo-
nists south of them. They were converted to
Roman (Catholicism under the labors of Kale, who
compile<l a dictionary of their language.
ABEXDIUCRG, a mountain in the canton of
Berne, rising abruptly out of the water of Lake
Tliun on tlie soutli side. It is an interesting site of
an institution established by Dr. Gugenbuhl for
the cure of cretinism.
ABER is an ancient word of Celtic origin, which
originally signified the emptying of a smaller body
of water into a larger one. it also means the
mouth of a river or a conflux of waters, hence it is
often prefixed to the names of places throughout
Scotland and Wales situated at the mouth of a
river, or where one river flows into another, or into
the sea ; as Aberbrothock, a place in Forfarshire,
Scotland, situated at the mouth of the Brothoek;
Abergavenny, a Welsh town, at the junction of the
Usk and tlie Gavenny. A town situated like the
latter derives its name from the larger or more
important body of water.
ABERCORX, Ja.mks Hamilton, Duke op, lord
lieutenant of Ireland, 186(i-68 and 1874-76, was born
Jan. 21, 1811, and died Oct. 31, 1885.
ABERCROMBIE, James, British general and
statesman, born in Scotland in 170(j. He entered
the army and became colonel in 1746, major-gen-
eral in 1756, lieutenant-general in 1759, and general
in 1772. On July 8, 1758, he attacked Fort Ticon-
deroga with 15,000 men. of whom 9.000 were collo-
nial troops, and was completely defeated by 3,600
Frenchmen under Gen. Montcalm, loeing al)ove
2,iKKl I'oUowers. In 1759 he returned to England,
ami, as a member of parliament, opposed the rights
of the American colonies. He died April 28, 17S1.
AI5EHGUO-MHIE, Jmis Josei-ii, American sol-
dier, born in Tennessee in 1802. He was graduated
at West Point in 1822, served in the First Infantry as
adjutant from 1825 to 18;K, and as captain in 1836.
For gallant conduct at the battle of Ockeechobee
he was brevetted major, and lieutenant-colonel for
gallantry at the battle of Monterey, where he was
wounded. He served at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo,
and as aid-de-camp to Gen. Patterson in 1847. He
served in several battles during the civil war and
was brevetted brigadier-gener;d. retiring June 12,
1865, trf Roslyn, N. Y., where he died, Jan. 3, 1877.
ABERDARE, Lohi) (He.nry Ai'stis Bbuce), was
Ijorn at Duffryn, in Glamorganshire, in 1815. He
was called to the bar in 1837, and in 1852 was
returned by Merthyr-Tydvil to the House of Com-
mons as a Liberal. He was Home Secretary under
Gladstone in 1868, and carried an important licens-
ing act ; raised to the jieerage as Lord Aberdare in
1873, he became Lord President of the Council.
He was elected President of the Royal Geographi-
cal Society in 1880.
.ABERDEEN, a town of Mississippi, on the Tom-
bigbee River, enjoys an immense trade in cotton
and general merchandise ; is an educational center,
and contains the fine public buildings of Monroe
county.
ABJ'.RDEYINE, a song-bird somewhat resembling
the green canary. It has no settled home, migrat-
ing as the seasons change into different European
countries — Germany, Britain and France. It is
adapted to a cold climate, and therefore spends
most of the year in the north of Europe, where it
lireeds, coming south only in the cold season. The
nest of this bird is rarely found, as it builds it in
very high trees and in secluded positions. The
(ioldfinch is related to it, but is somewhat larger.
It is black except for the nape, which is of a
dusky green, and above and below each eye is a
broad streak of yellow. The p€K>ple of Europe
often tame it, which is an easy task, and keep it as
a cage-bird.
ABERGELDIE CASTLE, the Aberdeenshire
seat of the Prince of Wales, on the Dee's right l)ank,
(i miles west of Ballater, and 2 north east of Bal-
moral.
ABERT, John James, American soldier, born in
Shepliardstown, Va., Sept. 17, 1788. He was grad-
uated at West Point
in 1811, and was em-
ployed in the war
oflice. He studied law
and was admitted to
the bar in 1813. He
volunteered for the
defense of the capital
in the war of 1812, and
in 1814 was reap-
pointed to the army
as topographical engi- '
neer. In 1829 he took
charge of the topo-
graphical bureau at
Washington, and in
1861 retired after
"long and faithful service."
ington, I). C, Sept. 27, 18(>i.
ABEY■A^'CE, in law, is a term denoting a state
of expectation or contemplation. Thus, where
property is devised to one during life, with remain-
der over to his heirs after his death, the remainder
is said to be in abeyance until the death of the life
JOHN JAMES ABERT.
He died in Wash-
A B H O 11 R E R S — A B R A H A M I T E S
, 25
►
teaaut. Titles nf honor and of dignity are in
abeyance wlien it is uncertain who shall enjoy
them. The title to personal property may also be
in abeyance ; as in replevin suits, where the o'mier-
ship of property is in dispute, and the property
itself is in the custody of the law pending its deliv-
ery to the successful claimant. In such case the
title is said to be in abeyance until the determina-
tion of the suit.
ABHORRERS was a name given, from their pro-
fessed abhorrence of the principles of those who,
during the reign of Charles II, endeavored to re-
strict the royal prerogative, to those who were
afterwards linown as Tories.
ABIATHAK, a Hebrew high-priest in the time of
David. For his sliare in Adonijah's rebellion he
was deprived of the priestly office, and banished by
Solomon from Jerusalem.
AJBIB, " the season of newly ripe com," desig-
nated particularly the month Nisan, the first of the
Jewish sacred year, nearly corresponding to our
March.
ABICH, WiLHEf.M Hkrm.\nx, geologist and trav-
eler, was born at Berlin, Dee. 11, 1,806. He studied
at IJerlin, became professor at Dorpat in 1842,
Fellow of the St. Petersburg Academy in 1853,
and after 1877 lived at Vienna. He explored the
•Caucasus region, the Armenian highlands and
northern Persia, and his published works are inval-
uable geological and meteorological memoirs on
these countries. He died July 2, 18S6.
ABIGALL, wife of Nabal, a wealthy chief of Car-
mel, who refused common hospitality to David
when an outlaw from tlie court of Saul. When
David was on liis way to punish Nabal, Abigail
hastened to meet him witli a present, and he was
jio much pleased with her that, on the death of iier
liusband soon after, he tooli her to wife. In her
address to David, Abigail applied to herself tlie
title of "handmaid," hence the general application
•of the name to lady's-maids and waiting-maids.
ABILENE, a thriving town of Kansas, on the
Kansas River. It was formerly an important ship-
jiiiig center for cattle. It is the county seat of
Dickinson Co., and located 95 miles west of Topeka.
ABINGDON, a town of Illinois, situated in Knox
county, and a thriving agricultural center. It is
the seat of Abingdon and Hedding Colleges.
ABINGDON, a noted historical town of Virginia,
county seat of the first county named in honor of
Yi'ashington, is beautifully situated near Walker's
]Mountain, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic
academy and convent, tlie valuable library of the
Maury Literary Society, Stonewall Jackson Insti-
tute, Abingdon Male Academy, and Jlartlia Wash-
ington College for Girls. Deposits of gypsum occur
here, and Abingdon furnished immense quantities
of salt to the Confederacy during the war.
ABINGER, Sir Jamks Scarlett, Lord, a distin-
guished barrister of England, was born in Jamaica
in 1709 and died 1844. He was attorney -general in
1827 and 1829, aud in 1834 he was apjiointod chief
baron of the excliequer.
ABIOGENKSIS, is a term used to indicate spon-
taneous goneralion, or the production of li>nng
things otherwise than through the growth and
devel()i)ment of detached portions' of the parent;
organism. Belief in tlie prevalence of abiogenesis
has become very much modified during the last
few years, and it is now supposed to occur, if at all,
only in the lowest forms of microscopic organisms.
For a further discussion of this subject, see Britan-
nica, \'ul. 1, ]). 49.
AB0LITI0NI8TS, a term used to designate a
party in the United States, who sought the inimi>-
diato and total al)olition of slavery. Their views
had long been held by many, especially by the
members of the Society of Friends. The term was
not commonly used until an aggressive party
spread from New England throughout the north
and west, demanding an immediate and uncondi-
tional emancipation. After about 30 years of agi-
tation they became sufficiently powerful to secure
the adoption of some of their doctrines by the Re-
puldican party. Their ends were gained when, un-
der Lincoln's administration, slavery was abolished,
Jan. 1, 18(53.
ABOMASUM, or Abomasus, the true stomach of
ruminating mammals. In all ruminant animals,
such as camels, deer, neat cattle, etc., the vegeta-
ble food, after the first mastication, enters the first
stomach ; subsequently it passes into the second
stomach, where it is moistened and formed into pel-
lets or "cuds,' which the riuninantia liaA-e the
power of bringing back into the mouth for further
mastication. Upon being swallowed the second
time, it passes into the third stomach, called oma-
sum, after which it passes to the abomasum, or
fourth stomach, where the process of digestion is
completed. See Britannica, Vol. I, p. 51.
ABOUSAMBUL, also called Ipsambul, is a place
in Nubia, of considerable note, situated in lat. 22°
22* on the left bank of the Nile. It contains two
magnificent temples cut from the solid rock, and
the work is supposed to have been achieved at an
earlier date than that of any architecture now ex-
isting. Their decorations are perfect specimens of
Egyptian sculpture. The larger temple, which is
composed of fifteen partitions, contains a large
apartment, 52x57 feet, and this is supported by
eight massive stone pillars, rising to a height of
thirty feet. A colossal stone figure, such as usu-
ally decorated the temjiles of ancient Egypt, is fast-
ened at the foot of each pillar and reaches to the
top, where the decoration is finished off with stucco,
painted in gay but rich colors. The front of this
large temple is also adorned with four of these fig-
ures, so massive as to be considered the largest
among any specimens of Egyptian sculpture yet
discovered. At Sydenham, there is a crystal pal-
ace containing a model of the. temple, and also of
two of these sitting figures, each sixty-five feet in
height. The painted walls of these temp!es<con-
tain accounts of the achievements of Rameses the
Great, and it is supposed that the stone figures
were meant as representations of this king.
ABOU-GIRGEH, a large town-like collection of
Fellahin, near the west bank of the Nile, somewhat
more than a hundred miles above Cairo.
ABOUKIR, a bay of the Mediterranean, west of
the Rosetta mouth of the Nile, is celebrated as the
scene of Nelson's great victory of Aug. 1, 1798. In
the bay is also Aboukir, or Nelson Island. On a
promontory west of the bay, near tlie ruins of an-
cient Canopus, stand the citadel and town of Abou-
kir.
ABOT'T (a-hoo), E. F. V., French litterateur of
reputation, born at Dieuze, 1828. His first novel,
Tolln, appeared in the Rcrue den Deux-Mofid(/i, and
was puMislied in 1855. He was an ardent Repub-
lican. He died in 1S85.
ABR.VTI.\M, Plains of, a plateau just outsidethe
city of Ouebec, was the scene of a battle between
the Britisli and French forces, Sept. 18, 1759, in
which the respective commanders. Generals AVolfe
and Montcalm, were killed.
ABKAHAMITES, a sect whose most noticeable
peculiarity was that they rejected all of the Bible
except tlie Lord's Prayer and the Ten Command-
ments; tliough thej jirofessed to believe the doc-
trines of proliation and future reward and punish-
ment, immortality, and the personality -of God.
20
A li i; A II A .M - .M E .\ — A P. V S 8 I N I A
They obtained a sliorl-livcd prominence in Bohe-
mia, whence lliey were expelled in 1783. The term
is also used of a Christian sect of alleged gnostics,
of whom Abraham of Aniioch was the leader.
AliRAlIAM-M KN.a term applied toacertain class
of beggars, common in tlie days of Shakespeare and
existing until after the civil wars. They tramped
about the country under every imaginable dis-
guise, sometimes pretending to lie lunatics, and at-
tired in a disgracefully shabby garb, witli unkempt
hair and soiled person. Thoy would make tlieir way
into dwellings, tell a pitiful tale and demand
their wants supplied. Decker called one of these
mendicants an " .\braham cove" on account of his
grotesque manner of begging. Ho lived by excit-
ing pity, or, when that failed, by resorting to theft.
His stylo of dress was ludicrous and disgusting,
but its peculiarity gained him a subsistence.
When he was det(>cted stealing, he claimed for
himself the right that was granted to the original
"Tom o' I'edlam." who, after his discharge from
Bedlam hospital, was permitted to roam about the
country at will. The name still exists in several
slang pi: rases.
ABU.VH.VMSOX, AVerner H.vxs Frederik, Dan-
ish poet, born in Schleswig, Ai)ril 10, 1744. He
wrote historical, a'sthetic and critical essays, and
numerous translations, and also published many
poems and songs, lie died at Copenhagen, Sept.
22, IS12.
ABRIDCrJIENT, the condensation of a literary
production, regarded as a new work by the law of
cojivright.
ABROGATION, the annulment of one law
through force of another. This governmental
practice dates as far back as the days of ancient
Rome, when the different tribes gathered together.
ABROLIIOS (ar-bro-lyos), a group of islands off
the Brazilian coast.
ABRUS, a genus of plants: natural order, Legii-
minosse; suh-order, Papilionace.T. The small, round
seeds of this plant are much used in I'ritain as
beads ; they are of a deep scarlet ornamented with
a black ridge on one side. The plant is a native of
India, and originally grew in that co\intry in a
clayey soil ; but itiuis been introduced into other
trojycal countries, chiefly in the West Indies, where
it thrives successfully.
ABSECOM, a village of New Jersey, with light-
house. Population, about 507.
ABSENTEE is a term applied to land-owners
who obtain their revenue from their tenants in
their own country, while thev reside abroad.
ABSOLUTISM is that form of monarchy in
which no restriction is placed upon the authority
of the sovereign.
ABSTINENCE, ToT.\L. The first total abstinence
society in the United States was formed by Dr. B.
.1. Clarke, in 1808, in Saratoga, N. Y. ; the Massa-
chusetts society in 1813; and in 1826. the American
Temperance society was formed. The principle of
total alistinence was not generally adopted as the
platform of these societies till l,So(i. The societies
in 1841 were succeeded by the "Sons of Temper-
ance," " Rechabites," "Good Templars " and many
others. The first T. A. pledge was adoi)ted at Man-
chester, England, 1834. Father Mathew was the
originator of T. A. societies in Ireland.
ABSTINENCE SOCIETIES are associations or-
ganized to promote the cause of total abstinence.
The members, who are often called teetotalers, usu-
ally take a vow, pledging themselves to take no
alcholic drink, except at the communion table or
for medical purposes. They hold that alcohol is not
only unnecessary, but actually injurious to the
human system, and that, through the excessive use
of it, society is being demoralized; hence they claim
it necessary to set an example of total alistinence.
North America and the United States isthe s|)ecial
field for the work of these societies. Originally, tliey
went by the name of Temperance Societies.
ABSTINENTS, a sect who were prominent in
Spain and France in the third century; so called in
allusion to their abstinence from marriage, the eat-
ing of flesh and the drinking of wine — which things,
they said, were inventions of the Devil. They held
that the Holy (ihost was a created being.
AB.STRACT SCIENCE is the result of reason-
ing from axioms of human iniderstanding, and is
ajiplied in all discoveries not purely accidental.
ABT, Fit.vNZ, an eminent (iernian comjioser, was
born at Eilenburg, Dec. 22, 181'J. His works, mostly
songs, have attained great popularity on both sides
of the Atlantic. He died in 1885.
ABU KLEA, on the route across country be-
tween Korti and Metammeh (both on the bend of
the Nile below Khartoum), was the scene of a bat-
tle on the 17th .Jan., ISX."), in Mhich Sir Herbert
Stewart defeated the Mahdi's forces.
ABUTMENT, the part of a pier or wall from
which an arch springs, and which resists the out-
ward thrust. The term impost is used when the
arch is a semicircle, so that the jiressureis vertical.
In reference to a bridge, the abutments are the
walls adjoining the land, which support the ends of
t he roadway, or I he extremil icsof tlic arch or arches.
The skew-back is the course of masonry forming
the abutment of the segmental arch.
ABYLA AND CALPE, rocks both sides of the
Straits of Gibraltar, anciently the pillars of Her-
cules.
ABYSMAL ACCUMULATIONS consist of those
organic and inorganic materials which form over
the deepest portions of the sea-bottom, where no
land-derived sediments occur. Of these the most
conspicuous is a fine red clay, which owes its color
to the presence of oxides of iron and manganese.
In these red clays, metallic sperules, which are
thought to be of cosmic origin, otherwise meteoric
dust, frec|uently occur.
ABYSSINI.X, the historic outline given in Britan-
nica, Vol. I, pp (i(>-7, closed with the accession of
Kassai to the throne in 1872; the further chronolog-
ical record is as follows :
Kassai reported, in the British Parliament, to be
ruling tyrannically, 187.3-74.
War "with Egypt : the Khedive's troops enter
Abyssinia; the natives retire, but surprise and de-
feat the P^gyptians at Kherad Iska (a massacre)
and at Gonda Gouddi (a desperate fight;, Oct. 16,
1875.
-Vbyssinians defeated in three days' conflict, Feb.
17-19, 187(i.
('ol. Gordon said to be negotiating peace for
E^ypt, June, 1877.
King Johanni totally defeats Menelek, king of
Shoa, middle of June, 1877.
Menelek submits, permitted to rule ; — reported
great battle; Menelek said to lie killed Sept. 17,
1877.
Col. Gordon concludes peace ; Abyssinia to have
a port, October, 1S7!1.
Prince Alamayoii dies at Leeds, Nov. 14; buried
at Windsor, 1879.
King Johanni receives Admiral Hewitt, of the
British navy, from Suakim. and signs treaty with
the English about May 2ti, 1884.
Abyssinian envoys arrive at Plymouth, England,^
Augu'st, 1884.
Received by the Queen, Aug. 20, 1884.
Death of King Johanni ; succeeded by Menelek II,
king of Shoa, 1889.
ACACI A NS — ACCEPTANCE
27
Throughout the historic period the supreme au-
thority has shifted with the vicissitudes of local
wars from one dynastj' to another. After the over-
throw of Theodore, king of Amhara, by the English
in 1868, the suzerain power passed to Prince Kassai
of Tigr^, who assumed the old title of Negus Xegust
(" King of Kings"), and was crowned in 1S72 as Jo-
hannes II, Emperor of Ethiopia. After the death
of this potentate in 1889, Menelek II, king of Shoa,
became the supreme ruler of Abyssinia, which re-
gion has practically become an Italian protecto-
rate in virtue of the treaty of May 2, 1889, confirmed
and extended in October of the same year by a con-
vention for "mutual protection" between Menelek
and Umberto I, king of Italy.
The political institutions are essentially of a
feudal character, analognus to those of mediteval
Europe. The absolute authority of the crown is
checked by custom, as well as by an ancient code of
laws. There are twenty-four great feudal lords,
who, like the provincial governors, and even many
of the village chiefs, exercise royal functions, but
are responsible to the crown for the local taxes,
which are usually paid in kind.
The subjoined table gives a rough estimate of tlie
extent and population of the great political divi-
sions of Abyssinia, taken in its widest sense :
Political Divisious.
Area in
sq. miles.
Popvi-
lation.
Tigr^, Lasta, Amhara. and Gojam . . .
Shoa
80,000
2li,000
2.S,000
40,000
(i,000
M,000
2.000,000
1,500,000
Territory of the Bogos, Meusas, Beui- 1
Ame'r, etc )
Territory of the Afars and Adals j
100,000
200,000
Territory of the Issa and other de- j
pendent .Somali tribes S
Galla and Ka£ta lands
00,000
3,500,000
Total
'2-14,000
7,300,000
Besides the chiefs and their retainers summoned
in time of war, the king maintains a permanent
army of IloWooJcr or "mercenaries," most of whom
are now armed with rifles instead of national weap-
ons, shield and lance.
There is comparatively little land under tillage,
pasturage being the chief pursuit of the people, who
raise large herds of cattle, as well as sheep and
goats. AVild indigo, coffee, cotton, the sugar-cane,
date-palm, and vine thrive well in many districts,
but are nowhere extensively cultivated. The forests
abound in valuable trees. The chief exports are
skins, ivory, butter, gums, mules, forwarded mainly
through Massowah, the exchanges of which port
rose from 40,0(KV. in lS(il to 280.000/. in 1881. British
imports amounted in 1887 to 14,000/., and in 18S,s to
3,270/. Besides Maria Theresa pieces, bales of clot It
and salt are still used as currency. Towns are nu-
merous, but are all of small size, scarcely any with a
population of over 5,000. The most important, po-
litically and commercially, are: Gondar, ca])ital of
Amhara, 5,000; .\dua, capital of Tigr(\:i,000 ; Aksuni,
ancient capital of the Ethiopian empire, 5,000;
Antalo, former capital of Tigre, 1,000; Ankober,
former capital of Slioa, 7,000; Liclieh, present capi-
tal of Shoa, .S,000; Debra-Tabor, Magdala, and
Makall*^, occasional royal residences; Besso and
Sokoto, 1,500, important trading centers; Amba-
Mariam, 4,000; Mahdera-Mariam, 4,000.
For information concerning currency, religion,
education, weights and measurers, and judiciary
system, see those topics in this Supplement.
ACACIANS, a sect of wild Arians, named after
Acacius, bishop of Ca?sarea, who held that Christ
was like the Father but not of the same .substance,
l)eing himself but a creature of God. Some con-
tended for complete dissimilarity.
ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE, see Sciexce in sub-
sequent volume.
ACA.IUTLA, a seaport of Central America, on the
Pacific Ocean.
ACANTHACE.E, a natural order of monopeta-
lous exogenous plants ; many of which, as the Tlmn-
bergia, the Justlcia and the Aphela)idra are held in
high esteem for the beauty of their flowers.
Their seeds grow from hooks on the placenta,
and the calyx is imbricated in two broken whorls.
ACANTHASPIS. fossil-fishes found in the lime-
stone of Ohio. They are buckler-headed and
somewhat resemble Cephalaspis.
ACANTHOPHIS, native serpents of Australia,
allied to the viper, the tail ending in a horny
sjiine ; the adder is included in the genus.
ACANTHURUS CHIRURGUS, popularly known
as the Surgeon. Dactni- or Barber, is a tropical sea-
fish typical of the Acantlnirifhr, characterized by a
very sharp and pointed spine on the side of the
tail, which cuts like a lancet or razor.
A CAPELLA, a term used in music donating the
church style. It is equivalent to alia breve, a time
signature which often appears in church music.
It also donates that the instruments are to play
in tinison with the voices, or that one part is to be
played by a number of instruments.
ACARiD^E, a family of minute insects, including
the Acarii.i diniiesticii.t or cheese mile, and the Aearus
Crosii, the accidental appearance of which during
some experiments by Andrew Crosse led to the
belief that they had been generated by elec-
tricity.
ACARUS FOLLICULORim, a name generally
accepted for a microscopic parasite residing in the
sebaceous sacs and hair-follicles of the human
skin. As regards to size and form of these animals
there is much variety. Their whole existence is
passed in the fatty matter of the sebaceous cells,
molting repeatedly during their growth, and are
finally expelled from the follicles with the secretions
of these organs. They are met with in almost
every person, but are most numerous in those iii
whom the skin is torpid, in invalids and in the sick ;
they vary in length from Jj to yj^ of an inch.
ACCAD was the south-eastern division of an-
cient Babylonia, as distinguished from Sumir, the
north-western. The Accadians were the dominant
people in Babylonia, at the time of the earliest
records, and to them is attributed the origin of
Babylonian civilization and the earliest form of
cuneiform writing. There was also a city of
Accad, one of the four great cities of the " Land of
Shinar."
AC(!A LAURENTIA, variously considered as
the foster mother of Romulus, and as a rich
widow who left all her property to the Roman
people.
ACCENT, a musical term analogous to accent in
language. It consists of a stress or emphasis given
to certain notes or parts of bars in a composition.
It may be divided into two kinds— grammatical
and rhetorical, or aesthetic.
At'CEXTOK, song-birds of Europe, introduced
into the United States; small, brown aliove and
steel-colored beneath.
ACCEPT,\NCE, in law. is the receipt of any-
thing in fulfillment of a contract, or an agreeing
to the offer or contract of another by some act
which binds 1h(> person in law. In commercial law
the term denotes an engagement by the person on
28
ACCEPT ANTS — ACETIC ANIIYDTIIDE
whuiii a bill of exclmnge is drawn, to pay the biU.
6ef iSritauuica, Vol. 1, p. 82.
ACJC-ErT-VNTH, or Cu.nstiti:tioni8TS, French Jes-
uits, wlio accepted tin- ball of Clement XI, 1713.
AOOJiPTEii, or Aciei'tob, one who obligates
himself to pay a bill of exchange. See Accept-
A.NCE.
ACCEPTn.ATIOy, literally the bearing of a
receipt, means, in Human and Scotoli law, the
imaginary discharge of a debt or other oliligation
growing out of a verbal contract, witli a declara-
tion that the terms of the contract have been ful-
filled when they have not. Hence, by transference
to theology, the word is used of tiie forgiveness of
Bins liy Gild for the sake of .Tesus Christ.
ACCESSORY, in painting, is any j)art of a pic-
ture which is not an es.sential motive or center of
interest, but is introduced for the purpose of en-
hancing the effectiveness of tlie main oliject.
ACCIDEXS is that wJiich results from any cause
other than the essence or nature of the thing, as
oppf>so.d to per ge. The suu shines per ee; the
moon, per accidciig.
ACCUIEXT, in. general, is that which happens by
chance, or as an unforeseen and unexpected effect ;
but in law it has a spei;ial application to those
unforeseen occurrences which are injurious, and not
the result of personal niigligence or misconduct.
Courts of equity will not entertain claims for dam-
ages arising from accident where the claimant has
through any negligence or misconduct contriliuted
to the accident. Neither will they afford relief
where a person has an adequate remedy at law.
But with these exceptions courts of equity will, as
far as possible, give ample relief where otherwise
damages would ensue. See Britannica,Vol. I, p. 83.
ACCIDENTAL COLORS are complimentary col-
ors, as seen when the eye is suddenly turned away
from a bright-colored object upon which it has
been fixed. If we look steadily at a red spot on a
white ground, and then turn the eye quickly to an-
other ])art of tlie gnmnd, a green spot appears.
ACCUDEXTALS, in painting, are chance effects
produced by llie introduction of extraneous lights
and their consequent shadows, by means of which
the artist is enabled to bring his principal charac-
ters into greater prominence.
ACCIPITRES, the name given by Linnaus to an
order of birds, including,
according to his system,
the genera Vulture (vul-
tures), Vnlro (eagles, fal-
cons, lunvks, etc.), f<lrU
(owls), and distinguished
prineijially by a short,
hooked bill, short legs,
.\criprrRE3. powerful feet and sharp
hooked claws. They prey upon other birds and
upon mammals.
ACCOMPANIMENT, in music, is the aiding of a
solo part by other parts, which may consist of a
whole orchestra or a single instrument, or even
snl>servient vocal parts. It serves to elevate and
beautify the solo part, and is subject to certain
ruk»s for composition as well as for jierformance.
ACCOiLPLICE, one connected with a crime
either as accessory or as p;:incipal ; sometimes ap-
plied to those who testifv against each other.
ACCORD AND SATI.SFACTION, an agreement
to give and receive something as compensation for
injury and its performance. In music A is synony-
mous with concord.
ACCOUNT, a statement, written or printed, of
whatever is subjected to a commercial reckoning,
is used especially of such a statejnent of del>ite and
credits, or of receipts and expendiiures. A state-
ment of particulars of an open, running and un-
settled Ijusiness transaction, as between a mer-
clmnt and his customer, is called an account cur-
rent. An account whicli has been adjusted, and in
which a balance has been struck, is known as an
account stated. The same term is al.so used of an
account which, by implication, is presuint-d to lii>
correct ; as in the cjlsc of one party receiving :i
statement frcjm anothi'r and retaining it witlioiii
objection. Account, in the conunon law, otherwise
known as account render, is an action — now
nearly obsolete — lying jigainst one wlio refuses lo
render an account which, by virtue of liis posit imi
or office, ought to have iK-on rendered, lielief in
cases of account is now usually souglit and granted
in a court of equity. See liritannica. Vol. 1, p. i)L
ACCRETION, land gradually formed by water
deposits along the shore of a river ht sea, belonging,
except in cases of sudden formation, lo properlj
owners adjacent.
ACCCBATION, the ancient oriental practice of
eating at meals in a reclining posture, though not
mentioned by Homer, was in general use in the
historic times of Greece and Rome. The guests
lay upon the breast or tlie left side, upon cushioned
couches somewhat higher than the table; three
sides of Avhich were usually thus occupied, the
middle place being considered the position of
honor.
ACCUMULATED FORCE, the excess of force
communicated to a body to overcome resistance
and produce motion. As power is each instant im-
parted to the body, the constant application of a
very small force will at length communicate rapid
motion and great momentum.
ACCUMULATION, in law, is the adding to the
principal the income or interest of a fund as pro-
vided by will or deed.
ACELDAMA (Chaldee, "-field of blood"), tbe
name given to the ])otter's field bought by the
priests, as a burial place for strangers, with the
money which .Judas had received for betraying
Jesus, and wliich, in the horror of his repentance,
he tlung at their feet before hangiiig himself.
ACEPIIALOCYSTS are simi)le sacs, oval or
nearly sj)lierical, varving in size from a pin's head
to that of a child, and found in various part* of the
■ body of man. They were formerly considered as
parasitic animals, but are now known to be scolices
of cestoid worms.
ACESIUS, a bishop of Constantinople, of the
third century. He favored the leaching of Nova-
tianus ; and Gonstanline is said to have exclaimed
to him : '"Take thee a ladder, Acesius, and go up to
Heaven alone."
ACETABULUM, a vase used by ancients to hold
vinegar, generally made of fine red clay. Speci-
mens are now in the nnuseum of Naples.
ACETAL, a colorless liquid of an agreeable flavor
and odor, resembles that of the hazel-nut. It is
one of the products of the slow oxidation of alcohol
under the inSuence of finely divided platinum, or
of chlorine, or diluted sulphuric acid and peroxide
of manganese.
ACETATES are salts formed by the union of
acetic acid with various oxides. They are charac-
terized by solubility in water, and. generally,
ready crystallization. They are extensively used
in pharmacy and in the manufacture of dyes and
paints.
ACETIC ACID (Formula, C2H4O2), a colorless
liquid, with a strongly acid and pungent «mell and
taste. See Britannica, Vol. I, p. 93.
ACETIC ANH YDIilDE. a colorless, odorous fluid
the result of the action of oxjchloride of phospho-
rus en acetate of potassium.
ACETIC E T 11 E R S — A C KN 0 W L E D G M E N T
29
ACETIC ETHERS are acetates of alcohol radi-
cals. Common Acetic Ether, a distillation of so-
dium acetate, alcohol and oil of vitriol, is a mobile
liquid of agreeable taste and smell, used in medi-
cine and in the flavoring of wines.
ACETONE, or F\-ro-Acetic Spirit, is a liquid
■which, mixed with water, alcohol or ether, is
used to dissolve camphor, resin and fat. It has a
biting taste, and its odor, which resembles that of
peppermint, is pleasant. Acetone belongs to
a class of organic bodies derived from the Alde-
hydes.
ACETYLS is an organic radical not yet isolated,
but is supposed to exist in acetic acid and its de-
rivatives. The reason for assuming the existence
ci this radical in the acetic compounds is, that the
formula to which it leads affords the simplest ex-
planation of the most important reactions of acetic
acid.
ACH.EMENIPES, an ancient royal family of
Persia, began with Cyrus, about 55S b. c, and were
brought to an end by the conquest of the empire
by Alexander in b. c. 330.
ACHALGANJ, town of British India in the
southern part of the chief commissionership of
Oude. Population, 5,000.
ACHARD (;)/'. as-shar), Fk.\n'z K.\rl, born in
Berlin 1753, naturalist and chemist, chiefly distin-
guished by his improvements in the process of pre-
paring sugar from beet root. Died in 1822.
ACHENBACH, Axdre.^s, born at Cassel, Ger-
many, 1815. He took art lessons at the Dusseldorf
school, and afterward painted landscapes and
water views.
ACHEXBACII, Heixrich, v.-as born in Germany,
Xov. 23, 1829. In 1858 he became privatdocent and
two years later was appointed professor at the
University of i'onn ; this position he held for six
years, during which time ne founded a periodical
treating only of mining laws, and published sev-
eral valuable works on the ancient land relations of
the Germans, and on German and French mining
laws. In ISliO he became connected with the Prus-
sian Diet, and was in the same year made chief
councilor iu the Prussian ministry of commerce.
lie spent another six years iu tfiis service, after
which he was transferred to the ministry of public
worship ; a year after this he became minister of
commerce.
ACHENBACH, Osw,\ld, was a brother of An-
dreas, born 1827. He was a landscape painter, and
at thirty-six years of age he accepted the position
of professor of painting in the academy at Dussel-
dorf, the place of his birth.
ACHENE, a dry, indehiscent, stnj;Ie-seeded fruit.
The term is often restricted to fruits like those of
the common dock, but it is perhaps better to ex-
tend the term to forms like grains of wheat, nuts
of hazel, and so on. CalltM also Achenium, or
Akenium. and by earlier botanists called a naked
seed.
ACHERONTIA, or Death's Head Moth, a hand-
some insect, on whose back is a remarkable repre-
sentation of a skull. It makes a squeaking noise
when disturbed.
ACHERUSIA is the name of a lake in Epirus
into wliioh the Acheron river flows. It is also the
lame of a cavern situated in Bithynia, near Her-
aclea. Ancient Grecian mythology contains an ac-
count of Hercules dragging Cerberus through this
cavern to reiich the light of day.
A-CIIEVAL POSITION, meaning astride or on
horsel)ack. .V liody of troops is said to occupy an
A. P. when they have been divided by the obstruc-
tioii o£ a river or road, so tliat one piirt of the
ssray, is. on one side and the other oiu the opposite.
ACHILLyEA, a genus of plants of the natural
order Compositx, having small flowers (heads of
flowers) disposed iu corymbs, and the receptacle
covered with chaffy scales (small bractese). The
florets of the ray are female, and have a short,
roundish tongue or lip ; the florets of the disk are
hermaphrodite, the tube of the corolla flatly com-
pressed and two-winged; the involucre is imbri-
cated. The common yarrow, or milfoil (^"1. raiUefo-
lium) abounds in some parts of North America and
in all parts of Europe. It is about a foot in height,
its leaves bipinnate, the jiinnaj deeply divided, the
segments narrow and crowded. It has white or
rose colored flowers.
ACHILLES' TENDON attaches the soleus and
gastrocnemius muscles of the calf of the leg to the
heel bone. It is capable of resisting a force equal
to 1,000 pounds' weight, and yet it is often ruptured
by the contraction of these muscles in sudden ex-
tension of the foot. Serious wounds and bruises of
the A. T. were formerly considered fatal.
ACHILLI, Giov.wxi Giaci.vto, issued the best
Italian version of the New Testament known. He
was first a Dominican, but became a Protestant.
Born 180.S.
ACHIMENES is a plant usually found in the
warm regions of America. It bears beautiful flow-
ers, and for this reason florists often cultivate it.
There are a great many different species of this-
plant. It is of the natural order Gesnerace^.
ACHORES are one of the forms of pustules, being
most common on the face of children. Their secre-
tion forms those large, thick, irregular scabs, re-
sembling dried honey, which are so common on
children's chins. Internal administration of pur-
gatives and alkalies, strict attention to diet and
weak alkaline lotions are verv effective.
ACUTKARSPELEN, meaning the "eight par-
ishes," is a town iu the province of Friesland, Neth-
erlands. It contained in 1879 a population of
10,224 inhabitants.
ACHTYSKA is a Russian town of about 17,820
inhabitants. It is situated on the Vorskla river, in
the government of Kharhov. sixty-nine miles north-
east of the town of that name.
ACID, a general term ai)plied in chemistry to a
certain class of compounds having as one of its
numerous characteristics a sour, sharp, or bitter
taste. See Britannica. Vol. I, p. 97.
ACIDIMETER, an instrument for determining
the strength of acids. The must general plan of
this instrument is a glass tube of a hundred equal
parts, into which an alkaline liquor, the strength of
which has been determined, is placed. The acid
to be tested is of known quantity, and its strength
is determined by the proportion of liquor neces-
sary for its saturation.
ACKERJIANN, Kl-doli>ii, bom in Saxony, 176-1 ;
died 1834. Went to London, opened a repository
of fine arts- in the Strand, and was very successfuL
He introduced the art of lithography into England,
aud was the originator of the " Anuaals," wliich he
commenced by his Forr/t-t-iite-nnt, published in 1823
and after. Wood engraving, the art of water-proof,
ing and the introduction of gas-light into shop&
were greatly promoted by this enterprising German,
ACKLEY, a railroad juuction in Hardin county,
la., 132 miles west of Dubuque. Population ( in 1SS5),
1,473.
ACKNOAVLEDGJIENT, a declaration before
some authorised person of tiie aul heiiticity of an
act or deed, and the certificate of this person
indorsed on the instrument. Clerks of courts, jus-
tices of the peace, judges, mayors, commiseioners
of deeds, notaries public, are all autjiorized to tak*
acknowledgments..
30
A C L A -\ D — A C R 0 P 0 L I S
ACLAXI), (JiiKisTiNA IIauiuict Cakomnk Fox,
daughter of lln- curl of Ilclicslcr. liorii Jan. .'!, 17o().
.Slic married, 177(t, .Major Jolin Djke Acland, acfoiii-
])aiiied him to America, and shared in all the vicis-
sitiide.s of Burgoyne's campaign. Wlien lier hus-
band was wounded and taken j)risoner in the
second battle of Saratoga, she followed hitn and
was received with the utmost cordiality by Gen.
Gates. For some time after her death at Tetton,
Kngland, July 2\, ISl."), her adventures furnished a
favorit- subject for i)en and |)encil.
ACLAND, IIknkv Wkntwohtu, M. I>., I). C. L.,
F. K. S., was born in 1S15, and educated at the
University of Oxford, where, after making a thor-
ough study of m(>dicine for some years, he took the
degree of M. I), in 18-1)S. In 1858 he became pro-
fessor in the science. The university museum was
founded partly through his ( ll'orts. lie published
Tlif J'liiliiii tif Ti-iiii, while still a student at college,
and fifteen years later he gave to the public a
work entitled Mrinoir on the VhUation of VhoU-.ra
in Oxford, IS54. He was also the ])ul)lisher of a
_ ^_ number of scien-
A t^.^ •- -'.Hc-'^^^SA'.Jst^ lilic and medical
l)apers.
AOIJDR was a
weapon in use
'*''■""'■■ among the early
llomans. Called also aclis. Jt could be used as a
missile or as a club.
ACLINIC LINE is the name for the magnetic
e(iuator, which cuts the terri'strial equator, inas-
much as on the former line the magnetic needle
h;is no dip, but lies horizontal. The aclinic line is
irregular and also variable.
A(;NE, an important disease of the skin. The
sebaceous follicles of the skin are the primary seat
of the affection. Their natural secretion accumu-
lates in their interior, and there is, at the same time,
a tendency to infianimation of the follicle and sur-
rounding tissue. It is by no means rare to find on
the face and shoulder of young persons, about or
above the age of puberty, a number of black spots,
each of which is placed on a slightly raised pale
base. These black jioints are called cuini'dom'K.
Interspersed are other spots with the base more
raised and inflamed, which become more or less
perfect pustules, each of which rests on a compar-
atively large and red base. There are different
varieties of this disease. If there is no inllamma-
tion the treatment simply aims at favoring the
escape of the contents of the sebaceous follicles
by rubbing the affected parts with cold cream
at bed-time, washing with soap and water next
morning, and gentle subsequent friction with a
soft towel.
ACOMA is an Indian village situated on a high
sandstone rock in Valentia county, N. M. It can
only be reached Viy means of a spiral staircase
carved in the rock. Although the village has no
priest, missionary aid has been sent, and the inhab-
itants have erected a church. This place is suj)-
posed to be the early Acuco mentioned by Spanish
historians.
ACONCAGUA, mountain peak in the Andes. It
is the highest in Chili ; height, 22,479 ft.
ACONITIN, the active principle of the Aconite, or
Monk's-hood, is one of the most potent poisons
known. Its recognition in oases of poisoning is a
matter of difficulty, owing to the very small quan-
tity necessary for the purpose. Aconite root is
extensively used in the treatment of neuralgia
and rheumatism.
ACORN-SHELLS (hahmns), a genus of Cirripi-
des, an exceedingly familiar barnacle. They occur
in abundance, incrusting the rocks between high
and low water mark. They derive their name
from a supposed resemblance to acorns.
ACOL'STICS, the science of sound; i. <■. the
cause, nature and |)henomena of the vibrations of
elastic bodies which affect the organ of hearing.
See Uritannica, Vol. I, p. 100; also Scie.nle, L.4Ti;st
DiscovEKiKS I.N in these "Kevisions and Addi-
tions."
ACXJUAVIYA is a southern Italian town, situated
at the base of the Ai>ennines, in the province of
Bari, sixteen miles south of the town of that name.
It contains several buildings of note, a i)arish
church, two hospitals and several convents, and is
surrounded by walls and ditches originally
built as a defense to the city. The climate is very
favorable, and it has a population of 0,776 inhab-
itants.
AC.'QI'IESCEN('E, in law, is such consent to any
matter as may be reasonably inferred from neglect
to lake lei;al pniccedings in opposition thereto.
ACliUITTAL, emphjyed in law to express the re-
moval of a charge of crime.
ACK.'VSPEDA are such sea-nettles and jelly-fishes
as have no contractile marginal fold or velum upon
the Idbate border of their disk.
A(;UELILS, IsiiAKL, Swedish clergyman and
author, born at Osleraker, Dec. 25, 1714. He was
graduated at the L'niversity of I'psal, and was or-
dained in 1743, and in 1749 ttjok charge of the
Swedish congregations on the Delaware. His most
celebrated work is a history of New Sweden, pub-
lished in Stockholm in 1759. He died at Fellingsbro,
April 25, 1800.
AC'IH, a town in the province of Cosenza, South-
ern Italy, i:; miles northeast of the town Cosenza.
Its climate is healthy and the scenery is beautiful.
The surrounding country is very fertile. In 1801
its po])ulation was 11,977.
ACKOBATES, marsu-
pials found in Australia,
one species of which — the
pigmy Acrobat — resembles
the flying squirrel. It is
four inches in length, in-
cluding the tail. ACKOBATES.
ACUO-COKINTHUS, a hill not far from the city
of Corinth, on which stood its capitol, or Acropolis.
It commanded views over a very large portion oi
Greece.
ACROLEINE, a strongly refracting liquid, color-
less, and limpid, lighter than water. Its boiling
point is about 125°. It constitutes the acrid princi-
ple produced by the destructive distillation of fatty
bodies, and is in jiarl due to the decomposition of
glycerine. It is best prepared by distilling a mix-
ture of glycerine and anhydrous phosphoric acid, the
object of the latter being to effect the removal of
the water from the glycerine. In its state of vapor
it is extremely irritating to the eyes, nostrils and
resj)iratory organs — a property to which it owes its
name. The pungent smell given out by the smoul-
dering wick of a candle just blown out is due to the
presence of acroleine.
ACROMYODI, in zoology, a primary division of
passerine birds, is contermineus with Oscines, or
singing birds. This sub-order or sujjerfamily, as
distinguished from the Matomijodi, is characterized
by an attachment to the ends of the upper bron-
chial half-rings of a number of intrinsic syringeal
muscles. It includes the great majority of the
i-'(/.S.S-(7V'.S.
ACHONYCAL, in astronomy, passing the meri-
dian at midnight.
ACROPOLIS. See Britanniea, Vol. I, p. 121. See
also under Athexs, Vol. Ill, pp. 1, 5, 6. The Brit-
ish School of Archa'ology was opened at Athens in
A C R 0 T E R 1 0 X — A D A I R
31
November. ISSii. Tlie French school had been al-
ready established in 1846, the German Institutein
1873, and the American school in 1S82. The Greek
Archaeological Society affords every facility to
THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS.
antiquarian students, and the whole surface of the
Acropolis is undergoing excavations under its
supervision.
ACROTEEION, a term used in architecture for
an ornament or statue placed on the lower angles
or apex of a pediment.
ACS, a village in Hungary, situated on the
Danube River. Various battles have taken place
there, and it has a magnificent palace. Population,
3,!^G3.
ACT^EON, a character in mythology. He was a
grandson of Cadmus, and trained as a hunter by
Chiron. Having once surprised Diana bathing
in a fountain he was changed by the offended
goddess into a stag, and his own dogs, not knowing
him, tore him to pieces.
ACTA ERUDITORUM, the first literary journal
of Germany. Founded about 1682, and discontinued
about 1782.
ACTA MARTYRUM ET SANCTORUM (Acts of
Saints or Martijrs), the collective title given to sev-
eral old writings respecting saints and martyrs in
the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, but now
applied especially to one extensive collection begun
by the Jesuits in the 17th century, and intended to
serve as a l)e»tter arrangement of the material
found in ancient works.
ACTINIC PROCESS, or, popularly, " Process," is
a generic name for any process in which printing
surfaces are prepared by the aid of light in con-
nection with chemical and mechanical treatment;
otherwise known as photo-mechanical process
(?. v.).
ACTINOMYCOSIS, the name now given to a
disease long known to occur in cattle, but con-
founded with tubercle or sarcoma. Actinomycosis
also occurs in pigs, and (very rarely) in man. It
consists of tumors, sometimes of large size, formed
of inflammatory material deposited around numer-
ous grains of fungi. In cattle they occur usually
in tlie jaws, mouth and stomach; in man in the
neck, lungs and adjacent parts.
ACTION, in lav), is a proceeding instituted in
court by one or more persons against another, or
others, to secure the punishment or redress of a
wrong: distinguished from judicial proceedings
which are non-controversial in form, as the probate
of a will. In a wide sense of the term, an action
may be classed as either rivil or crititiinil. An
action instituted by the sovereign power for the
punishment of crime is criminal; but, if iugt!tt;^e^
by the sovereign power in the capacity of owner or
contracting party, or by a subject or citizen, it is
civil. The term iiulictminil, frequently applied to f,
criminal action, is properly used only of one kind of
formal complaint by which such a proceeding may
be presented for trial. A common-law action is
classed as real, personal, or mixed: real, when the
claim made is title to real estate ; personal, when it
demands a chattel, damages for an injury, a debt,
or a statutory penalty ; and (nm'rf, when it demands
both real estate and damages kir a wrong. See
Brirannica, Vol. I, p. 132.
ACT OF GOD, in Irt^r, is a sudden and over-
whelming action of natural forces such as could
not have been foreseen by human ability, or, though
foreseen, could not have been averted by the exer-
cise of any human skill or care. It is often made
the defense to an action for non-performance of
contract ; and usually a man is not held legally
responsible for results of which such act of God is
shown to be the direct cause unless bound by
special agreement to that effect.
ACT OF CONGRESS. The distribution of powers
under the American system grants to the national
legislature complete authority to frame all laws for
the welfare of the nation, while the legislation of
the States within their reserved spheres is not in
subordination to the general government unless it
touches some question arising under the constitu-
tion or laws of the United States. The general
subjects of national legislation are the departments,
the judiciary, the army, the navy, the militia,
arms, armories and arsenals, diplomatic and consu-
lar officers, seat of government and public buildings,
the States, territories, civil rights, citizenship, the
elective franchise, freedmen, Indians, immigration,
naturalization, the census, jjublic lands, duties
upon imports, debts due by or to the United States,
internal revenue, weights and measures, currency,
coinage, appropriations, legal tender, jjostal ser-
vice, public contracts, fisheries, prizes, pensions,
patents, Smithsonian Institution, etc. An act of
congress must be passed by both houses and ap-
proved by the president liefore it becomes a law.
ACTON BUKNELL, a Siiropshire parish, 8 miles
from Shrewsbury. At the ruined castle here was
held, in 1283, a parliament of Edward I, which car-
ried the "Statute of Merchants" for the recovery
of debts.
ACT(JN, Mass., a town of Middlesex county.
Population in 1890, 1,8117.
ACTON, Lord .Iohn Emeric Edw. Dalberg,
born 1834. Member of the liberal Catholic party,
and elected to parliament in 1859 from C'arlow. In
1869 was made a liaron. He founded the " Home
and Foreign Review." and edited the "Weekly
Chronicle" and "North British Review." He was,
in 1887, made D. C. L. of Oxford.
ADA, a town of Ohio, 57 miles west of Crestline.
It is a manufacturing town, and contains the North-
western Ohio Normal Schooland other educational
institutions.
ADA, an important steamer station of Northern
Hungary, on the river Tlieiss. INipulation, 9,693.
ADACtIO, a slow measure of time in music. The
special feature of the adagio is the means it affords
the composer of expressing individual feeling. In
more extended compositions, the second or third
movement is usually marked atlariio,he\ns. a con-
trast to the rapid movement i)recediiig and follow-
ing. The finest specimens of adagio occur in the
productions of the old masters, particularly Bee-
thoven, recent composers being more successful in
rapid movement.
AD.VIR, .James, American Indian trader and
author. He resided among the red men from 1735
32
A D A I R — A D A M S
to 1775, Hiid [iiil>lislii-(l it Ilinlijiit ()/ llti: American lii-
iliiiim. He altt'iiiuled to tract! the dt-sct'iit of the
Indians to tho Lost Tribes of Israel, but the most
valiiablo part of his writings are his vocabularies
of Indian diaU'cts.
ADAI It, .loMN, Anu'rican general, born in Ches-
ter eoniily, S. C, in ITO'.l. He served in the Kevolu-
tionary war, and under St. Clair and Wilkinson in
17Stl art major, lie was defeated by " Little Turtle,"
the Miami chief, and forced to relrear. He was
appointed lieutenant-colonel in 17'J3, and later oc-
cupied positions as representative from Mercer
county in the Kentucky legi.-ilature, register of the
United States land ofli<!e, and United ."^tales sena-
tor. In IS'.'O he was elected governor of Kentucky,
and in l.s:'.l a inenibiM' of Congress. He died in
llarrisbnrg. Ky., May \'.\ IS-tO.
AHALIA, a small seaport situated on a gulf of
the same name on the south coast of Asia Minor.
The population, principally Tnrks, numbers about
6,l)(1l>.
ADAM, Ano I. I'M i:Cii.\Ki.i;s, musical com poser.born
in Paris, .July 24, IStVi, and died in ISiiti. He was
professor of comivjsition in the I'aris (Conservatoire,
and also contributor to thi- newspapers. He was
most successful in comic opera, of which the chief,
foKlMon de Loni/jumeau, produced in 1835, is still
popular.
AO.-V.M, .Jk.\n, a Scottish poetesis.boru near Green-
ock in 1710. and died in the pnor-house at Glasgow
in 17t).5. Her poems were of a religious character.
The authorship of 77i*/'*r'« ikic Lii<:k ahoot the
Jloii.iy is ascriljetl to her, but it was more probably
written by Mickle.
A1>.\.M, l/AMBKBT Segisbekt, was a noted sculp-
tor, born at Nancy, France, in 1700 ; died 1759. Four-
teen years before his death he became professor in
the Paris Royal ,\oademy, and the garden of Ver-
sailles now contains some of his best staluarj-.
Nicholas Sebastien. brother of Lambert, born at
Nancy, 170.5, died 177S. was also a master in the art.
One of his productions is entitled Frometheus
Bound.
ADAMANT, the name of a supposed stone or
mineral, concerning the properties uf wliich a vague
idea was entertained, liy early writers it was used
as synonymous with the lode-stone or magnet. It
was applied by Tlieophrastus to the emery-stone of
Naxos. the hardest gem then known, and later by
scientific writoi-s as a synonym with diamond. The
original word is the Greek dt/ama.s, moaning "in-
vincible." Adamant is now used to express any
extraordinary hardness, chiefly employed in a
rhetorical sense.
AP.V.MS, a town in Berkshire county, Mass. From
this place rises Ml. tireyiock, 3,l>UU feet high, the
loftiest mountain in Mass. In 1878, i:he township
was divided, the country at the western extremity
of the Hoosac tunnel being called North Adams.
.\ DA MS, a town in JelTerson county, N. Y., situ-
atetl \hiy miles west northwest of Albany. It is a
manufacturing town, containing tanneries and car-
riage manufactories, also a foundry, a malt bouse,
a sasli-and-blind factory, and a cabinet shop. The
Hungerford Collegiate Institute has its seat here.
AIJAMS, AlviNj" founder of the " .Vdams Express
Company," born in Vermont, ISCU. Shortly after
the first United States express route was started
between New York and Brooklyn by AVilliam Hard-
man Mr. Adams resigned the produce liusiiiess, into
which he had entered at Boston about 1837, and
startea an opposition route. After spending three
years alone in this business, he was joined by Eph-
raini Farnsworth. Later on, "William Farnsworth
became his partner. The business rapidly increased
and extended over a large tract of the Union. The
AISIGAII. S.MITH ADAM
California express was started in 1850, and in that
year tlie firm-name was changed to Adams Ex-
press Company. A liirge business grew out of the
first beginning in Xew York State, and Jlr. Adams
became very wealthy through its prosperity. He
died Sept. 7, 1877.
AI>.\.MS, AiiKiAiL (Smith ), wife of John Adams,
second President of the United States, born in
Weymouth, .Mass., Nov. 23,
1744. She was the daughter
of th(! Hev. Wm. Smith and
Elizabeth (inincy, and related
to the eminent divines,
Thomas Sliepard and John
Norton. On account of deli-
cate health her early school-
ing was neglected, but she
became acipiainted with the
best English literature, and
wrote in a vigorous and often
elegant style. In 17(''4 she
married John Adams, and
later Ixi'came the mother of a
daughter and three sons. She
accompanied her husband on
diplomatic trips to France and England, and after
his retirement from public life passed the remain-
der of her days in the part of Braintree, Mass.,
called tin incy, 'where she died Oct. 2H, 1818.
AD.A.MS, (hi.Mii.Es Bakkr. born at Dorchester,
Mass., Jan. II, 1834. He studied natural history at
Amherst College, from which he graduated in
that science in his twentieth year, and soon after
held a position there as tutor for one year. From
1838 to 1847 he was professor of chemistry and
natural history in Middlebury College; at the time
of his death, Jan. 19, 1853, he was pmfessor of zool-
ogy and astronomy at Amherst College, which
office he had filled for six years. He was the pul>
lisher of Contribulioiia to Chronohjijit, and also of
numerous works upon the geological survey of
Vermont.
ADAJIS, Charles Fra.vcis, diplomatist, bom in
Boston, .\ug. 18. 1807. He was graduated at Harwnrd
in 1825, and studied law with Daniel Webster, being
admitted to the bar in 1828. He never practiced,
however, but devoted himself to the study of juris-
prudence, intomational
law, history and
finance. Fi-om 1831 to
183t; he was a niember
of the legislature of
Massachusetts, and in
1858 the republicans of
the 3rd district elected
him to Congress. In
1S60 he was re-elected,
and the following year
he was appointed to fill
a position that both his '
grandfather and father
had occupied before
him — minister to Eng-
land. Mr. Adams re-
turned to the United States in 1S68 after a career
cited among the most brilliant triumphs of Ameri-
can diplomacy. He became president of the board
of overseers of Harvard College in 1869, which post
he occupied until within a few years of his death,
wliich took place in Boston, Nov. 21, 18S6.
ADAMS, (,'nARLES Franxis, Jr., American lawyer,
bom in Boston. May 27, 1835. He was graduated at
Harvard in 18.5(), and two years later was admitted
to the bar. lie starved through the civil war as
brigadier general of volunteers, and since then has
been connected with railroad matters. In 1871 he
CHAJCLES FBAXCIS ADAMS.
A D A aj S
53
■was a member of the board of railroad commission-
ers of Massachusetts; in 1S82, a member of the
board of overseers of Harvard College, and in 1SS4
president of the Union Pacific railroad. In 1S71 he
published, with his brother, Chapli'rs of Erie ami
Other Essayx, and later a valuable book on rail-
road accidents.
ADAMS, Charles Kendall, American educator,
born in Derby, Vt., Jan. 24, 1835. Removed to
Iowa in 1855 and entered the Cniversity of Michi-
gan, graduating therefrom in 1861. For several
years he was assistant professor in that university,
and in 186S was elected to the full professorship of
historv. He was appointed professor of history at
Cornell University in 1881, and four years later be-
came president of the university, a position which
he still holds. He is the author of Democracy
and Monarchy in France (1874) and a Manual of
Historical Literature (1882), and has written
numerous essays on historical and educational
subjects.
ADAMS, Daniel, M. D., bom at Townsend, Mass.,
Sept. 29, 1773, and was a graduate at Dartmouth,
1797. He took an active interest in the political
affairs of New Hampshire, was well known as an
editor and physician and also became popular as an
educator ; he published a number of school books,
a.mong which was a valuable arithmetic. He died
at Keene, N. H., June 8, 1864.
ADAMS, George Everett, American Congress-
man, born at Keene, N. H., June 18, 1840. He was
graduated at Harvard in 1860, studied at the Dane
Law School, Cambridge, ^lass., and then practiced.
He was elected to the Illinois State senate in 1880.
Two years later he became a member of the Forty-
eighth Congress of the United States, and received
a re-election the three succeeding terms.
ADAMS, Ha.ssah, first American authoress, bom
in Medtield, jMass., in 1755. She acquired a knowl-
edge of Latin and Greek, and at an early age be-
gan writing. Her principal work was a Vifw of
Religious Opinions, puljjished in 1784, in which she
gave a comprehensive survey of the various relig-
ions of the world. She wrote several other books,
none of which brought her great pecuniary profit,
yet through them she secured many friends. She
died in Brookline, Nov. 15, 1832, and was buried in
Mount Auburn, the first person whose body was
placed in that cemetery.
ADAMS, He?{ry A., Jr., American naval ofi5cer,
born in Pennsylvania in 18.33. He was graduated
from the Annapolis Naval School in 1849, and be-
came a passed midshipman in 1854. The following
year he was made master and in 1856 lieutenant.
Later he was commissioned as lieutenant-com-
mander, and in 1866 as commander. After the at-
tacks on Fort Fisher he received the encomium
from Admiral Porter in his official despatch, " I
recommend the promotion of Lieut.-Com. H. A.
Adams, without whose aid we should have been
brought to a standstill more than once. He volun-
teered for anything and everything." In 1870 he
was assigned to duty in tlie Philadelphia navy yard,
where he has since remained.
ADAMS, Hknry Brooks, born at Boston, Mass.,
Feb. 16, 1838. He was a graduate of Harvard, and
was private secretary to his father, Charles Francis
Adams, when minister to England. He became as-
sistant professor of history at Harvard in 1870, and
edited the " North American Review" from 1870 to
1876.
ADAMiS, Jasper, D. D., was born at Medway,
Mass., in 1793. He was a graduate of Brown Uni-
versity. In 1819 he became professor of mathe-
matics in that institution, whicli position he held
until 1834 "'ben he became president of Charles-
ton College, S. C. He was professor of geography,
ethics, etc., at West Point in 1838-40. He died Oct.
25, 1841.
ADAMS, John, LL. D., was an eminent classical
teacher, born in Canterbury, Conn., Sept. 18, 1772.
He graduated at Yale College in 1795. He pre-
sided for a time over Plainfield Academy and Ba-
con Academy in Colchester, Conn., becoming prin-
cipal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., in 1810.
In this position he was very successful until the
time of his resignation in 1833. Died April 24, 1863.
ADAMS, John Couch, astronomer, born near
Launceston in Cornwall, 1819. He was educated at
St. .John's College, Cambridge, where he attained
the honor of senior wrangler, and became a mathe-
matical tutor. Soon after taking his degree he
made observations for -the purpose of accounting
for the irregularities in the motion of Uranus.
Leverrier commenced researches on the same sub-
ject a little later, in the summer of 1845, coming to
the same conclusions, but publishing them in ad-
vance of Adams. He was at first accorded a larger
share in the honor of the discovery of Neptune.
The Royal Astronomical Society, however, awarded
them equal honors in 1848. In 18.58, Adams was
appointed to the chair of mathematics in St. An-
drew's, which he vacated on being nominated to the
Lowndean professorship of astronomy, Cambridge.
He has made imywrtant researches on the theory of
Novemlier meteors, and as to the secular accelera-
tion of the moon's mean motion.
ADAISIS, John R., D. D., was Vjorn in Plainfield,
Conn., in 1802, and graduated from Yale College in
1821. He taught in Phillips Academy, Andover,
Mass., for three years, and subsequently became
pastor of various Presbyterian and Congregational
churches of New York, Massachusetts and Maine.
During the civil war he was chaplain of the 5th
Maine and 121st New York regiments. Died April
26, 1866.
ADAMS, Julius Walker, engineer, born in Bos-
ton, Mass., Oct. 18, 1812, and educated at U. S. Mil-
itary Academy. He was assistant engineer of
Stonington and Providence R. R. in 18.32; Norwich
and Worcester R. R. 1836 ; Western R. R. of Massa-
chusetts, 1839; Albany and Schenectady R. R. 1842.
He has also been engaged in several important
hydraulic works. He served with credit as colonel
of the 67th New York volunteers. Since then he
has been chief engineer of the city of Brooklyn ;
past president of the American Society of Civil
Engineers ; member of New York Academy of
Science, and consulting engineer to department of
public works. New York. .
ADAMS, Neiiemiah, American clergyman and
author, born in Salem, Mass., Feb. 19, 1806. He
wrote numerous works in favor of slavery, calling
forth many unfavorable comments from the anti-
slavery press. He died in Salem, Oct. 6, 1878.
ADAMS, Samuel, American military surgeon,
born in Maine. In 1863, he entered the Army of
the Potomac and served with it until it was dis-
banded. He rose from the rank of regimental sur-
geon to that of medical inspector of the Ninth army
corps, receiving also a brevet for meritorious con-
duet at the capture of Petersburg. During one of
the closing liattles. Dr. Adams distinguished him-
self by dressing the wounds of (ien. Potter between
the advanced lines of the combatants and under
the fire of the enemy. Dr. Adams's last days were
spent in Galveston, Texas, among the victims of
yellow fever, of which disease he died, Sept. 9, 1867.
ADAMS, William, an Knglish navigator, tx)rn at
Gillingham in 1575. From 1600 to 1620, the date of
his deatli, he was resident in Japan, where he was
regarded with unusual favor liy two emperors.
34
A I) A M 8 — A 1 > I-: .\
WILLIAM ARAMS.
APAMS, WiM.iAM, lidrii in IM}, an Oxford tiilur
aiui <'li'rt;yni;m, juitlmr of Tlir Slindnir of the Ci-uks
ami ndicr " Sacred All('j;orioK." He died at Bon-
cluirch, ill 111.' Isle of Wight, l.S-18.
ADA.MS, William, I). It., J.L. D., American
clergyman, horn in (:<ilcliesler, Conn., .Ian. 2.5, 1807.
He was gradnaled at Yale in IS27. studied theol-
ogy at Andover, and was ordained pastor of I he Con-
gregational church in
Bright/)ii, Mass., in
IK^l. lie took charge
of the Central I'rcs-
byterian church in
New ^'ork city in
ls;{4, and became mod-
erator of the new-
school general assem-
bly at Washington in
i.sbl'. In IS."):} he be-
came pastor of the
Madison Square Pres-
byterian church, and
in 1.S73 accepted the
presidency of the
Union Theological
seminary in New York city. He contributed nu-
merous articles to various religious magazines, and
wrote several books, the principal ones being Tlir
Tlii'i'i' (r(ii'(h'iin, I'Jtlf'it, (irllttit'iiitntf' (IikI Paradife; Con-
rermttlonx of ./cvi/.i ChriKl iiltli Ripn'Kfntatin' Men; and
TiKUiksyiriiif/, Memories of the Dai/ and Helps to the
Hnhit. He died at Orange Mountain, N. J., Aug.
31, 1S80.
ADAMS, William Taylor ("Oliver Optic"),
American author, born in Medway, Mass., July 30,
KSL'L'. For twenty years lie W'as a school teacher in
the public, schools of Boston, for fourteen a. mem-
ber of the si'hool committee of Dorchester, and for
one year a member of the legislature. He is the
author of over a dozen novels for young people, two
for older readers, and over a thousand newspaper
stories.
ADAM'S .\PPbE, a common name for the projec-
tion in the niH'k formed by the larger extremity of
the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. It was so
called from the suggestion that it was caused by a
portion of the forbidden fruit sticking in Adam's
throat. The name is also given to- a fruit produced
by a variety of the lime, having a depression in the
surface, wiiich the Italian peasants call the mark of
Adam's teeth. Also the Forbidden Fruit ; the
Shaddock.
ADA^ISOX, ,IoiiN, an English historian, wos born
in, 1787. His Memoir of Camoens appeared in 1820,
and Tlie llistorii, Antiquitiea and Literature of Portu-
;/«? in 1842— l(i. He died in lSn5.
ADAMSTHAL. a town of Moravia, near Brunn.
It is a popular resort for tourists, being in the
vicinity of the famous Ke^is-Kala cavern, belong-
ing to the great system ot curious calcareous cav-
erns north of Brunn.
ADANSONIA, a genus of the order Sterculiaceie;
the Baobab. Linna-us named it in honor of Adanson,
the botanist. It is distinguished by a simple decidu-
ous calyx, a very long style, with numerous stig-
mas, and a woody ftapsule containing a farinaceous
pulp. Only one species is known, commonly called
the monkey-bread tree, a native of the tropical
portion of West Africa, now introduced in the East
and West Indies. It is the largest known tree, not
attaining a great height, but exceeding all trees in
thickness. Its trunk is from 20 to 30 feet in diam-
eter, branches 60 to 70 feet long, and often as thick
as stems of large trees, forming a hemispherical
head of 120 to 150 feet in diameter. The pulp of !
the fruit is pleasant to the taste, eaten wifb or i
without sugar. The expressed juice mixed with
sugar is much esleenied as a beverage, verv re-
freshing, eU'ect ual in ijiienching the thirst, and val-
uable in purl rid and pestilential fevers.
AD.\ H. sixth month of I he .Jewish year. Corre-
sponds with parts of February and March.
ADD.VX ( Lat. Addnnj, a river of Lombardy, ris-
ing in the Rluetian Alps above liarmio. It form-
erly bounded the republic of Venice and the
duchy of Milan.
ADDEMIRI.or Ai.-Damiiu. otherwise known as
Kemai.-i:i)-I)i.v. a celebrated .Vrabian naturalist,
historian and biograi)her. was born in I'Igypt about
13.")0, and died about 140."). The best known of his
numerous works is '/'he l.ieex of I.ieinij CreatureK.
ADDIN(iT(»N, Isaac, a distingm'shed colonial
patriot, was born in Boston, .Ian. 22, bi4.5. Upon
the overthrow of the administration of Sir Ed-
mund Andros he was chosen by the people clerk of
the Council of Safely. The n<>xt year he was
elected to the secrelarvship of the council, which
ollice he held from Iti'JO till his death, March l!t,
1715.
ADDISCOMBE, town in Surrey, near Croyden.
The East India (Company established a college
there for cadets in 1812, w'hich was sold in 18(il.
ADDISON, an important manufacturing town of
New York, on the Canisleo Kiver, about thirty
Allies west of F^lmira, is the seat of Addison .\cad-
eniy and riiii>n .^chool.
ADDISON, Thomas, jihysician. was born near
Newcastle in 17il3. He received his medical educa-
tion at Kdinburgh, settled in London, and in 18;^"
became physici-an to Guy's hospital. He made a
special study of pneumonia and phthisis, and was
the discoverer of what has since, been known as
Addison's Disease. He also wrote on the subject of
poisons and female diseases. He died 29th of
•June. 18110.
ADDISON'S DISEASE. See Suprarenal Cap-
StTI_,E.S.
ADELPHIA, flower-stainens col-
lected in a bundle; the prefixes mon,
di, etc., mark whether there is one
bundle or more.
ADEMPTION, in its most im-
portant sense, denotes what is called
satisfaction in the law of England;
viz., that when a testator is owing a
debt, or has promised to pay a pro-
vision in a marriage contract, if he
gives a legacy to the creditor or
titled under the contract, that may be taken
to extinguish the del)t, or to discliarge the
provision. Ademjilion also means that if a tes-
tator be(]ueatlies a specific article or property,
and before his death the article or jiroperty is de-
stroyed or totally changed in character, either by
the act of the testator or otherwise, then the
legatee gets nothing. Various rules hare been
stated on the subject of ademption, but the courts
endeavor to determine the meaning of the tes-
tator.
ADEN is a volcanic peninsula on the Arabian
coast, about 100 miles east of Bab-el-Mandeb. It
forms an important coaling statioii on the highway
to the East, and is being strongly fortified. The
settlement includes Little Aden, a peninsula very
similar to Aden itself, and the settlement and town
of Shaikh Othman. on the mainland, with the vil-
lages of Imad Iliswa and Bir Jabir. It also in-
cludes the island of Perim at the entrance to the
Red Sea, and is subject to the Bombay govern-
ment. The government is administered by a
political resident, who is also commander of the
troops. Gross revenue (1888), 174,.530 rupees.
ADF.LPIIIA.
person en-
A D E X I T : S — A D L E R S P A K R E
35
Area. 70 square miles; of Perim live square miles.
Population, 34.711. Imports 2,8-54.242/. (409,3.57?.
from Great Britain); exports, 2,3 1. 5.3S8?. (170,474/.
to Great Britain). Tonnage entered and cleared
(mainlj' passenger steamers), 4,.300,000. Xo public
debt.
Chief exports : Coffee, gums, hides and skins,
piece goods, tobacco. Chief imports : Cotton twist,
piece goods, grain, hides and skins, tobacco. Aden
itself is non-productive, and the trade is a purely
transhipment one, except that (227,(5497.) from the
interior of Arabia.
The Somali Coast Protectorate, opposite Aden,
administered by a political agent and consul sub-
ordinate to Aden, and extending from Ras .Jibute
E. long. 43° 15' round by Cape Guardafui and south
to Eas Hafun. The natives are Jlohammedans.
Gross revenue (ISSS), 187,940 rupees. The chief
port is Berbera, due south of Aden, whence cattle
and excellent sheep are obtained in great numbers,
and from which port also are exported the major-
ity of the gums, hides, coffee, etc. Other ports are
Bulbar, Zulia and Karam. Imports, 1887-88, 3,329,-
210 rupees; exports, 6,812,910 rupees. The first
three ports are fortified.
The island of Socotra, off the cost of Africa, and
the Kuria Muria Islands, off the coast of Arabia,
are also attached to x\.den. .Area of the former,
3,000 square miles ; population, 4.000. It was at-
tached to Great Britain by treaty with the sultan
in 187(5, and formally annexed in 1886. Chief prod-
ucts, aloes; sheep, cattle, and goats are plentiful.
The Kuria Muria Islands, five in number, were
ceded by the sultan of ^Muscat for the purpose of
landing the Red Sea cable. The group is leased
for the purpose of guano collection.
ADENITIS (Gr. a(/f», "a gland") and Angeio-
i.EixiTis (Gr. angeion, "a vessel," Ii'uhus, "white"),
terms emplojed in medicine to indicate respect-
ively inflammation of the lymphatic glands and
inflammation of the lymphatic vessels. In
most cases the vessels and glands are simulta-
neously affected. There is plenty of evidence that
such inflammation may occur internally ; but it is
only observed in the living subject in connection
with the skin, or an ulcerated surface, and is most
common in the arm, the hand being the part most
exposed to injury. It is usually caused by an open
wound, as a puncture or cut, becoming infected by
some poisonous matter from without. The inflam-
mation invariably extends towards the trunk.
The constitutional symptoms attending an acute
attack of inflammation of the lymphatic vessels
are often severe.
ADENOCELE (Gr. r,(k„, a gland, and keJe, a
tumor), or ADExo-S.\ncoMA, terms employed in
surgery for a kind of growth in the female breast,
closely resembling the breast tissue.
ADEPT, from adeptug, " having attained," was for-
merly applied to those alchemists who professed
and were supposed to have discovered " the great
secret "of the transmutation of the baser metals
into gold.
ADET, Pierre Auguste, a French chemist, born
at Nevers in 17(S3. Hecanie to the ('nited States as
envoy from the French Directory in 1795; return-
ing abruptly in 1797, alleging that the .American
government had become guilty of a violation of its
neutrality. lie died in 1832.
ADHESION, in pathology, a union between two
surfaces of a living body which have been sepa-
rated. In the healing of wounds it is usually a
Jjeneficial process, though somolimes causing de-
formity. After injuries to joints, for examjile, adhe-
sion frequently takes pla'^e between the injured
structures and those adjoining, causing subsequent
stiffness. .Adhesion is a frequent consequence of in-
flammation of serous and synovial membranes.
ADIAEENE, a district of Assyria, between the
Greater and Lesser Zab rivers.
ADl (tRAUTH, the sacred books of the Sikhs.
ADIPIC ACID is a dibasic acid of the oxalic
series, and is obtained by the oxidizing action of
nitric acid on oleic acid, spermaceti, and other
fatty bodies. The name is derived from Latin
ajijm, fat.
ADIRONDACK PARK. A project long enter-
tained for creating a great park out of the extensive
forest regifin known as the Adirondack mountains in
the northeastern part of the State of New York has
recently taken practical shape. A park association
has been organized to induce the State to purchase
from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 of acres to be held in
perpetuity as a State park. The State already owns
in that region about 800,000 acres.
AD.JEC'TIVE, a name of one of the classes into
which grammarians have divided words. Lan-
guages differ much in the manner of using adjec-
tives. In England and America the usual place
for an adjective is before a noun ; in German also,
but in French and Italian they come after.
AD.IOURNMENT, postponement till another
time; especially applied to legislative bodies.
ADJUTANT-GENERAL is a military staff offi-
cer ranking in the British army as a general ; in
the United States service as a brigadier-general.
He is the organ through whom the commanding
general receives communication and issues or-
ders. Host of the States of the Union have
also adjutant-generals whose duties are similar
with respect to the militia. The assistant, an offi-
cial auxiliary to the father-general of the .lesuits,
is often erroneously called adjutant-general.
ADLER, Felix, an American author and orator,
and founder of the Society for Ethical Culture, was
born in .Alzey, Germany, Aug. 13, 1851, and edu-
cated in New York, Berlin and Heidelberg. He oc-
cupied the chair of Hebrew and Oriental Literature
in Cornell University between 1874 and the organ-
ization, in New York, in 1876, of the new religious
society of which he is the head.
ADLER, N.\Tn.\x Marcts, chief rabbi, was born
at Hanover in 1803. He was chief rabbi of Olden-
burg in 1829, of Hanover in 18.30, and of the united
congregations of the British empire in 1845. Her-
man, son of the preceding, was born in Hanover in
1839. He became principal of the .lews' College in
London in 1863, and has greatly distinguished him-
self by his defense of his co-religionists in the
columns of the " Nineteenth Cenntury " and else-
where, and by his earlier reply to Colenso's criti-
cism on the Pentateuch, and that to Max ^liillcr,
entitled, /■? ./i«:/cn>m a Mi.<.'<ionar>i Faith f In 1881-82
he was a member of the Mansion House Committee
for the relief of the .lewish victims of persecution
in Russia, and visited the colonies of Russian refu-
gees in the Holy Land.
ADIjER, Sai.vus, famous Swedish ambassador,
during the Thirty Years' War (1590-1652.)
ADLERBETH, Gidmixd Gorax, Swedish author,
born in 1751. He wrote tragedies on historical suli-
jects, and translated Virgil, Horace and Ovid.
.ADLERCREUTZ, Carl Joiiax, count. Swedish
general. He took action to arrest King Gustavus
tV, thus gaining great favor with the people.
Born 1757; died 1815.
ADLERSPARRE, George, Swedish statesman
and author, born March 28, 17(50. He joined the
army in 1775, and continued in it until 1794, when
he resigned, but entered again in 1808 and served
until 1824. He published works on economic, his-
torical and military subjects. Died Sept. 23, 1835.
36
A D L E II S P A R R E — A D U L T E R Y
ADLERSPAERE, Karl Avgi-st, Swedish poet,
burn June 7, ISIO. He wrote under the pen-name
of " Alliiinu," and gained a reputation through his
histdrical writiii;L,'.s. lie died May 0, 1.SG2.
AD I.llllTI'M is a niusicKl term implying that a
part so marked may be performed according to the
taste of the performer. An accompaniment lu
music so marked must strictly foMow tlie time of
the principal performer. Ad IJbitiiin also fre-
quently means tliat a |iart for a particular instru-
ment may l)e played or left out entirely.
ADMINISTRATION, in politics, the executive
government of a Stale; in Kngland applied more
especially !o tlic niinislry. In law, it is the func-
tion of the adniinislrjitor.
AD.M1MSTRAT(_>]?, in law, is one who adminis-
ters; one who is commissioned by a surrogate's,
probate, or orplians court to take charge of the
goods, chattels and credits of one dying intestate.
In .'iome of the States his jurisdiction is not limited
to iK>rsiiual pro|ierty, but extends to the realty as
well. The duly uf an administrator is very similxtr
to that of an executor, and consists generally in
collecting and paying debts and distributing the
surplus among the next of kin. The administra-
tor is usually selected from the near relatives of
the deceased, ailhough sometimes, when the appli-
cation for adminisi ration is made by creditors, one
of tlie latter receives the appointment. There is,
also, in some jurisdictions, a public oliicer, called
public administrator, who is autliorized to admin-
ister the estates of persons dying intestate and
leaving no relatives qualified to perform the duties.
See Urilannica, Vol. I, p. 154.
ADMIRALITY DEVITS, a revenue arising from
enemies' ships deljiined in the prospect of an im-
mediate declaration of war, or those comijig into
port in ignorautH? that hostilities have commenced ;
also from the proceeds of wrecks, and goods of pi-
rates.
.\D."\nSSIONS, certain concessions which are used
in law as evidence against the party making them,
or against his partners or his heirs.
AltOliE, a sort of brick which is sun-dried in-
stead of being Iiuriil. They are used in Mexico,
Texas and Central America for building purjwses,
and their durability is unlimiti'd provided the raiu
aiid frost are not too severe. This fact is well at-
tested by the ruins of Assyria, where adolie was the
chief material usihI in masonry. The adob(>s are
usually made near the site where the building fcjr
which they are intended isto be erected. Anyeheap
grade of clay is used, and water is added until it
becomes a thick mud. It is then moulded into
caies of uniform size, and placed in the sun to
dry. Should twenty-four hours of heavy rain fall
on the unfinished bricks they would probably be
rendered worthless for building purposes, while
much longer exposure would entirely destroy the
blocks.
ADONIC VERSE, a combination of a dactyl and
spondee, or a dactyl and a troche«, especially
adapted to lively poetry.
AD()NAI, a Hebrew name for the Supreme Be-
ing. It is the pronoun of the first person com-
bined with the plural of (m/ox, " lord." Adonai is
pronounced by the Jews in Scripture reading
wherever the naine Jlioh occurs in the text.
ADONI, a town of the province of Madras. Pop-
ulation. 22,441. The chief Ludustry is weaving.
ADRIAN, a manufacturing city of Michigan,
county seat of Lenawee county, is situated on both
sides of the river Raisin, about thirty miles west of
Toledo, Ohio. It has a fine water-power and
many important manufactures, principally that of
cars for steam and street railroads. Notable feat-
ures of Adrian are its costly Masonic temple,
oiwra-house, and mineral springs. Adrian is the
seat of .\drian College. I'opulatiou, in 1S70, 8,438:
1880,7,84!); in 1890, tl,23"J.
.\DR1.\.\, ■W.M.L OK, was a defensive wall, about
eight feet thick by twelve feet in height, provided
will) watch-towers, and extending fron the 'Tyne to
Solway Firth, a distance of about 80 miles. It was
built as a defense against tlie invasions of the Scots
and Picts into the north of England, and was
named after the emperor Adrian.
ADRAMYTl, a town on the west coast of Asia
Minor, opposite Mitylene. II is surrounded by
beaullful olive groves. I'op\ilation, 0,000.
ADULLAMITES. The allempt lo extend the
franchise made in England in isiiii by the govern-
ment of Earl Russell and Mr. Gladstone leu many
of the AVhigs to sec(Hle from the Literal leaders
and vote with the Conservatives. The designation
of AdiilliiinitiK was fastened on the new jiarty in
consequence of Mr. Bright having likened them to
the political outlaws wlio took refuge with David
in th(! cave of Adullam.
ADULTER.VTION is the use, in the production
of any article represented as genuine, of in-
gredients which are cheaper and of an inferior
quality. The ol)jects of emjiloying the different
materials in the adulteration of food may be said
to be three in number: First, for the purpose
of increasing the bulk or weight of the dearer
article ; as, for example, when water is added to
milk or whiskey, or when chiekory is added to
coffee. Second, to alter or improve its appear-
ance; as in the case of the addition of certain
metallic compounds to preserve fruits or vegeta-
bles, or of the addition of alum Uj bread. Tliird,
to increase its pungency or alter its flavor;
as when pepper is added to ginger. The excuses
! which have at dilleronl times been urged in ex-
tenuation of adulteration are numerous, and in
some cases even plausible. Thus we are told that
many articles of food are prepared and sold in
an adulterated form in obedience to the public
taste, it is assert<id that some forms of admixture
are quite allowable, since they are undoubtedly
improvements, and that certain things must be
mixed with others in order to insure their
preservation. It is scarcely possible, hoivever,
that any one informed on the subject could
prefer an article owing its pleasing appearance
to the addition of poisonous sulistances. As to
admixtures being improvements, this is of course
largely a matter of opinion; but it is worthy of
consideration in this connection that the articles
which are added by way of improvement are
always very much cheaper than the articles which
are supposed to have been improved. With refer-
ence to the statement that adjnixture is necessary
for the preservation of certain articles, if this is
true at all, it is true of very few articles indeed.
Notwithstanding the measures taken for prevent-
ing the sale of adulterated articles the practice is
still of regrettably frequent occurrence, many
articles lieiug habitually sold in a form far from
pure- Ajnong the more important suljstances
which are habitually sold in an impure condition
may be mentioned milk, bread, coffee, cocoa,
butter, sugar, tea, oatmeal, and various spices.
Drugs are extejisively adulterated, and there is a
long list of miscellaneous articles of commerce
which are frequently rendered almost worthless by
admixtura See Britannica, Vol. I, pp. 167-177.
ADL'LTERY, tiie criminal sexual intercourse of
a married man with one who is not his wife, or of a
married woman with one wlio is not her hnsband,
is, in the English laAv, a spiritual, not a temporal
A 1) \' A I TA — A 1) \' K i; T I S [ .\ C
37
offense, and is tlierefore left, to tlie action of tlie
spiritual courts. Bj* the common law a civil action,
known as an actiiui for criminal conversation, may
lie lirought l)y a liusliaud against him who commits
adtiltery with !iis wife. Adultery is a groiind, by
statutory enactment, of absolute divorce. In some
of the States nf the Union the English law
pn'vails; in others, adultery is a crime. In this
I'lnnitry also the meaning of the word adultery
varies "with local statutes. Sometimes it charac-
terizes the act of the unmarried participator who
has the intercourse with one who is married.
.Vdultery, as here spoken of, is often called single
adultery; double adultery being unlawful inter-
course between two married persons. See Britan-
niea. Vol. I, p. 177.
AHVAITA is a Hindoo term used to denote a
doctrine of Hindoo philosophy according to whicli
Brahma is the only existence, the universe being
merely an emanation from this World Spirit. This
doctrine received its highest development in the
eighth century.
AD VALORE]M, a customs duty levied upon the
estimated value of goods without regard to weight,
size or number.
ADVANOEMEXT. a legal term referring to
money given to a child in expectation of a future
division, and to be deducted from that child's share
of the divided estate. Expenditure for the child's
maintenance and education is not an advance-
ment.
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, Society for
THii. a British association founded by Sir John
Herschel. Sir David Brewster, Sir Humphrey Davy
and others, in 1831. A similar society was formed
in the Tnited States, in 1847.
ADVENTISTS, Skiond, a religious sect of
America, originally followers of AVilliam Miller,
Tvho look for the speedy coming of Christ and the
commencement of the millennium. The first date
set for the advent was in October, 18-12. It was,
however, found necessary to set a later date, which
has since been repeatedly changed. Notwith-
standing this series of disappointments they have
steadily increased in number. The sect is divided
into several branches, differing somewhat in belief.
The Seventh-day Adventists set no time for the
coming of Christ. A large jwrtion of the evangel-
ical churches have of late years taken a decided
interest in the subject of the premillennial coming
of Christ — particularly dating from the convention
called by Dr. Tyng. of New York city, a few years
ago — who likewise set no time, but believe that the
six days of one thousand years each are nearly
ended, and thus tliat the seventh, or millennial,
■will soon dawn, and with it look for the coming of
Christ.
ADVERSE POSSESSION, in law, the possession
of real property avowedly contrary to the claims
of another, so as to deprive the latter of the seizin.
Adverse possession for a period of twenty years
will defeat the title of the real owner, and vest it
in the party maintaining such irossession. But
to i)roduce this result such adverse possession
must have been actual, uninterrupted, visilile, and
entirely distinct, hostile to, and in no manner de-
rived throuijh that of the real owner.
AD^'E1; TISE.MENT, a word which comes to us,
through the Krench, from the Latin adverli'ir, is
now seldom used in its general sense of any
proclanuttioM or notilication — as, for exam pie, by the
town-crier or street bell-ringer — but denotes more
particularly a printed annoiuicemeni of uny kiiul;
especially a paid nniice in a newspaper or other
periodical or luiblic print. See Britannica, \'ol 1,
t. 177.
ADVEKTISINC is a liroad term — including, as
it does, any effort to give notoriety to facts. More
strictly speaking, or to confine the subject to its
most important branch, newspaper and periodical
advertising, it may be said that it has reached
such proportions all over the world, and especially
in the I'nited States, as to command the efforts and
skilled help of men of a literary, clerical and exec-
utive turn of mind. It may be looked at from
three different standpoints : that of the advertiser
who spends his money in making known the merits
of his goods, that of the periodical which spreads
the news, and that of the middle-man or advertis-
ing agent who stands between them. Newspaper
advertising has kept pace with the increase of in-
telligence all over the world. It is the natural
outgrowth of the facilities of printing which have
increased so wondrously in the past fifty years.
To-day a manufacturer of some article adapted to
universal use sits down and reckons what proi)or-
tion of profit there is in the goods he manufactures
and he computes his advertising expenses accord-
ingly. The manufacturers of proprietary articles,
or, in other words, of patent medicines, usually
spend more money than any other class of adver-
tisers. There are several in the United States to-
day who are spending nearly a million dollars
every year. A writer in a recent numljer of " Print-
er's Ink" quoted his advertising expenses for the
year which had just closed at date of writing at
$927,000. The large percentage of profit on patent
medicines makes it possible to spend a' large
amount to procure the sale of every package or
bottle. This is the course generally taken by such
advertisers, and the expense of printer's ink is the
largest item in the expense column of their busi-
ness.
Of course this newspaper and periodical advertis-
ing is supplemented by all the other methods of
making their goods known to the buying commu-
nity. The cost of advertising differs in different
countries. The United States is the most costly
place for advertising in the world. English pei-iod-
icals are probably the next most costly. The rates
of advertising in different periodicals vary accord-
ing to their circulation and also according to the
class of people among whom they circulate.
It is a notable fact that of recent years skill in
writing advertisements as well as knack in ar-
rangement and art in illustrating have been
brought to a considerable degree of perfection.
The wise and successful advertiser is always striv-
ing to make his announcements more attractive
than the other letter press of the periodical in
which his advertisement appears. Good work ir
this department brings more remuneration than
almost any other form of literary or artistic work,
for men will have bright ideas with which to clothe
— and sometimes conceal — their advertising mo-
tives. All sorts of devices are used to attract or
distract the attention, as the case may be. The
margin of profit almost entirely determines the
amount of expenditure, and miscalculations in
reference to this are constantly leading to over-
advertising and to consequent failure. Despite the
fact that so nuuiy thousands are eon.~lantly using
the periodicals to promote and sell their gooas,
it is still true that if one has an excellent article
for sale, and will skillfully and judiciously expend
a sullicient amount of money in adviu'tising, he
can make no better investment anywhere.
Advertising is fast coming to be the exclusive
sourceof profit to the newspapers and other period-
icals. The competition has brought the price to
the reader of the various periodicals to such a point
that there is practically no ))rofit in the subscrip-
ss
A D Y O (' A T E S — ^ G 1 i; A
tion or sales list, and therefore the greatest energy
is conslanlly being put fortli liy |)iil)lishers to ob-
tain as large an amount of advert i^^ing as possililc
at tlie best |iossi))le prices. Tliis gives the adver-
tiser an advantage in that the papers seek him
rather than he llie papers. Owing to this fact
partially tlierp is no standard price in advertising,
and each publisher tries to make his paper as
attractive as possible. .Si)ace is charged for l)y the
line (agate or nonpareil generally), by the inch, and
by tlie page and fractions of a page. One of the most
popular publications at the present time is the large
and inllueiilial monthly magazine; some of them
having fre(iuently published over a hundred pages
of advertisements in one issue. Prices in the stand-
ard magazines vary from a hundred to two hun-
dred dollars a page per time, and of course dis-
counts from these prices are allowed for frequency
of insertion. It is easily seen from these figures
what the revenue from advertising must be to
some of these hirge magazines. Weekly jieriod-
icals of general circulation as well as those of local
interest are still favorite mediums for advertising,
and they too derive a very large proportion of
their income from advertisements. The daily
papers in the important cities of the United States
are very costly to the advertiser, many of them
charging a double price lor anything in the shape
of large type or illustration. Tliis springs from
an increasing disposition on the |)art of the papers
not to use large and black type, and any one that
wants iiuch special prominence must pay for it over
and above the price of sinijile announcements.
There are papers in New York city whose profits
from advertising in one year reach nearly one mil-
lion dellars.
As hinted above, periodicals charge in proportion
to the amount of their circulation, and frequently
in pri ^portion to the (jualily of the magazine as
well. Even when the (juantity is comparatively
small the (luality is so choice as to command a
much higher price. J>y ipiality is meant the wealth
or bujiiig power of the class of people who read a
given publication. As an example of cost, a four
inch fiingle column advertisement can be inserted
in a hundred of the best daily papers in the United
States, one time, for a tliousand dollars.
As a matter of course, advertising in a large and
expensive way in order to cover the United States
is a matter of discrimination and judgment even
more than a question of securing the lowest possi-
ble rates ; for if a man has a thousand dollar article
to sell, and advertises it in periodicals which circu-
late among people who rarely have more than a
dollar to spend at a time, he throws his money into
the air at a very rapid rate.
Here is where the skill, judgment and experience
of the advertising agent appear. There are many
of these agencies in all the large cities of the coun-
try, whose business it is to take a sum of money
which the advertiser w'ishes to spend and to so
apportion it to the difi'erent periodicals which are
likely to be profitable to him as to bring the best
results. This service is remunerated by a system
of commissions, varying according to the amount
of work to be done. It is his business to secure
the very best positions from the newspapers and
periodicals; to know their lowest rates and all
their peculiarities. One difference, however, be-
tween the advertising agent and other middle-men
is that the advertising agent has to become finan-
cially responsible for the advertiser. The period-
icals look to him for prompt and regular payment.
For this guarantee of the account as well as for
representing the paper faithfully to the advertiser
the various periodicals allow an agent's commis-
sion. Agents also aid the advertiser in the pr?pa-
ration of his advertisements, and much care and
attention is given to u change in advertisements
from time to time in order that new matter may
attract new i)uyers.
ADVOCATES, F.\ciltv of, in Scotland. The
profession has existed in Scotland from a very
early time, a statute iieing jjassed in 14L'4 for se-
curing the assistance of advocates to the poor.
Though existing as a jirofession, there was no
society formed until the institution of the College
of .Justice in irj:i2. Tlie faculty was at one time a
highly aristocratic institution, but is now recruited
from all classes of society. Two examinations are
imiHjsed on candidates for admission — one in gen-
eral scholarship, the other in law. An advocate is
entitled to ])lead in every court in Scotland, civil,
ecclesiastical or criminal, superior or inferior; and
also before the House of Lords. The supreme
judges of Scotland and principal judges are
always, and the sherifif-substitutes generally,
selected from the bar.
ADVOCATES' LIBKARY, a library belonging to
the Faculty of Advocates in Edinburgh. It was
established in lt)82 by Sir George Mackenzie, of
Rosehaugli. By the first (Copyright act, passed in
170(1, the privilege of receiving a copy of every
book entered at Stationers' Hall was conferred on
the Advocates' Library, and the iirivilege is still
retained by them. The number of viumes in the
library is about .'^(I5,()U0. and there are about
3,000 volumes of MSS. Although the library be-
longs strictly to the Faculty of Advocates, it is
open to all engaged in literary work ; and so liberal
is the administration that it is practically the
public librarv of Scotland.
ADVOCAfUS DIALOLI. " the devil's advocate,"
a name given in the Romish church to a person
appointed to state all possible objections to a can-
didate for canonization. He is in opposition to the
advocafus Dei, "God's advocate." who undertakes
the defense. The term is often ajjplied to one who
brings forward malicious accusations.
yEDON, wife of Zethus of Thebes, who, accord-
ing to Greek mythology, was changed into a
nightingale as punishment for crime.
jEUUI, a powerful tribe of Gaul at the time of
Ca-sar's arrival, in .58 b. c. Their territory lay be-
tween the rivers Liger and Arar; chief town,
Bibracte. They formed an alliance with Cfesar,
who freed them from the yoke of Ariovistus, but
joined the other (iauls under Vercingetorix in the
final struggle for independence. After his victory
Ca»sar treated them with leniency for the sake of
the old alliance.
jEGIDIUS COLONNA, prior-general of the Au-
gustinian order, 12it2; tutor to Philip the Fair;
Archbishop of Bourges, ll'iX). Born at Rome 1247;
died 1316.
vEGINA, Gulf of, part of the yEgean Sea,
where lie the islands of .Egina and Salamis.
.EtilXETAN SCULPTURES. The small island
of ,'Kgina holds a very important position in the
history of Grecian art. "What was usually called
the temple of Jupiter Panhellenius, but in later
years believed to have been a temple of Pallas, or
Nlinerva, is now in ruins. Among these very ruins a
number of statues were excavated by a company of
Danes, Germans and Englishmen. They were pur-
chased liy Louis in 1811, at that time Crown Prince
of Bavaria. They are the most remarkable orna-
ments of the Gly'ptothek at Munich.
-EGIKA, ancient Grecian city; one of twelve
forming the .Vthenian confederation, noted for
numerous and elaborate temples. Its site it
doubtful.
^ G I U .M — A E R 0 i\ A U T I C S
m
yEGIUJI, city of Greece, capital of Achwaii
confederation, 337 b. c. Visited by an earthquake
in i8]7.
yEGLE, a genus of plants belonging to the order
of Aurantiarcic. It has a tive-toothed calyx, linear
elongate mucronate anthers and a many-celled
fruit.
^GEL MAEMBLOS, or Bhel, is a fruit tree of
the natural order Aurantiacea', growing in India.
The fruit, otherwise called golden apple and Ben-
gal quince, is aromatic, irregular in form and from
five to nine inches in diameter. The rind pro-
duces a yellow dye, and is used in perfumery. The
dried fruit, under the name of Bela, has been re-
cently descrilsed in the British pharmacopffiia as
mildly astringent, and is in much favor as a rem-
edy for diarrhrea and dysentery. It has been sug-
gested that this remarkable tree might be grown
to advantage in the Southern States.
yELST, EuERHARD Van, a Dutch painter, famous
for his dead-game and fruit pieces. Born at Uelft,
1602; died 1(558. lie had a nephew, William, also
distinguished as an artist. Died 1679.
j!:OLIAN ACCUMULATIONS is a term fre-
quently applied to the sandhills of many maritime
regions, and similar hillocks which occur in Sahara,
Utah, Arizona, etc., formed by the action of the
wind.
.EOLIAN INSTRUMENTS. The use of feolian
instruments is of ancient origin. Perhaps the
oldest and best known of these is the ;eolian harp,
a simple musical instrume.it, which produces har-
monic sounds when placed in a current of wind. A
common form is that of a box of thin fibrous wood,
to which are attached a number of catgut strings,
sometimes as many as fifteen, all tuned in uni.son,
and stretched on low bridges at each end. The
wind passing over the strings produces the effect
of music heard at a distance, the sounds swelling
and diminishing according to the force of the blast.
The music is of a drowsy and lulling character. At
one time an instrument called the bell harp was
very popular in England. It consisted of a box,
usually about two feet in length, strung with metal
wires. This instrument was swung by the per-
former while playing upon it, the motion impart-
ing a peculiar undulatory character to the tones.
The Malays pierce holes in long bamboo tubes, and
place them in trees to be sounded by the wind.
There is a contrivance for the pianoforte called an
xolian attaehment, by which a stream of air can be
thrown upon the wires. It has the effect of pro-
longing the vibration and increasing the volume of
sound.
^OLIANS, one of the principal races of the
Greeks, settled in Thessaly, from which they spread
and formed many settlements in tlie northern
ijarts of Greece and west of the Peloponnesus.
jVbout the 11th century a part of them emigrated
to Asia Minor, where they founded more than
thirty cities on the northwestern coast, in Mysia
and the surrounding isles. Among these cities are
Smyrna and Mitylene in the island of Lesbos.
Here the .Kolian dialect of the Greek language
•chiefly developed itself, especially in the form em-
iloyed in the poetry of Alcreus and Sappho.
.EOLIPILE. a hollow metallic liall containing a
bent tube, invented by Hero of Alexandria. When
filled with water and heated, steam issues from
'irifices in the tube, causing the ball to turn. It
was thought to .show the origin of the winds.
yEOLOTKOPY implies change in the physical
properties of bodies resulting from change of posi-
tion, as when the refractive prop(>rty of a transpar-
ent body is not the same in all directions. Iceland
spar is a notable instance of luolotropy.
^EPYORNIS, a great wingless bird whose re-
mains are found in the Post-tertiary deposits of
Madagascar. There appear to have been two or
three species of vEpyornis, one even larger than the
Dinornis. The subfossil eggs are about 14 inches
in diameter.
AERATED BREAD Is bread mechanically
charged with an acid gas, usually derived from car-
bonic acid water.
AERIAL PERSPECTIVE, laws which regulate
the effect of li^ht, shade and color upon the appar-
ent distance of bodies.
^ERIANS, a sect of Homoiousians founded by
^rius, in the 4th century.
AERODYNAMICS is that branch of Hydro-
dynamics which treats of air and other gases in
motion.
AEROKLINOSCOPE, an instrument used iu
connection with weather signals to publicly exhibit
the difference of barometric pressure at different
stations. The aeroklinoscope was invented by Buys
Ballot.
AEROLITE, a name given to stony or metallic
bodies falling through the atmosphere to the earth
from outer space. See Britannica, Vol. I, p. 184.
AEROMETER, an instrument for making the
necessary corrections in pneumatic experiments to
ascertain the mean bulk of gases.
AERONAUTICS. See former article in Britan-
nica, Vol. I, p. 185-207. In the United States aero-
statics has been prosecuted with great zeal, though
it must be admitted that American aeronauts have,
not been actuated by the scientific spirit, as in Eu-
rope, but rather by a desire for adventure and
gain, and also by sedulous efforts to discover some
practicable means of navigating the air. During
the civil war of 1861-65, the northern armies made
frequent use of captive balloons for the purpose of
observing the operations of the enemy, and bal-
loon trains formed part of the military equipment
during the Virginia campaigns and at the siege of
Y'orktown and in the operations before Richmond.
During the battle of Seven Pines (or Fair Oaks>,.
,Iune 1, 1862, it was stated that "during the whole-
of the engagement Prof. Lowe's balloon hovered
over the Federal lines at an altitude of 2,000 feet,
and ma,intained successful communication with
Gen. McClellan at his headquarters. Every move-
ment of the Confederate forces was detected and
instantaneously reported." This is the first sue--
cessful instance on record of the use of the bal-
loon in military operations. In recent years some
remarkable balloon voyages have been made by
various exhibitors at various points iu the I-. S..
but none of them were especially equipped for sci-
entific observation. The late Prof. Donaldson, a
most intrepid aeronaut, who made upward of one
hundred ascents, ultimately lost his life, being
caught in a storm and his balloon wrecked in a
western forest. F. A. Gower, an American, tempo-
rarily residing in France in 1883, constructed an
" air" ship," consisting of a fish-shaped balloon of
2,500 cubic metres capacity, whose motive power
consisted of immense fans driven by a bronze
steam engine of live horse power, consuming petro-
leum for fuel. Mr. Gower lost his life in the Eng-
lish channel in 1885 by the bursting of his balloou.
Despite the thus far almost uniformly unsuccess-
ful attempts to construct a practicable air-ship,
the subject has not ceased to occupy the attention
of inventors, and the study of aeronautics has now
narrowed itself to the i)rol)lem how to construct a
machine that shall navigate the air with safety.
The year 1890 was notable for the announcement
confidently made that a Chicago inventor had con-
structed an air-ship not dependent on gas for it*
40
AERO P II Y T E S — A F G U A X 1 .S T A X
Ouoyancy, its working parts made of aluminum, 1
Iriven by electricity, and that an amply capitalized
company was formed to push the invention.
AEROPHYTES. plants which derive their sus-
tenance from the air, as orchids and some lichens.
AKROSTATIC PRESS, a machine used for ex-
tracting coloring-matter from dye-woods. A vessel
])ierced with holes is divided by ahorizonlial parti-
lion, the dye-wood containing the coloring matter is
laid upon this, and a perforated cover over it. An
extracting liquid is then poured on the top and the
air being drawn from the under part of the vessel
by a inimp. the liijuid is forced through the dye-
wood liy tiie pressure of the air.
AEROSTATICS, a branch of science which treats
of the pressure of air and other gases, and of the
melliods of measuring it by t he liaromeler and other
instruments. The expansive force of atmospheric
air changes with the time and place. Any partic-
ular pressure is said to be equal to so many atmos-
plicres. Aerostatics, too, investigates I he phenomena
of the compression of gases. In tlie law of Mariotle
the expansive force of a body of gas under different
degrees of compression varies inversely as the space
wliich it occupies.
-ESOULIN, a crystalline fluorescent substance,
obtained from the bark of the horse-chestnut and
other trees of the genera JKxciihtss and Pavia. It
forms colorless, needle-shaped crystals. It is in-
odorous, has a bitter taste, is soluble in water and
alcohol at boiling heat, and nearly insoluble in
ether.
yESOPUS (Clodius) 75 b.c. actor of tragedy in
Rome, and the instructor of Cicero in oratory. lie
is said to have thrown himself so completely into
the part he acted that he once killed a stage at-
tendant, with his truncheon.
vESTHETICIS.M is an art movement which has
sprung up during the present century. The funda-
mental i)rinciple of a-stheticisini is to carry a love
of the beautiful into the home and into all the rela-
tions of life. Mr. Ruskin has done much to advance
a true understanding of it by his writings; and Sir
Frederick Leighton and Alma Tadema are, perhaps,
chief among those who have realized its ideal in
their dwellings. The movement has been attended
by much amusing extravagance, tending to bring it
into disrepute; but, when this has passed away,
there may still be left a refining and educating in-
fluence upon the masses.
-ESTHETICS is a term now commonly used to
denote the science or philosophy of the beautiful;
the principles of taste and of art. .Exlhetica was
first used in this sense by the Wolfian philosopher,
Haumgarten, and he may be regarded as the father
oi icstlietics as a well-defined system. According
to him and his followers, sense is the lower intellect-
ual power, understanding and reason the higher.
As the true and the good are apprehended Iiy the
latter, the beautiful is grasped by the former.
The name of Plato is bound up with the history
of speculation on the beautiful, which he never
wholly separated from the good. Aristotle is more
precise than his master, and left a body of vahia-
iile and still valid canons of criticism, especially for
poetry. An Aristotelian dictum is that the beauti-
ful is a mean between extremes. Winckelman did
much to furtlier ;psthetic criticism liy his examina-
tion of the principles of Greek sculpture ; Lessing
still more, by his attempt to distinguish the province
of poetry from that of painting and sculpture.
Scliiller was not merely a great poet, but a sugges-
tive critic ; and one of his trenchant maxims was
that the annihilation or superseding of the nmiler
by ihefnrhi is the troe art-secret of the master artists.
The influence of Goethe, by means of his iri7/i€?m
Meiitrr and other works, has probably had still more
influence. The first publication on this subject of
any consequence was Hutchinson's Jiifjuiri/ (1725).
In this work the existence of an "internal sense."
through which we obtain a perce|)tion of the beau-
tiful, or are made in some way conscious of its i)res-
ence, was maintained. Since that time there have
been many contributors to the discussion of the i>rol>-
len . Ruskin especially has done mucli to awaken
and (Extend the appreciation of art, and in several
of his works discusses a-sthetic theories ; particu-
larly in Modern PaintKruhe has attempted a system-
atic exposition of our ideas of beauty.
-ESTIVATION (Lat. icntirug, belonging to sum-
mer), a term used in botany which denotes the
manner in wliich the parts of ilie flower aredisposed
in the flower Ijud just before its opening.
jETHIOP.S, an old pharmaceutical term applied
to various mineral preiiaralions of blackish color.
AETHRlOSCfIPE, an instrument for measuring
the minute variations of temperature due to the
conditions of the sky, consists of a differential
thermometer whose bulbs are both within a cup-
shaped mirror, one being in the focus of the
mirror.
AETIANS, an Arian sect considered heretical by
both Arians and orthodox, and condemned 353 \. u.
AETIOLOGY, the science of causes and causa-
tion ; that branch of medicine which seeks to find out
the causes and origin of diseases. Also, that de-
partment of biology which seeks to give a rational
account of the forms, functions and history of
organisms.
-ETOMORPH-E, in or-
nitliology, birds of i)rey ;
equivalent to the group
called Acr.ipitres or liup-
tores, by most writers.
They were divided l)y
Huxley into the four
families of Str!gid!c,
Cathariida:, Gypsstidic, and
Gypogeranida:.
AFFILIATION, or Fil-
i.\Tiox, a name given to
an action brought in the
sheriff courts of Scotland ^^ccipitees. l. Head alid Kcot
by the mother of an ille- of Gerfalcon. 2. Foot of Or-
gitiinate cliild to recover "ngB Ltgged Falcon,
aliment from the putative father. It is the equiva-
lent of the i)roceeding for a bastardy order before
the justices in the United States and England.
The French refuse to inquire into paternity.
AFFRIQUE, Saint, a town of the department
of Aveyron, France, on the Sorgue. It has cot-
ton and woolen manufactories and tanneries
There is considerable trade in wool, and a princi-
pal article of trade is the celebrated Roquefon
Vhresc Population, 5.071.
AFGHANISTAN. The history given in Britan-
nica.S'ol. I, pp. 227-41,closes with 1872. The further
record is as follows :
Shere Ali raises an army, and is said to promote
disaffection to the British (1877-78).
Death of the heir Abdoola Jan, Aug. 17, 1878.
Stolietoff, a Russian envoy, favoralMy received at
Cabul, June; a treaty signed; Russia to be the
guardian of the ameer, .Vugust. 1878.
Ali Musjid shelled and occupied by the British,
Nov. 22, 1878.
The British occupy Jellalabad. Dec. 20, 1878.
Shere Ali flees from Cabul to Balkh, Dec. 13;
Yakoob Khan assumes command; the Russian mis-
sion withdraws, December, 1878.
Gen. Roberts proclaims annexation of Kurau;
district, etc., Dee. 26, 1S7S.
A F G H A N I S T A N— A F R A N C E S A D 0 S
i'i
Death of Sliere Ali, the ameer (announced), Feb.
20, 1.S79.
Yakoob Khan, son of the late ameer, recognized
as ameer, Maj' 9, 1879.
Treaty of peace signed at Gandamak (the British
to occupy Khyber pass, and theKuramand Pisheen
valleys ; to have a resident at Cabul ; and to pay
an annual subsidy of 60,000?. to the ameer), ratified
May 30, 1879.
Abdication of Yakoob Khan announced, Oct. 19,
1S79.
Proclamation of General Roberts, announcing
British occupation of Cabul, etc., Oct. 30, 1879.
JIusa Khan, son of Yakoob, said to be proclaimed
ameer about Dec. 17, 1879.
The Afghans (25,000) defeated with great loss
near Sherpur cantonments, by Gens. Roberts and
Gough, Dec. 23, 1879.
Cabul left by the enemy, Dec. 24 ; the city and
Bala Hissar reoccupied by the British, Dec. 26, 1879.
Shere Ali, cousin of the late ameer, made wall or
governor of Candahar by the British, April, 1880.
Abdul-Rahman, or Abdur-Rahman, recognized as
ameer at Cabul by the British, and proclaimed July
22, 1880.
Ayoob Khan (son of the late ameer, Shere Ali),
governor of Herat, marches upon Candahar with
about 12,000 men and 20 guns; defeats the attack of
Gen. Burrows after severe coiitlicts ; heavy loss on
both sides, July 27, 1880.
Ayoob Khan's army (strengthened by Ghilzais)
about 20,000 strong, Aug. 25; he retires from Canda-
liar about Aug. 30, 1880.
Gen. Roberts arrives at Candahar, Aug. 31 ; de-
clines Ayoob's terms ; defeats and disperses his
army at JIazra near the Aragandab ; and captures
his camp at Baba Wall Kotal, Sept. 1.
, Shere Ali, wali of Candahar, resigns, and retires
to India, December, 1880.
Abdur-Rahman virtual ruler of all Afghanistan,
October, 1881.
Peace concluded about June 21, 1883.
Abdul-Rahman Kahn is still the ameer or reign-
ing sovereign (January, 1891), having successfully
maintained his jiosition without a break.
The government of Afghanistan is monarchical,un-
der one hereditary prince, whose power varies with
liis own character and fortune. The dominions are
))olitically divided into the four provinces of Cabul,
Turkistan, Herat a>nd Candaliar, to which may be
added the districts of Badakshan and Wakhan, as
they are also at present in the position of separate
provinces. Each province is under a hakim or gov-
ernor (called naib in Shere Ali's time), under whom
nobles dispensed justice after a feudal fashion.
Spoliation, exaction, and embezzlement are almost
universal.
The ameer's subjects number about four millions,
the most numerous tribe being the Ghilzais, who
must amount to at least a million; then follow the
Tajiks, Duranis, llazarahs, and Aimaks, and Uzbegs.
The Tajiks, who are found scattered all over the
country, are presumably of Arab or Persian descent,
and though they are found intermingled with Af-
ghans, they are more settled, and prefer agricul-
tural or industrial occupations. The Ghilzais oc-
cupy the country south-east of Cabul, while the
Duranis inhabit the country north and south of the
tfad between Herat and Candahar ; north of these
lie the Paropamisan mountains, inhabited by the
Aimakhs and Hazarahs, who are said to be the de-
scendants of Tartar colonies left by Chinging Khan,
and who have undoubted Tartar lineaments. AVith
the exception of the Kizilbashes and most of the
Hazarahs, who are Shiahs, the inhabitants are
Mohammedans of the Suni sect.
The revenue of Afghanistan is subject to consid
eraljle fluctuations. One of the late ameer Shere
Ali's ministers estimated the average annual rev-
enue of the five years 1872-76 at 712,968?. ; but subse-
quent events have made it impossible to estimate
the present revenues. The government share of
the produce recoverable is said to vary from one-
third to one-tenth, according to the advantages of
irrigation.
Abdul-Rahman is said to have reintroduced the
regular army, which had been originally founded
on a European model by Shere Ali on his return
from India in 1869. In addition to his regular army
the ameer's military forces are largely supplemented
by local levies of horse and foot. The mounted
levies are simply the retainers of great chiefs, or of
the latter's wealthier vassals. The ameer's govern-
ment grants 200 Cabuli rupees a year for each
horseman. The foot levies are now, under Abdul-
Rahman, permanently embodied, and as irregulars
form a vahiable auxiliary to the regular infantry.
The artillery branch is very weak, as there are
few trained gunners, the force being made up by
infantry drafts when required. There are no engi-
neers, but a few regiments have a company
equipped with spades and axes.
The present trade routes of Afghanistan are as
follows :
From Persia by Mashad to Herat.
From Bokhara by Merv to Herat.
From Bokhara by Karchi, Balkh, and Khulm to
Cabul.
From East Turkistan by Cihtral to Jellalabad.
From India by the Khaibar and Abkhana roads
to Cabul.
From India by the Ghwalari Pass to Ghazni.
From India by the Bolan Pass to Candahar.
The imports from Cabul into India in 1888-89
were valued at 19}4 lakhs, while the exports reached
the sum of 52}4 lakhs of rupees. There is also a
good deal of trade conveyed by the Sind-Pisheen
railway. The imports consist of horses, madder
(manjic), fruits, <ilii, and raw silk. The chief ex-
ports from British India consist of cotton goods,
indigo, sugar and tea.
The Khaibar and Bolan roads are excellent, and
fit for wheeled trallic as far as Cabul and Candahar
respectively. There is, however, no wheeled car-
riage, except artillery, proper to the country, and
merchandise is transported on camel or pony back.
There are practically no navigable rivers in .Afghan-
istan, and timber is the only article of commerce
conveyed by water, floated down stream in rafts.
For information concerning currency, religion,
education, weigiits and measures, and judiciary
system, see those topics in these American Addi-
tions.
AFRANCESADOS, Spanish supporters of Joseph
Bonaparte, 1808-13. Punished by Ferdinand VII
after his restoration.
42
A F R I V A
Foil general history and descriptive notes, see
Urilannica, Vol. J, i)p. U'45-72. The greatest
Iciifitli of tlie continent from nortli to south is
alioiit 4,985 miles; its greatest lireadth, from east
lowest, 4,(U5 miles. Area, inehuling tlie adjacent
islands, 11, (iOO,(X)0 sipiare miles.
The liistoric record of Africa given in Vol. I of
tlie I'.ritannica closed soon after the finding of
l)r. Livingstone by II. M. Stanley. The expedition
of which Stanley was chief was organized by
•lames Gordon liennett, proprietor of the "New
Yorl; Herald," and prosecuted by liini at a cost of
about .i;4(l,t>0(). Stf»nley and party left the east
coast at Zanzibar, and after nuich ojjposition from
the native chiefs succeeded in finding Jyivingstone
at Ujiji, near T'nyanyemba, Nov. 10, 1871, and re-
mained with him lint 1 j.larch 14, 1872, when he left,
l)ringing with him Livingstone's diary and other
documents. When he found Livingstone the latter
had been robbed and deserted by his attendants,
and was in l)ad j)liysical condition. A letter from
J)r. Livingstone to Mr. Bennett, printed in the
" New York Herald," July 2(>, 1872, and in the Lon-
don "Times" of the following day, told of his
explorations and his painful journey to TJjiji ; his
meeting with Stanley, and the important aid the
latter had furnished. He also described the Nile
springs as located about (iOO miles south of the
most southerly part of Lake Victoria Kyanza,
and mentioned about 700 miles of water-shed in
Central Africa, of which he had explored about 600
miles.
The historic record of the African exploration
furnishes the following chronological outline:
Stanley described his meeting of Dr. Living-
stone to the British Association in the presence of
the ex-Emperor and ex-Empress of France, and re-
ceived a gold snuff-box from Queen Victoria, Aug.
30. 1872.
Livingstone died of dysentery in Ilala, Central
Africa, May 1,1873; his remains were interred in
"Westminster Abbey, April 18, 1874, and his last
journals were pul)lished December, 1874.
A new expedition under Sir Eartle Frere, via Zan-
zibar, to suppress the East African slave trade,
sailed Nov.20, 1872. Leaving Ujiji May 14,lS74,it fol-
lowed Livingstone's route ; explored 1,200 miles of
fertile country; arrived at Portuguese settlement
Nov. 4, 1873. Sir Barlle Frere reported in person to
the Royal Geographical Society in London. April
11, 1876.
II. M. Stanley, under the auspices of the "Lon-
don Daily Telegraph " and the " New York Her-
ald," survoved Lake Victoria Nyanza, 230 miles
by 180 miles, in 1875, last letter dated April 24,
1876; reported survey of Lake Tanganyika, and
stated that he left Ujiji. crossing Africa from
east to west, and identified the Lualaba with the
Congo river, having an uninterrupted course of
over 1,400 miles, arriving on the west coast Aug. 6,
1877 ; arrived at Capetown Oct. 31, 1877 ; in London
Jan. 22, 1878; published Tliruiif/h the TMrk Continent
in iMay, 1878.
Italian expedition under Marechal Antinori an-
Jiounced December, 1876; his death reported No-
vember, 1877.
Stanley planned a new African expedition for
J he purpose of opening up the Congo region to
commerce, the chief promoter l>eing the king of the
Belgians. The International African Association
w as formed at Brussels ; the sum of $100,000 was
raised ''<>>• «-i^<» i»-ork, and Stanley started once more
for Zanzibar, .Ian. 22, 1870. He collected at Zanzi-
bar (i8 men (15 of them were his old comrades t, and
with eight steamers (the smallest being 25 feet
long) journeyed to the Congo, on the west coast .
and entered that r'ver at its mouth Aug. 21, 1K7!I:
in eight days reached Bonea ; thence to \'ivi, just
above which are the Jyjvingstone Falls, the head of
navigation from the sea; thence to Isangila, a
distance of 140 miles by land (recjuiring ten months
of severest labor in constructing a roadway and
transporting boats and goods), reaching the place
just two years from the dale of his submission of
nis plans to the king at Brussels. From Isangila,
where Stanley fitted up his boats, there is open
water to Manyanga, a distance of 70 miles; thence
up 95 miles of rapids until Stanley I'ool was
reached, Dec. 3, 1881. Above this the Congo is
navigable for more than a thousand miles, ^\'hile
arrangements were making for advancing up the
river Stanley explored the Kiva river until his
little steamer entered what is now known as Lake
Leopold II, covering an area of about 800 square
miles. On returning he was stricken down with
fever, and was compelled to return to Europe,
where he arrived in October, 1882. AVhen he left
Brussels in 1877, on this exi)edition,his instructions
were to build three stations on the Congo, launch
a steamer on the Upper Congo and open communi-
cations from the Upper (longo and the sea; and he
was able to report, on his return, that five stations
had been constructed, a steamer and sailing boat
launched on the Upper Congo, and communica-
tions opened and maintained from the mouth of the
Kiva to the sea, a distance of 440 miles.
At the close of 1882 Stanley, with improved
health, w-as again on liis way to the (Jongo. On
Dec. 1, 1883, he founded a station at Stanley Falls,
and in June, 1884, again cast anchor at Leopold-
ville, 1,068 miles below Stanley Falls. Concerning
the work thus far accomplished Stanley wrote:
" From the Atlantic Ocean is a navigable length of
110 miles as far as Vivi, thence to Isangila, the
lower series of the Livingstone Falls, 50 miles;
from Isangila to IManyana and Leopoldville is the
upper series of Livingstone Falls, along a length of
85 miles; from Leopoldville upward to Stanley
Falls we have a navigable length of 1,068 miles;
from the lowest falls of this last series to Niangwe
there is a course of 3:85 miles; from Niangwe to
Moero the river extends 448 miles ; the lake of
Moero is 67 miles ; thence to Lake I'angweola is
220 miles ; Lake Bangweola. or Beml)wa. is 167 miles
long; and thence to its sources in the Chibal6
hills the Chamezi has a length of 31)0 miles— the
full total of these several courses being 3,034
miles." Then, comparing the immense basin of the
Congo to that of the ^Mississippi. Stanley expi-essed
the opinion that the former is much more prom-
ising than w-as the latter under the same degree of
development. " The forests on the Congo." he con-
tinued, " are filled with precious red-wood, liguum-
vit;e, mahogany, and fragrant gumtrees. .Vr, their
base may be found inexhaustible quantities of
fossil guiii, with which the carriages and furniture
of civilized countries are varnished; their boles
exude myrrh and frankincense ; their foliage^ is
draped w'ith orchilla-weed, useful for dye. The
redwood, when cut down, chipped and rasped, pro-
duces a deep crimsoned powder, giving a valuable
coloring; the creepers, which hang in festoons
from tree to tree, are generally those from which
India-rubber is produced, the best of which is
I
MAI* OF TIIK
INDEPEXDEXT STATE
r CO°XGO
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AFRICA
43
vf orth 50 cents per lb. ; the nuts of the oil palra give
forth a butter, a staple article of commerce ; while
the fibers of others will make the best cordage.
" Among the wild shrubs is frequently found the
■coffee plant. In its plains, jungle, and swamp
luxuriate the elephants, whose tusks furnish ivory
worth from $2 to $2.75 per pound; its waters teem
with numberless herds of hippopotami, whose tusks
are also valuable ; furs of the lion, leopard, monkey,
otter; hides of antelope, buffalo, goat, cattle, etc.,
may also be obtained. But, what is of far more
value, it possesses over forty millions of moder-
ately industrious and workable people, which the
red Indians never were. And if we speak of pro-
spective advantages and benefits to be derived from
this late gift of Nature, they are not much inferior
in number or value to those of the well-developed
Mississippi Valley. The copper of Lake Superior
is rivaled by that of the Kwilu-Niadi Valley and
of Bemb^. Rice, cotton, tobacco, maize, coffee,
sugar, and wheat would thrive equally well in the
broad plains of the Congo. This is only known
after the most superficial examination of a limited
line, which is not much over fifty miles wide. I
have heard of gold and silver ; but this statement
requires corroboration, and I am not disposed to
touch upon what I do not personally know."
At the close of 1884 the International African
Assuciation, under the direction and dauntless
energy of Stanley, had made 500 treaties with
local African chiefs, and established 156 commer-
cial stations on the banks of the Congo between
the Atlantic coast and Stanley Port. A new and
great state had in fact been created, with a possi-
ble future of the highest importance. The United
States has the credit of being the first government
which officially .re 'Ognized the newly created state,
and secured for it autonomy as a separate, inde-
pendent and free state. At the request of Gen.
H. S. Sanford, who was an American member of
the executive committee of the Association, Pres-
ident Arthur, in his message to Congress in De-
cember, 1883, strongly advised that the flag of the
Association should be officially recognized ; and the
United States Senate, in accordance with the Pres-
ident's advice, adopted resolutions, April 22, 1884,
under which the flag of the International Associa-
tion was thereafter recognized as that of a friendly
government. This step secured freedom of trade
with the right to acquire and hold property ; and
the Association, on its part, engaged to abolish
slavery. "This," says Stanley, in his book soon
after issued, " was the birth into a new life — the
point of departure of its existence as a state." The
example of the United States was subsequently
followed by the various governments of Europe.
Next followed the conference at Berlin, in No-
vember, 1884, at which the boundaries of the new
state were fixed, and the whole Congo basin opened
to unobstructed trade and international comity and
progress. Belgium, whose noble king, Leopold,
had already invested about $8,000,000 of his own
personal fortune in aid of the enterprise, promptly
and cheerfully consented to the sovereignty of the
" Congo Free State."
We ne.xt outline the origin, extent and fuccess of
still another expedition by Stanley into the regions
of Central Africa. When Emin Pasha, who had
been appointed governor of the Central Soudan by
Gen. (xordoii, and who had been placed in ,ireat
peril during the revolution and cominests of 'he
Mahdi, made an appeal for relief, the public
mind in Egypt and in fjondon was greatly aroused
in his behalf, and a relief expedition was planned,
•» nromotionof which the British Royal Geographi-
o<it nocieiy g:vve )fd,OuO, t?ip Egyptian Khedive gave
:560,(K")0, and many others contriLtite'A large sums.
It was determined, towards the end of 1886, that
the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition, commanded by
Mr. Stanley, should be conveyed up the Congo to
the Aruwimi, and should march along the banks of
the Aruwimi eastward to Lake Albert Nyanza, a
distance of less than 400 miles. The wisdom of this
resolution was disputed at the time ; and some per-
sons may now consider that the event has actually
confirmed the objections which were then enter-
tained. The i)rofessed object of the Expedition, to
reach Emin Pasha, has indeed been accomplished,
but at a cost of £.30,000, by the labors of three
years, and with immense loss of life. It was not
done in the manner or by the course that Emin
Pasha wished, which would have opened a direct
road from the Nile, through Unyoro and Uganda,
and along the north shore of the Victoria Nyanza,
by Kavirondo, to British East Africa, taking the
route which Mr. Joseph Thomson had explored be-
tween Kavirondo and the seacoast. It is true that
Emin Pasha and Dr. Junker had been refused a
passage in that direction ; but the temporary ill-
will of the King of Uganda, the most powerful of
the native states, might probably have been ap-
peased by negotiations, with the offer of a good
round sum of money. If Mwanga could have been
induced to give his assistance, and if a similar ar
rangement could have been made with Kabrega,
the King of Unyoro, there can be little doubt that
Emin Pasha and his people might have been
brought down to Mombasa in about six months, at
much less expense than was actually incurred.
This was what Emin Pasha asked of the English
public in his last letter, dated April, 1887 : "A safe
road to the coast." Mr. Joseph Thomson offered to
undertake the task. Among those who approved
of the eastern route were Dr. Schweinfurth and
Dr. Junker, who were best acquainted with the
subject.
But the influence of personages connected with the Congo
Free State preponderated in favor of tlie opposite plan,
■which was first mooted at Brussels, "with a calculation,
proved afterwards to be extremely fallacious, that by going
up the Congo, and by a march of thirty-five or forty days, "to
take the utmost limit, two months," from Yambuya to
Wadelai, the Expedition could reach Emin Pasha in five
months. Mr. Stanley, who was in America, being sent foe
the money was presently subscribed ; the King of the Bel-
gians, as President of the Congo Free State, patronizing the
enterprise, and the Khedive of Egypt contributing part of its
funds. It was then arranged that the Expedition should be
Erepared at Zanzibar, on the east coast of Africa, and should
e carried round by sea to Bauana Point, at the mouth of the
Congo, on the west coast of Africa, by one of the British
India Steam Navigation Company's vessels. This was easily
done. By the efforts of Mr, George Slackenzie and of -Acting-
Consul Holmwood, at Zanzibar, the force of 6'-'3 Zanzibar
men, 6y Soudanese, and 14 Somalis was hired for the service
-of the Expedition. It was accompanied from Zanzibar by
the famous Tippoo Tib, the half-,\rab ivory trader and slave-
dealer of the Upper Congo and ruler of the savage Manyemas.
who had promised his assistance, and had been formally
appointed Governor of Stanley Falls, a station violently
wrested by the Arabs from the possession of the Congo State
Government, which now had the policy to convert its foe
into an official representative of its abandoned rule. Tippoo
Tib brought 90 of his own followers with him from Zanzibar,
and was joined by hundreds more up the Congo, men of the
Manyema race from NyaugwC.
VOYAGE UP THE CONGO.
Leaving Zanzibar, with tlie Expedition, on Feb. 2-t, 1887, the
Madura steam-ship arrived on March 18 at the mouth of the
Congo. Five steam-boats conveyed the K.xpeditiou up to
Boma, which has been made the head(|U«ners of the Congo
Free State Government, and has now about li;o European
residents, with Dutch, ?>ench, Belgian. English, and Portu-
guese commercial establishments, a small garrison of Houssa
and Bangala troops, and hundreds of native laborers. At
Matadi, where the river navigation is interrnpted, the Expe-
dition had to land and march, with rJilO loads of stores
carried on men's heads, \ip to-Manyanga; this land transport,
miuiagcd t)V Mr. Ingham, was a laborious work of many
days. Frorn Manyanga to Stanley Pool, where Mr, .lohu
Rose Troup was in charge of the transport all the way to
the Aruwimi, the stores ami liaggnge -were carried by watei.
Mr, Stanley, at the end of .\nrll, having got all the men
and stores collected at Kiushassa, near Leopoldvllle, Stanley
44
A !•• K i C A
Pool, and put un bourd flvo steam-boatt, set fortb on bis voyngo up
the river. Dotuinod a few days by ncctJcnts at Bolobo, and Btopping
throo days ut Uangain, tho Expoditioa ncvorthclosa performed the
uBCcnt of tho Congo, from Stanley Pool to tho Aruwimi, in six week'*,
only eight days behind the appointed time. Mr. Troup and Mr.
Herbert Ward uftcrwardH, by two ateameni which were sent back
for thorn, brought up the remainder of tlie Btorca, with tho men
loft at Bangaltt. No time h'ld been lost ; and tho Congo part
of the Expedition was attended with few serious anxieties, except a
ecarcity of food at Stanley Pool, where tho station stores were
low, and tho natives were uhy of bringing their goods to market ;
in fact, there wero not provisions enough to feed 800 Htrangers.
Yambuya, two days* voyage up the Aruwimi, at the foot of the
papids which stop its navigation, was chosen as the site of the d<fp6t
of stores, to be left with tho rearguard of the Expedition, 257 men,
under tho command of Major Barltclot, with Mr. Jameson second
in command. This rearguard stayed at Yambuya from June 1887
to Juno 1888, with Mr. Troup, Mr. Word, uud Mr. Bonny, while
Mr. Stanley, with the advance party, marched on through the
pathless forest to Lake Albert Nyunza.
THE CAMP AT YAMBUYA.
Mr. Werner, in his " River Life on tho Congo," gives tho beat
description yet published of Major Barttelot's camp, which was
situated on tho top of a nearly perp(?ndicular bluff, some fifty feet high.
The fort was constructed by Lieutenant Stairs, R.E., Mr. Jameson
assisting in the superintendence of the work. This fort, containing
all tho stores as well m tho huta of the Europeans, was an enclosure
some thirty yards square, 6urroundc<l by a strong palisade of sticks
or poles, from two to three inches in diameter, and twelve to fifteen
feet in length. These were fixed as closely together as possible, juat
leaving room to insert the muzzle of a gun between them. Facing
the river the palisade was planted on the edge of an almost vertical
descent of f:fty feet, rendering that side of the stronghold tinaflsail-
nble ; but on the other three sides a stage was erected six feet from the
ground, so that two rows of men could bring their guns into use at
the same time, the palisade being high enough to afford cover for the
upper row. Opposed to natives who fight with ppears and arrows,
this arrangement would have been complete ; but in an engagement
with, Arabs, who have rifles and double-barrel shot-guns, the men
would, of course, have been too much exposed. For provision against
this emergency, an embankment five feet high had been thrown up
against the outside of the palisades, composed of clay tauten from a
trench which aurru\mded the whole, and was from time to time filled
with water. There is no regular rainy season in this part of Africa.
Heavy showers fall at uncertain intervals, usually every few days;
80 that the trench was not only useful in the matter of defence,
but could be relied upon for water, in caae the ramp were cut
off from the river. On the land side, nearest the adjacent
Arab camp, were two semicircular redoubts, through which the
defenders would have opened a flank fire on any party attempting
to approach the trench. There were five huts inside the enclosure,
three of which were occupied by the Europeans and half filled wilh
stores ; the fourth was used as a mess-room, much space, however,
being filled up with donkeys' stalls, spades, hoes, and various other
articles and implements necessary for the expedition. The fifth, on
the occasion of Mr. Werner's visit, was occi:pied by Mr. Troup, who
was very ill, and eventually, aa will bo remombered, had to return
home. Supplementing these five huts was a galley and four smaller
erections for servants and other natives. The two entrances to the
enclosure were about three feet wide, and defended by a door formed
of planks made from the bottoms of large canoes. They were hinged
at the top, and kept open during the day by having their lower ends
supported on atout poles. It required four or five men to raise and
close them. At night they were watched by a proper guard. The
trench was crossed by means of planks, which formed a kind of
primitive drawbridge. The south side of the enclosure was defended
only by a palisade, being covered by the men's camp, a second
enclosure, longer than the first, round which the palisade and trench
were continued. Within this outer enclosure were the numerous
small grass huts occupied by the men, and its southern end was in a
line with the foot of the last rapid in the river. Among the huts
were several of the conical-roofed native huts, representing all that
remained of the village whifh had already been burnt by tho
Arabti. Around tho cntiro stockade the biuh had been cleared away,,
BO as to leave no cover for enemies approaching from ihc Ipnd side.
The clearing had been extended on the north for some distance up
tho river, and formed an esplanade.
D16ASTK0US FATE OF THE HEAR COLUM.V.
It was on Juno 28, 1887, that Mr. Stanley led forth his advanced
column of .S80 officors and men into the unknown wildemei». In hi»
parting instructions to Major Barltclot he seems to have provided
againnt every contingency, except that which happened — Ibe utter
and complete breakdown of Tippoo Tib'j promises and eagagomcnti.
" It is the non-arrival of the goods from Stanley Pool and the men
from Bolobo," wrote Mr. Stanley in camp to Major Barttelot four
days before leaving, " which compels me to appoint you commander
of this post ; but oa I shall shortly expect the arrival of a blrong rein-
forcement of men (Tippoo Tib's people), greatly exceeding the advanced
force which must at all hazards proceed and push on to the riicuc of
Emin Fosha, I hope y»u vvill not be detained longer than a few days
after tho departure of tho Stanley on her final retuni to Stanley Pool
in August. The intcroata now entrusted to you are of vital import-
ance to this Expedition. The men (Zan^.ibaria) who ahorlly will
be under your command will consist of more than a third of thr-
Expedition. Tho goods are needed for currency through tho region
beyond the Lakes. The loss of these men and goods would bo certain
to ruin ua, and the advance force itself would need to solicit relief in
its turn. It may happen, should Tippoo Tib send the full complcmect
of men promised (GOO), and if tho 126 men have arrived by the
Stanley, that you will feci competent to march your column along the
route pursued by mc. In that event, which would bo most desirabl''.
we should meet before many days."
The story of the Yambuya Camp and tho rearguard, which
developed tragically beyond the control of either Mr. Stanley or his
lieutenant, is one of the most mclanrholy episodes of African travei
and exploration. The recent action of the Emin Pasha lUiief Com-
mittee in her Majesty's Consular Court at Zarzibar has, hon-cver, act
at rest the question of Mr. Stanley's eonfrdcacc in Tippoo Tib, oi
whoso treachery, and that of Salira bin Mohamed, there is no ioDg< r
room for the smallest doubt. It was Mr. J. R. Werner, a visitor i'
Yambuya and to Stanley Falls, an engineer in tho servif e of tht
Congo Free State, who first detected the criminal disloyalty of Tippoii
Tib and Salim, his representative. Not only did the Arab chiei
withhold tho men he had promised, but Salim, forming a powerful
camp close behind Major Barttelot, for-
bade the natives to sell food to the
white men, demanded for his ovra use
the stores of the Emin Pasha Relief
Expedition, and sent men to break up
Major Barltclot's canoes, which were
lying in the river below his camp.
"He would," says Mr. Werner, "per-
haps have proceeded to even greater
lengths, had he not heard that Mr.
Ward had gone down tho Congo to send
telegraphic despatche-s to the (.'oiiimitteo
in England." Wo have seen that
Stanley left the camp, after giving his
final instructions, in June 1887; and
it was in May 1SS8 that Mr. Werner
found M.ijor Barttelot's camp dominated
by Salim bin Mohamed and 2000 men /-i
still obstructing his advance. At the
end of that month Major Barttelot ^nd
Jlr. Jam.eson were at Stanley Falls, and
had obtained from Tippoo Tib 400
men, instead of 600, to enable the
unfortunate commander at last to commence bis march after
Stanley, of whose fate he was without information, and who
waa reported on all hands to have met with disease and
death. 'Wheh these 400 men arrived at Y'ambuya, difficulti.-^
were raised about the loads they were to carry ; and it was
evident that the objections were the effect of sinister intenticu'
to enable Tippoo Tib to secure, for his own use, a D-imbtv
of loads containing powder and cartridges. Embarrassed by
i-'i'-Ac:::^ 'illowcrs, and threatened with death. Major Barttelot aad
AFJ; ICA
45
the remnant of liis people, after a year'd sutfering from innumerable
privations, while many had actually died from starvation, went
forth on his fntal march, on June 11, 1888, too late to be of any
assistance to Stanley, and destined to epeedy and fatal disaster. A
week afterwards, on June 18, Major Barttelot waa assassinated by one
of ihs Manyemas whom Tippoo Tib had sent for the service of the
Expedition. Mr. Jameson went to Stanley Falls, to try and get
more men from Tippoo Tib, and thence down. the river to Bangala,
to meet Mr. Ward on his return from the seacoast, expecting fresh
instructions from England ; but Mr. Jameson died of fever at Bangala.
Mr. Troup, a helpless invalid, unable to walk, had departed with Mr.
Ward, 80 that Mr. Bonny was the only European remaining with the
rear column, which had dwindled from 237 men to 71, in a feeble
and wretched condition, when found at Banalya on Aug. 17 by
Mr. Stanley, who had returned on purpose to seek them, and who
had not seen them, or heard of them, for more than thirteen months,
whilo they had supposed him to be dead. The etores left with thfi
rearguard vere almost entirely lost.
THE FOREST ROUTE OF MARCH.
On the recent ma^ps of Central Africa, in which these places are
marked, the space between Yambnya, on the Aruwimi, where steam-
boat navigation from the Congo ends, and KavalH, or the site of
Kavalli's village which had been destroyed, at the southern extremity
of Lake Albert Nyanza on its western shore, appears quite insigni-
ficant. Kavalli is alu.ost due east of Yambuya, only 370 miles
distant in a straight line ; but the river Aruwimi, which in its upper
part is called the Ituri, bends to the north, and keeping near this
river made the travelling distance over 500 miles. Mr. Stanley's
first journey by his route occupied 171 days, but he afterwards
travelled back, as far as Banalya, where the rear column had stopped,
in eighty-two days. The character of this traot of country is thus
described in his own letters; —
"We were IGO days in the forest — one continuous, unbroken,
compaot forest. The grass land was traversed by ua in eight days,
the limits of the forest along the edge of the grass land are well
marked. We saw it extending north-easterly with its curves and
bays and capes just like a sea-shore. South-westerly it preserved
the same character. Uorth and south the forest area extends from
Nyangw^ to the southern borders of the Monbuttu ; east and west it
embraces all from the Congo, at the mouth of the Aruwimi, to about
East longitude 29 deg. — forty degrees ; how far west beyond the Congo
the forest reaches I do not know. The superficial extent of the tract
thus described^totally covered by forest — is 240,000 square miles.
North of the Congo, between Upoto and the Aruwimi, the forest
embraces another 20,000 square miles. Between Yambuya and the
Nyanza we came across five distinct languages. The land slopes
gently from the crest oi the plateau above the Nyanza down to the
Congo Riv®" from an altitude of 5500 ft.. to 1400 ft. above the sea.
North and south of our track through the grass land the face of the
land was much broken by groups of cones or isolated mounts or ridges.
," While in England, considering the beat routes open to the
Albert Nyanza, I thought I was very liberal in allowing myself two
weeks' march to cross the forest region lying between the Congo and
the grass land, but you may imagine our feelings when month after
month MW us marching, tearing, ploughing, cutting through that
samo continuous forest. It took us 160 days before we could say,
' Thank God we are out of the darkness at last.' At one time we
were all — whites and blacks — almost done up.' September, October,
and half of that mouth of November 1887 will not be forgotten by
us. October will be specially memorable to us for the sufferings we
endured. Our officers are heartily sick of the forest, but the loyal
blacksj a band of 130, followed me once again into thoTvild, tratk-
lesfl forest, with its hundreds of inconveniences, to assist their com-
rades of the rear column.
" Try and imagine some of these inconveniences. Take a thick
Scottish copse, dripping with rain ; imagine this copse to be a mere
undergrowth, nourished under tlie impenetrable shade of ancient
trees, ranging from 100 ft. to 180 ft: high ; briars and thorns abund-
ant; lazy creeks, meandering through the depths of the jungle, and
sometimes a deep affluent of a great river. Imagine this forest and
jungle in all stages of decay and growth — old trees fulling, leaning
T»erilou«ly over, fallen prostrate ; ant« and insect* of all kinds, siz^,
rjid colours murmurinjj around mr-nlov;* end chimranseee sbove,
queer noises of birds and, animals, crashes lu the jungle as
troops of elephants rush away ; dwarfs with poisoned arrows,
securely hidden behind some buttress or in some dark recess ;
strong, brown-bodied aboriglnesi, with terribly sharp Bpeare,
standing poised, stilK as dead stumps ; rain pattering down on
you every other day in the year ; an impure atmosphere, with its
dread consequences — fever and dysentery; gloom throughout the
day, and darkness almost palpable throughout the night; and then,
if vou will imagine such a forest extending the entire di'^tance from
LrECTKNANT W, G. STilSe. BE.,* 6EC0ND IN COMMAND OF THE tXPEDlTIO>.
Plymouth to Peterhead, you will have a fair idea of some of the
inconveniences endured by us from-Jime 28th to December 5th,
1887, and from June Ist, 1888, to the present date, to continue again
from* the present date till about December 10th, 1888, when I hope
then to say a last farewell to the Congo Forest.'
" Now that we have gone through and through this forest region,
I only feel a surprise that I did not give a greater latitude to my
ideas respecting its extent ; for, had we thought of it, it is only
what might have been deduced from our knowledge of the great
sources of moisture necessary to supply the forest with the requisite
sap and vitality. Think of the large extent of the South Atlantic
Ocean, whose vapours are blown during nine months of the year in
this direction. Think of the broad Congo, varying from one to
sixteen miles wide, which has a stretch of 1400 miles, supplying
another immeasurable quantity of moisture, to be distilled into
rain and mist and dew over this insatiable forest ;. and then
another 600 miles of the Aruwimi or Tfuri itself, and then
you wiir cease to wonder that there are about 150 days of rain
every year in this region, and that the Congo Forest covers such,
a wide area.
" Until we set foot on the grass land, something like fifty milei
west of the Albert Nyanza, we were never greeted among the nativc-
witb a smile, or any sign of a kind thought, or a moral sensation.
The aborigines are wild, utterly savage, and incorrigibly vindictive.
The dwarfs — called Wambutti — are still worse, far worse. Animal
life is likewise so wild and shy that no sport is to be enjnyed. The
gloom of the forest is perpetual. The face of the river, reflecting its
black walls of vegetation, is dark and sombre. The sky one half the
time every day resembles a wintry sky in England : the face of
nature and life is fixed and joyless. If the sun charges through the
black clouds enveloping it. and a kindly wind brushes the masses of
vapour below the horizon, and the bright light reveals our surround-
ings, it is only to tantalise u£ with a short-lived vision of brilliancy
and beauty of verdure.
" The mornings generally were stem and sombre, the sky covered
with heavy lowering clouds ; at other timee, thick mist buried every-
thing, but cleared off about nine o'clock, or sometimes not till eleven.
Then, nothing stirs ; insect-life is asleep, and the foropf is still as
death ; the dark river, darkened by lofty walls of thick forest and
vegetation, k silent as a grave, our heart-throbs scorn almost clamorous,
■nd our inmost thnn;:hts loud. Tf no rain follows this dcrkness, tho
46
A I'M! I (' A
-Aun appesra from behind the tluudy tiiaast'Sj the miat dUuppcon, iind
life wakona up before its brilliancy. Buttorflica ac-urry through the
air, a solitary ibia cronka as alarm, a diver fliea across (he atream,
the forest ia full of a atrange murmur, and somewhere up-river booms
the alarum drum. The quick-Hightcd natives have seen us, voi^ccs
vociferate ehalleoges, there is a flash of spears, and hostile paasioos
ore aroused.
"Peace, among ttc river tribes, is signified by tossiog water
upward with the hand or with the j>addle, and letting it fall on their
heads. At almost every bond ot the rivor, generally in tb'j middle
of the bond — because a view of the river approach, up ftod down
stream, may bo had — there is a village of conical huts of the
candle-extinguisher type. Some bonds have a' large series of these
villages, populated by some thousands of natives. If we could
believe thom, the natives all suffered from famine : there wa3 no com.
no bananas, or sugarcaoes, or fowls, or goats, or anything olwo. The
exhibition of bras,* ^vi^e, cowries, or beads had no charm for thcin,
because they waid they had no food ; and wo should long a^o have
died of want, had wo been so simple as to believe them. In every
attempt at barter we suffored from the cunning rogues: a braw rod
only piirchased throe ears of com, though at Bangala, 800 miles
nearer the coast, it purchaaes ten rolls of cassava bread, and ou!;ht
here to have purchased twenty rolls of broad, or two I'lrgo bunches
"*^S^v^S^^^^
UR. VT. BONNY.
■of bananas. To live at all, we bad to take what wo could : we went
over and helped ourselves, and prepared food for (he wilderness ahead
of U3 *'
The route from Yanibuya to Kavalli is divided into stages, each
of which occupied many days of toilsome marching and, often cutting
a path through the forest, with long delays at several places, so that
the average movement of Mr. Stanley's advance column was little
better than two miles and a fraction daily.
First stage, 184 English miles, from Yambuya in a direction
north-east up the Aruwimi to Mugw^s villages, on the north bank of
that river; this is 124 hours' marching; Banalya, the scone of the
diMaster to the rear column, is in this part of the route.
Second stage, 59 miles, from Mugwt^'s villages to Avi Sibba,
villages on the south bank, wliere the conflict took place in which
Lieutenani Stairs was wounded and five men killed with poisoned
arrows.
Third stage, 39 miles, from Avi Sibba to the confluence of the
Kepoko, a large river from the north, with the Aruwimi.
Fourth stage, 03 miles, from the Ncpoko confluence, or Avi Jeli,
to the temporary Arab settlenlent of the notorious slave-dealer and
ivory-hunter, Ugarrowa.
Fifth stage, 162 miles, by a new road opened in the following
year, on the north bank — not the route of the first advance in 18S7
to F^rt Bodo, in Ibwiri, the dupot station constructed by Mr. Stanley
in iSSS.
Sixth stage, 126 miles, from. Fort Bodo to Kavalii, at the south
end of Lake Albert Wyanza.
ThodO stages make the whole travelling di»Innci' from Ynubuya
to Kavalii 503 miles ; but the route lirst taken, iu October 1 Sb7, went
about fifty miles southward along tho Aruwimi, above ihi- Nopoka
confluence, where the navigation of that river by tho steel boat
and canoes became impossible, and Mr. Stanley then, with (he utnioit
difficulty and peril of starvation, made his way to the Arab sctrlc-
mcjt of Kilunga-Lunga, in North latitude 1 deg. ti min., whence
ho paFsed eastward to the ruling tTound of Ibwiri, 3C00 ft. above
the sea-lcvcl.
HOW TIIEY MARCIIED TlII;iJUGn THE FOKICST.
"Until wo penetrated and nwrched through it," suys Mr. Stanley,
"this region was entirely unexplored, and untrodden by cither
white or Arab. For tho purposes of tlii« Expedition, wo should
havo known something of it, but we could ginan no information
respecting tho interior, because the natives were bo wild and shy
of all strangers.
" Having selected my officers and men, my forco numbered 389
rank and file. We bore o steel boat 28 ft. by C ft. with us,
about three tons of ammunition, and a couple of tons of pro-
visions and sundries. With all these goods and baggage we had
a reserve force of about 180 supernumeraries — half of them carried,
beside their Winchesters, billhooks to pierce the bush and cut down
obstructions. This band formed the i)ioneers — a most useful body.
" The path leading from Yambuya was tolerable only for ohout
five milea: we were then introduced into the difficulties, which mor*
or less would impede our movements and arrest rapid progiV'V.
These consisted of creepers varying from 1-8 io. to l^i in. in diameter,
swinging .icross the path in bow-lines, or loops, sometimes missed
and twisted together, also of a low dense bush occupying tho sites of
old clearings, which had to be carved through, before a passage was
possible. Where years had elapsed since the clearings had been
abandoned, wo found a young forest, and the spaces between the
trees choked with climbing plants, vegetable creepers, and tall plauts:
this kind had to be tunnelled through before an inch of progress
could be made.
"By compass, we found a path leading north-east and eaitt, and
un July 6 touched the river again, and, being free of rapids apparently,
I lightened the advance column of the steel boat and forty loads.
The boat proved invaluable : she not only carried our cripples and
sick, but also nearly two tons of goods. From July 5 to the middle
of October we clung to the river. Sometimes its immense curves
and long trend north-east would give me sliai-p twinges of
doubt that it was wise to cling to it ; on the other hand, the
sufferings of the people, the long continuity of forest, the
numerous creeks, the mud, the offcnsivo atmosphere, the
perpetual ratns, the long-lasting mugginese, pleaded eloquently
against tho abandonment of tbe river until North latitude 2 deg.
should be attained. North latitude 2 deg. I put down as the limit:
I would prefer to dare anything than go farther north. In favour
of the river was also the certainty of obtaiuing food. Such a fine
broad stream as this, we argued, would surely havo settlements on its
banks : the settlements would furnish food by fair means, or force."
One of our Illustrations, from sketches furnished by members
of the Expedition, shows tbe method of carrying the steel boat io
sections, and the labour of cutting a path through the forest, and
" blazing," or marking the trees, in order that Major Barttelot, with
the rear column, should be guided to follow Mr. Stanley*8 track. The
following note refers to this part of the subject: —
" The boat was taken to pieces at Yambuya as we were leaving the
river, and was made up into mcn^s loads, thus: the twelve section?
of the boat were carried by twenty -eight men (two men extra for each
end); the oars made two loads; the bottom boards were four loads;
the seats and rudder made also four loads; the mats and spanners,
one load ; then cases of spare materials, three loads ; and india-
rubber packing, one load : in all, forty-three men's loads. But some
of these, such as bottom boards and spare materials, were afterwards
abandoned when the expedition became so rcdaced, and only those
necessary, such as sections, seats, rubber.-paclring, an4 rowlocks, were
carried. The oars became rotten, and were abandoned, and others
made at Fort Bodo on our second trip to the Lake. In the open
country, from Matadi to Stanley Pool, the boat sections were carried
easily enough, but in the forest it was a more difficult matter : it
became necessary to C\it a path to permit of the sertions to pass.
AFRICA
47
Every bush and creeper seemed to oateli the eeotions, aad constantly
threw the -porters off their balance ; the result was that their
feet be,came 'sore from constantly striking against stones,
«tnmps, or thorns, and these sores quickly deTeloped into ulcers.
Jho consequence was that few of the men were able to carry
the boat sections for more than a week at a time, and
OJU'TAIN H. H. NEL60N.
i\en then it was necessary to pick out the strongest men for
this work. The other loads too, owing to their being necessarily
shapeless and cumbersome when carried on the men's heads, caught
in the countless numbers of vines which hung in festoons' from tree
to tree -across the path. The boat loads were, therefore, generally
the last loads to arrive in camp at night, and constantly kept the
officer in charge of them some hours behind thii rest of the column.
This trouble, of course, ended when the boat was put in the water,
when, instead of being a hindrance, she was of the greatest service to
the Expedition. While cutting a path for the boat Mr. Stanley gave
strict ordero that at certain intervals all the prominent trees by the
path were to be carefully blazed, in order to enable Major Barttelot
to follow OUT track without difficulty."
Mr. Stanley then decided that the canoes should be sunk, the boat
pulled out of the water and taken to pieces, and everything made
ready for a start inland on the morrow. The men at this time had
been suffering for many days from short rations, food was terribly
scarce ; the few bananas that men now and then picked up were
divided most carefully, and the poor fellows had to eke out their
scanty supply -K-ith any green stuff they could gather at the different
halting-pbces. A small flat bean or nut about the size and thick-
ness of a five-shilling piece was the chief food, but it had no nourish-
ment in it. There were also a great number of men who had such
bad ulcers that fney were utterly unable to walk. They had, -together
with their loads, been carried in the canoes ; now, of course, the
question arose as to what was to bo done with both men and loads.
After a long discussion, or sliaitri, as it is called by the Zanzibaris, it
was decided to formasmall camp here, and to leave all sick with their
loads in charge of Captain Nelson, who was also unable to walk owing
to ulcers on his feet. It was also decided that as there was no food
except a few fungi, and fruit of an india-rubber creeper, called muhungu,
near the camp, that seven or eight Zanzibar c'hiefs should be sent on
ahead to an Ar.ib camp, which, from information received, was
supposed to be only three days off on the other side of the river, and
obtain some food there, and return with it to Captain Nelson and the
sick men. Alas ! these poor fellows had a bad time of it. They never
reached the Arab camp until after Mr. Stanley and the column had
arrived there. They had lost their way, and wandered about for twenty
days, and were only saved at last by coming across the gallant Uledi,
coxswain of the boat, who had been sent to look for them by Mr.
Stanley, and found them nearly dead for want of food.
On Oct. C tho column started, leaving behind them fifty-five
men, one white officer, and eighty-seven loads. It was thought
that food would most probably arrive at the camp in about nine
days. The day after the column left Captain Nelson got up
a canoe, and, picking out twenty of the strongest men, sent
the.m down river to fry and get food at some deserted planta-
tions the column had passed some two or threo days before.
On leaving camp, Lieutenant Stairs had given Captain Nelson one
fish-hook. While getting tlje canoe up a little fish like a whitebait
was found in the sand at bottom of jjanoe. This was promptly seized,
and, after the canoe had started, *was placed on the hook. After
fishing for a few minutes Captain Nelson got one small fish about
four inches long. Taking off the head, which he kept for bait, he
promptly cooked the fish. This, and one cup of weak beef-tea, was
all the food that day, for on going to fish again the hook got fast
in the rocks in the middle of the river, and was lost. Soon death
THE KIGHT AT AVI SIBHA.
Aug. 13, 1887, -n-as the first day of those two unlucky periods
mentioned, by Mr. Stanley in one of his published letters. On this
day the Expedition had crossed a small river, about sixty yards wide,
close to where it joined the Aruwimi, and had camped in a village on
the other side of the river. About four o'clock in the afternoon some
of the men were o^i the banks of this river, when they were shot at
by the natives, who lined the opposite bank, not showing themselves,
but crouching in the dense bush, and discharging clouds of poisoned
arrows. The white men, hearing the rifle fire of the Zanzibaris,
rjshcd down to the river, and Lieutenant Stairs at once headed a
party of men in the boat, and -ft-as crossing to the other side to dis-
lodge the enemy, when, about halfway across the riverj he, the only
one standing up in the boat, was dangerously wo\md(Kl by a poisoned
wooden arrow, just below the heart. He was brought back, and Mr.
Parke, the surgeon, at once took charge of him. Six or seven of Iho
Zanzibaris were wounded at this place, and the whole afTair cast a
deep gloom over the camp. Most of the Zanzibaris who were wounded
by these poisoned arrows died of tetanus; but, luckily. Lieutenant
Stairs recovered, ahbough the piece of arrow, which had broken off
short in the wouud, was not extracted until some fourteen months had
passed away, and during the time he was in command of Fort Bodo.
NELSON'S "STARVATION CAMP."
Ou Oct. 5, the Expedition, worn out by want of food, arrived
at n large and impassable cataract, just below the junction of the
twu rivers lliuru and Ituri. Mr. Stanley sent on men to see what
the river ahead wiis like, and on their return they reported the river
for a luug distance was quite iini)racticablo for cKher boats or canoes.
HUt.CTOS T. a. PAOKE. OF TUE
ARMT UCDICAl. HlltVICl.
began to play havoc among the poor Zanzibaris, Bret one dying,
then another, so that after the first few days there was hardly a day
passed without one or two deaths. Ucserlers came back froai the
column with terrible accounts of the people's sufferings, and also of
h ird fighting wiiTi the natives. The scene in camp was now an aivful
one, dead and dying lying all over the camp. At first the dead were
i8
A l-U I ( A
put into tbo rivcT, for no one had Btrcagth to dig greve« for
tbrm ; bi^t afterwards (boy hod to bo left, aa tho living wcro
too weak to. remove tho corpses. Tho ninth day had paBSod
without tho promiHcd rnlicf arriving. Day after day pajwcd
away, until ot l;ist, on Oct. 20, tbo twenty-third day, Mr. Jfphson
arrived with bbout forty Zunzibaris and thirty of the Munyema
from- the Arab camp, with a small supply of food. Out of
the fifty-five men left in camp, and made up to about sixty by Iho
dosertcre from the column, only eight wore fit to start ; and of these
only five reached the Arab camp. Captain Nelson was simply a bag
of bones, having hardly an ounce of ficsh left. The total loss was
fearful. Pixty being tbo wholo number, fivo reached tho Arab
camp, with Jfr. Jephson ; of tho twenty who had gone down
river to get food ten wore, after terrible sufl^ering, picked up
by a caravan of Kilnnga-Lunga's ; and of these fifteen men only
seven or eight actually wont on to Fort Bodo, tho others died
at the Arab camp.
EMERGING FROM THE FOREST: OPEN COUNTRY.
About tho beginning of December 1S87 tho Expedition came to
tbo eastern cdgt* of the immenso forest through which it had been
working since Juno 28. It reached an open glassy country. "To
those who have not gone through euch a forest, it will perhaps appear
strange that all should feel so elated ; but to u?, travelling forward,
each day the samo as tho lust, and continiially hearing rumours that
tho plains were near, and still never reaching them, it must alway--*
be remembered as one of tho brightest cxpericQces of the Expedition.
For 160 days we had been on tho march from Tambuya to this
point ; the only object to be scon being tbo sky, river, and forest.
' Now, at last, wo shall have no weary tracks to cut, and no muddy
creeks to cross : all ia fine open grassy country, and wo shall get game
and cattle.' Our Zanzibar boys simply went mad with joy in the
first few moments, and then, settling down into a long swing, left
the rearguard and sick ones far behind. "We made a good march
of about nine miles, and camped for the first time, since we left
Kinshassa on the Congo, in open country." The Sketch on which
this is a commcnt:»ry depicts Mr. Stanley and Mr. Jephson in front,
atid Lieutenant Btairs bringing up tho rear. Its date is Dec. 4, 1887.
THE FIGHT WITH MAJAMBONI.
" A few day^ after the Expedition moved out from the forest on
to the plains, it entered the country belonging to a chief called M'jj-
amboni. The natives, instead of running away oa the approach of
the'Expedition, now began to collect on the hillsides, near our line
ot march, evidently with the idea of attacking us. It soon became
necessary fur us to take up some strong position and enclose our^elvee
in a zareba, otherwise the danger ahead was too great. Accordingly
we selected the hilltop which appears in my Sketch, and built a strong
zareba of mimosa bushes, and then felt able to sally out and attack
and punish the natives. This hill was an isolated one, lying in a
broad valley, to the south of which was a high range of hills, and to
the north some low grassy hills. Down the centre of thi.s valley ran
a swift stream, forming a deep crack in tho surface, and making tho
transverse passing of the valley a difficult feat. Any attempt to
make friends with the natives always failed. After some feinta on
the part of Majaniboni's warriors on our position, two parties were
sent out under Mr. Jophson and Lieut. Stairs, R.E. The party under
Stairs went towards the north, across the valley to the villages north
of the stream, and while actually crossing it were fired upon by
crowds of natives hidden among the banana-s. However, the stream was
crossed, the natives dislodged, and tho villages burnt. The party
under Mr. Jephson had taken a north-east direction, and, returning
home by a different route, had burnt every hut to tho east and
north-east of our position. This had the desiied effect. We could
eee largo bodies of natives retiring behind the hills to the north,
and next day we were permitted to march onwards to the Lake
without further molestation."
This attack on the village, Dec. 11, is the scene shown in one ol
Our Illustrations. On all sides of the village are bauaua-trees and
patches of Indian com, affording excellent cover to the natives, and
it is from places like this that they do most damage, as it is very
difficult actually to see the natives. The village is generally attacked
by dividing the forces into two, one force on a fiaok an'' one iu f:out ; a
rush in is made, fire applied to every hut, .and tlie native* driven out ;
a small rearguard then occupieit the place, if noceeaary, until the main
column luu) safely passed by, when this rearguard takcx up its proper
position in rear of tho column. Whatever of any value can be pickf d
up is, of course, taken, and all bows and arrows are destroyed
FIRST VIEW OF THE ALBERT NYAXZA.
Tho next day saw the Expedition on tho crest of tho hills o^ er-
looking tho Albert Nyanza Lake. "About 11 a.m. on Dec. IJ,
1887, we had hatted for tea and breakfast. Wo knew that tbo Lake
should be close at hand, but our men always doubted any of cur
etatcments that they should see the Xyanza and Unvoro: many -if
them imagined we were lost, and merely wandering aimlessly about
the country. Shortly after finishing breakfast a long loud shout pr>-
claimed that somethiog of importance had occurred. RuHhingup to Oic
front, wo found, in fact, that tho waters of the Nyanza were actually
in sight. Below us by 2500 ft., and at a distance of nearly ten miles,
stood tho place marked on all maps aa Kavalli. Far across the Lake,
here about nine miles broad, were the cliffs of the Unyoro side, rising
perhaps 1200 ft. high from tho Lake shores. Our men, who had so
oflen doubted tho words of our Chief , were nowbesidc th' mselves with
joy. * At last I it is true ! ' they said. ' Here is tho Nyanza. We are
not lost. Tho Muzungu [while man] speaks truly.' After a short r< st
at tho top, we began our descent to tho plains below, and werecIo« ly
pursued by a band of some fifty natives, until the shades of evening;
began to set in, when we built a rough 'bonia,' or enclosure, and
turned in. the natives disappearing with the darkness."
FORT BODO, IBWIRL
Towards the end of December 1887, the Expedition having reached
the Nyanza, and being unable to communicate with Emiu Paeha, it was
decided upon to return to the forest, select some good position, build
a strong fort, get up tho steel boat from Kilunga-Lunga, leave tho
weakly ones at .the fort, and again make a move onwards to the
Lake. Accordingly, the village of Ibwiri was chosen, and on Jan. 7,
1888, the fort was begun. All hands started to work with a will.
Some collected long poles, others the boards used by the natives in
building their villages, others cut long vines to bo u«>ed as rope, and
some more men dug the holes in which the uprighta of the boma
were to be placed. The poles having been placed m position, two and
two, the boards were inserted lengthways between these and secured,
lashed home with strong vines, and so on until a secure arrow-proof
boma, 10 ft- high, surrounded the whole position. Four towers
were placed — two at the east and west angles, and one on the north
and one on the south faces—to give efficient flank defence and com-
mand over the surrounding country. A ditch, 8 ft. wide and 7 It.
deep, was dug on the north side, and every means possible adopted
to make the place secure against surprise. It was also intended thrit
this place should afford a dc'pot for grain, so that if necessary a'sulfari'
could come in and leave in a day or two's time fully provisioned. For
this purpose they broke up eleven acres of ground, and planted the
same with Indian com and beans. The greatest trial was the nocturnal
raids of droves of elephants. Sometimes three or four acres of
banana-trees would be destroyed in a single night by these monsters.
It required the close attention of sixteen men for four days a week
to keep these elephants out of the plantations. Another source of
worry to the garrison was the devastating hurricanes, which would
sweep over the crops, laying green com flat on the ground, and
lessening greatly the quantity of corn to go into tlie granaries.
The Expedition officers kept the sentries on the alert both day and
night, or they would have had the fort burnt down over their heads
They had tried many times to make friends with the Busfamt^n
around, but to no purpose. No leas thau five times these came on
at night trying to steal com and tobacco, and every lime the
sentries heard them in the darkness, and were able to drive Iliem
off. To the north, about six miles in the forest, were many hidden
camps of "Wambutti,*' or dwarfs — little men averaging, perhaps,
4 ft. 4 in. in height, and keen in everything pertaining to woodcraft.
To describe cvery-day life at Fort Bodo, a day's doings has simply
been taken out of one of the journals: ''Thursday, May 17. — To-d«y
4th of Ramadan. Had a muster, posted all men to their statiocs
(thia a precaution in case of night attack). At work with all
hands hociiig and weeding lower field; to-day's *','-]<. number
I. KxtorlorVlow of Fort Bdlo f'Kort Pcaco") ol Ibwirl. comtnon<IrJ I'v
S. SUMlcnilu or Uio linclmira. or "Boma,' ootuctrucUAt of bounla fliod Ix '
solc^ and tlofl wllb ropis of vtnt^
HHllt 4. Ai.
' InVi'Ior of fort BoJn, wtih tiau tnd eloTntod flatfotltu.
I..vU<rtur, wtUi t>lnntAUnn, grounijl, uid dltchArouuL Ui» (or^
t the fitOM of Uid fori.
-ru&T fiODO. IBWIBI, CONBTBOCTBt *0R TU ttKflXBVV DXTOT Or THE EXVXDXTlOXf DT UO.
A F K 1 C A
49
ten, all are improving slowly. Neleon'a brew of banana beer
has come off splendidly. We now make beer, syrup, and jam
from ripe bananas, all of which are very good. The boys
killed a large puff-adder, this morning, in the lower field, a most
vonoraouB-looking reptile." And so on, from day to day, planting, looking
after the crops and sick men. This was the chief work, varied now
and then by a counter-attack on those natives who might get too bold.
Fort Bodo was held until Dec 22, 1888, when finally all hands
marched on to the Albert Nyanza, but then it was found that they
had too many loads and sick, and so another fort was built on the
Ituri River, and was occupied for six weeks. Here all the sickly
onc-sfrom Yambuya, under medical charge of Surgeon Parke, A. M.S.,
were placed ; and when, at last, the marching day came, so well had
he done his work that nearly all were ready, and fit to carry loads
?!rain. The forest was left on Feb. 13, 18S9, never again to be
<^ntered by any of those who had endured such dismal trials.
MEETING OF STANLEY AND EMIN PASHA.
The meeting of Mr. Stanley and Emin Pasha on the shores of
the Albert Nyanza took place on Sunday, April 29, 1888, when a
courier arrived with a letter from Mr. Jephson from Mswa, inform-
ing Mr. Stanley that Emin Pasha would arrive in hia steamer at the
south end of the Lake. Immediately the order was given to stiike
camp, advance to the shores of the Lako, and there await Emin Pasha's
arrival. After marching four hours, they pitched camp on a rising
ground facing the island of Nzamsassie ; everyone of them, both
white and black, now straining his eyes to gel a first glimpse of the
steamer. Just about sunset Mr. Stanley, by the aid of his binoculars,
first saw the steamer, about seven miles distant. This announcement
drew from the men successive cheers of heartfelt satisfaction and
delight that they would soon see the .man for whom they bad toiled
so much. At seven in i the evening the steamer cast anchor, and
the Pasha, Captain Casati, Mr. Jephson, and suite were quickly on
shore, received by Surgeon Parke and an escort. As it was now dark,
the Zanzibaris lighted torches and bonfires to show the road to camp,
which was about two hundred yards off. Here the distinguished
guests were received by Mr. Stanley in the most cordial and friendly
manner. His men were in ecstasy, and enthusiastically cheered the
Pasha, while the Nubians returned the compliment in their usual
vociferations and gesticulations. The Pasha, who was dressed in a
tarboushand spotless white siiit, expressed his thanks to the EngHah
for the Relief Expedition.
REVOLT OF EMIN PASHAS TROOPS ON THE NILE.
In the rather complicated history of the events connected with this
Expedition, a separate and distinct interest belongs to those contri-
buted by Mr. A. J. Mounteney-Jephson, the only member of the
Exppdition who actually reached the Egyptian stations held by Emin
Vasha on the Nile, to the north of Lake Albert Nyanza. It was he
who, during many months there, witnessed and shared Emin Pjsha's
final struggles with tte treachery of the faithless Egyptians and
Arabs, and the mutiny of a large part of the Soudanese garrisons, left
under his command. Mr. Jephson and Emin Pasha had their lives
threatened by these rebels, and from Aug. 20, 1888, to lato in Novem-
ber were imprisoned at Dufil^, in the utmost uncertainty about their
fate — whether they were to be delivered over to the Mahdi, whose
army was rapidly approaching, or to be put to death, or carried off
into the wild and savage lands west of the Nile. No other European
was then in the neighbourhood ; and they were quite out of
roach of any direct help from Mr. Stanley, who had quitted for a
lime the western shDre of Lake Albert Nyauza, leaving only a small
party at Fort Iio3o, eleven days' march from the lake, and had
returned westward from the Aruwimi in search of his loat roarguai'd
rolumn. Mr. Jephson's experiences are therofcto unique in the
history of these adventurous doings, and may be regarded, from a
different point of view, as the last chapter of the Fall of the Soudan
fiovcrnnient ; as the concluding event of all those memorable con-
flicts and disasters that began in 1882 with the rise of the Mahdi's
power, and which comprised (he destruction of Hicks Pasha's army
in Kordofan, the mission of General Gordon, tho siege of Khartoum,
Lord Wolseley's grand Nile Expedition, tho capture Of Khartoum and
death of Gordon, in January 1886; the repeated battles with Oenwn
Uigoie near Souakin, and every other incident of the past eight years
in those vast territories lost to Egyptian dominion, and now utterly
cut off from intercourse with the civilised world.
The Equatorial Province of tho Soudan, long governed by Emin
Pasha, on behalf of the Khedive' of Egypt, with admirable fidelity,
constancy, and administrative ability, comprised the countries of the
Bari, the Shuli, Latuka, Fatiko, the Shilluk, Moru, the Madi or
Amadi, and Makraka, along both banks of the Upper Nile, dis-
covered by Sir Samuel Baker in 18G3, when he met Colonel Grant
and Captain Speke at Gondokoro. We remember, on hia arrival
in England, being favoured by Sir Samuel Baker, who called
at our office with his sketches of those countries and the native
people. Seven years later, Baker was appointed by the Khedive
of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, to subdue and rule the southern region
as far as Lake Albert Nyanza, and to suppress the slave-trade; in
which office, as Governor-General of the Soudan, he was succeeded
by General Gordon in 1874. As Gordon's capital was at Khartoum,
he made Emin (Br. SchnitBer) ruler of the Equatorial Province in 1878.
Mr. Frank Lupton (Lupton Bey) was placed over the western pro-
vince of the Bahr-el-Ghazal ; and Slatin Bey, an Austrian, was put
in command in Darfur. The stations founded by Baker and Gordon
along the banks of the Nile were, from north to south, Lado, which
superseded Gondokoro as the capital, Rejuf, Bedcn, Muggi, Chof
Ayu, Dufil(^, and Wadelai, beyond which there were stations p.t the
north end of Lake Albert Nyanza. Emin Pasha, in 1888, still
remained in command of these stations, except Lado, which had been
captured by the Mahdi's forces, constantly advancing to the south.
TORTORE AND DEATH OF THREE DERVISHES.
Soon after the news that the Mahdi's people had arrived at Lado, Omar
Saleh, commanding the army from Dongola, sent a long letter to Emin
Paaha, commanding him, in (he name of the Prophet, to surrender and
accompany him to Khartoum, where honours of all kin^ were await-
ing him at the Mahdi's hands. This letter was brought to Dufile by
three " peacock" dervishes. They were fine-looking men, of the Arab
tj'pc, vrith an extremely dignified" and self-reliant bearing. Their
djess was somewhat peculiar : a loug calico shirt, patched all over with
different-col oui-ed cloth — red, blue, green, and yellow — with the edges
unhemmed and ragged ; a loincloth of the same description was
round their waists, and a huge many-coloured turban covered their
close-shaven heads ; while for arms each carried a double-edged
sword of the old Crusader type, and three enormous spears, with
heads like an elongated ace of spades, with immensely long bamboo
shafts. Wlien these dervishes, messengers of the Mahdi's Lieutenant-
General, arrived at Dufil^, the garrison of that station had already
revolted against the. rule of Emin Pasha.
The rebel officers seized the letter, and, after reading it, placed
it in their divan. A large council was held, at which it was decided
not to surrender, but to collect as many men from each station as
could be conveniently spared, and dispatch a force to Rejaf to repel
the invaders. Meanwhile the dervishes, after being closely questioned,
were put in irons and thrown into prison. On hearing the news of
the attack by the Mahdi's people, and the subsequent fall of Rejaf
. station, the rebel officers again sent for the dervishes, in the hope of
getting some infonnation from them concerning Omar Saleh's strength
and position. Being unable to obtain any news from them, they resorted
to tho cruel torture of giving tl:cm plenty to eat, but absolutely
nothing to drink. For two whole days the poor fellows bore it with-
out murmuring, and the officers, gettiqg impatient, determined to
torture them by a method which is commonly used in the Soudan.
They again brought the dervishes before them, fastened a piece of
split bamboo round their heads, and had it twisted up so tightly by
means of a tourniquet that the bamboo cut through the flesh to the
very bone. W-ith every nerve strained by tho torture, and faint from
loss of blood, not a groan escaped the lips of those brave men, so
strongly were they upheld by their fanatical trust and faith in tlieir
Prophet. They could only say that God through His Prophet would
avenge them. It waa a disgusting sight to see the Egyptian otficers
and clerks delighting in the torture, and smiling and exulting when
(he pain became too intense for flesh and blood to bear, and tho poor
dervishes fell fainting to the ground. Tho Soudanese officers, with
their low bestial faces, gazed at these sufl"ering8 with a sort of stolid
indifference, but even that was bettor than the fiendish delight dis-
played by tho cowardly Egyptians. The black female slaves, gatherer
round to see whit was going on. were more soft-hearted thou tUeu
60
AFRICA
nia^torfl. and Bobbed audibly and wrung their hands, in very pity
for the brave men who boro their sufTerings with such indiffercnco and
courage. Surely their religion could not bo a low on*? to support Ihcni
under such fearful torture. No one deserving to be called a man could
help a feeling of admiration and respect rising in his heart for these
bravo fanatics. It may be that some such feeling crossed the mind
'.f Fadl ul Mulla, tho chief of the rebels, for he ordered the soldiers
K'lIN PA3tlA 'nn. E 8CUN1T2EH)
to unloose their bands and give them water, and they were carried
back to the prison in a eemi-unconscioua state. In a couple of days
they were ablo to move about again, though they were still heavily
ironed. Though beaten down in body and mind, their bearing
towards their captors was as dignified and self-reliant as ever, but
their look of patient suflering was more pathetic than any words. For
weeks they remained in prison, but no amount of suflering would
induce them to betray their comrades and give information agaiost
them. At length, when tho Mabdi's forces were before Dufik'. tho
rebels decided to kill them. The soldiers had a superstition that
bullets were powerless to kill them ; they were therefore taken down
to the river, and there beaten to death with clubs, and their bodies
were thrown to tho crocodiles. If ever men suffered martyrdom for
their religion, it was those three bravo dervishes whose fate is here
described.
THE MUTINY AT L-\BORE
The following is a correct narrative of the scene at Labort?, which
was the beginning of the rebellion : " After leaving the northern
stations of Kiiri and Muggi, Emin Pasha and Mr. Jcphson on
Aug 12 arrived at Lahore. It had been Mr. Stanley's wish that Mr
Jephson should go round to all the stations in the province and read
to the people at each station tho letters we had brought from his
Highness the Khedive and Nubar Pasha io Egypt, and jMr. Stanley
had also given Mr Jephson a proclamation from himself to read to
the soldiers. The chief of the station at Labor*! was one Surore Aga,
a Soudanese slave who had risen to the rank of captain in the
Egyptian Army. He was a man on whom the Pasha had no reliance
whatever, one of those ignorant fanatical men who hated and dis-
trusted anyone who was not a Mohammedan. The event proved that
the Pasha's want of trust in him was well founded.
"On the afternoon of Aug. 13, the soldiers, officers, clerks, and
ofiicials of the station were drawn up ready to receive the Pasha
and Mr. Jcphson, and to bear the letters and proclamation which had
been read at the other stations It was noticeable thai while Mr.
Jcphson was reading the letters, and was afterw.irds speaking to the
men, several of them were inattentive, and spoke in an uniertooe
to one another ; they appeared to be restless and incredulous After
the letters had been read, and while the Pasha was addressing a few
words to them, a big, burly Soudanese soldier, with a sort of bulldog
face, stepped from the ranks, and exclaimed in a loud tone, 'AH
you are telling us is false : these people have not come from Egypt ;
and those letters you have brought are forgeries There is but one
road to Egypt, and that is by Khartoum, and we only know that
road: we will po \>y that road, or we will Jive and die in this
country.* Ho went on to bay that the Paaha and Mr JepliBon had
been spreading liea in the province, for, bad tho letter which had just
been road come from the Khedive, it would have given the eoMiere
a command to go to Egypt, instead of saying they might slay where
tl^oy wcro if they liked.
" Tlie 'Pasha promptly seized the man by the collar, and tried to
wrench his gun from his hands ; at the same time calling to his three
orderlies to arrest this man and put him in prison. Then arose a
Bcono of confusion which baftlos all description. Tho soldiers, with
loud cries and execrations, surrounded the Pasha and Mr. Jephson,
and, loading their rifles, pointed the weapons at them. The noise and
shouting were tremendous ; and for a few minuteg there was no
knowing how it might end" Some of tho aoldicrs made a rush
at the Pasha, hurled bim on one side, and boro off their
companion, with loud shouts of derision. Tho Pasha drew his
sword to defend himself, but tho officers dashed in between him
and the soldiers, and struck up their rifles. At (his moment a voice
was heard crying out that the Pasha's and Mr Jcphaon'e orderlies
were attempting to seize the ammunition m the blorcltouac. Th*ro
was at once a general stampede to the powder luagai'.ine, end I he
Pasha was left alono Mr. Jephson followed the soldiers, who at
first greeted him with howls and yells, but on his saying, ' You see I
am not afraid of you ; I am alone, because I know you are sotdierd,
and not savages,' at this they lowered their guns, and said, ' No,
we will not harm you.' The officers had doije what they could to
calm them, but had been powerless to make any impression on the
infuriated soldiers. If one of the guns which the soldiers were
brandishing about, loaded and cocked, had gone off, a general
massacre would have been the result, for when one shot was fired
there would have been no stopping the tumult that would have
followed.
"The behaviour of some of the Pasha's people during the first
few risky minutes was peculiar Rajab Effendi, the Pasha's secre-
tary, hid behind a tree, wliere he was found afterwards in a state of
collapse. Araf Effendi, a clerk, a (jucer-looking little Circassian,
ran off screaming into" Selim Bey's hut, where he hid himself under
on aagarcb (bedstead), crying out that the Pasha and Mr. Jephson
were murdered ; while the black sluts of the household kept up a
running chorus of screams. But Vila Hassan, the Pasha's apothecary,
a Jew of Tunis, immediately on seeing what was happening ru&hed
f-.
r
^^raUECdfiZtSSSQU^^^'
>1« A. J MUUNTENEV-JEPHSOS
off to ilic Piieba's house, and brought him his revolver. The Pasha's
and Mr. Jephson's orderlies, and his boy Bioza, also behaved with
much courage, and were a great help in quieting down the people
It afterwards transpired that the soldier who started the mutiny was
an orderly of Surore Aga's, and had been instigated by his master to
create this disturbance."
This was the bcpinning of the rebellion. A week later, on
Aug 20, at Dufik-, Emin Pasha and Mr Jephson, -on their arrival
from the northern stations, were made prisoners by order of Fadl el
A 1'^ R I C A
M
Molls Aga, who had usurped autbonty in the Province. They
were accused of couspiring agaiast the Khedive and his people, and
of treating his officerd with injustice: and they suffered an irkoome
imprisoiiinent of three months.
PK0GRE8S OF THE REBELLION.
Shortly biter arriving at Chor- Ayu, on the day of their depar-
ture for Labor^, the Pasha received a letter from Hawashi Effendi,
the senior of all his officers and chief of Duhle Station, saying that a
rebellion had broken out in Dufil^, and that he was made a nrisoner
ia his own house.
It appeared that Fsdl el MuUa Aga, chief of Fabbo StatioD, with
two of his officers and sixty soldiers, had arrived in DuGU. They had
told the people that the Pasha was conspiring with Stanley to betray
them, and that Fadl el Molla had been asked by ce^-tain offi,c*rB,
Egyptian and Soudanese, to take the head of the Government. He
had .removed the sentries from the storehouses and magazines, and
had replaced them by sentries from his own soldiers, and had placed
Hawashi Effendi under arrest In his own house, with orders to tho
sentries to permit no one to enter or leave the compound.
Tho soldiers, evei- ready to beUeve iU against the existing Govern-
ment, and further excited by the stories and rumours spread abroad
by the Egyptian clerks and officials, had quietly given in, and Fadl
el Mulia Aga had established himself as chief of tho station, and
from that time was practically the chief of the Province; Ue had
then liberated all the prisoners in the station.
Tho Pasha and Mr. Jephson were now indeed in a trnp. The
rebels of Rejaf and Labor«i were to the north, the rebellion in Dufil<5
to the south, to the east was the Nile with it« dangerous rapids, and
n hostile population occupied the country to the west. Tho Pasha,
Iiowever, had some hopes of putting down the rebellion in Dufile ;
BO, after considerable discussion, it was decided that, on the next
day, the Pasha, with Mr. Jephson and a few followers, should march
to r>ufil^, which was some sixteen miles distant.
" It was then Aug. 20, the JIussulman feast of Eed-el-Kebir ; a
bad iime for tho rebellion to break out, as it was a four days' holiday
throughout tho Province, and a gre^t deal of drinking was going on,
which would naturally make people more excitable, and ready to do
mischief. However, nothing was to be gained by staying at Chor
Ayu ; and the only chance that the Paaha had of putting down the
rebellion was to proceed at once to the scene of the trouble, a^d
endeavour to prevent its spreading to the southern stations, whoso,
garrisons were supposed to be loyal.
" On the road, couriers were met, with another letter from
Hawagbi Effendi, entTeating the Pasha to come as quickly as possible,
or it would be too late to db any good. The messengers were eagerly
questioned as to what had taken place at Dufild ; and they gave it
as their opinion that things were in a very bad way. The Pasha was
in gi-eat anxiety, depressed and saddened by the thought that the
people with whom he had been living so long, and for whom he had
done BO much, and was willing to do so much more, shoul.d^have
turned against him, especially when help and relief were at last near.
About three o'clock, the Pasha's party arrived at a hill, a mile
and a half from the station : here a halt was called, to enable the
rear of the column to come up. The party consisted of Emia Pasha
and Mr. Mounteney-Jephccn ; Vita Hassan, a Tunisian Jew, who had
been an apothecary in the Egyptian service, and six years ago came
up to take charge of the hospital in Lado ; the Pasha's two clerks,
Eijab and Araf Effendi ; and Sultan Aga, a Lieutenant from Wadelai
Stition, who was ia charge of the native oortcra carrving the
they could see the station in the diEtance, with the Pasha's fla-»
fiyiDg at the flagstaff, and large numbers of people grouped about the
outside of the station and in the square in front of the postern-gate,
which was at once a guard-room and the chief entrance to the station.
As they neared the station people might be seen massing in great
numbers, and forming up on each side of tho path along which th2-
Pdsha and Mr. Jephson wore to pass. No salutes were fired, as is tho
usual custom on the Governor's entering the station ; nor were the-
troops drawn up in line to salute tho Pasha as he passed. It had
always been his custom, when the trumjieters had played the Khedivini
Hymn and had given three cheers for the Khedive, to inspect hia.
troops, and to speak a few kindly words to them before entering his
houae. On this occasion there was no sign or token of respect or
greeting ; and as the party entered the station an order was given
by an Egyptian officer, and (en soldiers took their places in front of
the Paeha aad Mr. Jephson, while the same number followed in their
rear, cutting ihem off from their own people.
The whole station was alivo with people, who all — men, women.
&*'! it:,;^.'.:;,.;.; ,,,.,,'•' -,«^-'> Mi'iC-
VI. BTAr^LCT'ft CARRIEBa IK r.EAR OF THE KXPEDITION /.ri'E^UCMIH;: aAGAUOYC.
f>2
A i- 1; 1 C A
-^^A.
-^
-■^rv-"-"-'-;...
J??«i:
^^^^
^' . ^^--^If^M'^^^V-r.f r^^^-:^. : , i- ^^-
TlIK LAST ML'STUn OF TIU: K.XrEDITION AT DVGAMOYO. DECKUBEn. IftSB.
and children — seemed to bavo turned out to see their eutry, and to
witness their Governor's humiliation. At a glance the Pasha Baw it
was hopeless to speak to his people, or to endeavour to bring tbem
round to his side. The jicople pressed forward to see the prisoner?,
imd to point at thorn with scorn. The olerka and officers kept some-
what in the background, as if ashamed to meet the Pasha's eye ;
while a party of soldiers, more or less excited by drink, began sing-
ing, and shouting out insidtiug words as he passed ; they finally made
n rush at the I'asha's immediate followers, whom they disarmed and
marched off to prison.
Meanwhile, the twentj' - sentries, followed by the shouting
rabble, conducted the Pasha and Mr. Jephson through the station,
every road and path to which was blocked by the crowds that came
to look at them as they passed. Their entry on this day was a great
contrast to their entry into the same station little more than a mouth
before. Then, the Pasha waa received by his troops paying all
honour to their Governor ; and Mr. Jcphson was received with
acclamations, as a welcome guest, who had brought them good tidings
from his great thief, Mr. Stanley, one known to all the world ; and
the people had thronged to offer their salutations and to thank him
for coming to help them.* Now, on every face were to be seen
indifference or scorn and derision. The Egyptian incendiaries had
d.me their work, and all were against tho Pasha.
A large concourse of people had gathered in the' square, which
forms the centre of the station, and on one side of which is the
Pasha's compound. An officer came f Award and told the Pa-ha that
he would now be a prisoner in his own hjouse, there to await his trial
by a tribunal of officers, taken from all parts of the Province. The
crimes of which he was accused were those of treachery to the
Khedive and bis people, and of injustice to his officers. The, Pasha
nod Mr. Jephson were then conducted into their compound amid the
ieers and shouts of the peop.e. Sentries were posted at the gate and
all round the thick boma ^vhich surrounded their quarters, and. they
were allowed to hold no communication with the outside world.
READING THE KHEDIVE'S LETTER BEFORE THE
REBEL OFFICERS.
The mutineers had sent for some of the rebel officefs of Rejaf,
Eeden, Maki-aka. Kiri, Muggi, Lahore, and the soulhuru stations,
to meet at Dufild to consider the Fa^ha's case.j On the arrival o*
all these officers, a largo council was held in the divan, and various
witnesses were .called to give evidence against the Pasha. Mr.
Jephson's three orderlies were called and questioned by the rebels,
who threatened to put them in chains if they. did not tell the
truth. They gave their evidence in a straightforward manner,
telling the rebels they had come out with Mr. Stanley's Expedition
by tho order of EfiFendina (tho Khedive), and showed the officers
their rifles, marked with the Crescent and Star, to prove' that they
were Egyptian soldiers. The officers asked. Where, then, are your
uniforms? They answered, They were worn out on the road. The
officers then made them go through a portion of their drill, to Bee
if they were really Boldiers. -Fortunately, Abdullah, the sergeant,
knew his drill, and acquitted himself well. The orderliea were then
dismissed, and an officer went over to Mr. Jephson's house to request
his attendance before the council.
At fbis time the greatest excitemeni prevailed in the station to
hear the result of the first sitting of the council, and a great crowd
was collected to see the witnesses as they were conducted across the
square by the sentries. Fadl el Mnlla Aga and Ali Aga Djabor, the
latter Chief of Rejaf, who had also rebelled, were elected Pre3ident8
of the Council. This man had, some months before, triod to
take the Pasha "prisoner, and had for three years been in rebLdlioa
against his authority. Ho had established himself in Makraka, and
lived like a bandit chief, making himself feared and dreaded by bis
deeds of violence.
On entering the 'divan, all the officers and clerks rose and greeted
Mr. Jephflon, and Fadl el Mulla introduced him to. the different
officers and clerks, and to Sheik Mooragan, the chief priest, , the
biggest scoundrel in the Province : he was eventually the first
man who went over to the Mahdists. Mr. Jephson was then
questioned closely about the Expedition, its origin and aims, and
was made to go over the whole story from beginning to end, but
he was constantly, interrupted by questions from different offictra and.
by exclamations of incredulity. The story was disbelieved, for the
officers all said that had the Expedition come from Egypt the Khedive
would hsTo -C2t some Egyptian officers with it ; moreover, their
relatives in Egypt would certainly have written v> them, and sent
their letters by Mr. Stanley.
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53
Mr. Jephson then produced the Khedive's letter, and handed it
to Fudl el Mulla ; and the clerk of the station read it aloud before all .
the officers. After various comments had been made on the letter,
all of a doubting character, certain brevets bearing the Khedive's .
signature were sent for, and the signatures of the letter and ■ '
breveta were examined by the clerks and compared one with the • ,
otter.
For a minute or two they seemed uncertain, and then the head .
clerk, rising from his mat, threw the letter at Mr. Jephson's feet,
exclaiming : *' The letter is a forgery, and you and your master are
impostors." A confusion of voices followed, everyone talking at the ■
top of his voice ; and a plan was then and there made, in Mr. -Jephson's
presence, to entrap Mr. Stanley on his return to the Lake, and rob
him of all his guns, ammunition, and stores, and then to turn him
adrift to perish. Mr. Jophson was then conducted back to his house,
and 80 ended the first day's sitting of the council.
EMIN PASHA'S AND MR. JEPHSOX'8 IMPRISONMENT.
The life of Emin Pasha and Mr. Jephson during their imprisonment
was not a pleasant one. The rebel officei's who began the revolution ■
had behaved with some kind of decency at first, but as time went on
quarrels among themselves began to be of everyday occurrence. The
mornings were devoted to dealing with the affairs of the Province, and
the afternobns were given up to drunkenness and debauchery. Al!
sorts of rumours concerning their fate from time to time reached
the prisoners' ears, and it was finally settled that they were to
be taken down in chains to Rejaf. Nobody known to be friendly
to the Pasha was s^iared, but was either imprisoned or his house
was looted.
The two European prisoners were shut up in a small compound,
some 90 ft. square, surrounded by a high thick boma, or fence.
There were six huts in the compound — one occupied by the Pasha,
one by Mr. Jephson, one by "S'ita Hassan, two for kitchen and
servants, and a storehouse. The prisoners had a few books, perhaps
half a dozen, which were read and rcjd half a dozen times over.
From morning to night there was nothing to do except to talk over
the different rumours and reports which occasionally reached thoir
ears. Clerks sometimes were sent over by the rebel officers with
diflferent letters they wished the Pasha to sign, all relating to his
'ieposition. Mr. Jephson was allowed to go about the station, but
was always followed by two sentries, who closely watched his move-
ments, and reported them to the rebels. It was a pleasure he seldom
;\vailed himself of, as the people in the station were often exceedingly
insulting. He was, however, obliged to go out to buy and arrange for
getting food, as the rebels cut off nearly all their supplies, and only
allowed them .occasionally a little com. Their servants were insulted
and abused, and humiliations were heaped on the prisoners on every
occasion.
The Pasha was very low in spirits, and depressed ; it seemed
almost impossible at times to rouse him from his melancholy. And
so the weary days dragged on, until the Dufil^ people were electrified
by the news that the Mahdi's troops were again upon them, this time
burning to avenge their former defeat. The position of the prisoners
s'-emed hopeless : accounts of the disasters experienced by the Pasha's
people were constantly reported to them. They were unable to fight,
and were not allowed to retire. The only thing left for them to do
seemed to be to wait with what patience they might for the
tinal blow. The rebel officers, in despair, at last appealed to the
Pasha for advice ; but in the struggle to retake Rejaf, Ali Aga
Ujubor and some of the Pasha's worst enemies were killed ; and the
rfMDaining officers, being alarmed at what had happened, sent Emin
and Mr. Jephson as prisoners to Wadelai. They had been just three
months imprisoned at DufiU.
EMIN PASHA'S CONSENT TO DEPART.
Id December 1888, Emin Paaha and Mr. Jephson, no longer held as
prisoners, bad left Wadelai, on the Nile, "for Tunguru, one of the
Egyptian stations on Lake Albert Nyanza, where Mr. Jephson could
write to Mr. Stanley at Kavalli, explaining the situation of affairs,
and on Feb. t> Mr. Jephson came to report in person, telling Mr.
Stanley plainly that the only remainirrg obstacle was a sentimental
feeling in Emin I'asha'a own mind — a conscientious reluctance; to
leave the Soudanese people so long entrusted to his cure. This feel-
dw. which «u tliared by his only E\irop«an asaiatant, ( apttinOiscti,
1--2
is worthy of respect ; and we know enough of Emin Pasha's character
and conduct to ensure for hira a degree of personal esteem and
sympathy hardly less merited than that which public opinion hM
.beslowed on General Gordon. Though not a soldier, he had
bravely and skilfully defended the Egyptian stations against the
attacks of the Mahdi's forces and their native Allies, while he had,
during ten lonely years, administered the domestic government d
a large province with the best results, naintaining orderly rula,
promoting useful cultivation, improving the condition of the country
and the happiness of its natives ; and he trusted in the loyalty of the
Soudanese black troops, whose gratitude and devotion he had amply
deserved. The traitors who conspired against him were some of the
Egyptians and Copts employed in the Civil Service, and some of the
Arab military officers — the same class of men who proved traitors to
Gordon ; and it is considered, by those who should be well acquainted
with these transactions, that Emin Pasha ought to have dealt sternly
and severely with those ringleaders of the revolt while he had the
power ; and that by an undue lenity, a passive toleration of their
mutinous insolence, he brought himself into a helpless' position.
A man of single-minded integrity, of unassuming modesty and sim-
plicity, of humane benevolence, a philanthropist, a philosopher, a
student of the natural and moral sciences, Emin Pasha was not well
qualified for a despotic commander who should put down rebellion
With the hand of iron ; nor had he been trained in the school of
military or strictly governmental service. When Mr. Jephson accom-
panied him to Wadelai, in April 1888, he found that "the 1st
Battalion of troops, about 700 men, had long been in rebf'Jion
against the Pasha's authority, and hud twice attempted to take him
prisoner ; the 2nd Battalion, 6')0 rifles, though professedly loyal,
was insubordinate, and almost unmanageable ; tho Pasha possessed
only a semblance, a mere rag of authority ; and it he required
anything of importance to be done, lie could no longer order, he was
obliged to beg his officers to do it." The events in August and the
following months, which have been fully narrated, were the natural
consequence of this false position ; but we know not whether to
admire or to reprove the amazing tenderness of Emin Pasha, after the
manner in which he was treated, for the rebelliou't soldiery who had
been so far misled, and his forgiveness of the Arab and Egyptian
traitors. He never thought of himself, but of saving those people
and their families, whom he would not leave behind. Perhaps it was
more of the innocent women and children that he thought ; for most
of the black soldiers had married and settled, with plots of land,
houses, and cattle, in the Province under his gentle rule. We sup-
pose that they, being heathen, were in danger of being canied off
into slavery by the Mahdi's army ; while the few Egyptians would
have been put to death without mercy, and some of the Arab officers,
having fought against the MaKdi, were perhaps in. equal danger.
Altogether, the number of people for whose f.ite Emin Pasha was so
painfully anxious was estimated at ten thousand, mostly women and
children. With rare generosity and h\imanity, whatever may be
thought of the equity of his views, this remarkable man— Jew,
Mohammedan, Christian, or philosopher— declined to accept the
immediate rescue of himself and his personal attendants unle* he
could take the people with him, and all their portable goods and
chattels, under Mr. Stanley's escort to the ea.st coast.
This was Mr. Stanley's only remainingdifficully in the first months
of 1889, Emin Pasha having- come to him at Kavalli, on Feb. 17,
to talk over the matter with Selim ■ Bey and seven other Egyptian
or Nubian officersj and being afterwards joined by Captain Casati,
while a small number of fugitives assembled who were desirous to
get away. The discussions that took place on this occasion are
reported by Mr. Stanley in a slightly contemptuous tone, but his
impatience was quite excusable ; and all tho officers of bis Expedi-
tion, consulted in a formal deliberation, at which Emin Pasha sas
present, agreed on fixing April 10 for their final departure. Mr.
Stanley had some cause for suspecting a plot of the Arab officers to
• bring up more of their soldiers and seize the ammunition and stores
of the Relief Expedition. He declared, and made Emin Pasha
explain to those in camp, that he would utterly exterminate them
if they attempted such a trick. In so doing, beyond all question,
Mr. Stanlev would have only done hii duty, and would have rid
East Africa of a worthless set of scoundrels, the last remnant of that
vile crew which lias disgraced and ruined the whole of the Egyptian
dominion in the Soudan ; but there would have b-wn s great out.ry
at the deed among ignorant people in England.
54
A K 1!1 PA
FINAL DKPARTIUIE FHOM lAKE ALHERT NYANZA.
On April 10, 1880, punclually as bad been nnnounoedj waiting no
longer for moro fugitives of tho Soudan, having waited for them
nearly a twelvomontb, Mr. Stanley bi^au his long and Inboriou*
marcb from ICavulli, by a circuitous route, avoiding no for as ho
could tbo approach to a known enemy — Kabroga, tho King of
tJnyoro — and skirting tho Unyoro territory on its western side,
through tho country of tho Warasura, towards tho Semliki valley
and tho high mountains south of the Ituii, whoneo ho could turn in
a south-easterly direction to tbo btations on the shore of tho Victoria
Nyanza. This was, bowevcr, under Iho circumstances, probably the
Bftfeat, though not tho shortest, homeward route — homeward meaning
the route to Zanzibar, or rather to Bagamoyo, the port opposite to the
islo of Zanzibar, on tho seacoast of East Africa, wliicb was reached
at tho boginning of Dccembor.
It turned out, when tho Expedition finally started from Lake
Albert Nyanza, that Kniin Pasha's calci'lation of their being ten
thousand people dependent on his care in the Soudan, who would
flced to bo escorted to tho eeacoast, was a prodigious mistake. Very
few of the Soudanese black soldiers, with their large families, were
at all disposed to quit tho country. The wholo number of fugitives
mustered at Kavalli on April 10 is stated at 514, of whom 134 were
men, 84 married women, 187 female domestic servants or slaves, 74
children above two years of ag'', and 30 infants in anus. Emia
Pasha wanted animals to bo provided for tho women to- ride, but Mr.
Stanley told bim that it would do tho women good to walk ; and wo
should observe that, in an African journey, the usual marching is
seldom inoro than ton miles in a day. Selim Bey, a Colonel of Emio
Pasha's army, had gone back to fetch 200 of bis men, who would, he
eaid, join tho departing multitude ; but he wrote insolent loiters,
complaining that the soldiers were expected to carry loads ; and as
he did not appear on April 10, Mr. Stanley very properly act forth
without him, (caving word that ho might follow if he choso to do so.
The baggage of the fugitives, as much as could possibly be taken,
was carried by 350 natives enrolled for this service. Shukri Aga,
the faithful officer of the Mswa station on the Lake, was the only
one of Emin Pasha's trusted military assistants, who departed with
the Relief Expedition.
THE ORDER OF MARCHING.
On& of sur Illustrations represents tho way in which the column
marched through countries where the natives were peaceful, and
where there was no fear of any danger to the Pasha's people. In
front were from ten to fifteen men as guides or scouts. Then came
Mr. Stanley, riding on his donkey, with a donkey-boy and two gun-
bearers. Clo3e behind these was his orderly, Uledi, carrying the
Expedition flag, which is the Khcdiviol tlag with three stars. Next
came another chief, with tho " No. 1 Company's flag," a yellow cue,
with Arabic characters on it. The No. I Company followed close, in
Indian file, being the picked men of the Expedition. In tho rear of
No. 1 Company was Mr. Jephson., who commanded the.n. The next
in order was either the No. 2 or tho No. 3 Company, commanded,
respectively, by Lieutenant Stairs, R.E., and Captain Nelson. Thcso
two officers took it in turn, on alternate days, to do rearguard duty
with their companions. The No. 4 Company, commanded by Surgeon •
Parke; and the Nubians, with Mr. Bonny ^a charge, marched next
Close behind the Nubians carao Emin Pasha's little daughter
Ferida, in a hammock carried by two trustworthy Zanzibaris. Then
came the Pasha, her father, and Captain Casati, Siguor Marco, aud
Hawashi Effendi, a Major in tho Khodivial service. After these
followed the Pasha's people ; the strongest keeping close up, but the
weaker ones gradually falling to the rear, so that when the column
made a long march tho stragglers would stretch out the column until
sometimes it became nearly three miles long; and the last behind,
though urged on by the rearguard, would not reach camp for three or
four hours after the advance had arrived. But in rear of all, the
company whoso turn it was to do rearguard duty marched slowly
along. This was the order of marchiog, for months, over generally
open countrv. where no hostilities were to be feared.
THE ROUTE TO TEE SOUTHERN LAKES.
From the Unyoro highlands, at tho soQthem extremity of Lake
Albert Nyanza, there is a descent to the north- weat shore of Lake
Albert Edward, where " lies the district of Usongora. The great
tongues of swamp between this and the mountain show how far the
Lake must at one time have spread. But tho plain ia a dc«ort,
though thero are cvidonces that at one time it must have been
tlrickly populated. Tho raidn of tho Waganda and Warosura have
depopulated tho land of the Wasongora. and left only a miserable
remnant. Hero tho course is north-east to Toro, then south and
south-east by Grant's Lake Windermere to Karagwi£ and Uzinja,
towards Lako Victoiia Nyanza. Tho Ankori plateau to the
south of Unyampaka Mr. Stanley deseribos as a largo country,
thickly peopled. The plateau is 5000 ft obove the sea, but the
mountains rise to' a height of G400]t. Mr. Stanley gives details
of much interest concerning tho various tribes among whom be
passed — tribes mostly in a state of constant apprehension from the
raids of their powerful neighbours. The Wakonju are tho only
people who dwell upon the mpuntaio : tbeir villagcc aro found at
a height of 8000 ft. above tho sea. When tho Waraaura invade their
country they retreat etill higher, up to the edge of tho enow. Tho
lower slopes of tho mountain aro extensively cultivated by the
WakoDJu, who became very friendly with Mr. Stanley and bis
people. Tho inbabitanta of Usongora Mr. Stanley describes as a
fine race, but in no way diff<'ring from the best types of it>en seen
in Karagw(; and Ankori, and the "Wahuma shepherds of Uganda.
Tho natives of Toro are a mixlure of the highest clus of negroes,
somewhat like the natives of Uganda. Mr. Shinley maintains that
tho Ethiopio (Abyssinian) type is thickly spread through these
Central African uplands. Ruanda, beyond Lake Albert Edward,
is evidently a fine country, with a neople ouite c^ual in numbers
and strength to those of Uganda.
Mr. Stanley's own notes on the physical geograpny of the Lake
region arc highly interesting. If, he says, you will draw a straight
lino from the debouchure of the Nile from Albert Nyanza in a south-
west direction, you will have measured the length of a brojid line of
subsidence from twenty to fifty miles wide, that lies between 3 dog.
North latitude and 1 dog. South latitude, in the centre of the African
CoDtioent. On the west of this is a great upland, rising to 1000 ft.
to 3000 ft. above the chasm, to which its eastern face slopes almost
perpendicularly down, and the western side beara away gently west-
wards to the Ituri and Louva basins. To tho right or east is
another upland, rising from 1000 ft. to 3000 ft. above the cbafim, and
trending gently eastwards to the Unyoro plateau. In this section lies
the Albert Nyanza. Tho central section of the so-called chasm,
ninety miles long, consists of the Ruwenzori range, from 4000 ft. to
15,000 ft. above the average level of the trough of the Semliki River
valley. The remaining section of the upland is from 2000 ft. to
8500 ft. higher than the trough, and consists of the plateau of Uson-
gora, Unyampaka, and Ankori. In the south section, only fifty milea
long, lies Lake Albert Edward, and tho pUlns between the lal^o and
the mountain. Thus, it will bo seen. Lake Albert Edward ia com-
paratively small, not more than half the length of the north lake.
The part of the Semliki valley which extends from the lake Eouth-
westerly is very level ; for thirty miles not more than 00 ft. above tho
lake, and, in .Mr. Stanley's opinion, of quite recent formation. At
some distance south of the lake everything is saturated with moisture.
At about 6cTenty-fivc milea from the Albert Nyanza the valley attains
a height of about 000 ft. above the lake, where tho forest region
abruptly ends, and a new climate ia reached, in its drought a complete
contrast to the moisture- laden re<;ion in the north.
RUWENZORI: "THE MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON.''
The land between the Albert Edward Nyanza and tho Victoria
Nyanza, with a central line from north to south about the 31 st degree
of East longitude, rises into lofty mountain ranges. A few of their
high summits, which had been only seen at a distance by Mr. Stanley
in bis former journeys, were then named Mount Gordon Bennett,
Mount Edwin Arnold, and Mount Laweuu ; and these were marked
in the map of Central Africa. In June 1889, many months after bis
distant sight of those mountains from tho southern extremity of Lake
Albert Nyanza, Mr. Stanley, with bis second in command. Lieutenant
Stairs, R.E., the Expedition having travelled southward through the
Unyoro country, crossing the Semliki River, and approaching the
mountains through the valley of Awamba, were enabled to gain a
nearer acquaintance with this remarkable feature of a icg'on hithe-to
unknown.
Mr. Stanley's letter of Aug. 17, iSS9, to the R^jol Oeojjrapbic*!
►4
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AFRICA
55
Society describes the Kuwenzori range of mountdios, riaing above
the Semliki valley ; and he confiiders them identical with what
the ancients called " The Mountains of the Moon." This name is
mentioned by au Arab geographer, who says that the Nile takes
ita rise from thoae mountains, a little south of the Equator ; which
is now proved to be the fact, so far as the western branch of tho.-
TJpper White Nile is coQcerned.
Lieutenant Stairs, the only member of the Eiuin Pasha Relief
Expedition who actually ascended Ruwenzori to the height -of
10,G77 ft, on June 6, 1889, has favoured us with a sketch of "The
Mountains of the Moon," and with the following description :—
" For centuries the sources of the Nile have been wrapped in
mystery. Many attempts to reach the southernmoat fountains have
failed. We have been able to add a great deal to our knowledge of
the Nile sources, and have discovered a range of mountains to the
S.8.E. of the Albert Nyanza Lake stretching uway to tbe southwards
and westwards, and then east again in a decidedly crescent-like form.
The name given to the highest points of the range ia Ruwenzori,
though among different tribes it goes by diflereut names.
'* The scenery afforded by these mountains, as one passes by their
feet, is most splendid : deep valleys of an intense darkness run up
from the forest beneath. A distinguishing feature of the range is the
clear and well-defioed character of the hilltops: almost invariably on
the southern side these are of a conical shape, with extremely steep
slopes, some of them being quite 45 deg. in steepness. The lower
spurs and gflllics are covered with ordinary forest growth, up to a
height of some 6000 or 7000 ft. ; above this there is generally a
forest of bamboo going up to 9o00 or 10,000 ft. ; above this,
again, for another 1500 ft. of altitude, the hillsides are covered
with tree-heath, and all above this is bare rock and earth to the
summits. A peculiarity to be observed in this range is the intense
depth of the ravines or gullies between the spurs of the hills.
Though the streams start from almost the auoimit, still they have
very little fall, comparatively, as their channels appear to be cut
right into the heart of the mountains; in some places the ravines
down which these streams flow are quite 6000 ft. or 7000 ft. deep.
The height of the highest point of the range is about 17,000 ft.,
with about 2000 ft. above the snow-line.
" The country at the foot of tbe range is among the most fertile
passed through by us. Bananas, Indian corn, beans, and matama are
the chief products of the natives."
The position of Ruwenzori, as shown in the new map, is within
leas than one degree north of the Equator, and in the thirtieth degree
of East longitude. The mountain range to which it belongs, parallel
witb the Semliki River, which is the outlet of Lake Albert Edward
Nyanza and the most southerly feeder of the Nile, extends in a south-
west direction from a point of the Unyoro tableland oppo^to the
south end of Lake Albert Nyanza, and is about ninety miles in
length; It ia remarkable that these mountains, nearly'18,000ft. high,
with snow-covered peaks, were not visible to Sir Samuel Baker, who
supposed the Albert Nyanza to extend hundreds of miles farther
south.
RUWENZORI TO THE VICTORIA NYANZA.
Leaving that part of the Semliki valley, below the Ruwenzori
mountain range, which is called Awamba, the Expedition, on its
second day's march, entered Usongora, a country bordering Lake
Albert Edward Nyanza on its northern and north-western side ; and
three days later arrived at the important native town of Kative.
This place i.s situated between an arm of the Albert Edward Nyanza
and a ealt lake, about two miles long and three quarters of a mile
wide, which consiBta of pure brine of a pinky colour, and deposits
salt in solid cakes of salt crystals. It was the property of the
Wiisongora, but the value of its possession has attracted the ciinidiiy
of Kabrcga, the King of Unyoro, who gets from it u coDsidorable
revenue, whUe Tore, Ankori, Ruanda, Ukonju, and other countries
demand the suit for consumption. The Warasura fled at the approach
of tho E.\pedition The road from Kative lay east and north-east,
found the bay-like extension of tho Albert Edward Nyanza lying
between Usongora and Unyampaka: it happened to be the same taken
by ■ the Warasura people in their hiisty retreat from tho salt lake.
On ontcring Uhaiyaua, which is to the south of Toro, and in
the uplands, Mr. Stanley had passed tho northern head of the Albert
Edward Nyanza, or Beatrice Gulf, and the route to the south was
open — not, however, witliout another encounter with llie Waitisura.
A few days later Mr. Stanley entered Unyampaica, which he had
visited in .January 1876. Rtngi, the King, declined to enter into the
cause of Unyoro, and allowed Mr. Stanley's people to feed on his
bananas. After following the Like shore until it turned too far
to the south-west, the Expedition ascended to the .uplands of
Ankori, -and thence marched through Karagwe and Uhaiya t*
Uzinja.
In approaching Uzinja, on the south-west shore of Lake Victoria-
Njaoza, Mr. Stanley made another geographical discovery. He found
an extension of that greatest of the African lakes, in a south-west
directioQ, bringing it to within 155 mile3 of Lake Tanganyika; this
makes the whole length of the Victoria Nyanza 270 miles, and give*
it an estimated area of 27,000 square milc3, much larger than any of
the North American lakes, except Lake Superior, which has an area,
of 32f000 square miles. The shore at Uzinja, in all maps drawa
previously, was marked as taking a north-westerly direction ; but^
Stanley now discovered that this supposed shore-line, which he had
eeen in his ciixumnavigation of the Lake in 1870, was only a succession
of islands lymg close behind each other, and that the Lake extended
far beyond them to the south-west, adding about 6000 square milea
to its total area.
VICTORIA NYANZA TO THE SEACOAST.
On Aug. 28, having continued their journey south-east from
Uzinja into the Unyamwesi country, which is directly south of the
Victoria Nyanza, the eyes of the European members of the E.xpedition
were gladdened by the sight of a cross, rising above the foliage of a
grove of banyan-trees, surmounting the thatched roof of a Christian
church. They were at Msalala, the present missionary station of
the wor'.hy Mr. Mackay, one of the ablest, most skilful, and moat
courageous men labouring in heathen Africa for the spread of true
religion and civilisation. Mr. Mackay ia the sole remaining member,
in that country, of the party sent out to Uganda by the, Church
Missionary Society in 1876 ; but two of his colleagues, the Rev.
C. T. Wilson and Dr. B. W. Fclkin, of Edinburgh, have related in »
very instructive book, *' Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan,*' published
in 1882, their successful work during the reign of the late King
Mtesa; and a sequel to it is furnished by Mr. R. P. Ashe, in his
volume, produced last year, "Two Kings of Uganda," narrating the
change tliat took place under King Mwanga, the cruel persecution
and slaughter of the native Christian converts, in 1886, the murder
of Bishop Hannington, and other deplorable events, which have since
been followed by a revolution and civil war in Uganda, compelling^
Mwanga to fly from his kingdom. This happened in October i8S8,
since which time the deposed King, with a band of partisans, has beeu
residing on an island near the north-west corner of the Lake, awaiting-
an opportunity to attack his rival, Kilema ; while the English mission-
aries, Mr. A. M. Mackay, the Revs. K. C. Gordon and R, H. Walker,.
and Mr. D. Doekos, have been at the south end of the Victoria Nyanza,
quietly working and abiding the issue of events. The latest news,
while we write (Feb. 12, 1890) received by telegram through
Dr. Schweiufurth at Cairo, ia that Mwanga has re-established his
authority in Ugauda, and that he is now friendly to the Christians.
With this " brave little Mr. Mackay," as Stanley calls him, the
Expedition rested twenty days at Msalala, while arranging for the
return carnage of tho surplus stores which had been deposited there
for its service, and sending express messengers to the coast with .
letters for England. On Sept. 10 its march was resumed throug'i
Usikumu and Ihuru, by the ordinary route of traders and travellers,
to tho well-known station of Mpwapwa, which is not much above a
hundred and fifty miles from tho sea. Mpwapwa was reached on
Nov. 10, the Euroi)ean party being joined on the road by two French
missionary priests, Father GirauU and Father Schiiizo, who had, like
Mr. 'Mackay and his companions, been driven out of Uganda. It
must be sorrowfully confessed that the numbering of Mr. Stanley'*
followers, on their arrival at Mpwapwa, showed an enormous loss of
iife among the Egyptians or Arabs, tho Zanzibaris, and tho negroes,
since they quitted Lake Albert Nyanza. out of nearly 1500 in all,
scarcely half were left, the others, reckoned at 750, having cither
strayed or succumbed to disease and fatigue, in a maicli of 240 days.
But tho end of this toilsome journey was near. The Mswa station^
only five days from tho cojst, \\m reached on Nov. 30, when iher
were met by 5Ir. Stevens, tho correspondent of the .Wio yotk iJeruil^
and by a representative of Major Wiesmau, tho German officii.!
authority on that coast ; and they were supplied with needful
56
A !• I! I C A
comforts In the way of food, olothlnK, and cordiuU. Tlicn,
by ciisy BtiiRCH, to MbiiKaiil, lilplro, and croHHiiig tliu KinKiinl
Elver— ft tudlous procc-SB with one ferry-bout — they arrived
on Dir. 4 at Bagumoyo.
f)ii Vi'v. (>, Mr. Stiinloy and Ins comrades arrived
nl Zanzibar, crossing the eliannel in tlie German
desjiatcli Ijoat iS^jcW»t, escort cd liy Uie British and
German naval squadrons.
N'carly the whole coast of Africa is now occupied
and controlled either hy the European powers, or
by a very few ind(>pendent governments, Tlie lat-
ter ■.'dvernnients are Zanzibar, Liberia and Jlorocco,
and I lie ortjanized tribes of Unizilas, Mozambique,
and the Somalis. Of the numerous small tribal in-
land countries, a few, like Dahomey and Ashantee,
are known to us only by (heir attacks on the set-
tlers of the coasts; oiliers, like those on the Niger
and round I ako Tchail, and (he Equatorial States
between dongo and Zanzibar, are being made
known by (he reporls of travelers. There is very
little giivcnimcntal organization among them be-
yond (hat embraced in military chieftainship.
Up to (he da(e of the International Conference in
Brussels in 1874 most of the countries of Africa were
under a kind of barbaric home rule. Aside from the
shadowy conl rol of Egypt by Turkey, loss than one-
tenth of (ho area was under any sort of domination
by foreign governments, I'ortugal, the largest alien
pruprietor.claiming a lit tie more than 612,000 square
miles, chielly in Mozambi(|ue and Angola. France
claimed in Alg(M-ia and Senegambia an area of
about SOO.dOO scpiare miles, and Gieat Britain about
the same area in (he Cape and elsewhere. Spain had
also a comjiaratively small holding of about 8,r)00
S(juare miles. The vast remainder was subject only
to the rule of concpiering native chiefs.
From the date of the P.russels Conference the
system of invasion w-ith a view to territorial domain
began. Progress was slow at first, but eight years
later it became exceedingly rapid. The great
powers severally constructed maps according to
their own pleasure, and often in such way as to
overlap a rival's claims; and this work has gone on
until the present time, when scarcely one-tifth re-
mains for future grabbing. The great bulk of the
land of the whole continent is now under foreign
ownership. Portugal has been prevented from in-
creasing her African domain except in Angola, and
her entire area in Africa is now estimated at only
774,993 square miles, inclusive of the Maduras, Cape
Verd, St. Thomas, and Principe Islands.
Spain has made great advances, though some of
her claims are disputed by France. She declares
her ownership, however, of the coast from Cape
Blanco to Cape Bojador, and territories in Adrar
and :Muni, aggregating 210,01X1 square miles. Italy
otticially claimed no soil in Africa until 1880; but
now her flag floats, metaphorically, over no less
than 360,000 square miles, mostly in Abyssinia,
Shoa, Harrar and Somali-land.
Germany is also a new invader ; for while Von
der Decken in 18G6 had urged the seizure of all
East Africa from the Zambesi to the Red Sea, down
to 1S76 not an acre had been formally seized. But
now the empire holds possession of 450,000 square
miles in Eastern Africa, back of the Zanzibar Coast ;
385,000 in Southwestern Africa; 193,000 in the
Cameroons country, and 7,720 in Togo Land — a
total of 1,035,220 s(iuare miles; practically all
grabbed in 1884-85, and all conceded now by the
other powers.
Great Britain, looked upon as the greatest of
land-grabbers, has increased her 279,1(55 square
miles in 1876 to 1,909,445 in 1890 ; including such con-
siderable plots of sround as 500,000 square miles in
the Cape region, 400.000 in the Niger country, 500.000
in tba territory of the South .Vfrica Company, and
400,000 in that of the East Africa Company, with
smaller parcels on the West Coast, the Somali Coast,
and at Natal and elsewhere. France, however, is
the greatest anncxer. In 1876 she had 283,4.00 square
miles. Since that date she has extended her claims
in Algeria from 123,000 to 184,4.so square miles, and
in the Senegal country from 154,400 to 580,000. She
has seized 905,000 in the Sahara and the Soudan,
270,000 in Gaboon and on the Congo, 232.600 in
Madagascar and neighboring isles, 44,790 in Tunis,
and minor areas elsewhere — giving her now 2,.300,-
248 square miles in all, and making her by far the
greatest land-holder in Africa.
If to these areas we add the more than l.OOO.fHX)
square miles of the Congo Free State, Turkey's
380,000 in Tripoli, Egyi)t's 4(M),(HI0, the 1,0(I0,()(K) of
the Eastern Soudan which Egyp( once possessed,
the independent (central Soudan, Morocco, Orange
Free State, and the Transvaal, (here will Ije found
to remain, of Africa's 11,900,000, less than 2,500,000
now open to precnijition.
A treaty was signed Aug. 5, 1890, between Eng-
land and 1'" ranee, giving to the former the right
to establish a protectorate over Zanzibar, and to
the latter the power to extend the French sphere
of influence in Algeria and Senegal.
(^n Aug. 20, 1.S90, an agreement was reached by
which England ob(ained the region north of the
Zambesi, bordered on the west by that river from
the point where it commences to flow southward;
on tlie north and east by Lake Nyassa, including
the Blantyre district, where are many English Mis-
sion Stations; and on the north also by the Ger-
man possessions and the Congo State. England
also relinquished to Germany all claim to the east
Africa coast from Kavenna southward to the mouth
of the Zambesi river. It was a part of (he bargain
that in consideration of (he transfer of this terri-
tory, and of (his final adjustment of boundaries,
that England should transfer to Germany the
island of Heligoland, in the North Sea, off the
coast of .lutland.
Portugal, which had long claimed territorial
rights extending across the African continent,
along the southern boundary of the Congo Free
State to the Indian Ocean, vigorously iirotested
against the new territorial arrangement, but Eng-
land refused to allow the Portuguese claim. On
Jan. 1, 1891, the German Emperor officially an-
nounced the raising of the German flag upon the
east coast of this African acquisition, and upon
the island of Heligoland.
Partition of Janiarv 1, 1891. The following
table was compiled for the States.max's Year-
Book of 1891, by Mr. E. G. Bavenstein, F.R.G.S.:
Area.
Popu-
lation.
Inhab. to
Sq. Mile.
British Africa:
2,700
15.000
46.600
21,070
290,000
50.000
180.000
1.905.000
3.000,000
17,000,000
Sierra Leone
12
Lagos and Voruba
NlgiT Territories and Oil
142
375,370
233.430
9.720
21,1,50
14,220
43,000
127,000
510,000
22,632.000
1,700,000
180,000
540,000
180,000
44,000
50.000
1,100,000
Cape Colony (with Poudii
Land and Walvisch Bayi
Basntoland
7
19
25
Zulu and Tonga Lands
British Bfohuanaland. , . .
BecUuanaliind Protectorati'
Zambezia. Nyas:?ulaud. etc.
13
I
0.4
2
British South Africa .
98S,520
3,794,000
4
* Inclusive of Sokoto (121,000 square miles, 9,800.000 in-
habitants! aud Gando (9S.,tOO square miles. 61.000.000 inhali-
itantsi.with Borgu and territories tributary to bokoto oa
the north.
AGASSIZ — AGE
5"
Area.
Popu- |lnhab. to
lation. 'Sq. Mile.
Zanzibar and Pemba
Ibea, to 5^ N. latitude
Rest to Egyptian frontier.
Northern .Somal Coast
985
245,000
820,000
30,000
1,382
165,000
5,600,000
7,000,000
240,000
10,000
167
23
8
8
g
British East Africa
Mauritius, etc
St. Helena, Ascension, and
Tristan da Cunha
1,097,367
1,053
126
13.015,000
390,000
5,000
12
371
4
Total British Africa
French Africa:
Tunis
2,462,436
44,800
184,500
1,568,000
51.000
7,500
475,500
220,000
2.320
228,600
760
970
39,836,600
1.500.000
8.820.000
1,120,000
260.000
250.000
8300,000
2,500,000
23,000
3,520,000
64,000
166,000
16
33
07
Senegambia (old posses-
5
Gold and Benin Coasts
French Africa— oo)i(.
Sudan (remainder)
French Congo f and Gabon)
Obok (Bay of Tajura)
Jladagascar, dependencies
33
18
11
10
16
R^'uuion . . ...
171
Total French Africa
Portuguese Africa:
Portuguese Guinea
2,783,950
11,600
603.000
293.000
314
1,490
420
22,013,000
150.000
3,600,000
1,.500,000
130,000
111.000
21,000
8
13
Mozambique
.5
433
Cape Verde I.slands
St. Thomf and Princip^...
75
40
Total Portuguese Africa.
Spanish Africa:
Tetuan,<tc. (Morocco)
909,824
27
243,000
2,800
930
5,518,000
6,000
100,000
288,000
50,000
6
222
0 4
103
Gulf of Guinea+
54
Total Spanish Africa
German Africa:
Togoland (Slave Coast)
Caniarons (Kamerun)
South-West Africa
East Africa (with Mafia).. .
246,757
16,000
130,000
324,000
361,000
444,000
500.000
2.600.000
250.000
1.700.000
2
31
10
0.8
5
Total German Africa
Italian Africa:
Eritrea
831,000
66,100
189.000
70,000
5.110,000
660.000
4,600,000
210.000
6
12
24
Somal Coast
3
Total Italian Africa
S.immarv:
British" Africa
French Africa
Portuguese Africa
Spanish Africa
German Africa
315,100
2.462.4:36
2.78:3.950
909 .S24
246.757
831,000
315,100
827,000
163,400
37,000
8:36.000
2,0-21 ..583
8O,:3.50
5,370.000
39,836,000
22.013,000
5,518.000
444.000
5,110.000
5.370M00
15.000.000
810,0110
1.050.000
7.980,000
123,868,400
17
16
8
6
2
6
17
Congo State (Belgian)
Boer Republics
Liberia
18
6
29
Turkish (Epypt, Tripoli). .
Unappropriated!
Great Lakes
10
112
Total Africa
11,514,300 1
127.000.000
11
' Including the whole of Lunda, a portion of which will
probably be ceded to the Congo State as a result of the arbi-
tration of the Swiss Government.
+ Spain also claims some 70,000 square miles on the main-
land.
I UnapproT>riated Africa includes Morocco 1219.000 square
miles, 6,000.000 inhabitants), Bornu with Kautni 180, oiiOsq mire
miles. 5.1»i).0<)0 inhabitants). Wadai (172.000 square miles,
2,600*000 inhabitants), Bagirmi (71,tKX) square miles, 1,500,000
inhubitauts), cfcc.
AGASSIZ, Ai.E.XANDKR, American geolof;ist and
zoologist, born in Nenchatel, Switzerland, IJec. 17,
1835. He followed his father, Louis Agassi.^, to the
United States in 184U, was graduated at Harvard in
1855, and received the degree of B. S. from the Law-
rence Scientific School in 1.S57. Two years hiler
he collected nunierovis specimens of tish for the
Harvard Museum, while on a trip to California
as an assistant on the coast survey. On his return
A. AGASSIZ.
in 1860, he became assistant in the museum, and
accepted the opportunity to complete his studies
in zoology and geology.
In 1866 he became con-
nected with the Lake Su-
perior copper mines and
developed these deposits
until they became the most
valuable mines in the
world. Through these cop-
per speculations he became
wealthy and has since been
engaged in visiting foreign '
collections and mu-
seums, and in deep-sea
dredging, making many
important contributions to
science. He is a member
of numerous scientific so-
cieties both in this country and in Europe, and the
author of several scientific works.
AGASSIZ, Mt., extinct volcano of Arizona, near
the canon Colorado ; one of the San Francisco
mountains, 10,000 feet in height.
AG.'VTHA, St., a noble lady of Sicily. She re-
jected the love of the Perfect Octavianus, and suf-
fered martyrdom in the persecution of Christians
under Decius, 250 a. d.
AGATHOX flourished about 416 b. c. ; a tragic
poet of Athens, and friend of Euripides. The din-
ner which he gave to celebrate his first dramatic
triumph was made by Plato the ground work of his
Symponinm. Most of his writings are lost.
AGAVE, a genus of plants of the order Amari/Ili-
dew. They are natives of the warmer parts of
America, where several species are found.
They are often mistaken for aloes. They
have a very short stem, bearing at its summit a
crowded head of large fleshy leaves, which are
spiny at the margin, and from the middle of which
shoots up the straight upright scape, 23 to 37 feet
high, and at the base almost a foot in diameter,
along which are small oppressed lanceolate hractex
with a terminal panicle, often bearing as much as
4,000 flowers. In South America they blossom once
every eighth year, but in our hot-houses not until
an advanced age, from which arises the gardener's
fable of their blossoming only once in a century.
The plant dies down to the ground after flowering,
but the root continues to live and sends up new
shoots.
AGE. Legal divisions of human life differ con-
siderably in different countries, Ijeing sometimes
arbitrary, and sometimes founded on nature. The
whole period previous to 21 years of age is generally
spoken of as infancy ; but, notwithstanding this
general division, which is common in botli sexes,
the ages of male and female differ for different pur-
poses. In England a male at the age of 12 may
take the oath of allegiance, at 14 consent or dis-
agree to marriage, choose his guardian, and be an
executor, but cannot act until of age. At 21 is at
his own disposal, may alien and devise his lands,
etc. A female at seven years may be given in mar-
riage, at 14 choose a guardian, at 17 be an execu-
trix, and at 21 dispose of herself and her lanils.
In Scotland, marriageable — 14 in males and 12 in
females. Botli sexes are of age at 21.
France, 18 in males and 15 in females. These are
tlie ages at which they may respectively marry ; 21
the age at which men are eligible for public ofiico.
In the United States, a person becomes of legal
age when he or she is 21 — males being marriageable
at IS, female at 10. An AuK^rican citizen cannot be
a representative before 25 years of ago, senator
before 30, or a president before he is 35.
68
A G E L^ I N M — AGO U i. T
AGELjEINyE, an American subfaniily <>f tlie
fcteridx, taking tlie placn, to some extent, of the
•Id world Sliiniidu^ur starlings. Tliis suljfaniily
includes the marsli-blackbirds of the genus Agi't-
»'iii<; the cow-bird, Mohitlnaa (iter; and the bobolink,
Jiolirhoiv/x orijzivor'tn.
AGEN, a town of France, situated in a fertile re-
gion on the riplit l)ank of the Garonne, and the
chief town of I lie depart niont of Lot-et-Garonne.
It is an important railway centre, and carries on an
active trade in woolen and linen fabrics, leather,
colors, cordage and sailcloth. It was the birth-
place of Joseph Scaliger. Population, 18,743.
AGENDA, in theology, practical duties. Distin-
guished from crcdenda, doctrines or matters of
taith.
AGEXOIS, that part of the province of Guienne,
In France, which now forms the department of Lot-
et-Garonno.
AGENOK, mythological king of Phoenicia, son of
Keptune, sire of Cadmus, Europa and Phcenix.
AGENT. In the United States an agency may be
created by deed, or other written instrument, or by
verbal delegation of authority. It may be implied
from the relation and acts of the parties and the
nature of the employment, w'ithout any express ap-
pointment. The agency may terminate by revo-
cation of the power conferred. A person cannot act
as agent in a transaction wherein he has an adverse
interest or employment. The death of either prin-
cipal or agent terminates the agency. (See Britan-
nJca, Vol. 1, p. 280.)
AGGLOIMEK.\TE, or Yoi.caxic Agclomer.^-e, a
rock made up of a confused mass of angular and
subangular blocks of various sizes. These blocks
may consist of igneous rocks, or of sedimentary
rocks, or of both, set in a more or less meagre matrix
of finer-grained detritus of the same materials.
The rock, which is of volcanic origin, is frequently
found in Scotland, filling up vertical holes which
eeem to have been the throats of ancient vol-
canoes.
AGGLUTINATE LANGUAGES are those inter-
mediate between the monosyllabic and the inflec-
tional. Examples ot these may be found in the In-
dian languages of North America, and the Tura-
nian of Asia.
AGHMAT, or Agamet, a fortified town of Mo-
rocco. Population, 6,000.
AGNADELLO, a village of northern Italy, 10
tniles east of Lodi, near which Louis VII, completely
defeated the Venetians in 150!), and the Duke of
Vendome gaine'd a victory over Prince Eugene in
1705
AGNES, SAiN'va celebrated Christian virgin of
Rome. She suffered martyrdom a. d. 303.
AGNES SOKEL (1409-14.50), lady of honor to the
Queen of France, and mistress to Charles VII,
over whom she exercised a powerful influence.
AGNEAV, Cornelius Rea, American physician,
born in New York city, Aug. 8, 1830. He graduated
at Columbia College, and studied medicine at the
College of Physicians and Surgeons. After he re-
ceived his degree he held several important medi-
cal posts — one being director of the N. Y. State
volunteer hospital. In 1868 he established an
ophthalmic clinic in the College of Physicians and
Surgeons, and later founded the lirooklyn and Man-
hattan eye and ear hospitals. For years Dr. Ag-
new was connected with the State hospital for the
insane at Poughkeepsie, and was deeply interested
in the educational institutions of New York city,
lie contributed numerous papers to medical jour-
nals on diseases of the eye and ear. He died
in 1888.
AGNEW, David Hayes, American sargeon, born
in Lancaster coujity. Pa., Nov. 21, 1818. After
studying at Jefferson and Newark Colleges, he
graduated in medicine at the University of Penn-
sylvania, in 1838. He lectured in the Philadeli^liia
school of anatomy, and established the school of
operative surgery. Subsequently, he became a
Burgi'on in the Philadeli>hia hospital, and also in
the Pennsylvania hospital. For several years he
was a professor in the medical department of
the University of Pennsylvania; and he was also,
for some time, a surgeon at Will's ophthalmic hos-
pital. Dr. Agnew has been connected with numer-
ous cases of great public and scientific importance,
the best known being that of President (Tarfield;
and he has made many valuable contributions to
medical literature. Among his works are: Practical
AiMtoiiiij (1807); Laceratioms of llir Female Perhi-
xum and Vcsico-vaninal Fintuln (1867); Anatomy and
its Relation to Medicim and Hurgenj; and Principled
and I'rnctKc of Hurgerii ( 1 878).
AGNl, an Aryan deity: a Hindu god of fire; a
bearer of incense and purifier, and a mediator be-
tween man and gods.
AGNOMEN was, in ancient Rome, the fourth or
honorary name bestowed on account of some extra-
ordinary action, virtue or accomplishment.
AGNOSTICISM, a word introduced into the Eng-
lish language by Professor Huxley in 1S09. The
term was suggested to him by the inscription,
Agnositn Tlirn ("To the Unknown God'">, which the
Apostle Paul saw on an Athenian altar, as recorded
in Act* xvii. 23. It connotes the doctrine that man
does not know anything about spiritual existences,
whether divine or human, or about a future life;
and asserts that the ultimate cause and the essen-
tial nature of things are unknowable, or at least un-
known. "The only meaning," says Professor Hux-
ley, "of the law of causation in the physical world
is that it generalizes universal experience of the
order of the world;" and if experience shows (and
he asserts that it does) a similar order to obtain
among states of consciousness, the law of causation
will properly express that order. As regards the ex-
istence of a God, agnostics say that, having regard to
the universality of causation, they cannot refuse to
admit an eternal existence; and that, in view of the
doctrine of the conservation of energy, they must
also admit the possibility of an eternal energy ; and
that an eternal existence possessed of consciousness
and energy may be the First Cause of all things.
They frankly admit that there is more than matter
and force in the universe. The phenomena of con-
sciousness and mental activity cannot, they grant,
be put in the same category with the properties of
matter But why phenomena fall into this order
the agnostics do not profess to know. Owing to
their reverence for the law of causation they re-
pudiate the ascription to man of free-w'ill, iis ordi-
narily understood. Agnosticism may be regarded
as Positivism without its dogmatism.
AGONARA, a large raccoon of South America,
said to live on crabs.
AGONISTICI, North African Christians of the
fourth century, who renounced matrimony and
thought it wrong to work.
AGOULT, Marie de Flavig.vy, Comtesse d', a
French authoress born at Frankfort, Dec. 31, 1805,
and educated at a convent in Paris. In 1827 she
was married to the Comte d' Agoult, but left him
and formed a connection with Liszt. She wrote
under the literary pseudonym of "Daniel Stern."
Amon°; her works may be mentioned Nelida, Let-
tres Itepublicaines, Hiatoire de la Rivohdion de lS.iS,
and Me& Souvenirs, hxit Esquisscs morales is consid-
ered her best work. She died in Paris, March 5,
1870.
59
AGRICULTURE
FOE the history and development of agriculture
in various countries, including the several
American States, together with an elaborate discus-
sion of numerous economic and practical questions
relative to the departments of agricultural indus-
try, see Britannica, Vol. I, pp. 219 to 416. It is only
required in these Revisions and Additions that
such later facts should be furnished as are needed
to mark the progress and rapidly increasing inter-
est in agricultural pursuits that are now character-
izing our current national history.
I. Persons Engaged in Agricultural Pursuits.
In the official returns of the United States, re-
ported by decades, are numerous, elaborate and
carefully prepared tables relating to the " gainful
and reputable occupations." In this term are in-
cluded only those which are productive of compen-
sation in the shape of wages, subsistence or profit.
In the number of persons engaged in such pursuits
only those who are above ten years of age are
counted. The large number of women engaged in
housework for their own families are not enu-
merated, while the women engaged in housework,
or in the field, or shops, or stores, or in professions
for hire, are included. Tliis distinction in classifi-
cation, while open to criticism at first view, is,
probably, the best for logical and helpful compari-
son.
The last census gives the total number of those
engaged in gainful and reputable occupations as
17,392,099. Of these 7,670,493 were engaged in agri-
culture. These constituted 44 per cent, of the
whole number of "bread-winners," while those
counted in the department of trade and transpor-
tation were 11 per cent, of the whole ; those en-
gaged in manufactures 22 per cent., and those in
other professional and personal services 23 per
cent. The figures indicate the relative value
of the agricultural industry in the United States.
Th« rapid and comparative progress during the de-
cades .since 1850 is shown by the following census
totals : In 1850 the number engaged directly in
agricultural pursuits was 2,400,586 ; in 1860, 3,305,135 ;
in 1870, 5,922,471 ; in 1880, 7,670,493.
II. The Progress in the Agricultural Industry
OP the United States Is Shown by the Increased
Acreage of the Country Devoted to Agricult-
ure.
The census of 1850 shows that the number of
acres specifically included in farms was293,5<50,614;
in 1860,409,212,538; in 1870, 407,735,051 (the lack of
increase in this decade arising from the prevalence
of the civil war) ; in 1880, 536,081,835. The growth
in the improved or cultivated acreage of the farm
was also remarkable. The number of acres in im-
2>TO!>erf farms in 1850 was 113,032,614; in I860, 160,-
110,720; in 1870, 188,921,099, and in 1880,284,771,042.
The increase in the number of farms is equally re-
markable. The number of farms in 18.50 was 1,449,-
073; in I860, 2,044,077; in 1870, 2,659,485; in 1880,
4,008,907.
III. Improvement op Farm Soils.
Millions of acres of lands, in various sections of
our wide domain, which a few years ago were re-
garded as of little or no value for agriculture, have
been transformed into thrifty fields, burdened with
growing cereals or with luxuriant croi)9 of grass or
covered with the productions of garden, orchard
or vineyard. As a remarkable illustration of what
has been done with lands known as "barrens" in
some of the States, attention is called to the
wonderful field of corn grown from a single acr«-
in South Carolina in 1889 by Z. J. Drake, of Marl-
borough county in that State. "A prize contest"
had been suggested and promoted by the "American
Agriculturist," offering a generous award to the
farmer who should obtain the largest yield of corn
from a single acre during that year. Mr. Drake
entered the contest, selecting for the purpose an
acre which, three years before, was regarded as
a fair specimen of what was familiarly called
" Starvation's Empire." Eight dollars per acre was
regarded as a fair valuation for it. The prepara-
tion of the ground and the method of its cultiva-
tion, together with the wonderful figures showing
the yield, are a matter of interesting record in the
journals of that year. The crop from that single
acre measured i?J5 busliels of shelled corn — the great-
est yield of corn on a single acre ever recorded. In
the following year, as a result of a prize contest for
a premium offered by the same paper for the great-
est yield of potatoes from a single acre, the pre-
mium was awarded to W. J. Sturgis, of Buffalo,
.Johnson county, Wyoming, whose acre crop yielded
974 bushels and 48 pounds of potatoes ! A descrip-
tion of the improved and improving methods of
increasing the value of farm soils would require a
discussion extending through pretentious volumes
on agricultural subjects, and to such volumes tiia
interested reader must be referred.
IV. Average Size of Farsis.
It is an interesting fact that in any country
where the statistics show a rapid advance in agri-
cultural industries there is a constant tendency to
diminish the average size of the farms of that coun-
try. The more the people learn of the possibilities
of farm soils, the better will they know that the
truest and most abnormal success in agricultural
life consists, not in the multiplication of acres, but
in the increase of products from a given amount
of acreage. Hence it is that in the United States,
where there is no feudal entailment of estates or
of hereditary preserves, w^e should expect to find
in the real growth of agricultural knowledge a
diminution in the average quantity of land self-
assigned to individual workers. The census figures
of the several decades show this to be true. As
care in the tillage has increased, the size of the in-
dividual farm has gradually lessened. In 1850 the
size of the farm was 203 acres; in 1860,199 acres;
in 1870, 153 acres ; and in 1880, 134 acres.
V. Improvement in Products.
No country in the world has shown a greatei
progress in this respect than the United Statos. In
the single department of live-stock raising, Ameri-
cans were behind the English slock growers in tht
order of time. While early seeking the importation
of the best sheep and cattle, and practically adopt
ing the breeds thus imported, tliey have speedily
improved upon them and rapidly increased their
market value. There w^ere in this country in 1890
about 200 registered Jersey cows, famous for their
butter-producing qualities; but no recorded yield
of butter from any cow in England ever equaled
that of the Jersey cow Kurotisana, owned by D. F
Appletou, of Ipswich, Mass., and whose milk pro
duced in a single year (the year closing April 21
1890) 945 pounds and 9 ounces. So also in tht
various great records of beef-raising, of fast hors 13s
of hogs and of sheep, and of hog and sheep produjt?
60
A (i i; 1 (• I i/r I
I-:
the later reports of the American farmers are not a
whit below those of their Knglish cousins.
VI. AcHK I I.TIK.M, I'kUIiiDRAI.S.
The "American Fanner," the first journal distinct-
ively established in the interest of American farm-
ers, was issued April 1', IMS, in lialtiniore, by .John 8.
Kinner, a genlleinan well known in those days in
connection witli tlie farm and turf. He retired
after 3") years' effective .service. In 1.S21 Solomon
Poulhwick, of .Alliany, N. Y., began llie publication
of the " l'lough-H(iy," and about a year later, viz., in
August, ISL'li, .Messrs. T. W. Fcssenden and T. W.
Shcpard lieguii tlu' iiublicalion of tlie " New Kngland
Farmer." Thes(! were the pioneer agricultural
papers of I lie count ry, each with its "day of small
things," but each liad its after growth and " power of
influence." At tlie dale of this writing (1891) the
number of agricultural journals in the United
States, including those devoted to dairying, horti-
culture, live-st<ick, poultry and bee-keeping, is about
1150; and these in their frecpiency of publication
make up a list embracing dailies, semi- weeklies,
tl.KV I'l.OW.
names and descriptions appear in the catalogues of
American agricultural machinery. The hrst is
that of a modern "sulky plow," for which are
claimed these special advantages, viz., the ease of
the plowman, convenience in regulating the depth
KMi'iKK Drill.
years. The third is the "Empire Drill," one of the
many devices of its class for depositing the grain
seed more evenly, more certainly and much more
rapidly, as well as more economically, than by the
old methods of hand-sowing. Next comes the " Walk-
ing Cultivator," made in a variety of ways and for
use with a single or double team, and for one, two
or three rows at a time, as the farmer may desire.
Ivext follow the "mower" and the " reaper" whose
utility has been long recognized. To the latter are
attached, when desired, self-raking and self-binding
appliances, marvels of simiilicity, convenience and
economy. Fig. S is tlie "hay-tedder" for use in
weeklies, semi-monthlies and monthlies. Many of
these are ably edited and claim a very large circu-
lation, reaching in, some cases, a subscription list of
more than 10(1,0(10. The influence of these journals
in suggesting and promoting agricultural progress
is beyond the estimate of ligurcs, and to this influ-
ence is to be added tliat c.f the cuiislaiitly increas-
ing number of books on agriculture and its coguate
branches.
VII. Agricultl'hai, Machlnekv.
The United States Patent Office report for 1890,
in its great list of new patents issued during the
calendar year 1S89, furnishes the names of nearly
1,(500 new agricultural machines and attachments
gazetted during that year. The record is suggest-
ive of the increasing interest felt in this great
industry, as well as the genius and tact of Ameri-
can inventors. The United States leads the world
in improved appliances for the tillage of the soil
and for use in all the cognate branches of indus-
trial life. We make room in these pages for illus-
trations of a few of the many recent devices whose
Fit,'. 2. — CLTAU .W ]I.\J;i:<.'.
of the furrow (by means of a lever), and diminished
friction (by the use of wheels), with less fatigue on
the part of the team. The second is that of a
"Cutaway Harrow"'in place of the old-fashioned,
burdensome harrows universally in use for many
Fig. 4.— Walking Cultivatob.
the lifting and drying of the ready-cut grase.
Then follow the illustrations of machines for the
rapid gathering and storing of hay, in the use of
which, in a large crop, it is alleged, there is a saving
of about four-fifths of the former cost under the old
methods. Figs. 13 and 14 will also explain them-
selves. A good two-horse thrashing machine and
separator, driven by a tread-power, would thrash
and clean 1(50 bushels of wheat in a day ; a ten-
horse steam engine will do six times as much. The
business of manufacturing these and similar ma-
chines has assumed immense jiroportions. !More
than 10,000 skilled workmen are employed, and a
AGRICULTURE
61
capital of many millions of dollars is required. The
sales in a single year reached over $150,000,000. A
single firm is reported as having manufactured in
one year 1S,000 machines, and another 40,000 ma-
chines in the same year. These figures indicate
the greatness of this branch of American industry.
The wonderful advance in helpful labor-sav-
ing devices makes it possible tor some of the
western farmers to cultivate with economical re-
sults their great domains of from 5,000 to 40,000
acres each. The largest farm in tlie world, located,
in the southeast corner of the State of Louisiana,
is described as follows: It measures 100 miles
north ana south and 25 miles east and west, and is
owned hy a syndicate of capitalists. The 1,500,000
acres of the tract were purchased in 1S83 from the
State of Louisiana and from the United States
Government. At that time it was a vast grazing
land for the cattle of the few dealers of the neigh-
borhood, over 30,000 of half-wild horses and cattle
being thereon. Now this immense tract is divided
Into convenient pasture stations, or ranches, located
about six miles apart. The fencing alone cost in
the neighborhood of $50,000. The land is best
adapted for rice, sugar, corn and cotton. All cul-
tivating, ditching, etc., is done by steam power. A
tract of about half a mile wide is taken and an en-
gine is placed oh each side. The engines are port-
Fig. 5. — SIOWEil AT W'UF.K.
able and operate a cable attached to four plows,
and under this arrangement 30 acres a day are
gone over with only tlie labor of three men. Har-
rowing, planting and other cultivation are done in
rig. 7.— Self-binder at Work.
VIII. Agrkultural Associatio.vs.
At the opening of the year 1891 there were in the
United States about 4,0()0 regularly organized as-
sociations, including those devoted to specialties
usually classed under the head of agricultural
products. They embrace the State, county and
town and club organizalions, and hold anniuil ana,
in not a few cases, semi-aimual fairs. They furnish
an immenso stimulus to progress in tlicir line in
every part if tlie country. Their number and edu-
cating inlliience upon the rural population of the
States have awakened tlie interested attention
of foreign visitors, and the favorable reports of
SiSisfe?*. '.S
Fig. 0. — i:EAi'l-:i: AT W'uHI^.
a like manner. There is not a single draught
horse on the entire place. Of course horses are
used for the herding of cattle, of which there are
16,000 head.
Fig. 8.— Hay-tedder.
the latter have led the people of even remotely
located countries to similar movements at home.
In the autumn of 1W10 a very successful expositioM
was hekl over in Russian Turkestan, resulting in
an extraordinary increase of interest in all depart-
ments represented in the great show.
An "International Agricultural Congress" was
held at Vienna, by invitation of the Austria-
Hungarian Government in Sejitember, IWtO. It
was attended by over 1,100 delegates, including
distinguishe<l representatives of agricultural inter-
ests from every county in lOurope, from .Japan
from Australia, from India and from South Amer
62
AGRICULTURE
lea, and at ii were discusspcl subjects of profound
interest to a^'riculturists liiruughout llie world.
Unfortunately the United States was not repre-
sented because of lack of adequate "'overnnienlal
provision. Tliis was f^really regretted by the new
secretary of agriculture, and in his annual report,
dated at Washington, D. C, Oct. M, 1.S90, he very
properly urged that Congress should make ample
provision for any such needs as may arise in the
future. Other international congresses are prom-
ised, and it is hoped one may be held at Chicago
during the progress of the Columbian Fair in 1893.
IX. National Congress ox Aoricultubal Ques-
tions.
On Feb. 1, 1889, botli houses of Congress at
AVashington passed, with remarkable unanimity,
and after a carefully prepared report by a joint
conference onmniitfpp, a Ml! enlarging tlip powers
Fig. 9.— UUAPPLiNO Uay-fork and Kail« av Hat conveyer.
legislated liberally for the encouragement of sugar-
beet and sorghum cane culture in the United
States. See tliose topics.
X. Adulter,\tion op Foods.
The work of the chemical division of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture relating to the adulteration of
human foods is now being push<'d forward with
diligence and success. The investigations in 1890
Fig. 11.— Stacking Hay.
although some of them have been found to be
deleterious. In the case of coffee the chief adul-
terations have been found in the ground coffees,
the ditiiculty of adulterating the berry, whether
roasted or unroasted, being so great as to almost
exclude this kind of fraud. With the green berry,
:he cliief adulteration seems to be in exposing it to
a moist atmosphere that it may absorb moisture
and thus increase in weight; but this is a species
ana auties of the Department of Agriculture and
elevating the chief oflicer of that department to
that of a full Cabinet secretaryship. The bill was
approved by the President, Feb. II, and bccanio a
law at once, and soon after Hon. .1. M. liusk. of the
State of Wisconsin, was appointed (secretary of
Agriculture.
The same Congress made liberal appropriations
providing for the opening of artesian wells in
various belts of territory, and for testing their
value for irrigation purposes in numerous agricult-
ural districts. See Wi;i.[,.s, Artesian, in these lie-
visions and Additions. Tlie incn^ascd liberality of
Congress toward tlie department was shown also
by providing f(jr continued work in the botanical
department in further investigating the habits of
the insects (and their antidotes) destructive to
farm, orchard and garden products. See Insects
in these Revisions and Additions. Congress also
Fig. 10.— PfTTINO tlAV IN Bails.
related largely to tea, coffee, chocolate and other
table beverages. They showed that the udultera.
tion of these articles is not very extensive, and, ex-
cept in the case of tea, is easily detected. The most
frequent one is the introduction of substances to
give additional weight, such substances as will at-
tach themselves readily to the leaves and yet not
be easily distinguished by the eye. These sub-
stances are mostly of a harmless character.
Fig. 12.— Hat-loadee.
of fraud which is easily distinguished, since the
simple drying of the berry and the estimation
of the water contained therein is sufficient to
determine whether or not it has been thus ex-
posed. Extensive investigations have also been
made in regard to the adulteration of suj^ar,
molasses, honey and confections, and the publica-
tion of these reports will speedily be given to the
public.
AGRICULTURE
63
XI. Export Trade in Animals and Their
Products.
Concerning this trade Secretary Rusk's report
(December, 1890) states:
" Step by step, as it were, with the vigorous prose-
cution of the work of exterminating pleuro-pneu-
mouia and controlling Texas fever, and with a
more general appreciation of the benefits derived
from a judicious exercise of the powers conferred on
this department, we find a gratifying improvement
in the export trade in live animals. The total
value of animals and fowls exported for the fiscal
year ending .Tune 30, 1890, was over $33,000,000, an
increase of something over $15,000,000 as compared
with the year previous. The increase in the num-
ber of cattle was from 205,786 in 1889 to 394,836 in
1890, while the number of hogs exported increased
from 45,000 to 91,000. over 100 per cent. In horses
there was a slight reduction of exports, far more
than counterbalanced, however, by the large in-
crease in the number of mules exported.
A very large increase is shown in the export
tirade in beef and hog products, while in dairy
products the export trade in butter was especially
gratifying, the figures for 1889 being 15,504,978, and
in 1890 29,748,042. The increase in the value of
meat and dairy products exported between 1889
and 1890 v,as over $34,000,0tX). At a time when our
domestic markets are overcrowded with animals
and their products this increase in the export trade
is very encouraging. Tlie prices realized abroad
have, as a rule, been good, and but for the unjust,
restrictions placed upon both animal and meat
products abroad the increase in the amount ex-
ported would have been much greater."
Eraclicatiou nf Plr.uro-pneumonia. — The regula-
tions for the eradication of contagious pleuro-pneu-
monia have been vigorously enforced during the
entire year, and rapiei progress has been made. In
Kew York no cases have occurred during the year
ending June 30, 1890, except on Long Island. There
have been no cases in Maryland since October,
1889. Pennsylvania has remained free from the
disease during the entire year. In both Maryland
and Pennsylvania constant inspection has been
maintained and the complete eradication of the
contagion thereby assured. During the two
months of May and June, 1890, but 13 affected
animals were purchased in the whole infected
district as compared with an average of 71)^2
per month during the preceding ten months.
At this writing.it would seem that the disease
is practically banished from American soil.
A"ttans-Atlantic inspection," under the super-
vision of British and American authorities, is
Fig. 13.— HoKSE-powER Motor for F.iem Use,
now in progress in Great Britain, and the gratify-
ing announcement is now made that not a single
case of pleuro-pneumonia has been reported in
that country since March, 1890.
XII. Te.xtile Fiber Industries.
The department at Washington during the last
two years has been investigating the practicality
of enlarging these industries in the United States
with encouraging results. During 1890 nearly 400
specimens of fibers and liber plants have been re-
ceived from farmers and others who are anx-
iously and hopefully seeking for best results in
their culture here. Among the examples of Ameri-
can fiax received by the department are sev-
eral fine samples grown in Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Iowa and on the Pacific coast, one of which, from
the first named State, is declared by a leading
manufacturer to be "good enough for even fine
linens." A fine sample was also received from
Texas. A beautiful example of linen thread, grass-
bleachod in New Jersey, demonstrates that this
branch of the linen industry can be carried on in
the United States as successfully as in Europe ;
while the entire linen series proves conclusively
that even fine flax, in any quantity, can be pro-
duced in this country with skill and careful cult-
ure. The new tariff law raises the duty on dressed
linen from two cents to three cents per pound,
and gives to the manufacturer of crash and the
coarser linens an immediate additional protection
of 15 per cent, ad valorem. This would seem to in-
sure an American flax industry. The early estab-
lishment of large linen factories in this country
will assure a market for American-grown flax, and
the duty of three cents per pound on the dressed
linen, it is thought, will enable the American
grower to produce flax fiber with profit to himsell".
Hemp culture has been largely extended in
States north of the Ohio river, and a perceptible
increase in the employment of native hemp in
binding twine (in preference to tlie higher-priced
imported sisal and manilla hemps) has been noted.
Considerable areas of sisnl hemp are growing in
Florida, an'! i :s thought that with a little en-
couraiTf'ii.ent at the outset sisal hemp might readily
be I'luduced within our borders. Xew Zealand flax
is growing in California, from which strong fiber
64
ACUICULTURE — AliUESSEAU
liaH bi'i'ii cxiHTiiiit'iitiillj' produced. 8reds of thin
{)laiil :uid of lilt' niuiiiUii-lieiiip plant, liave reueutly
K'cn import t'd and distrilniteu for experiment in
soiilliern localities.
Several indigenous irlants producing bast fiber,
growing througlioiil llie South, are under investi-
gation and will be reported upon when the investi-
gations are completed.
Xlll. GoVEIlNMENT E.\l)oW.Mi;.\T 01-' AuBICULTURAL
Colleges.
The Fifty-first Congress, whose term expired
March 4, 1891, also passed a bill to increase the
enilowment of agricultural colleges. Under its
provisions there is appropriated to each State and
Territory, severally, of the L'nited States, annually,
the sum' of if 15,UU0 with an anmuil increase of this
sum by $I,IMH) for ten years unlil the annual appro-
priation shall reach a yearly total of .tl'5,(,n)0 to each
Stale and Territory. This sum is eipiivalent to an
agricultural endowment for each State or Terri-
tory of from $500,000 to .'f.S00,00O, according to the
rate of interest allowed in each case. The act is
expressive of tlie present purjjose of both the legis-
lative and executive departments of the Govern-
ment to encourage, in a most effective way and to
a liberal extent, the best possible educational train-
ing for our agricultural industries. The following
is the full text of the new law :
IN AID OF AUKICILTURAL EDUCATION.
A ISILL (.S. ;J7M) to apply a portion of the proceetis of the pub-
lic lands to the more coiin>lete eiulowineiit and support
of the colleees for the beueljt of agriculture aud meciianic
arts established uuder the provisions of an act of Congress
approved July 2, 18(i2.
Br it riKifttd hi/ the Senntc and JinuKf of Fipres^entaiivrii of the
Vnittd States n/ America in Co7if/re:<s At^.^' iiibt(_d. That there
shall be, and hereby is, uunnally appropriated, out of any
money in the treasury not otherwise appropriated, arising
from the sale of ])ubllc lands, to be j-aid as herciuafter pro-
vided, to each State and Territory for the more complete en-
tlou'meut and nuiintcnauce of colleges for the benefit of aj^ri-
culture aud the mechanic arts now established, or which
may be hereafter established iu accordance \vlth act of Con-
gress approved July 2, ISti-J, the sum of .'fl5,0(K) for the year
ending June ;!u, l.v.id.'aiul an annual iucrease of the amount of
such api'Topriatiun thereafter for ten years by an additional
sum of $1,0U0 over the preceding year, aud the aunual amount
to be paid thereafter to each State and Territory shall be
$25,000, to be applieil only to instruction in agriculture, the
mechanic arts, the English language, and the various
branches of mathematical, physical, natural, and economic
science, with special reference to their applicatious in
the industries of life, aud to the facilities for such instruc-
tion.
Provided, That no money shall be paid out under this act to
any State or Territory for the support aui-1 maintenance of a
college where a distinction of race or color is made in the
admission of students, but the establishment and mainte-
nance of sucli colleges separately for while and colored stu-
dents shall be held to be a compliance with the provisions of
this act if the funds received in such State or Territory be
equitably divided as hereinafter set forth.
Provided, That in any State in which there has been one
college established in pursuance of the act of July 2, 1862,
and also in which an educational institution of like char-
acter has been establishi-.l, or may be hereafter established,
and is uow' aided by such .-^late from its own revenue, for the
education of colofeil students in agriculture and the me-
chanic arts, however named or styled, or whether or not it
has received money heretofore under the act to which this
act is an amendment, tlie legislature of such State may pro-
pose and report to the Secretary of the Interior a just aud
equitable division of the fund to be received under this act
between one college for white students and one institution
for colored students established as aforesaid, which shall be
divided into two parts antl paid accordingly, aud thereupon
such institution for colored students shall be entitled to the
benefits of this act and subject to its provisions as much as
it would have been if it had been included under the act of
1862, aud the fulfillment of the foregoing provisions shall be
taken as a compliance with the provision In reference to
separate colleges for white and colored students.
Section 2. That the sums hereby appropriated to the
States and Territories for the further endowment and sup-
port of colleges shall be annually paid on or before the olst
day of July of each year, by theSeeretary of the Treasury,
upon the warrant of the Secretary of the Interior, out of tbe
treasury of the United states, to the State or territorial
treasurer, or to such ollieer as shall be designated by the
laws of such State or Territory to receive the same, who
shall, upon the order of Ihe trustees of the colleire or the Is-
Hiiluiiun for colored students, Inimedlatelv iiay over said
sums t'j the treasurers of the respective eolfeges or other in-
stitulluns entitled to receive the same, and such treasurers
shall be re'iuired to reuort to the Secreliirv of AgricnIture
and to the Seeielury of the Interior, on or be/ore the tlrrtday
of September of each year, a detailed statement of the
amount so received and oi Its disbursement. The grunts of
moneys authorized by this act are made subject to liJe legis-
lative assent of the several States und Territories to the pur-
pose of said grants; Pruviihd, That payments of such luslal-
meiits of the appropriation herein made as shall become duo
to any Stale before the adjournnu-nt of the regular session of
the feglsluture meeting ne.\l after the passage of tliln act
shall be made upon the assent of the governor thereby duly
certified to the Secretary of the Treasury.
Sec. ;i. That If any portion of the monevs received by the
designated ollieer of the Stale or Territory for the further and
more complete endowment, support and nminlena \ce of col-
leijes, or of Institutions for colored students, as piuvldcd In
this act, shall, by any action or eonlingeney, be dimlulshed
or lost, or be niisappfied. It shall be replaced by the State or
Territory to which it belongs, and unlll so replaced no .''iil>-
seiinent aiiproprlalion shall be apiiortloned or paid to sulIi
State or Territory ; aud no portion of said moneys shall be aii-
plietl directly or Indirectly, under any pretense w hutever, to
the purchase, erection, preservation, or repair of any build-
ing or buildings. An annual rei>orl by the president of each
of said colleges shall be made to the Secretary of ,\grlenlt-
ure, as well as to the Secretary of the Interior, regarding the
condition and progress of each college. Including statislicul
information in relation to Its receipts and exijendllnres, its
library, the number of its students and professors, and also
as to a'ny improvenienls and experiments made under the dl-
reelion of any experiment stations attached to said colleges,
with their cost and results, and such other Industrial and
economical statistics as may be regarde<l as useful, one copy
of which shall be transmitted by mail free to all other col*
leges further endowed under this act.
Sec. 4. That on or before the 1st day of July in each year
after the passage of this act, the Secretary of the Interior
shall ascertain and certify to the Secretary of the Treasury
as to each State and Territory w hether It Is entitled to re-
ceive its share of the annual appropriation for colleges, or of
institutions for colored students, under this act, and the
amount which thereupon each Is entitled, respectively, to
receive. If the Secretary of the Interior shall withhold a
certilicate from any Slate or Territory of its appropriation
the facts and reasons therefor shall be reported to the Presi-
dent, and the amount involved shall be kept separate in the
treasury until the close of the next Congress, In order that
the State or TeiTitory may, if it should so desire, appeal to
Congress from the determination of the Secretary oi the In-
terior. If the next Congress shall not direct such sura to be
paid it shall be covered into the treasury. And the Secre-
tary of the Interior la hereby charged with the proper admin-
istration of this law.
Sec. 5. That the Secretary of the Interior shall annually
report to Congress the disbursements whicli ha\e been made
in all tlie States aud Territories and also whether the appro-
priation of any State or Territory has been withheld, aud, 11
so, the reasons therefor.
See. 0. Congress may at any time amend, suspend, or ap-
peal any or all of the provisions of this act.
AGRIMONY, a popular name for plants of the
genus Agrimonia, of the natural order Rosarex.
The common Agrimony (.If/r/mo/ija eiijiaturia) is a
native of Europe, and is also found in the United
States; it attains a height of two feet or more, and
has interruptedly iiinnale leaves, with the leaflets
serrate and downy beneath. The flowers are small
and yellow. Tlie plant has a pleasant aud slightly
aromatic smell, and is bitter and styptic. A decoc-
tion of it is used as a gargle, tlie dried leaves for
making herb tea, and the root as vermifuge.
AGUE, a common name for an intermitting fever,
accompanied by paroxysms of fits. The exciting
causes of this disease are invisible ellluvia from
the surface of the earth. A certain degree of tem-
perature seems necessary. The treatment of
aguish fever consists generally in calomel given in
purgative doses, followed by a preparation of cin-
chona-bark, and in ajiplying during the paroxysm
external warmth to Ihe body.
AGUESSEAU, d' IIexki ' Fu-iSfoiSE, a distin-
guished lawyer and chancellor of France (1668-
1751). He was a steady defender of the rights of
the people, and of the Gallican church. He suc-
cessrally opposed ihe decrees of Louis XIV and of
the chancellor Voisin in favor of the papal bull
L'nigenitus.
A G U I L A S — A I G U E S - M 0 R T E S
65
AGUILAS, a fortified port in the Spanisli prov-
ince of ^lurcia. It has considerable export trade in
argentiferous lead, iron ore, sulphur, esparto and
figs. Population, 8,947.
AGUSTIXA, " Maid of Saragossa," attained fame
and also a lieutenancy in the Spanisli army by her
services in aid of Saragossa, when that city was be-
sieged by the French, 1S08-9. She died in 1857.
AGVNIANS, a sect of Gnostics of the 7th century,
who condemned marriage. They used only certain
kinds of meat.
AHAB, king of Israel from 918 to 896 b. c. He
married Jezebel, the daughter of the king of Sidon,
and through her influence the Phoenician worship
of Baal was introduced among the Israelites. Ahab
prosecuted three wars against Ben-hadad, king of
Syria, in the last of which he was killed. An ex-
tended biography of this ruler is given in the Old
Testament Scriptures.
AHLQUIST, AvGUST Exgelbert, Finnish philol-
ogist, born Aug. 7, 1826. He studied philosophy
and ]jhiIology at Helsingfors, and in 1847 founded
a Finnish newspaper, the " Suometar." The years
1853-58 were spent in travel through northern Rus-
sia and Siberia, and on his return he became pro-
fessor of Finnish in the University of Helsingfors.
He has published grammatical and lexicographi-
cal works, a volume of poems, an account of his
travels, and several translations from the German.
AHLWARDT, Theodore Wilhelif, a distin-
guished German orientalist, was born July 4, 1S28.
In 1861 he was appointed to the chair of oriental
languages in the University of Greifswalde. He
has published several important historical works.
AHMED IV (1725-1789), Sultan of Turkey, un-
der whose rule the Crimea and other territories
were lost.
AHMEDXUGGUR, an important town in the
presidency of Bombay. It was founded in 1494 by
Ahmed Niiiam Shah. The town has increased rap-
idly since it came under British protection and
rule. In addition to its wall, it possesses a most
singular defense consisting of an immense priokly-
pear hedge about twenty feet high, which is so full
■of sap that no fire will "kindle it, and so vigorous
that it is almost impossible to force one's way
through it. There are several places of the same
name in Hindustan. Population, .3.3,481.
AHMEDNUGGUR, or Edur, a Rajpoot state of
Guzerat, in the Mahi Kanta agency, politically
connected with the presidency of Bombay. Popu-
lation, 217,000.
AHMEDPUR, a town of India in the native state
of Bhawulpoor. Population, 30,000.
AHMOOD, or Amod, a town of India, in the Brit-
ish presidency of Bombay, contains a population
of about 14,000.
AHN, .Iohann Franz, educationist, was born at
Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1796, and died Aug. 21, 18tj5.
His French grammar for Germans has gone
through more than 200 editions. It was succeeded
by similar works on English, Italian and Dutch.
Ahn's method is that of making the example pre-
cede the rule.
AHNFELD, Arvid, Swedish writer, born in Lund,
.\;ig. 16, 1845. He was associate editor of tlie"Af-
!..;. Mad" from 1870 to 1881, and since tlie latter
(ia;f has been editor-in-chief of " Ur Dagens Kron-
ika." He has published ]'i'rlih-litri-alurcnK Hintorhi
(1874-76) ; and a number of monographs on distin-
guished Swedish writers. Since then he has been
engaged on a great work, Ur i^veiiKktc hnftrta och
II /■istokrnt.i >•»..■< lif (the life of the Swedish court and
aristocracy).
AHRE.NS, HKiNRiri[,was l)orn at Kniestedt, Han-
over, July 14, 1808. He was educated at Gottingen.
1— ■)
Ai.— (Three-toed Sloth.)
and subsequently went to France, and studied the
language and literature of that country. He wrote
for French periodicals, and from 1839 to 1848 was pro-
fessor of philosophy at Brussels. In 1850 he be-
came professor of legal and political science at
Gratz, and in 1859 of practical philosophy and polit-
ical science at Leipsic. He published, in French,
Cours de Psychologie (1837-8); and Cours dii Droit
Naturel (18.38). He published a revision of the last
in German as Die liechlsphllonophie oder (Ins Natur-
recht auf phHosrijihiiich-arilItri.ij>iiIugi)ichfr Cnindlagf
(1870-71), and it has been translated into Italian
Spanish, Portuguese and Hungarian. To this wor
he added, in 1850, a second part, containing Die 0/
ganische Staatxhhri'. In 1855 he published Die Ju;
istische EncyUopadie and
in 1873 Die Abwege in der
neuen Deutschen Geistes-
entvyii'helung, etc. Prof.
Ahrens died in Salzgitter,
Aug. 4, 1874.
AI (ah-e), an edentate
mammal, which takes its
name from the loud cry it
utters. It is sometimes
called the three-toed
sloth. It is as large as a
cat, and entirely adapted
for living in trees. It is found in the tropical parts
of South America.
AIDE, H.\MILTo^•, English poet and novelist, born
in Paris in 1830. After serving seven years in the
British army he established liimself in the New
Forest and devoted himself to literature.
AIDONE, a town of Sicily, in the province of
Caltanisetta. One of the settlements of the Lom-
bards who accompanied Roger the Xorman in his
conquest of Sicily. Population, 5,940.
AIDS. Originally, these were merely benevo-
lences granted by a tenant to his lord in times of
distress, but gradually they came to be regarded as
matters of right and not of discretion. There were
three principal objects for which aids were de-
manded ; namely, to ransom the person of the lord
if taken prisoner, to make his eldest son a knight,
and to provide a dowry for his eldest daughter.
AIGNAN, Etienxe, a French publicist and litte-
ratenr, was born at Beaugency-sur-Loire in 1773.
He became a member of the Academy in 1814. He
executed an excellent translation of tlie Iliad into
his native tongue, and wrote an important work on
The Condition of the Protestants in France. He died
in 1824.
AIGRETTE, in botany, a term used to denote the
plume or down which is attached to many vegeta-
ble seeds, as. for instance, the dandelion and the
thistle. In English zoology the name is applied to
a white heron, an elegant bird with a white body
and feathery crest. It is also used in reference to
the feathery tuft on the heads of several birds.
More recently the usage has been still further ex-
tended ; any head-dress bearing an analogy to a
plume, even a bouquet of flowers fastened with
precious stones, being denominated an aigrette.
AIGUEBELLE, de Paul A. N.,a Frenchman who
entered the Chinese navy and became mandarin and
grand-admiral of the Chinese fleets. He was born
in 1831.
AIGUEBELLE, a town of France, on the river
Arc, is the scene of the defeat of Duke Charles Em-
manuel III, of Savoy, by the French and Spanish
armies in 1742, and the site of Napoleon's com-
mencement of operations in building the road over
Mont (Jenis.
AIGUES-MORTES, a town in France, in the de-
partment of Gard, which the Roman Marins is sup-
GG
A I ( ; U I I. L E — A r R - P L A NTS
posed to have founded. It is three miles from tlie
MediterraiKian Sea, witli which it is connected by
a canal. SI. Liouis sailed from Aigues-Mortes in
124K, and attain in 127U, for the Crusades.
AKtUILI.E (/•'/-. a nei-ule), an instrument used
liy enginof-rs to pierce a rock for the reception of
gun-powiler.
AIUl"II>I.OX, Arm.\ni. V. D. R., Duke of (1720-
1782), statesman and prime minister of France
under I^ouis XV.
AIKEX, county seat of Aiken county, a noted
health resort of South Carolina, 17 miles east of
Augusta, is salubriously situated, at an elevation of
(iOO feel, upon a dry, sandy plateau, in an exhilarat-
ing climate of mild and e(jual)le temperature.
AIKEX, CiiAni,i:s AidisTis, a noted American
educator, was born in Manchester, Vt., Oct. 30, 1827.
He became professor nf Latin language and litera-
ture at Dartmouth in ls.j",(,and at I'rinceton in 1866;
president of Union College in 1869; afterwards pro-
fessor of Christian ethics and apologetics in the
Princeton Theological Seminary. He has been a
voluminous contriuutor to various important theo-
logical works.
AIKEX, AVii.Li.\M (180(M887), governor of South
Carolina, 1844-1846, distinguished by wisdom in
politics, immense wealth and great benevolence.
AILANTUUS, or Aji,.\ntus, a lofty and beautiful
tree of the natural order Simiuuhacex, a native
of southeastern Asia, and introduced in the middle
of the eighteenth century into France, Italy, Ger-
many, Britain and the United States. It grows
well on chalky soils and is easily propagated by
suckers and cuttings of the roots. The wood is
suited for cabinet-making, and the leaves afford
nutriment to a species of silkworm (Bombyx
cynthia).
AILAXTHUS SILKAVORM, raised extensively
in (yhfna; hardy and not subject to so many dis-
eases as the European variety.
AILLY, Pierre i>', or Petrus de Aixhco, " the
Eagle of the Doctors" ( Aqnila Ductorum), of France,
and the "Hammer of Heretics" (Malhu« ITxret-
icurujn), theologian and nominalist philosopher,
born at Ailli-le-haut-Clncher in 1350. He was edu-
cated at the University of Paris, and in 13S9 be-
came chancellor of that institution and almoner
and confessor of Charles YI. In 1411 he was made
cardinal, and was sent as papal legate to Germany.
He was among the leaders in the council of Con-
stance in 1414, where
he headed the reform
party, but agreed to
the sentence on Huss
and Jerome of
Prague. He died at
A\ignon, Aug. 9, 1420.
AILUKUS FUL-
GEXS, a carnivorous
mammal of India,
PASDA.— ( Ailurus Fulgens.) called by the natives
Panda, and, from its peculiarcry, Wnh. It is some-
what larger than the domestic cat, and is remark-
able for its beautiful and rich fur.
AIMARD, GrsTAVE, novelist, bom in Paris
Sept. 13, 1818. He came to America in his boy-
hood, spending ten years of adventure in Arkan-
sas and Mexico, which furnished themes for
most of his novels ; he also traveled in Spain, Tur-
key and the Caucasus ; served as officer in the
French army, and after several years' confinement
in an asylum, died June 20, 1883. Twenty-six of his
novels have been translated into English.
AIMF-MARTIX, Loi-is (1781-1847), a noted
French educational writer and biographer, and
editoj of "Beruardin de St. Pierre."
A IX, a river in France, flows through the depart-
ments of Jura and Ain ; after a course of 100 miles
it falls into the Rhone 18 miles above Lyons.
Al.NSLlE, Hew, .Scottish-American poet, born in
Bargeny Mains, Ayrshire. April 5. 1792. Both be-
fore and after his emigration to the United Slates
in 1822, he was connected with numerous business
pursuits, retiring about 1840. His best known
book is A I'ihjrimage lo the Lniul nf Bums (1H20), and
his most popular poems are l^he Ingle Side, and
On ni' Ihi' Tartan. He died in Louisville, Ky.,
March 11^1878.
AIXS\\ ORTH, Lab.^n, American clergyman, born
in Woodstock, Conn., July 19, 17.J7; graduated at
Dartnioulli College in 1778, and in 1782 was made
pastor of the church at Jaffrey, X. II.. remaining
until his death in 18.js — seventy-six years. This is
the longest pastorate on record.
AIXSWORTH, Wii.Li.xM Francis, English trav-
eler, physician, and geologist, born at Exeter, 1807.
He was one of the founders of the West London
hospital.
AIXSWORTH, William Harrison- (1805-1882), a
well-kno^m writer of fiction. He edited " Bentley's
Miscellany " for a time, and in 1842 began Aint-
ivorth'n )fafia:ine.
AIR-BEDS, or Aib-Cishioxs, were known in
Europe as early as the beginning of the eighteenth
centui'v, but, being made of leather, they were very
expensive. It was only after the invention oi air-
tight or Mackintosh cloth that it became possible to
use air in this w^y at a moderate cost. It consi*s
of a sack in the form of a mattress, divided into a
number of compartments, each air-tight. A pro-
jection at one end forms a bolster. Each compart-
ment has a valve, through which the air is blown in
by bellows. The advantages of such beds in point
of cleanness, coolness, lightness and elasticity are
obvious. They are especially valuable in sick-
rooms.
AIR-BLADDER, in fishes, an organ apparently
intended to aid them in ascending in deep water,
and for the accommodation of their specific gravity
to various depths. The air-bladder of fishes affords
the finest kind of isinglass.
AIR-CELLS, or Air-Si'aces, in plants, are cavi-
ties in the stems or leaves. They confMst chiefly of
intercellular spaces or of cavities formed by rup-
ture. In terrestrial plants they communicate with
the exterior by means of the flumata: an inter-
change being thus established between the living
cells and the outer air which aids the passage of
gases necessary for the life of the plant. The buoy-
ancy of aquatic plants is largely due to the air-
cells, which in them are especially large and nu-
merous.
AIRE, or Aire-sur-le-Lys, town of the depart-
ment of Pas-de-Calais, France. Population, 8,;W0.
AIR-LOCK. In the construction of bridge-piers
under water, hollow iron cylinders are used ia
which it is now the custom to use condensed air,
the pressure usually not exceeding two atmospheres
beyond ordinary atmospheric pressure. This iron
shell is open at the bottom, but, being air-tight and
water-tight at all other points, water is prevented
from rising in it. It is necessary to have, in some
part of this caisson, a chamber to allow of the en-
trance and exit of men and materials. This small
chamber is called an ah-lork. When the outer
door is closed after entrance the air of the cham-
ber is compressed before opening the inner one.
AIROLO, an Italian-Swiss village, in the upper
valley of the Ticino, and near the southern mouth
of the great St. Gothard Tunnel. Population, 4.000.
AIR-PLAXTS is the common name apsJied l-j
Epiphytes, or plants unconnected with the ground*
^
A I R - S A C S — A L A B A M A
67
aud apparently deriving their substance from the
atmosphere. The name is usually restricted to the
epiphytic orchids, but the lichens and mosses grow-
ing upon trees, walls, fences, rocks, etc., are air-
plants.
AIR-SACS are remarkable cavities connected
with the respiratory system in birds. They
are distributed along the inside of the whole
cavity of the chest and abdomen. In birds of rapid
flight and strong wing they often send prolonga-
tions into the bones. The sacs in the lungs of the
mammalia, into which the air is conveyed by mi-
nute ramifications of the windpipe in order to be
brought into contact with the blood distributed on
their walls, are very small, only about tsit part of
an inch in diameter in man. In insects they form
a spiral fiber within a membranous coat.
AIRY, George Biddell, F. R. S., K. C. B., etc..
Astronomer Royal (LH3.5-1 881), born at Alnwick in
1801. He has obtained the reputation of being one
of the most able and indefatigable of living savants,
and in 1891 is devoting his researches to a new
method of treating the lunar theory.
AISNE, a tributary of the Oise, France,, rises in
the department of Meuse. Its course extends 160
miles, of which 70 miles are navigable.
AIVAZOVSKI, G.\BRiEL, Armenian author, born
at Theodosia, in the Crimea, May 22, 1812. In 1843
he became professor of languages, philosophy and
theology in the College of St. Lazarus, and in 1848
accepted the position of prefect of studies in the
Armenian College of Samuel Moorat, near Paris.
He is a member of numerous societies, and has
published several historical works in Armenian. He
founded the new Armenian College of Grenelle,
near Paris.
AIRWALYK, a seaport in the northwest of Asia
Minor, situated on the Gulf of Edremid. It has
considerable trade in olives and oil. Population,
chiefly Greeks, 35,000.
AIZANI, a ruined town of Asia INlinor, is noted
for its immense theatre, which is still in an excel-
lent state of preservation.
AJAIGARPI, a hill-fort of India, in the North-
west Provinces. It was captured by the British in
1809. Within the walls are the ruins of two Jain
temples, elaborately sculptured.
AJALON, the modern Yalo, a town of the Levites
in ancient Palestine. It was there that the battle
between Joshua and the five Canaanitish kings took
place, in which it is narrated that Joshua bade
the sun and moon stand still.
AJODHYA, an ancient city of Oudh, situated on
the right bank of the Gogra. Its site is said to
have covered 96 square miles, now marked by heaps
of ruins overgrown by jungle. The modern town,
Ajodhya, has 7,500 inhabitants, nearly 100 temples,
and the fair of Ramnamie, which attracts half a
million pilgrims yearly.
AKBARPUR, a town of India, in the British dis-
trict of Cawnpore, and cap-
ital of a pergunnah of the
same name.
AKEE, fruit tree belong-
I mg to the natural order
iSajiiiidanw, used as a rem-
edy in diarrhifa, and tlie
AKEK FRUIT. distilled water of the flow-
ers as a cosmetic by the negro women.
AKERS, Bkv.hmin Paui, (a-kers), American
sculptor, born in Saccarappa, Westbrook, Me., July
10, 1S2.'). Me look lessons in I'.oston in modeling,
his first work being a head of Clirist. whicli was
afterwards put in marble. He located in Portland
and made imrtrait busts of Ilonry W. Nongfellow
and of many others of equal or less note; also a
head of Charlotte Corday and a bas-relief entitled
Evening, both of which were masterpieces. He
studied a year in Florence, where he made several
busts and a Morning, as a comjianion to Evfninfi.
While there he also put in marble several of his
previous works. In the winter of 1S53-.54 he mod-
eled the Benjamin in Egypt, and while in Washing-
ton the busts of many noted men of the time. In
1855 he traveled through Europe, making in two
years Peace, Una and the Lion, Girl Pn'ssing Grapes,
Isaiah, Milton, Dead Pearl-Diver, Paul and Francesea,
Diana and Endi/mion, Saint Elizabeth of Hungary,
Reindeer, and Schiller's Diver. His constant labors
on damp clay in a sunless studio impaired his
health, and he died in Philadelphia, Pa., Mav 21,
1861.
AKHLAT, town of Asiatic Turkey. The old city
of Akhlat was the residence of many kings of Arme-
nia, and the scene of many conflicts between the
Greeks, Armenians and Persians. It was taken and
devastated, in 1228, by Jela!-ud-deen, and completely
destroyed by an earthquake in 1242. Population
about 6,000.
AKJERMANN, town of Russia in Bessarabia, on
the Black Sea. The treaty concluded at Akjer-
mann, in 1826, between Russia and Turkey, secured
to Russia the free navigation of the Black Sea. Pop-
lation, 29,609.
AKKA, a wandering tribe of dwarfs in Central
Africa. Their average height does not exceed 4
feet 10 inches, and they are ape-like in appearance.
They are timid, shunning communication with
strangers. The Akka live entirely by hunting.
They were made known by Schweinfurth in 1874,
and visited by Junker in 1882.
AKMOLIXSK. Russian province and town in
Central Asia. Area, 244,280 .square miles : popula-
tion, 226,789.
AKRON, a beautiful city of Ohio, county seat of
Summit county, .situated on the highest point of
land between the Ohio River and Lak# Erie, known
as Portage Summit, to which the canal rises sud-
denly by a series of locks. The manufactures of
this city are various and extensive, aggregating
about $15,000,000 a year. Among its interesting
features are the water-works, public library, high
school, and a beautiful cemetery. Akron is the seat
of Buchtel College, and the headquarters of an im-
portant and active trade in agricultural imple-
ments. Population, in 1890, 27,702.
AKSAKOF, Ivan Sergejevich, member of a Rus-
sian family of littSrateitrs, born Oct. 7, 1823. and
died Feb. 8, 1886. He wrote lyrics, but is best
known as the representative of Paiislavism.
AK-SHEHR (White City), a city of Asia Minor,
in the province of Konia. Population, 6,000.
AKSEE, Aksoo or Aksou, a river of Asiatic Tur-
key. There is also a small town of that name
situated about 18 miles east of Brusa.
ALABAMA, a navigable river of the State of Ala-
bama, formed by the confluence of the Coosa and
Tallapoosa rivers in Elmore county, and running
thence westerly and southwesterly with a very tor-
tuous course iintil it unites with the Tombigbee
river in (Clarke county, forming the Mobile river.
The Alabama river is aliout 300 miles long, and ex-
cept in seasons of unusual drought it is navigable
for vessels of light draught its entire course.
ALABAMA, State of. Area, 52,250 square miles;
population (1890), 1,513,017. (Capital, Montgomery.
Alabama was so named from a' Creek or Muscogee
word, meaning "Here we rest." Pe Soto passed
through its territory in l.o40. Bienville built a fort
near l^Ioliile Bay in 1702. ^loltile was founded
in 1711. The territory north of the thirty-first
parallel of latitude was ceded to Great Britain by
\
6S
A I. A i; A .\i A — A L A J; A 6 T E U BOX
the French in 17i>:i, and transfi^rrod to the I'liiteil
States in ITS."!. Alabama was a j)art of the Jlissis-
8il)pi territorj' wliich was conlirincd to the United
States liy Spain in ]8H». It was admitted as a Slate
in the same year. It was tlie tlieater of the Creelc
war of 1813-14. After the restoration of peace a tide
of immigration set in. I hi' Indians were removed to
the west, the slavehohliiii; inli'rests of the State
were jealously and ahly Kuarded, and Alahama en-
joyed an era of marked material j>rosperity. In
IsiKi Alabama declared for secession, and in istil the
convention of Southern States met at Montgomery,
which was made I he capital of the Confederacy
whose provisional government was there organized
and of which .lelTerson Davis was elected president.
During the civil war .Maliama was the scene of
sanguinary conllicts in Moliilf baj', and at .Mobile,
Seliiia, Talladega, Tuscumbia. Montevallo, Scotts-
boro and Alliens. T'lidiT the reconstruction act,
State conventions nint in 1805 and 18(17; and in ]K(iS
a new constitution was submitted to the j)eoi)le and
adopted and the State was readmitted to represen-
tation in Congress.
Alabama lies almost entirely within the Gulf
slope. Its northern section, except the rich agri-
ciilUiral and grazing land of the Tennessee vallev,
is widely and ])icluresi|uely broken, and al)Oun(ls
in minerals, including gold, silver, lead, copper,
ochre, steatite, clays, slate, soap and tiag-stones,
manganese, grajihite, marble, granite and other
building stone. Iron and coal are found in great
abundance. The output of gold, since its discovery
in 183G, has been more than a ijuarter of a million
dollars. Some jiarts of this section alsi) aliound in
mineral springs. The middle si-ction is level, de-
clining toward the gulf, and includes the great
cotton belt and the principal corn-producing dis-
trict. South of this are tlie vast pine forests and a
light soil yielding grain and senii-t ropical and other
fniits. The agricultural products of the Slate in-
clude also large quantities <il' tobacco, cereals,
sugar-cane and ramie. The forests, streams and
bays produce large quantities of game and tinh.
Lumber, staves and railroad ties are exported
through Mobile, the only port of entry. The jirinci-
pal manufactures are of cotton, iron, lumber and
machinery. There are only sixty miles of coast-
line. Transportation is effected by rail and by the
navigation of the MoViile, Alabama, Coosa, Talla-
poosa, ('ahawl>a, Tondiigbee, Chattahoochee and
Tennessee rivers. Other rivers are the Choctaw-
hatchee, Conecuh, Tt^nsas and Perdido.
The educational system of the State is directed by
a State superintendent of education, assisted by
county and township sujierintendents. State nor-
mal schools are located at Marion, Florence, Hunts-
ville and Tuskegee. Tuscaloosa is the seat of the
University of Alabama ; Auburn, of the Agricultural
and Mechanical College, Mobile, of the State Medi-
cal College ; Greensboro, of the Southern Univer-
sity. There are also many excellent private and nor-
mal schools, and a number of professional and scien-
tific schools. The State has a blind asylum at Mobile,
an institute for the deaf, dumb and blind at Talla-
dega, and an insane asylum at Tuscaloosa. The
public and principal private libraries contain more
than half a million volumes. The press and the
various religious denominations and benevolent and
other societies are well represented.
GOVEUXORS OF Al,.\l:.\.M.\.
AViUiam W. Bibb. 1819-20 ; Thomas Bibb, 1820-21 ;
Israel Pickens, 1821-25; ,Tohn Murphy, 1825-29;
Gabriel Moore, 182;»-ni ; .lohn (iavle, 1831-35;
Clement C.Clay.lS3-V:!r; Arthur P. Bagby, 1837-41 ;
Benj. Fitzpatrick, 1841-45; Joshua L. ^lartin, 1845-
I 47; Reuben Chapman, 1H47— 19; Henry W.Collier,
, 1849-.-.3; .John A. Winston, 1853-57; Andrew B.
Moore, 1857-(il ; ,Iohn G. Shorter, 18Gl-(i3; Thos. 11.
Watts, ]8(i3-()5; Lewis K. Parsons, ]8t>5; Robert M.
Palton, 18i;5-<18; William 11. Smith, 1808-70; Robert
B. Lindsay, 1872; David P. Lewis, 1872-74; George
S. Houston, 1874-79; Riifus W. Cobb, ]87}^81 ; Kdw.
A. O'Neal, 1 .S82-84-8(; ; Thomas Seay, 1880-88-90.
The population of the State in 1820 was 127,901 ;
18:10, 309.527; 1840, 59(1,750; 18,50, 771,023 ; 1800, 964,-
201 ; 1870.990,992; 1880, 1,202,505; 1890, 1,513,017.
ALABAMA, Ai.ihamo, Ai.m.\MON, or Ai.iUAJior,
as variously written — a tribe of Indians repre-
sented by Pickett, the historian, as having been
driven from Mexico at the time of the conquest by
Cortez; and he traces them to thf banks of the
Missouri, the Ohio, the Yazoo and the .Mabama
rivers. They were subdued by the Creek confeder-
ation, and have since lived in Polk county, Texas,
under t he careof the government. They now number
a little more than two hundred and have adoi^ted
the language, dress and habits of the whites.
ALAUAMA Cl.Al.MS. The settlement of the
claims of the United States against Great Britain
(known as the A. C.) by a tribunal of arbitration
was one of the most importani international events
of modern times. These claims arose from the
de|)redations upon American commerce during the
civil war by ves.sels — of which the Alabama was the
chief — lifted out in British i)orls under the direc-
tion of the Confederate government, in direct oppo-
sition to the "Three Rules relating to Keutrals"
which were adopted by the parties to the Treaty of
Washington. The rules are as follows:
A neutral government is bound —
"1. To use due diligence to prevent the fitting
out, arming or equiiiping, within its jurisdiction,
of any vessel which it has reasonable ground to l)e-
lieve is intended to cruise or carry on war against
a power with which it is at peace; and also to use
like diligence to prevent the departure from its
jurisdiclion of any vessel having been specially
adapted, in whole or in l)art, within such jurisdic-
' /n, to warlike uses.
"2. Xol to iiermil or suffer either belligerent to
make use of its ports or waters as the base of naval
operations against the other, or for the jiurposeof
the renewal or augmentation of military supplies
or arms or recruitments of men.
"3. To exercise due diligence in its waters, and
as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to jirevent
any violation of the foregoing obligations and
duties."
The tribunal of arbitration was composed of five
members : Sir Alexander Cockburn, appointed by
the Queen ; Charles Francis Adams, appointed by
the President of the United States ; Count Frederic
Sclopis, appointed by the King of Italy; M.
.Tacques Staenipfli, appointed by the President of
the Swiss Confederation; and Viscount d'ltajuba.
appointed by the Emperorof Brazil. The court mel
at Geneva. Switzerland, Dec. 15, 1871, and not until
Sept. 14 of the following year was the tinal conclu-
sion announced. The decision was signed by all
the arbitrators except Sir Alex. Cockburn. of Eng-
land, and it awarded $15,500,000 as a compensation
to be paid to the United Stales for the satisfaction
of the damages suffered by the American com-
merce. The settlement of the "Alabama claims"
gave general satisfaction in the United States, and
is believed to have furnished a lasting vigor to in-
ternational peace.
ALABASTER BOX (olahaKfrum), a box, casket
or vase used by orientals for perfumes, unguents,
etc.. formerly made exclusively of alabaster, but in
later years made also of other materials.
A L A C 0 Q U E — A L A S K A
69
ALACOQrE, :MAP.(irERiTE Mary, a French nun
(1647-90), the founder of the devotion of the Sacred
Heart.
ALA DAGH ("beautiful mountain"), a range of
the great tableland of Erzerum, in Turkisli Arme-
nia, north of lake Van. The Murad, the eastern
head-stream of the Euphrates, rises on its northern
slope. Its greatest elevation is about li.OOO feet.
ALAGON, a river in Spain, about 120 miles in
length, emptying into the Tagus, above Alcantara,
after draining the plains of Placencia. It is noted
for the size and flavor of its fish.
ALAMAN LUCAS (ah-la-man), Mexican states-
man and historian, born in the State of Guanajuato,
Oct. 18, 1792. He was graduated at the College of
La Concepcion, and at the ^ilexican School of Mines,
and traveled through Europe. He was minister of
foreign affairs in 1825, and again in 1830. He gave
his support to Santa Anna, and became minister of
foreign affairs in 185o. He published Dissertations
on Mexican History, and also the standard history
of that country, Historia de iUjico. He died in
Mexico, .June 2, 1853.
ALAMANDA, a tropical American genus of
Apocynaceie, cultivated in hot houses. Alarnanda
cathartica, a native of the West Indies, has violently
emetic and purgative qualities.
ALAMEDA, a town in Alameda county, Califor-
nia, near the Leandro creek, on the Alameda
branch of the Central Pacific Railroad. It contains
seven churches, a high school and two newspapers.
ALAMO, a post-village in Tennessee, county-
seat ei Crockett county, about 75 miles northeast
of Memphis^
ALAMO, The, often spoken of as "the Thermop-
ylfe of America," is a fort at San Antonio, Tex.,
celebrated as the scene of a fierce combat, in which,
from February 11 to March 5, 1836, a few Texans
resisted an overwhelming force of Mexicans, until,
reduced to a hopeless remnant of six, these were
compelled to surrender, and were butchered by
their captors.
ALAiMOSA, a small town in Conejos county,
Colorado, 130 miles southwest of Pueblo.
ALANGIACE^E, a natural order of plants allied
to the Myrtacex. See Tupelo in these Revisions and
. Additions.
ALAPAYEVSK, a town of Russia in Asia, govern-
ment of Perm, on the Alapaika, about 50 miles
northwest of Irbit. It has large iron foundries.
Population, about 6,000.
ALARCON, Pedko Axtoxio de, Spanish author
and politician, was l)orn at Guadix in 1833, and
early devoted himself to journalism. In 1859 he
served as volunteer in the Morocco campaign; he
entered the Cortes as Liberal deputy for his native
town, and worked for the restoration of the con-
stitutional monarchy in the person of Alfonso XII,
who after Jiis accession made him a councilor.
ALARM, or Alarum, originally a call to arms, as
the loud and hurried peal of an alarm-bell. It is
now con^monly applied to an apparatus for awaken-
ing sleepers — usually attached to a clock. There are
many ingenious hiirghir alarms. An alarm- ii-histle
may be attached to a boiler, so as to give warning
when the water sinks below its proper level.
ALARODIAX, a name used by Sayce for the
group of languages of which Georgian is the type.
ALASKA
Supplemental History .and Statistics.
Alaska has an area of 580,107 square miles. It is
therefore about one-fifth the size of the United
States, or nearly equal to the combined areas of
the New England, Middle and Southern States
east of the Mississippi River. Of the interior of
this vast area we are practically ignorant. Three
or four reconnoissances have been made by officers
of the army through portions of the territory, and
the courses of several of its great navigable rivers
have thus been determined. These expeditions,
however, were inadequately prepared for the work
of exploration; the journeys were necessarily made
in very great haste, and were confined to the
rivers. No systematic exploration of the interior
has ever been attempted by the government, and
the topography, resources and capabilities of Alas-
ka are practically unknown.
The territory comprises six divisions or great
districts, as follows :
1. The Arctic division, containing 125,245 square
miles, and comprising all that portion of the North
American continent between 141st meridian in the
east and (Jape Prince of AVales, or Bering Strait,
ill the west, the Arctic Ocean in the north, and hav-
ing for its southern boundary a line indicating the
watershed betw(^en the Yukon River system and
the streams emptying into the Arctic and imping-
ing upon the coast of Bering Sea just north of
Port Clarence.
2. The Yukon division, containing 176,715 square
miles and coiii|irisiiig tlie valley of the Yukcin
River as far as it lies within our boundaries and its
tributaries from the north and south. This division
is bounded liy the Arctic division in tlie north, the
141st meridian in the east, and I'.cring Sea in the
west. The southern boundary lies along a line
indicating the watershed between the Yukon lad
the Kuskokvim, Sushetno, and Copper Rive* jnd
runs from the above mentioned meridian m the
east to the coast of Bering Sea, in the vicinity of
Hazen Bay in the west. The island of Saint Law-
rence, in Bering Sea, is included in this division.
3. The Kuskokvim division, containing 114,975
square miles, bounded on the north by the Yukon
division, and comprising the valleys of the Kus-
kokvim, the Yogiak and the Nushegak rivers, and
the intervening system of lakes. The eastern
boundary of this division is a line running along
the main Alaskan range of mountains from the di-
vide between the Kuskokvim and Yeiinanah Rivers
down to the low, narrov,- isthmus dividing Moller
Bay from Zakharof Bay, on the Alaska peninsula.
Bering Sea washes the whole west and south
coasts of this division, which also includes Nuuivak
Island.
4. The Aleutian division, containing 14,610
square miles, and comprising the Alaska peninsula
westward of the isthmus between ^loller and Zak-
harof bays and the wliole chain of islands from the
Shumagin group in tlie east to Attoo in the west,
including also the Priliyloff, or Fur Seal Islands.
5. The Kadiak division, containing 70,SS4 square
miles, and comprising the south coast of the Alaska
peninsula down to Zakharof Bay, with adjacent is-
lands, the Kadiak group of islands, the islands and
coasts of Cook's Inlet, the Kenai peninsula and
Prince William Sound, with the rivers running into
them. The main Alaskan range bounds (hisdivis
inn in the north and west, lis eastern limit is th?
141st meridian, which intersects the coast line in
the vicinity of Mount Saint Elias, while the south
shores (if the division are washed by that section o'
the North Pacific named the Gulf of Alaska.
70
A L A 8 K A
6. The aoutlieastern division, containing 28,980
square miles, and cofn|)rising the coast from Mount
Saint Elias in the north to Portland Channel, in
latitude 54 degrees 40 minutes, in the south, lo-
gethcr with llie islands of llie Alexander Archipel-
ago between Ooss Sound and Cape Fox. The
eastern boundary of this division is the rather in-
definite line established by the Anglo-Russian and
Russian-American treaties of IH24 and 1825 respect-
ively, following the summits of a chain of mount-
ains supi>osed to run parallel with the coast at a
distance not greater than three marine leagues
from the sea between the head of Portland Chan-
nel and Mount Saint Elias.
Population — Census of 18S0.
Divisions.
ti
5
?
o
■J
a
s
u
0
M
a
a!
"3
Arctic
Yukon
"is
3
82
»4
293
430
111
479
917
230
3.094
4.276
StXK
"2.211
1.890
2,145
2457
506
3,094
6,870
8,911
2.451
Kadinli
SoutheiistLTU ....
Sftl
326
6,763
■788
4,352
7.748
Total
l,7Sfi
17,til7
3,927
788
33,426
The ratio of population was one inhabitant to
each IT'., siiuare miles for the entire country ; the
ratio in each district being as follows:
Southeastern division 1 inhabitant to %sq. miles.
Aleutian " 1 " " 6 '"
Kuskokvim " 1 " "13
Kadiak '■ 1 " " 16^ "
Yukon •• 1 " " 2.5% "
Arctic •• 1 " " 40Vj
Origin of the Pkincip.m, Tribes.
The Eskimo (or Innuit) inhabit the coast line
■west of the 141st meridian, excepting the northern
part of C!ook's Inlet, that portion of the Alaskan
peninsula west of the 157th meridian, and the Shu-
magin and Aleutian groups of islands. Recent
investigators believe that their migration to Alaska
occurred at the time of general tribal migration
resulting in the sett lenient on (Greenland. This opin-
ion is strengthened by the fact that all the Eskimo
tribes, whether on the Alaskan coast, the eastern
coast, or in Cireenland, use the same kind of skin-
covered canoes, and are similar also in their modes
of living.
The Aleuts inhabit the northern coast of the
Alaskan peninsula, from Cape Stroganof west-
ward, and its southern coast from Pavlof Bay west-
ward, the Shumagin Islands, and the whole group
known as the Aleutian chain, extending from the
Shumagins in the east to the island of Attoo in the
west. As to their origin, there are various opinions.
Some believe they have a common origin with the
people of Kamtchatka; others, however, urge that
they could not have migrated from Asia, owing to
lack of facilities, and must have descended from
the earliest nations of America.
They are divided into two tribes. Oonalashkans
and Atkhas, speaking different dialects. They
wear ornaments in the nose and upper lip. Their
weapons consist of barbed darts, lances, spears,
harpoons and arrows. They also carry a sharp stone
knife, 10 or 12 inches long. Their household
utensils are made of stone, wood, and bone, mats
and baskets neatly woven of grass and tree-roots,
bone needles, thread and cord of sinews, etc. They
are very hospitable, and fond of dancing and panto-
j-^'iiics.
Al,El'TI.\S Tr.\ditions.
The Aleuts have a tradition that in olden times
the climate of their country was clearer and
warmer, and the winds niodi'rate ; that their fore-
fathers came from their original dwelling-phice in
the west — a great land called AtinxUkit. or Conti-
nent; that in that early country peace and pros-
perity prevailed; but that in the jjrogress of time
dissensions arose, resulting in war, separation, and
divergent emigration. They also say that in their
old country there was a very great Hood sent upon
the people, because of their disregard of sacred cus-
toms. An able and learned Russian priest (Venia-
minof) says:
"The Aleuts consider as their relatives the
Kenaitze. Chugarch, Yakulals, and Kolosh ; but
the Kolosh do not acknowledge this. In suVjstan-
tiation of their claim the Aleuts say that one prom-
inent individual, the father of a numerous family,
was from necessity compelled to leave his village
on Oonalashka ; in one summer he collected all his
family and relatives, and departed in large bid-
arkas to the northern side of the Aliashka, with
the intention to travel ((KjuvlaijlKni) and to search
for a better and richer country. He landed at first
at one of the Aglemute villages ; but the Aglennites
looked upon them as enemies, and in a general at
tack put them to flight. Finding it inconvenient
or impossible to settle near the sea-coast, the Aleuts
proceeded to the headwaters of gome large river,
and, having selected a convenient spot, settled down
for good. Their descendants made peace with the
natives of thecountry.andincreased; but with their
increase came a greater change in their former
customs, appearing principally in the greater in-
clination to war and hunt. After the lapse of con-
siderable time a quarrel ensued between the de-
scendants of the original Oonalashkans and the
Creoles or half-breeds, finally resulting in a war.
Their village was situated on both sides of the
stream, one-half o|>|)Osite the other. They had
adopted the habit, for the sake of accustoming
themselves to war, of making sham attacks, one
upon the other, shooting spears and arrows with-
out points; but, during one of these sham attacks,
some one placed a head upon his arrow, and hit an
enemy in the eye. The attack was at once changed
from sham to reality ; but. as the Creoles outnum-
bered the Oonalashkans. the latter were defeated
and compelled to move farther eastward, and
passed from river to river, finally emerging upon
the shores of the gulf of Kenai, where they finally
settled down. The present Kenaitze are their de-
scendants. The Creoles left behind rapidly in-
creased, and divisions of them moved to the north-
eastward, and finally became the founders of the
Cliugarchs. Yakutats, and Kolosh."
In their traditions the Aleuts maintain that in
former times the sea-shore along the whole group
of islands was more deeply indented. In some
localities this is even yet perceptible. The grand-
fathers of the present Aleuts in their youth heard
from their grandfathers that they found on ele-
vated spots, and often far distant from the sea,
signs of former dwellings, such as whale-ribs and
large logs of drift-wood. Between these places and
the shore-line they also found small pebbles tied
with whalebone fiber, such as are now used for
sinkers, fish-lines and nets. From these indications
the Aleuts came to the conclusion that at one time
these elevated positions, showing the remains of
dwelling-places, were on the sea-shore, and over the
places where the sinkers were found the sea once
extended. But all this was subsequent to the flood.
With regard to the volcanoes the Aleuts believe
that in olden times all the "fire mountains" on
ALASKA
n
Oonalashka and Ounimak islands quarreled among
them; -ives as to which had the largest body of fire
within, and after a prolonged dispute, in which not
one would yield to the others, they concluded to
settle the dispute by a trial of strength. Imme-
diately a terrible contflct ensued, lasting for many
days, the mountains throwing fire and rocks at each
other. The smaller peaks could not withstand the
larger ones, and, recognizing their weakness, bowed
down and went out forever. The conflict contin-
ued until but two craters remained, one on Oon-
alashka— ilakushin (Ayak), and the other on
Ounimak — Recheshnaia' (Ismak). These, having
vanquished all the others, engaged in a single-
handed conflict, with the most disastrous conse-
quences to their surroundings. Fire, rock and
ashes were thrown in such quantities that all ani-
mals inhabiting the neighborhood perished, and the
air liecame heavy. The Ounimak crater finally
could not keep up with its rival, and, seeing de-
struction impending, gathered all its strength,
jumped up with a bound and collapsed. The Ma-
kushiu volcano, being victor and but little in-
jured, and seeing no more enpmi'es arouud him,
gradually calmed down, and now only smokes oc-
casionally.
Principal Town.
Sitka is the capital of Alaska, i)ut Juneau, al-
thou2l> but ten years old, is to-day the largest
town! It is situated about 80 miles northeast of
the capital, opposite Douglas Island, at the foot of
a range of sheltering mountains, which rise ab-
ruptly two thousand feet- frour tlte end of every
street. These streets seem to follow the gulches or
ravine::-. At present .luneau is simply a mining
camp, founded in 1880 by .Toseph .Tuneau and Rich-
ard Harris, but it is destined to become the most
important commercial point upon the entire coast.
Tliis is owing to the proximity of the precious
metal, the "Silver Bow Basin" gold plac?r mines
lying immediately back of the town, while in front,
but three miles away, on Douglas Island, is the
famous Treadwell mine. It is believed several
other good "claims" exist in the immediate neigh-
borhood which have not yet been developed. The
town contains a number of shops, where a system
of barter is carried on between the Indian liunter
and the white trader. Upon arriving in town with
the skins the red man visits every shop and trader
before he parts with his goods, and finally disposes
of his skins to the highest bidder. He receives in
payment a number of blue or red tickets which are
talcen by the store-keeper in exchange for such
commodities as he may require to carry back to
his lunuit home.
X.vTiVE Al.^sk.^n Homes.
All native villages on the Alaskan coast are built
directly on the beach, not only because the Indians
look to tlie sea for a living, but to make homes in-
land means such labor of felling trees and clearing
the ground as only the white race undertakes. In
the genuine Alaskan lodge there is no window, but
one door, and no second story. In the center of the
floor on the ground is a fireplace, around whieli. at
a distance of several feet, runs a continuous plat-
form, which constitutes the sleeping apartments.
Occasionally llie room is divided by curtains. The
ground beniMtli tlie platform constitutes kitchen
and reception riii>iii. T!ip liead of tlie house sits
opposite tlie door, liis family and friends <in eitlier
side, while slaves, If there be any, sit with tlieir
backs to the door. In front of many of the houses
stand one or more large ))oles, carved from top
to bottom, generally representing bears, whales.
eagles, ravens or wolves. These are the genealogy
ical trees of the natives, of which they are very
proud, and tell the family history.
IXDl'STRIES.
The chief industry of Alaska is the seal-fur trade,
which is described elsewhere. In addition to this
there is considerable traffic in sea-otter, land-otter,
and other furs, and in fish, and a small production
of minerals and timber. The present annual yield
of sea-otter skins is 5,500, worth .f .500.000 ; beavers
10,000. worth .$25,000; silver foxes 200, worth
$20,000 ; marten 20,000, worth $tiO,000 ; red and cross
foxes 10,000, worth $1.5,000 ; and other miscellaneous
skins, valued at $25,000. Notwith.-tauding efforts
made by the United States government for the
preservation of the fur-bearing annnals in Alaska,
the supply (excepting the fur-seals which are ade-
quately protected) is continually decreasing, and
will ultimately become extinct.
On the other hand, the fisheries of Alaska are
annually increasing in importance, and are des-
tined to become the staple industry of the future.
The cateh of salmon is already assuming large pro-
portions, and the number of canneries is rapidly in-
creasing. The present annual production is about
23,000 cases per annum, besides 5,000 barrels of
salted salmon. The largest fishing port is at
Killisnoo, and at this port alone 300.()00 gallons of
herring oil are shipped annually. There are also
large shipments of dog-fish oil and whale oil.
In minerals, there is on Douglas Island a moun-
tain of gold ore, but of low grade. The cost of
securing the ore is, however, very small. There is
no descending into the bowels of the earth with
hydraulic machines. The miners chip away in
broad daylight, witli ore enough in sight to last
a score or more of years, and within a stone's
throw of the mountain is the mill, which re-
ceives and reduces the ore. The summit and
part of one side of the mountain have already been
eaten up. The present aunual production is nearly
$1,000,000.
The Great Se.\l Islands of the World.
The only important breeding grounds of the fur-
seals at i>resent are t'le Pribyloff (or Pribylov)
Islands, lying in the heart of Bering Sea, about
192 miles north of Oonalaslika. 200 miles south of
Matthews, and about 200 miles westward of Cape
Newenham, on the main land. Two of these is-
lands, St. George and St. Paul, by reason of their
temperature, surface, and facilities for landing, are
specially adapted for the perfect life and reproduc-
tion of these valuaVile fur-bearing animals. They
are located in the Japan Ocean current, and hence
the normal temperature is much warmer than that
of the surrounding seas. These islands are also
so enveloped by dense fogs as to furnish a compar-
atively secure hiding-place for the seals. St. Paul
is about lo miles long and six miles in its greatest
width. It has a superficial area of 21.120 acres,
with a shore line of 42 miles, over sixteen of
which are adapted for the passage of the seals. St.
George is al)out 10 miles long and over four miles
in width, and contains about 27 square miles.
During the short summer the fur seals seek
these islands in immense numbers to rest for
two or three months on land, on a hard smooth
surface, witli a cooling, moist atmosphere, which
tlu'v niust have during their breeding season.
They find here the admirably adapted grounds
of basaltic rock and of volcanic cement, slopes
of gradual ascent from the sea furnishing a
quiet resting place for millions of this intelligent
species.
72
ALA-TAX — AL i; A X 1 A
The Ameiiican Fue Thade.
For the past twentj' years the Alaska Commer-
cial Company, of San Francisco, under a lease
granted l)y Conijress, have had the exclusive riglit
of taking seal Irom Alaskan waters. Their lease
expired in 18'JO, and during that year a new lease
was made with tlie Iv'ortli American Commercial
Company for a like term of twenty years, after a
public competition wherein that company proved
to be the highest and best bidder. The pecuniary
conditions of the lease are llie payment of an an-
nual rental to the United States of ^00,000, a revenue
tax of $2, and a royalty of if7.<)2^o for each fur-seal
gkin taken and sliipped from tlie islands of St.
Paul and SI. George, and 50 cents for each gallon
of oil taken from seals killed and sold. The lease
provides that the number to be taken yearly shall
not exceed 100,000 ; no female seal is to be slain, and
the seals are only to be taken during the months
of June, July, August and September. The lease
also contains covenants for the care, maintenance
and improvement of the native inhabitants of the
leased islands, requiring the lessees to supply them
free of charge with dried salmon, fire-wood, sail,
and empty barrels for preserving the necessary
supply of meat.
DiSTEIBUTION OF THE PkINXII'AL FuH-BBABIKO
Animals.
The islands of St. Paul and St. George in Alaska
are the only known breeding grounds of the fur-
seal. From early spring until late autumn fur-
seals are found in all that part of the Xorth Pacific |
inclosed by the Alaska coast from latitude 54 dcg.
40 min. to Mount St. Elias and thence westward
along Prince William Soun to the east side of
Kenai peninsula, and along the Alaska peninsula,
and its continuation, the Aleutian chain of islands,
in Bering Sea the fur-seal has not been seen
nortli of latitude 58 deg. In Iho spr'ng only are
they found in large numbers in the vicinity of the
Straits of Fuca and along the coast of Vancouver and
Queen Charlotte Islands. During the general migra-
tion to and from the breeding grounds several of the
passes through the Aleutian chain are crowded
with adults in the spring and young seals in the
autumn. After leaving their breeding grounds
they scatter over the liroad Pacific to localities
where elevated submarine plateaus furnish them
with abundant feeding grounds (of fish), until the
instinct of reproduction calls them from all direc-
tions to the islands named above.
The sea-otter seems to make its home chiefly on
a line parallel with the Japanese current, from the
coast of Japan along tlie Kurile Island to the coast
of Kamtchatka, and thence westward along the
Aleutian chain, the southern side of the Alaskan
peninsula, the estuaries of Cook's Inlet and Prince
"William's Sound, and thence eastward along the
Alaskan coast, the Alexander Archipelago, British
Columbia and the States of Washington and Ore-
gon. Sea-otters are most abundant from the
island of Ounimak northeasterly along the Alas-
kan peninsula.
The land-otter is one of the most widely distrib-
uted of fur-bearing animals, ranking in this respect
next to the common fox. The skin, however, is
much more valuable, and is used in the manufac-
ture of an imitation seal-skin. In Alaska the land-
otter is found on the whole coast from the south-
ern boundary to the northern shore of Norton
Sound, also on most of the islands, and along the
whole coast of the Yukon as far as known.
The beaver, the brown bear, the mink, the cross,
blue, and white fox, the marten, and a few other
fur-bearing animals are also found in many part*
of Alaska, and some of them widely distributed and
in immense numbers.
The I' lilted States Census of
as follows;
1890 reported the
population
Districts.
' Total.
White.
Male.
Foniule.
Total
21.929
.^.'.fw
197
First district
Secoiifl difitrict
7v086
5.701
2,082
ISM
S32
1,980
2.486
1.4C2
i.o:«;
■137
•107
2
US
405
4IK
49
Third district
14
Filth district
8
Seventh district
Of the mi m her etitimerated thus far In .\I«ska.2,12.'»ChifH'se
and 1,901 white tlshermen were teinporjirily eiiiploved in the
salmon canneries, while in the 7th district 4IJ0 whfte iind hO
colored men were temporarily employed In the whalJiiK in-
dustry.
The populiition of Alaska Is as shown in the tahle. as fur 08
received, but upon the completion of the enumerntion It is
expected there will he an Increuse in number in the various
districts as follows: In the 4th district. 2.(J0(i Ksklmo; In
the .Ith district. 2..virt Eskimo; in the i.th district. 2.(ii«): oB
Island of .Munivul. :^iU: in the 7th district. l.tiUU, or an ag-
gregate of S.40li to be abided to present total.
"The value of fur-seal skins shipped from Alaska
is given as nearly :i;33,OU0.O(JO, and of other furs
as |16,OUO,t)00. Witli regard to the fislieries of
the territory, the value of the product of the sal-
mon canneries alone from 1884 to 1890 is reported
at nearly .^7,000,000, and of salmon salted at l.'iOO,-
000. In 1890, over 3,000,000 salmon were taken.
The herring fishery yields annually over 1.50.000
gallons of oil and nearly 1,000 tons of fertilizing
material, and the value of the codfish catch in
Alaskan waters since 1868, is stated to be fully
$3,000,000. The whale fislieries yielded L'2i;,402
pounds of whalebone, worth froir. %'i.hO to :f3.50 per
pound; 3,980 pounds of ivory and 14,567 barrels
of oil.
ALBAXI, a rich and cele.jra ed Roman family,
many members of which filled high positions ia
the church. It was Cardinal Ales.sandro Albani
(1092-1779) who formed the famous collectioB
of objects of art in the Villa Albani, outLside the
Porta Salaria at Rome. It is still a rich collection,
although part of it was removed by the French.
The pieces taken away were restored in 1815; but
their owner being unable to pay for their re-
moval to Home, sold them to the king of Bavaria.
ALBANI, Madame (h« Emma La Jeunesse), vo-
calist, was born at Cliambly, in Canada. She was
trained in music by her father, and at the age of
twelve made her d^but at Albany, from which she
assumed her professional name of "Albani." She
afterward studied at Paris and Milan, and in 1870
sang at Messina with a success that has since at-
tended her to London and Paris, the United States,
Berlin, etc. In 1878 she married Ernest Guy, eldest
son of the director <A the Royal Italian Opera,
London.
ALBAXY, or .Vi.nAixx, meaning a country of
heights, is the name anciently given by the Celts to
the whole of Britain, and later on to the north-
west part, when they were driven by foreign invad-
ers into those highlands. In a Scottish council
held at Scone, June, 1398, the brother of Robert III,
who was then regent of Scotland, was given the
title of Duke of Albany. The title has since occa-
sionally been conferred upon second son of kings
of Scot land and England.
ALBANIA, a country of considerable extent,
which forms the southwestern province of Euro-
pean Turkey. The exports consist almost entirely
of unmanufactured produce, live-stock and provis-
ions; and the chief imports consist of woolen
clothes, used for winter coverings, fire-arms, cutler;,
/
A L B A K Y — A L B I 0 X
73
gunpowder, hardware, coffee and sugar. A lengthy
article may be found in Britannica, Vol. I.
ALBANY is a division of the eastern province of
Cape Colony, Soutliern Africa, in which Graham-
town stands.
AI>BANY, a seaport town of Western Australia,
on King George's Sound.
ALBANY, an important manufacturing town and
railroad cent re of Georgia, county seat of Dougherty
county, delightfully situated at the head of high-
water navigation on Flint River, and noted for the
pure medicinal waters of its artesian wells, which
have made it a popular health resort.
ALBANY, a small village in Kentucky, county
seat of Clinton county, 126 miles south of Frank-
fort. It has a court house, three churches, an
academy, tannery, and steam flour mill.
ALBANY, a post-village in Oregon, county seat
of Linn county, on th^ Willamette river, about 27
miles south of Salem. It contains a court house,
seven churches, a collegiate institute, bank and
four newspapers.
ALBANY, the oldest chartered city in the United
States, capital of the State of New York, and
county seat of Albany county, stands upon the
west bank of the Hudson, 145 miles above the city
of New York. Here, in 1614, tlie Dutch established
a trading-station and built a block-house. In 1624
they erected Fort Orange, or Aurania, calling the
village Beaverwyck, which name was changed in
1646 to AVillemstedt, and in 1664 to Albany, in
honor of the Duke of York and Albany (afterwards
James II of England), to whom the colony was
granted on its cession to Great Britain. The city
received its charter in 1686. The first general con-
gress of the English colonies met here in 1764.
Albany became the permanent capital of the State
in 1807. The principal public edifice is the new
State capitol, one of the most magnificent and
costly structures of its kind in the world : 390 feet
in length, 290 in width, four stories high, and built
of drilled granite throughout at a cost of more than
sixteen million dollars. Prominent among the
public institutions and arcliitectural works are the
new custom-house and post-office ; the city hall,
built of rough granite; the cathedral of the Im-
maculate Conception ; the state museum of nat-
ural history in the marble state hall ; the agri-
cultural museum; the astronomical observatory,
and numerous handsome church edifices, hospitals,
charitable institutions, and places of amusement.
The Albany Institutefor the Promotion of Science,
■founded in 1791, the medical school, law school,
State normal school, and other educational insti-
tutions render the city an important centre of
learning. Albany manufactures annually about
four million dollars' worth of stoves; its lumber
trade amounts to more than ten millions; it is the
centre of the cattle trade for New York and New
England from tlie west; and its numerous other
branches of industry include twenty lireweries,
twelve iron foundries, two lilast furnaces, a cracker
bakery and several extensive shoe factories. An
abundant supply of good water from an artificial
lake, a beautiful i)ark of eighty-one acres, the ex-
cellence of its drainage — which isgreatly facilitated
by its liiily and irregular site — combine to make
Albany, nolwilhstandiiig the severity of its winlcr
climale, an exceptionally healthy and attractive
city. Population in 1890, 98,523. See Britannica,
Vol. I. p. 448.
ALBIOMAPLE SOUND, an inlet in the north-
eastern part of North Carolina, running inland
for 60 miles, with a breadth of from four to
fifteen miles. It receives the waters of the l\oa!K)ke
and Cliowai) rivers, and is connected bv cin.'ils
with Cliesapeake Bay and by natural channels with
Pamlico Sound.
ALBERI EUGENIC, an Italian author, born at
Padua in 1817, graduated from the Padua Univer-
sity, and at once devoted his energies and talents
to literary pursuits. He wrote many valuable
works, principally historical. Among them may be
named UiVnd? Caterina di Medici (1S3S) ; Guerra d'
Italia del principe Eugenio di Savoia (1839); and an
edition of the works of Galileo, which he edited.
He died in 1878.
ALBERT, a town of France, department of
Somme, about 18 miles northeast of Amiens. It
contains cotton and woolen factories, saltpeter
works, paper mills, foundries, etc. It was formerly
called Ancre. Population, 4,019.
ALBERT, or Ai.brecht, the Pious, third son of
]\taximilian II, of Austria, was born in 1559 and died
in 1621. He spent his childhood and youth at the
Spanish court, and he dedicated himself to the
church. His character was mild, and he Avas distin-
guished for his uprightness and his love for study.
In his eighteenth year he was made cardinal, and
seven years after he was made archbishop of Toledo.
In 1594 he became viceroy of Portugal, which office
he held for two years. The remainder of his life
he was Stadtholder of the Netherlands, the repre-
sentative of the Si^anish monarch. In 1598 he
abandoned his religious profession and married the
infanta Isabella.
ALBERT EDWARD. See Prince op Wales, in
these Revisions and Additions.
ALBERTA, one of the four provisional districts
into which the Northwest Territories of Canada
were divided in 1SS2. It has an area of about
100,000 square miles, and contains the great cattle-
ranges of Canada. Large tracts of these grazing
lands are leased to ranching companies and indi-
viduals. Fort MacLeod and Calgary, both thriving
towns, are great centers for ranchmen. Coal is
abundant ; timber is plentiful ; and there are petro-
leum deposits.
ALBERT LEA, a town of Minnesota, in Freeborn
county, situated on a lake of the same name. It is
the centre of a fertile agricultural section, and
contains flour mills, grain elevators and machine
shops. Population in 1890, 917.
ALBERT ?IEDAL, a decoration instituted in 1866,
in England to reward heroic acts of mariners and
others in saving life at sea. In 1S(;7, in place of one
decoration, two were instituted, called the Albert
Medal of the First Class and the Albert Medal of
the Second Class. In 1877 the Albert Medal was
extended to acts of gallantry in preventing loss of
life in mines, on railways, at fires, and in other
perils on land. Albert Medal is also the name of a
distinction granted since 1864by the English Society
of Arts to notable, men of science of many nation-
alities.
ALBERT RIVER, North Queensland, has a cours:
of about 200 miles, and empties into the Gulf of
Carpentaria, below Burktown.
ALBIA, county seat of Monroe county, Iowa,
situated on the Burlington and Missouri River
Railroad, the southern terminus of the Iowa Cen-
tral Railroad, is 25 miles west of Ottumwa, and 24
miles southwest of Oskaloosa.
A LPili )N. Illinois, county seat of Edwards county,
situated 56 miles northwest of Evansville, Ind., on
the New Albany and St. Louis Railroad.
ALBION, a town of Michigan, situated on the
Kalamazoo River, 90 miles west of Detroit. It is
the centre of a grain district, and contains several
large flour mills and manufactories of agricultural
implements. It is also the seat of a Methodist col-
lege.
u
A L B I 0 N — A L 0 0 II 0 L I C BEVERAGES
ALBION, a town of Nebraska, county seat of
Boone county, is one of the most tliriving villages
in the northern part of the State. It contains a
number of /louring mills, and carries on a brisk
trade in general merchandise.
ALBION, New York, the county seat of Orleans
county, is a post-village 30 miles west of Kochester
and 52 miles northeast of Buffalo, on the Erie
Canal and New York Central Hailroad. This village
is the seat of I'hipps Union Seminary, the Albion
Academy and a Koman Catholic college.
ALBION, a post-village in the township of Al-
bion, Dane county. Wis., situated on Koshonowong
Lake, three miles from Edgerton and 14 miles from
Janesville.
ALBION (White Island) is the most ancient
name of Great Britain. The supposition that it
was so called hy its inhabitants, the Celts, on ac-
count of the chalky cliffs of Kent, does not come
from good authority.
ALBITE, or Soda FELnsp.vR, is a silicate of
alumina and soda, found in granite veins, and as a
constituent of many crystalline rocks.
ALBONI, M.\iuETT.\, a celebrated Italian singer,
pupil of Kossini, born at Cesena, Italy, in 1824. She
visited the United States in 1850, and became an
established favorite. She married the Count de
Pepoli in 1854, and on his death, which occurred in
18(i0, retired to i)rivate life. Her voice was a rich
contralto, of great purity and strength.
AL BORAK, literally, "the Lightning." was the
miraculously fleet mule on wliich Mohammed
was supposed by his disciples to have made his
journey between Jerusalem and the heavenly re-
gions.
ALBRIGHT, .Tacob, founder of the Evangelical
Association, familiarly known as the German or
Albright ^lethodists. was born near Pottstown, Pa.,
in 1759, and died at Muehlbach (now Klinefelters-
ville). Pa., IMay 18, 1808.
ALBUGO, a term employed in surgery to desig-
nate the wliite opacity that often follows ulcera-
tion of the cornea of the eye. If occurring in in-
fancy it may diminish to some extent, but in
after life it does not undergo absorption, nor ad-
mit of surgical relief.
ALBULA, a pass and mountain stream in the
Swiss canton of Grissons. The pass (elevation,
7,595 feet) is a marshy plateau three-fourths of a
mile long, with granite and limestone summits
towering on either side. The stream rises close by,
has a course of about 20 miles, and joins a tributary
of the Rhine.
ALBUMINURIA, a symptom of Bright's disease
of the kidneys.
ALBUNOL, a small town of Spain, near the coast
of the Mediterranean. Population, 8.92.3.
ALBUQUERQUE, a city in New Mexico, fifty-six
miles west of Santa F6. It is the county seat of
Bernalilli county. Population in 1890, 6,058.
ALBURNUM, or S.\p Wood, is the newly formed
layers of exogenous plants which are added con-
tinue lly as the tree grows older. These layers,
which are formed on the outside of the older layers
and inside of the bark, constitute the digestive sys-
tem of the tree ; for they are porous, allowing the
free circulation of sap, while the under and older
layers become compact and hardened, and cease to
aid in growth. These under layers are, however,
the more valuable for building and other purposes.
The alburnum is of a pale color in all woods, even
in ebony, in which the duramen or under-layer is
black
ALCANDITE (ancient Uditiinum), a town of
Spain. Population of commune. 8,500.
ALCANIZ, a town of Aragon, Spain, in the
fefe--
Al.lEDI.MD.E.
province of Ternel, on the Guadalope. It has a
magnificent collegiate church. Population, 7,:-it)tl,
ALCATRAZ, or Ai.( atk.\s, a rocky island off the
northwest coast of Africa.
ALCATRAZ. an island four miles north of San
Franciscu. t'al. It has a lighthouse 36 feet high,
and a fortified post which serves ae a military
prison.
ALCEIJINID-E,or Ai.cei>H).€, is a natural family
of birds^ rei)resented by the commrm Kingfisher.
It is sometimes called
Ilalci/onuli . It is divided
into the subfamilies .1/-
cediiiinx and iJaceloiiiiiic,
and consists of about 20
genera and 120 specie.s.
See Ki.NGFisiiER, Britan-
nica. Vol. XIV, pp. 81, 82.
ALCIUvE, or Alcad.*:,
is a family of marine
birds, order Pjigopodts,
consisting of the Ah-imc
and fV/i/i.T, and including
about 12 genera and 2-5
species. T.ie ffare-fowl,or
great auk .ind all but one of the other auks be-
long to this family. Bee Auk, Britannica, Vol.
Ill, p. 85.
ALCM.'EON, a son of Amphiarus and Eriphyle,
one of the heroes who took part in the successful
expedition of the ^E])igoni against Thebes.
ALCO. the native name of the domesticated wild
dog of Peru and Mexico. It is small, and is char-
acterized by a very small head and large pendulous
ears.
ALCOCK, Sm Ritiierfori), K. C. B., was born in
London, 1809. He studied medicine there at King's
College, and served three years on the medical staff
of the British auxiliaries in Portugal and Spain.
In 1844 he was sent out as a British consul to
China, in 18.58 made consul-general in .Japan, and
the next year received the rank of minister pleni-
potentiary. He filled this post until 1.^(15. from
which time until 1871 he was envoy to the Chinese
government. He was made a C. B. in 1860. a K. C. B.
in 1862, a D. C. L. of Oxford in 1863, and President
of the Royal Geographical Society in 1876. Among
his works are Midical Xoles on the British Legion oj
^jHiin; Tlif Capital <if the Ti/coon; and Art in Japan,
AL(JOIIOL,irom two Arabic words meaning "■ the
koh'l," or powder of antimony used for painting
the eyebrows, is a li(|uid ethyl hydrate obtained by
the destructive distillation of an organic body or by
the fermentation of an aqueous saccharine solution.
More loosely, the term is applied to any lii|Uor con-
taining this spirit in considerable quantity. Chem-
ically speaking, an alcohol is a compound corre-
sponding to the hydroxide of the metals, regarded as
derived from a normal hydrocarhon by rejilacing
its hydrogen with an equivalent hydroxyl. See
Britannica, Vol. I, pp. 469-71. See also Che.mistry,
Britannica. Vol. V, pp. 562-64.
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES are any liquids con-
taining a proportion of alcohol and used as bever-
ages by mankind. They are classified according to
the materials from which the alcohol is procured
and the manner of their preparation. — Malt Hrjttors
are beverages which are prepared by the fermenta-
tion of malted grain, and include beer ale and
porter. In malt liquors the percentage of alcohol
varies from r5 to 9 per cent. — Fermented liquors are
those which are prepared by the fermentation of
the juices of fruit, and include wines properly so
called, cider, and fruit wines prepared from other
than grape juice. AVines restricted to the product
of the grape contain 777 to 202 per cent, of alcohol
ALCOHOLOxMETRY — ALDEW
75
and other fermpnted fruit beverages from 2 to 7
per cent. — DistiUed lifjnors are prepared Vyy tlie dis-
tillation of fermented saccharine liquid. To this
class belong ardent spirits, such as brandies, rum,
whiskey, etc. The percentage of alcohol in ardent
spirits "considerably exceeds that of wine, varying
in spirits from 450 to 550, and in liquors from 33'9
to SS'ito per cent.
ALCOHOLOMETRY is the process of estimating
the percentage of absolute alcohol in a sample of
spirits.
ALCORA is a Spanish trading-town, situated
forty-five miles northeast of Valencia, from which
fruits are exported.
ALCORN', James Lusk, American statesman, born
near Golconda, 111., Nov. 4, ]816. He removed to
Kentucky, and was educated at Cumberland Col-
lege. He was made deputy sheriff of Livingston
county, and in 1843 was elected to the legislature.
In 1842 he removed to Mississippi, where he served
in the legislature till 1865. Mr. Alcorn declined
the Whig nomination for governor in 1857, but ac-
cepted a nomination for congress. He was, how-
ever, defeated by L. Q. C. Lamar. In 1858 he be-
came president of the levee board of the Mississippi-
Yazoo Delta, and three years later was elected
brigadier-general by the State convention ; but his
commission was refused by Jefferson Davis on ac-
count of political differences. Although elected
to the United States senate in 1865 he was not al-
lowed to take his seat ; but he was elected governor
four years later by the Republican party, which
position he resigned in 1871 when he was made
United States senator. In 1873 he was defeated for
governor of his State on the Independent ticket.
ALCOTT, Amo.s Bronson, American educator,
born in Wolcott, Conn., Nov. 29, 1799. When a boy
he learned a trade, at which he worked while
pursuing his studies. In 1823 he started an in-
fant school in AVolcott, and in 1828 established
another one in Bos-
ton. His plan of
teaching was by con-
versation instead of
by books, and his
methods attracted
considerable atten-
tion. His school was
denounced b y t h e
press, and Mr. Alcott
gave it up and took
to the lecture plat-
form. He visited P^u-
rope, and made many
friends. On his r e-
turn he led the lite of
a peripatetic philos-
opher, lecturing on a wide range of practical ques-
tions. He published, after he had passed his sev-
entieth birthday, Tablets, Concord Ihnix, Table Talk
and SdiDiels and Canzonets, and also wrote for the
"Dial." Mr. Alcott was attacked with apoplexy,
Oct. 24, 1882, and died at his home in (Joncord,
Mass., March 4, 1S88.
ALCOTT, Louisa May, American authoress,
daughter of Amos Bronson Alcott, born in (ierman-
town, I'a. (now a part of Philadeli)ln'a), Nov. 29,
18.S2. She received her education princi|ially from
her father, and began to write for pulilication at the
age of 16, but with lit tie success until she was more
than 30. In 1862 she became a volunteer luirse in the
military hospital at Washington, and wrote many
letters, containing ske4;cheB of hospital experiences,
which were pulilished. After her labors were fin-
islied at Wasliiiiijion, she went (o Europe to recu-
perate her health, and the following year (1867)
AMOS BRONSOM ALCOTT.
I.OVIBA MAY ALCOTT.
published the work that made her famous — Little
Wonwn. Her other popular stories are ; Flower
Fables or Fairij Tales;
Hospital Sketches; An
Old-Fashioned Girl; Lit-
tle Men; Aunt Jo's Scraj^
Bag; My Boys; Sliawl
Straps; Cupid and
Chow-Chow; My Girls;
Jimmy's Cruise in the
Pinafore; An. Old-Fash-
ioned Thank sg i v I n g ;
Work: a Story of J^x-
perience; Eight Cousins;
Rose in Bloom; Silver
Pitchers; Under the
Lilacs; Jack and Jill;
Moods, Proverb Stories;
Sjiinning Wheel Stories;
and Lidii's Ijibrary.
She died March 6, 1888, two days after the death of
her father.
ALCOTT, May (Mrs. Ernest Nieriker, daughter
of Amos B. Alcott), American artist, born in Con-
cord, Mass., in 1840. Slie studied at Boston, London
and Paris, and attained considerable power as a
copyist and painter of still-life, in oils or water
colors. She died in December, 1879.
ALCOTT, William Alexander, American au-
thor, born in Wolcott, Conn., Aug. 6, 1798. He
studied medicine at Yale, and practiced for several
years, when he associated himself with A\'illiam
SVoodbridge in the preparation of school text-
books. Mr. Alcott published upwards of 100 books
and pamphlets on reform in education and moral
and phvsical training. He died in Aulmrndale,
Mass., Mar^'h 2'.i, 1859.
ALCOVE, a recess or part of a chamber in which
a bed of state or seats may be placed, and shut off
by a balustrade or by draperies. The name is com-
monly a))plied to any arched recess or niche in the
wall of an apartment.
ALCYONARIA, one of the two orders of Acti-
noza, including polyps, with ei^ht tentacles and
radial partitions. They usually form colonies, and
have always some sort of skeleton. Dead-men's
fingers, sea-pens, red corals and orange-pipe corals
are common representatives of the order.
ALCYONIUM, or Dead Me.n's Fixueiis, a com-
mon coelenterate of the sub-class Actinozoa, be-
longing to the same order as the sea-pen, red coral,
etc. It is often found on the coast, in somewhat
deep water, as a white, creamy or orange mass at-
tached to stones and shells. The mass, about the
size of a man's hand, is a myriad colony of animals.
When undisturbed the individual polyps may be
seen projecting from the surface, about the size of
a snail's horns.
ALDEBARAN, the Arabic name of a star of the
first magnitude in the constellation Taurus. It
is the largest and most brilliant of a cluster of five
called by the Greeks Hyades.
ALDEHYDE is a volatile fluid produced by the
oxidation and destructive distillation of alcohol
and other organic compounds.
ALDEN, Joseph, f). 1).. LL. D., American educa-
tor, Ixirii in Cairo, N. Y., Jan. 4, 1807. He was
graduated at rnion College in 1820, l)ecanie pastor
of the C'ongregational church at Williamstowii,
.Mass., then professor in Williams (Jollege, Inter
President of .lefferson College, and from ]8ii7 to
1872 President of the New York State Normal
School at Albany. He was a prolific writer, and
published more than seventy volumes of Sunday-
School literature. He died in New York city, Aug.
30. 1S85.
7()
A L D fi N — A 1. E S I U S
ALDEN, John, magistrate of the Plymouth col-
ony, liorii in EnglancT in 1599. He shipped as cabin
l)oy iu tlie Maijjlmvpr in 1020, and married Pris-
cilla -Mullens the" foUouin? year. Shortly after the
I'Ui. ,l..vlii
landing of the Puritans his integrity and wisdom
won for him tlie post of magistrate of the colony.
He died in Duxbury, Mass., Sept. 12, 1687.
ALDEIiSON, John Duffy, American Congress-
man, born at Nieliolas Court House, W. Va., Nov.
29, 1854. He was admitted to the bar in 1875, and
was appointed prosecuting attorney in each of the
counties of Nicliohis and Webster. In 1876 he was
elected prosecuting attorney of those counties and
was twice reelected, serving until 1SS9, when he be-
came a membe- of the Fifty-first Congress as a
Democrat.
ALDRICH, Hknky, born at "Westminster in 1647,
and died Dec. 14, 1710. He was canon of Christ
Church, Oxford, in 1GS2, and dean in lliS9. He was
the designer of the Peekwater Quadrangle, and
wrote Ifark ike Boiniy Christchttrch Bells; but he is
less remembered as an architect or a composer
than as the author of the Artis Logicx Compendium
(1691), of wliich a new edition apjieared in 1862.
ALDKICH, Nklson Wilmaktu, V. S. Senator,
born at Foster, Ithode Island, Nov. 6, 1841. He re-
ceived an academic education, and then engaged
in mercantile pursuits. He was president of the
Providence common council in 1871-78, and was a
member of the liliode Island General Assembly in
1875-76, serving the latter year as sjieaker of the
House of Representatives. He was elected to the
House of Representatives of the Forty-sixth Con-
gress and received a reelection to the Forty-seventh
Congress. In 1880 he was elected to the U. S. Sen-
ate as a Republican, and reelected in 1886.
AXDRICII, Thomas Bailev, Ani^riean author,
born in Portsmouth, N. II.,
Nov. 11,1836. His boyhood
days were spent in Louisi-
ana, but at the death of
his father he entered the
office of his uncle, a banlter
in New York city, when
he began writing prose
and verse for various
journals. His contribu-
tions won universal favor
and he joined the staff of
the New York "Home
Journal." Subsequently
he edited the "Boston
Every Sunday," and later
the "Atlantic Jlonllily."
-Some of his most popular
T. E. ALDRICH
orksare: The Ballad .
of Dabie Bell, and other Poems (1850;; TIte Cntrsc
of True Love Never Did liun Smooth (1858); Payi-
pinea and other Poems (1861); Out of His Head, a
Romance in Prose (1862); two volumes of Poems
(1863 and 1865) ; .Stori/ of a Bad Boij (1870) ; Cloth of
Gold and other Poems (1874) ; Mnrjor! ■ Daw and other
People (1873) : The Queen of Sheba ( 1S77) ; The ,Still-
VKiter Trafjedii (1880); From Ponkaporj to Pesth
(1883); and .l/crc<>(/c3 (1883). All of his prose writ-
ings and .some of his verse have been reprinted in
England, France and Germany.
ALDRIDGE, Iha, American negro tragedian',
known as the "African Roscius." The date and place
of liis birth are unknown. Some biographers claim
that he was born at Bcllair, near Bultimore, about
1810, while otliers say, i)robably on better aul lior-
ity, t'liat he was born in Now York city, aijout 1805.
Tliey all agree that as a boy he had a passion for
the stage, and tliat when he made his debut in Lon-
don, at the Royalty tlieater, as Othello he met with
inunediate success. He appeared in various coun-
tries, and everyv.here was received witli entliu-
siasm — lionors beingconferredon him by nearly all
the crowned lieads of Europe. Aldridge was an hon-
orary member of numerous academies of arts. He
died in Lodez, Poland, Aug.,7, 1867, leaving a widow,
an English lady, in London.
ALECSANDRI, Vassii.i. See Ale.xandria, in
these Revisions and Additions.
ALECTORIDES, agrouj) of birds formerly of un-
certain extent, but in Nitzscli's classification of
1829 limited to the genera Otis and Dieholoplms, is
also an order or suli-order including the rails, the
cranes and their alii' s.
ALECTOROMORPILE, a superfamily of cari-
nate birds, sub-order Sekhof/nath.r, including the
families Phasianidie, Merjapodidx, Craeidx, and, un-
til 1807, the Turnieidre and PterocUda', nearly corre-
sponding, in the older sense, to tlie Jiasores, or Oal-
lime; but, in the later (that of Huxley), restricted
to the groups Alectoropodes, containing the fowls
proper, and Peristeropodes, containing the curas-
60WS and mound-birds.
ALECTOROPODES, one of Huxley's two groups
or sub-divisions of alectoroniorphous birds, contains
the pheasant, guinea-fowl, grouse, turkey, quail,
partridge and all true fowls.
ALEDO, county seat of fiercer county. 111., a post
village on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Rail-
road, east of tlie ^Mississippi River, and 37 miles
west of Galva. Coal mines are found extensively
in this region.
ALEr\lAN, Mateo, Spanish novelist, born about
the middle of the 16th century, at Seville, and died
in Mexico in 1610. He was author of several works,
one of v.hich, Ouzmtin de Alfarache, published at
Madrid in 1.599, ran tlirough twenty-six editions,
consisting of not less than 50,000 copies, in six years.
In delineationof manners and purity of style it was
a masterly creation, ranking next to the most cele-
brated of all Spanish "picaresque" novels, Men-
doza's Lozarillo de Tormes.
ALEUTS. See Alaska.
ALESHKI, a Russian town in the government of
Taurida, on the Dniejier, noted for its melon cult-
ure and its fislieries. Population, 8,91.5.
ALESIA, a town in the east of ancient Gaul, the
siege and capture of which formed one of Cresar's
chief exploits. Alesia was destroyed by the Nor-
mans in 804. Tlie modern village of Alise-Sainte-
Reine stands near the site of the ancient town.
ALESir.*^, Ai.KXANDER (original name, Alane),
a noted divine and reformer, born in Edinburgh,
April 23, 1500. After studying at St. Andrew's he
became canon of the collegiate church there; but,
being won to the side of the reformers, he was
A L E iS 8 A N D R I A — A L E X A X D 11 0 V 0 L
77
obliged to tiee to the Continent, and in his absence
was tried and condemned. He settled down at
Wittenberg and signed the Augsburg Confession.
In 1535 Alesius went over to England, was well re-
ceived by Cranmer and Cromwell, and lectured for
a time on theology at Cambridge. On his return
to Germany he was appointed successively to a
theological chair in the universities of Frankfort-
on-the-Oder and Leipzig. He died at Leipzig, 17th
March, 1565. He was the author of about thirty
exegetical and polemical works.
ALESSAXDRLA. DELLA ROCCA. a town of
Sicily, in the province of Girgenti. It is pictures-
quely situated in a mountainous district. Popula-
tion of commune, 5,214.
ALETSCH, the largest glacier in Europe, 123^
miles in length, sweeping round the southern
side of the Jungfrau, and following the valley in a
majestic curve. It has two tributary glaciers,
the Upper and Middle Aletsch, which branch oil' to
the northwest. At its eastern extremity there is a
blue mountain lake, the Merjelen-See ; and to the
northwest lies the Aletschhorn, the second highest
peak of the Bernese Alps, first ascended by Mr.
Tuckett in 1859.
ALf^AV'IFE (Alosa tyranniis), a fish of the same
genus with the shad. In the beginning of stimmer
it appears in great numbers on the east coast of
North America, ascends the rivers :is far as the tide
extends for the purpose of spawning, and returns to
the sea in the middle of summer. It appears on
the coasts of New York and New England in April,
and Oil those of the British provinces about the first
of ^!ay ; abounds in the Bay of Fundy, is more rare
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the Bay of Mirami-
chi is its northern limit. Its length is about 12
inches.
ALEXANDER II axd Alex.\xder III. See Rus-
sia, in these Revisions and Additions.
ALEXANDER, Arcijer, born in slavery near
Richmond, Va., about 1810, but lived in Missouri
with his master when the civil war began. He
learned that the confederates had weakened a
certain bridge so that it would fall under a train
carrying national troops, and he saved the detach-
ment by informing a well-known Union man, but
was suspected, and fled to St. Louis — a "contra-
band." He was liberated by the Emancipation
Proclamation, in 1863, and afterwards served as
the model for "The Freedman " in the bronze
group known as "Freedom's Memorial," standing
in the Capit^jl grounds a.t Washington. He died
in St. Louis, Mo., Dec. 8, 1879.
ALEXANDER, Stephen, American astronomer,
born in Schenectady, N. Y., Sept. 1, 1806. He was
graduated at Union College in 1S2-1. and in 1833 he
became professor of mathematics and astronomy
at Princeton, which position lie lidd until 1878.
He was the leader of the expedition that went to
the coast of Labrador toobserve the solar eclipse of
July 18, l,S(iO; and also of the party sent to tlie West
for the same purpose in August, 18(i9. IMr. Alex-
ander wrote numerous valuable scientific works,
and furnished many papers to different journals.
lie died at Princeton, N. J., .June 25, 1883.
ALI';.\.\NI)KR, SYDKxnA.\i B., American states-
man, born at KosedaIe,N.C.,in December, 1840. He
was graduated at tlie University of N'ortii Carolina,
entered the (Jonfcderale army in I8lil, and served
until tlie end of t he war. Besides occujiying nu-
merous other local offices ho sat in the State senate
for five consecutive terms from 1870. and in 1S90
was elected to Congress from North Carolina by the
members of the Farmers' Alliance.
ALKXANI'EU, Wii.i.iam. called Lord Sterling,
American soldier, born in New York city, in 1726.
3*
He prosecuted his claim to the earldom of Sterling,
but without success, and on his return to America
joined the army. He fought in several battles of
the Revolution and for his acts of bravery and dis-
cretion was made major-general. Lord Sterling
was one of the founders and the first governor of
Columbia college, and he wrote several papers,
principally astronomical and mathematical. He
died in Albany, N. Y., .Ian. 15, 1783.
ALEXANDER. AVilliam Lindsay, D. D., LL. D.,
an eminent scholar and divine of the Scottish Con-
gregational church, was born at Leith, Aug. 24,
1808, and died at Pinkieburn, near Edinburgh. Dee.
20, 1884. He studied at Edinburgh, St. Andrew's
and Glasgow. He was classical tutor and after-
wards president of Blackburn Theological Semi-
nary (1828-31), and in 1832 minister of a chapel in
Liverpool. In 1835 he removed to Edinburgh, where
he labored as preacher for forty-tvro years. He
was principal of the Theological Hall in connection
with the Congregational church in Scotland ; was a
member of the Bible Revision Committee, and the
publisher of many volumes of sermons and lectures.
He also edited a new issue of Kitto's Cyclopa'dia
of Bihiiral Litrrniiire.
ALEXANDERS {Rmyrniitm ohisatrum), a bien-
nial plant of the natural order UmbelliJ'ciH'. It is
found in waste ground and near ruins in Britain
and the South of Europe. It was formerly culti-
vated and used in the same way as celery. Another
genus, Zizht, is called Golden Alexanders in
North America.
ALEXANDRA PARK, a place of public recrea-
tion in northern London, opened in 1863.
ALEXANDRI, or ALEKSANnni Vasilio, a Rou-
manian poet and patriot, born at Jassy in 1821.
He was educated at Paris, and after his return to
Jassy in 1839 he devoted himself to the cause of
Roumanian independence and unity. He was for-
eign minister under Ghika in 1859-60. He published
his first volume of verse in 1852. His complete
works fill seven volumes; his theatrical pieces, four
volumes.
ALEXANDRIA, La., county seat of Rapides par-
ish, on the Red River, about 200 miles from its
mouth and 360 miles northwest of New Orleans.
It carries on trade by water at all seasons, e«port-
ing mainly fruits, sugar, cotton and rice.
ALEXANDRIA, county seat of Douglas county,
Minn., a post village situated about 38 miles from
Melrose, and 140 miles northwest of St. Paul, in the
vicinity of several small pure-water lakes.
ALEXANDRIA, N. Y., a village of Jefferson
county, near the St. Lawrence and opposite the
Thousand Islands. It is widely known and fre-
quented as a summer resort.
ALEXANDRIA, a commercial and manufactur-
ing city of Virginia, county seat of .VIexandria
county, beautifully situated on the west bank of
the Potomac, seven miles below Washington, D. C,
was, at an earlier period, a considerable mart for
foreign commerce ; but is now the center of an ex-
tensive domestic trade by railroad, river and canal.
It has an excellent harbor, and a large number of
vessels are engaged in carrying to Northern ports
the coal of the Cumberland region, which is brought
here by canal. Its manufactures are chielly of
ships, cotton, flour, furniture, leather, machinery
and plaster.
ALEXANDROPOL, an important fortress and
the largest town in the Erivan district of Russian
Armenia. It has accommodation for a garrison of
10.000 men, and is the stronshold which gives the
Russians command of the headwaters of the Eu-
phrates. There is considerable silk trade carried
on in the town. Population, 20,477.
78
A L !•: X A X 1) K (» \'
A I. (i H 1{ I A
AI.KXANDRON', !i town in I lie Russian govern-
ment of \'la(liniir. It lias dyi'works, and nuiskets
and ironware are manufaflured. Population,
6^00.
ALEXANDROVSK, a Russian town in the gov-
ernment of RItalerinoslav; also a Russian seltle-
ment in Kast Siberia.
ALEXINATZ, a town of Servia, on the Jlora-
vitza. In ISTtl it sullVred severely in its capture by
the Turks, and near it is a memorial to the Rus-
sians who fell there. Large quantities of tobacco
are produced in the neigh borliood. Population,
6,108.
ALEXISBAU, in Anhalt, Germany, situated
near Harzgerode, is noted for its mineral water
springs.
ALFA, one of the varieties of esparto, valuable
for paper making.
ALKONSO, ,Iosi:, JtinoE, a distinguished delegate
to the Pan-American Congress. He was trained to
the law, beginning its practice in 1850. He was ap-
pointed on the l)ench of the Court of Commerce
temi)orarily in isiy, and soon after made a perma-
nent judge of that important court — a position which
he held during eighteen years. In that time he
compiled the vast body of legal decisions and mer-
cantile usages into a Code of Commerce since
adopted by the Chilian congress for the whole
country. In 1879 he received the appointment of
Judge-Advocate of the Army of the North. He
was obliged to resign this position on the ground
of ill health, but was shortly afterwards elevated
to the bench of the Court of Appeals. In 1875, at
the request of the President, he withdrew from the
bench for a lime to til! the position of Minister for
Foreign Affairs in the cabinet. He was also Secre-
tary of the Treasury in 1880. He has been a leader
in the cause of education.
ALFORD, a village of Aberdeenshire, Scotland.
It was here that Montrose defeated the Covenant-
ers under Baillie, .lulv -, lt)45.
ALFRED CENTRE is a village of Alleghany
county. N. Y., the seat of the Alfred University
(Seventh-Day Baptist). It is situated about 10
miles from Hornellsville, not far from the Erie
Railroad.
ALFRETON. a market-town of Derbyshire. It
has manufactures of hats, stockings and brown
earthenware. There are collieries and iron-works
in the vicinity. Population, 4,492.
ALGAROVILLA. an astringent substance pro-
cured from the seeds and husks of a number of
plants found in South America, is much used in
dyeing, and is a very powerful agent in the tanning
of leather.
AXGECIR.^S. a town of Spain, province of Cadiz,
on the Bay of Gibraltar. It was the first town of
Spain taken liy the Moors (711), and remained in
their possession seven centuries. It was retaken in
1344 by Alfonso XI, King of Castile, after a twenty
months' siege. Alfonso destroyed the old Moorish
town. The modern one was built by Charles III, in
1760.
ALGER, Russell Alex.indf.k, American soldier
and politician, born in Lafayette, Jledina county,
Ohio. Feb. 27, 1830. At the age of eleven he worked
on a farm and attended school in the winter. At 18
he taught, and later studied law. lieing admitted to
the bar in 1859. lie practiced in Cleveland, but soon
went to (Trand Rapids, Mich., where he engaged in
the lumber business. At the beginning of the civil
war he entered the army and served till .Tune 11, 1S05.
when he received the brevets of brigadier-general
and major-general, and then resumed the lumber
business. While at war he fought in several bat-
tles of note, was twice wounded, and once taken
prisoner, but escaped the same day. From 1885 to
1887 he served as governor of Michigan.
AL<"JER, WiLi.nM RoiiNSEviLLE, A. M., American
clergyman, born in I'reetown, Mass., Dec. .SO, 1822.
He studied for the ministry and became i)astor of a
Unitarian church in Roxbury in 18."<2. l^ater he
accepted pastorates at Boston, New York, Denver,
Chicago and Portland. He has published the fol-
lowing works, all of which have passed through
several editions : Metrical Specimens of the Thought,
Sentiment and Fancy of the hast; lA-gi»lative J'raijem;
The Genius of Solitude; The Friendships of Women;
Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; In-
troduction to the Poetry of the Orient; The School of
Life.
ALGERI.\, the historic record given in Britan-
nica. Vol. 1, pp. 502-<>9, was brought down to 1871.
In that year an insurrection was (|uelled. and some
concessions being made to the insurgents a season
of peace and prosperity was assured. The following
is the later chronological record :
Gen. Chanzy, the French ruler, accused of gov-
erning despotically; his resignation not acce|>ted
by Marshal M']\Iahon, July; replaced by Albert
Gr^vy, 1878.
An insurrection soon quelled, June, 1879.
Dispute with Tunis ; outrages of the savage tribes,
Kroumirs, etc., April, 1881.
Arab insurrection, headed by Bou Ameema,
June ; he is said to be defeated and a fugitive,
July l.S. 1881.
Troops sent from F" ranee in anticipation of insur-
rection, about Aug. 20, 1881.
Bou Ameema defeated by the French, July 13.
1881.
Skirmishing, August, 1881.
Resignation of Governor Gr6vy announced, Nov.
6,1881.
M. Tirman appointed governor, December, 1881.
Topographical expedition attacked; 40 reported
killed, April, 1882.
Annexation of the province Mzab to Algeria an-
nounced, Dec. 1882.
Submission of insurgents announced June 13,
1883.
Government. — A civil governor-general at present
administers the government of Algeria, which is
now regarded as a detached part of France rather
than as a colony. .\ small extent of territory in
the Sahara is still administered by the military
authorities, represented by the commandant of the
19th Army Corps. The present governor-general
Is M. Louis Tirman, appointed Nov. 26, 1881.
The French Chambers have alone the right of
legislating for Algeria, while such matters as do not
come within the legislative power are regulated by
decree of the President of the Republic. The gov-
ernor-general is assisted by a council, whose
function is purely consultative. A superior coun-
cil, meeting once a year, to which delegates are
sent by each of the provincial-general councils,
is charged with the duty of discussing and voting
the colonial budget. Each department sends
one senator and two deputies to the National As-
sembly.
Area and I'opiilation. — The boundaries of Algeria
are not very well defined, large portions of the ter-
ritory in the outlying districts being claimed both
by the French government and the nomad tribes
who inhabit it and hold themselves unconquered.
The colony is divided officially into three depart-
ments, consisting as a whole of the "Territoire civil,"
and a " Territoire de commandement." The follow-
ing table gives the area of each of the three de-
A L G E K 1 A
79
piirMneuts of Algeria, accorciin<; to the returns of
ISSti:
-irea sq.
■ kilom.
Population.
Pop.
Departments.
Civil
Dept.
Military
Dept.
Total.
per sq.
kilom.
Algiers
170,801
11.5,58.5
191 ,.527
l,->n2,76S
7.52,3.59
l,:j()9.1-5:J
177,773
117,951
197,20G
1,380,.541
870,346
1,566,419
8.1
7 5
Constantine . .
S.2
Total
477,313*
S,3-21,S10
49->,'«0
3.817,306
8.0
* 181,465 square miles.
To this must be added what is designated the
Algerian Sahara, of indetinite exteut, but estimated
at 350,000 square kilom^-tres.or 135,000 square miles,
and with a population vaguely estimated at 50,000.
The civil territory is constantly increased in area
by taking in sections of the military territory. Of
the population in 1886, 2,014.013 were males, and
1,791,671 females. In 1884 the marriages among
whites were 3,.543, the births 15.618, and deaths 13,-
123 — showing an excess of 2,4il5 births over deaths.
In 1886, of the total population, there were 25,972
of French origin or naturalization, 43,182 natural-
ized .Jews, 3,262,849 French indigenous subjects,
4,344 Tunisians, 18,194 Moroccans, and 217,386 for-
eigners— Spaniards, Italians, Anglo-JIaltese, Ger-
mans.
The population of the city of Algiers was 74,792
in 1886; Oran, 67,681 ; Constantine, 44,960; Bnne, 29,-
640; Tlenif en, 2.8,204; Philippeville, 22,177 ; Blidah,
24,304 ; Sidibel- Abbes, 21,595.
Ci-ime. — Before the assize courts in 1886, 573 per-
sons were convicted of crime ; before the correc-
tional tribunals 12,408 (4,122 to fines); before the
police courts, 59,981 (50,765 to fines). For the main-
tenance of order there are 1,200 gendarmes, 79 police
commissaires, 691 police agents, 316 nidi res, 2,474
police officials of various kinds, and 892 custom-
house officers.
Finance. — The receipts of the government are de-
rived chiefly from indirect taxes, licenses, and cus-
toms duties on imports. The natives pay only di-
rect taxes. The cost of maintenance of the army is
not included in the budget ; a proportion of the
sums spent on public works also is paid by the
state. For 1888 the expenses of the civil govern-
ment of Algeria were set down at 43,602,887 francs ;
for military services, 53,352,489 ; and extraordinary
expenses, 26,6-58,797 francs ; total expenses, 123,614,-
173 francs, including 2,815,000 francs for "coloniza-
tion." The revenue for the same year from all
sources was given as 44,034,065 francs. The actual
revenue was 36,935,.300 francs. The budget , for
1800 estimated the expenditure at 42,915,917 francs,
and revenue at 44,432,192 francs. A special return
shows that in the period 1830-88 the total expendi-
ture in Algeria has been 5,018,066,462 francs, and
the total receipts 1,256,041,004 francs — showing an
excess of expenditure of 3,785,684,255 francs, or over
151 millions sterling ; this excess being almost en-
tirely for military services. The total expenditure
on colonization has been 144.205,.504 francs.
D<-f,'i)s,'. — Tlie military force in .Mgeria consti-
tutes the 19th .\rmy Corps; in time of war it can
be di\-idpd into two. It consists of 53 liattalions
of infantry, 52 squadrons of cavalry, 16 batteries of
arlilliTy. and a due proportion of other sulisidiary
brandies — in all, about 54.00(1 men and 15,0(111 liorses.
The strictly local forces consist of four regiments
of "Zouaves." three regiments of "Tirailleurs indi-
gjnes," three battalions of "Infanterie liJgere d'Af-
rique," and two foreign legions. Of these the Tirail-
leurs or Turcos only are native. There are also
three regiments of .~^pahis. corresponding closely to
the Indian irregui.ir cavalry.
Industry. — The bulk of the population are en-
gaged in agriculture — 3,089,224, 187,033 of whom
were Europeans, in 1887. About 20,000,000 hectares
(2.47 acres) are colonized by the agricultural popu-
lation. Of this area 4,014,'J.SO hectares were under
cultivation in 1887; under cereals, 2,803,224 hectares,
chiefly wheat, barley and oats ; the area under
vines (1887) 70,041 hectares, the produce being 1,-
6()5,995 hectolitres of wine. Of olives the crops In
1876 weighed 54,7154,000 lbs.; the oil manufactured
was 9,034,6-52 gallons. About 11,000 hectares were
under tobacco in 1887, the yield being 5,631,945
metric quintus. There are five million acres under
forest, but the yearly value of the produce is small.
In 1887 there were 1,198,157 cattle, 9,357,774 sheep,
4.666,119 goats, the bulk belonging to natives.
Of the total animal stock, 15,498,019 belong to na-
tives, and 687,251 to Europeans.
In 1886 there were engaged in mining 2,565 work-
ers ; 432,671 tons of iron ore, value 3,604,028 francs,
were extracted and exported, chiefly to the United
States. Of other ores the extraction was: 551 tons
of silver and lead, 10.343 of copper, 6,299 of zinc,
and 67 of mercury, all worth 730,400 francs ; 29,500
tons of other ores than iron ore were exported.
Salt was extracted to the amount of 26,3(54 tons.
Commerce. — The commerce of Algeria, like that of
France, is divided into general (total imports and
exports) and special (imports for home use and ex-
ports of home produce). The latter was as follows,
1888 (in francs) :
Countries.
Imports from.
Exports to.
France
173,630,107
61,278,013
159,1:«,372
3S,261,19S
Foreign countries and French
234,908,120
197,699,505
The total special commerce was as follows for the
five years 1884-88 (in francs) :
Total.
Foreign countries and
French eolO'..ios.
Imports.
Exports.
18S1
1885
1886
1887
1898
217.369,575
226,683,890
2i2.274.279
211,:337..5.55
234.908.120
151.0W.I.50
197.260,720
1><2,255,12:J
1S5.959,302
197.1399 ..565
Imports
from.
70,ij5*>,567
51.985,657
50,092,512
52,.502,475
&»,.391,.'>U
Exports
to.
51.992,061
69.;;i7.819
51.907,741
45.9.55.008
33,iM,»43
The following table shows the trade of Algeria
with various countries for 1888 (in francs) :
Couutries.
Imports
from.
Exports
to.
173,iV!0,107
16,298.879
4,729,614
7,654,088
8,475.419
i.v.n.-Mi
;»il3.985
4.902.,'>S1
1,086,120
2-10,485
809.944
159,438 ..372
French colonies
.'i.'.k;7.998
17,991.732
Spiiia.
It:i!y
Tunis
12. IM .2.55
3.C.1).178
(i,2.i4.016
5.173,658
Turkey
Uelgium
United States
l,086,4:a
8.806.976
2.141,496
80
A L G I E R S — A L K A L 1 M J-] T 11 Y
The principal exports to France in 1888 were —
cereals, 32,003,325 francs; wines, 42,928,440 francs;
animals, 34,047,<>H() francs ; wool, 20,'J14,70t) francs.
The cliiof imports frcjm France were — cotton f;oods,
2(5,'.)4H,554 francs; leather goods, 14,882,790 francs;
metal goods, 8,42(i,07'.t francs ; haberdashery, 7,07n,280
francs. Tlie subjoined statement shows tlie com-
merce of .\lgeria with Ciroat Britain and Ireland in
each of the live years 1884 to 1888:
Exports and Imports. IS^i 1885 1886 1887 1888
Exports to Great liritnln. .
Iinports of Urltlsb produce
£
8.32,559
350,8.19
£
885,621
£
701,:«)8
£
575,955
•293,253
£
636,871
252,255
The most iini)ortant articles of export to Great
Britain in 1888 were — esparto and other fibers, for
making paper, of the value of 44;),78H. (including
rags) ; iron ore, of the value of 72,939/. ; copper ore,
U,o\Sl. ; and lead ore, 8,491 /. ; Itarley, 22,255/. (82,056?.
1887). The British imports consist principally of
cotton fabrics and coal; the former of the value of
163,947/., and the latter of 63,469/., in Die year 1888.
W//V"".'/ "'"' (-''iiinnnnicalions. — In 1888 3,727 ves-
sels, of 2,172,(148 tons, entered Algerian ports from
abroad, and 3,327, of 1,974,721 ton.s, cleared; of these
1,556 vessels (1,227,075 tons) went to France. There
is also a very large coasting trade. On Jan. 1,
1888, the mercantile marine of Algiers consisted of
166 vessels, of 4,5.j0 tons, mostly coasters, besides
many small lishing vessels.
In 1SS9 there wore 1,600 English miles of railway
open for trullic in Algeria. Tlie total receipts in
18S7 amounted to 21,069,098 francs, including the
Tunisian extension.
The telegraph of Algeria, including branches into
Tunis, consisted in 1888 of 7,000 miles of line, and
16.000 niiles of wire, with 279 ollices. The " r^seau
alg6ro-tunisien " of telegraphs is worked by a pri-
vate company subventioned by the French gov-
ernment.
For information concerning currency, religion,
education, weights and measures and judiciary
system, see those topics in these Revisions and Ad-
ditions.
ALGIERS, a suburb of New Orleans, La., was laid
out as a village in 1815, but dates its growth from
the building of the dry-docks in 1846. In 1852 it
was incorporated as a city, and grew rapidly until
the commencement of the civil war, during which
it suffered severely. It was made a ward of the
city of New Orleans in 1870. It has iron-works,
ship-yards, dry-docks and machine and boiler shops.
It is connected with the city proper by steam ferry-
boats.
ALGIN, a substance discovered by Mr. E. C. C.
Stanford, of (ilasgow. It is procured from certain
species of seaweed — notably those belonging to the
genus Lamlnaria. In the soluble form Algin is a
viscous gum, drying up to a transparent, elastic
film. It is used as a dressing for textile fabrics.
It has been found to go further and doi more work
than any of the ordinary gums, and it has the ad-
vantage of being easily rendered insoluble in water.
Algin also makes an excellent thickening for
soups.
ALGONA, capital of Kossuth county, Iowa, is a
village about fifty-two miles from ifason City, on
the Chicago, Jlilwaukee & St. Paul Railroad, situated
on the eastern division of the Des Moines River.
ALGONQUIN, 111., a post-village of McHenry
county, has a pleasant position on the Fox River,
forty-eight miles N. W. of Cliicago. It is one of the
Chicago & Northwestern Railroad stations.
ALGOXQUINS, on Ai.oonki.ss, the most promi-
nent of the tliree aboriginal races that occupied l lie
great basin of the St. iyawrence at tlie beginning
of the 17th century. The .\lgoiii|iiiii triliesoccupieU
all the coast region from the norlh-easlern limit to
the .(ames Itiver in \'irginia, and nearly as far
westward as Ihc Rocky mnuntains. At jireseiit I he
name is apjilied lo a remnant of an Indian people in
the province of t^uebec, Canada.
AL(iL'AZIL, the general name ap|)lied in Spain
to olHcers intrusted with the execution of justice.
ALHAGI is an Arabic name for a genus of trees
from which manna exudes.
AbllAl.RIN-EL-GRANDE (ni-o«;-rcen-<?J-(?rarirf<5),
is a Sjianish town in .Vndalusia, near Malaga. It
is noted for its beautiful jiarks. its numerous fount-
ains and the ruins of an ancient Roman aqueduct
and of a Moorish fortification. Jn its mountains are
quarries of granite, marble and freestone.
ALIEN, riie citizen of one nation when resident
of another, unless naturalized, is an alien. A com-
prehensive article on this subject may be found in
Britannica, Vol. 1. p. 574.
ALIJI.V, a tributary of the Congo. It rises in the
neighborhood of the Ogowe Springs and flows west.
Its Course was traced by Balloy in 1878, and De
Brazza founded two stations on its banks. It is
navigable for steamers for some distance.
ALIMENT.\RY CANAL, a name given to the
principal part of the digestive apparatus. It ex-
tends from the mouth to the anus, having in man
an averace length of about thirty feet.
ALl.MoNY, the allowance which a married
w^oman is enlilled to receive from her husband's es-
tate alter separation or divorce, or during a suit
for the same. An article under this topic may be
found in Britannica, \o\. I. p. 576.
ALIQl'OT F.VllT, one (juantity or number is said
to be an aliquot part of another when it is con-
tained in that other an exact number of times with-
out a remainder.
A LISM.\(;EyE, small order of monocotyledonous
plants, containing about ten widely distributed
genera of herbaceous plants, usually growing in
water or floating.
ALIWAL, a Punjab village on the left bank of the
Sutlej. It was the scene of a conflict between the
British under Sir Henry Smith and the Sikh forces,
June 28, 184().
ALKAHEST, the universal solvent of the alchem-
ists.
AMZARINE, a red coloring matter extensively
used as a dye stuflf, was discovered by Robiquet
and Colin in 1824. From the root of the madder
plant, Rnhia linctorum, digested with alcohol and
treated with sulphuric acid, they obtained a black
mass to which they gave the name "charbon de
garance;" which, being hi?ated, yielded an alizarine
sublimate in long needle-shaped crystals of a brill-
iant red color. The discovery of this coloring
principle gave to madder its great commercial im-
portance and value. Alizarine is now, however,
produced on a large scale by artificial chemical
means from anthracene, a product of the distilla-
ation of coal-tar.
ALKALIMETRY, the process of determining by
the use of an alkalimeter the strength of alkalies
and acids. The same instrument has recently been
employed in many other ways, such as the deter-
mination of the strength of a solution of silver, for
which purpose it is employed by the assayers of the
mint and other metallurgic chemists. This mode
of analysis, being very simple, is every day becom-
ing of more importance, and has given rise to a
new department of analytical chemistry designated
volumetric analysis.
A L K A L 0 I D S — A L L E N
81
ALKALOIDS are an important class of sub-
stances discovered by modern cliemistry. Tiiey
are of two classes, natural and artificial. The nat-
ural alkaloids are found in plants and animals, and
are sometimes designated organic bases. Those
obtained from plants are likewise called vegetable
alkalies. They are composed essentially of carbon,
hydrogen and nitrogen. The greater number also
contain oxygen. The alkaloids have generally an
energetic a'ction on the animal system, and hence
are often used in small doses as medicine, while in
comparatively large doses they are powerful poi-
sons. They have, in a low degree, the characteristic
alkaline effect on vegetable colors, and have usu-
ally a bitter, acrid taste, and form the active prin-
ciples of the plants in which they are found. The
artificial alkaloids are those organic bases which
are not found in any known plant or animal, but
of which the late researches of chemists have con-
trived to form a large number. An article on alka-
loids may be found in Britannica, Vol. I, p. 578.
ALLAN, Sir Hugh, Canadian 'jhip-owner, born
in Saltcoats, Ayrshire, Scotland, Sept. 29, ISIO. At
an early age he entered a counting-house in Green-
ock, and at 14 sailed for Canada, wherp he vvas for
three years a clerk in a dry-goods store at Montreal
and subsequently in the shipping-house of James
Miller. He aided in suppressing the rebellion of
1837, and rose to a captaincy. Mr. IMiller died in
1838, and Allan, with a partner, carried on the busi-
ness under the firm-name of Edmonston & Allan.
This firm built the screw-steamers Canadian and
the Indian, which the British government used in
the Crimean war; and, with these and the Kortli
American and Anglo-Saxon, the Allan line of royal
mail steamships was established in 1856. Mr. Allan
was connected with numerous mining, railroad and.
telegraph enterprises, and in 1871 he was knighted
by Queen Victoria in recognition of his services to
(tenadian and British commerce. He died of heart
disease in Edinburgh, Dec. 8, 1882.
ALLAN", Joiix, American soldier, born at the
Castle of Edinburgh, Scotland, Jan. 13, ]74(i. He
emigrated to Nova Scotia in 1749, and was brought
up as a farmer. In 1770 he went into politics, occu-
pied several local offices, and gained a decided in-
fluence over the Indians. In 1777 Congress gave
him a colonel's commission, and with his Indians
he protected the exposed line of the northeastern
frontier. The authorities of Nova Scotia offered a
price for his arrest; his house was Ijurned and his
wife thrown into prison. In compensalion for the
losses he liad sustained the Massachusetts gov-
ernment gave him 22,000 acres of land, and Con-
gress granted him 2,000 acres in Ohio. He died in
Lubec, Me., Feb. 7, 1S05.
ALLAN, Jon.N, American antiquarian, born in
Kilbirnie, Ayrshire, Scotland, Feb. 20, 1777. He
worked on a farm until 1794, when he emigrated to
America and secured employment as a book-keeper.
Later he became a commission agent and collector
of house rents, through which he accumulated a
moderate amount of wealth. At 17 Wandewater
street, New York, where he resided until his death,
lie collected old books, pictures, autographs and all
rare and curious articles attractive to the anti-
quary. Mr. Allan's collection was sold at auction
for .$37,089.20 He died Nov. 19, 1803.
ALLANTOIN, a colorless crystalline matter oc-
curring in the allantois of the cow; also produced
by boiling uric acid with lead dioxide and water.
ALLANTOIS, a sac-like fictal membrane formed
in the embryos of reptiles, birds and mam-
mals, as an outgrowth from the jjosterior end
of the alimentary tract, just in front of the anus.
It never really oeaurg in animals lower than rep-
tiles; though represented to some extent in the
fish Lepidosiren and in the amphibia by a urinary
bladder. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 369.
ALLARD, Jeax FK.ixr/ors, was born in France in
1785, and died Jan. 23, 18.39. In 1815 he was adju-
tant to Marshal Brune, after whose assassination he
quitted France. He entered the service of Abbas-
Mirza of Persia, and went to Lahore in 1820. He
was made generalissimo of the Sikh army, which
he organized and trained in the European modes of
warfare. On his return to Paris he was received
with distinction, and in 1833 was made chargi
d'ajf'aires in Lahore. He subsequently distinguished
himself in the battles of Runjeet Singh with the
Afghans.
ALLATOONA, Bartow county, Ga., is a station
on the "Western & Atlantic Railroad, forty miles
from Atlanta.
ALLEGAN, county seat, a village of Michigan, on
the Kalamazoo River, 160 miles west of Detroit, car-
ries on an extensive trade in lumber.
ALLEGHANY, or Allegany, a manufacturing
town in Cattaraugus county, N. Y. It i? the seat of
a Roman Catholic college and Franciscan convent.
ALLEGHANY COLLEGE. See Colleges, in
these Revisions and Additions.
ALLEGHENY, or Alleghany, an important
manufacturing city of Pennsylvania, situated on
the Allegheny River, opposite Pittsburg, with which
it is connected by six bridges. It is the terminus
of important railway lines, and- has numerous pub-
lic institutions of importance, such as the AVestern
University of Pennsylvania, and the "Western (Pres-
byterian) Theological Seminary. There are three
theological schools, an astronomical observatory,
three national banks, about fifty churches, a col-
lege for colored persons, several hospitals and
charitable institutions, and a city park of 100 acres.
It has numerous factories, including rolling-mills for
iron, woolen and cotton mills, foundries, breweries,
a blast furnace, a steel factory, and locomotive
works. It is a favorite place of residence for the
business men of Pittsburg, and in. many respects is
really a suburb of that city, although it has a sepa-
rate municipal organization. Nearly half of the
inhabitants are Germans. Population (in 1890),
104,967. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 151.
ALLEGHANT SPRING is a post-village of Vir-
ginia, in IMontgomery county, about eighty miles AV.
of Lynchburg. It is noted for its springs of saline
water, and is much Irequented as a summer
resort.
ALLEGRETTO, in music, is the diminutive of J?-
legro, denoting tb.it the time is slower than that of
Allegro.
ALLEGRO, vlie fourth of the five principal de-
grees of move nent In music, implying that the
piece is to be performed in a lively style. It is often
modified Viy other terms.
ALLEMANDA is a German national dancB in
various kinds of waltz U mpo. The name has also
been applied to an orchestral composition in slow
measured time, not for dancing.
ALLEN, EnwARD P., American Congressman, hVtth
in Sharon, AVashtenaw county, Mich., Oct. 28,'1S39.
He was graduated at the State normal school in
]864,tanght for three months in the Union school at
A'assar, Mich., and then en listed in the29lh jMichigan
infantry. He served one year, when he was mus-
tered out of the service with his regiment as cap-
tain. He studied law at 'Ann Arbor, and was
admitted to practice in 1867. He was elected alder-
man of Ypsilanii in 1872, and again in 1874; mayor
of the city in 18S0, and was prosecuting attorney of
AVashtenaw county in 1872. He was elected to the
Lower Hduse of the legislature in 1876, and again ir'
82
ALLEN
1878. He became asBistant assesBor of internal
revciuie in IHOtl, and U. S. Indian agent for Michi-
gan in IKSli-Ko. lie was elected as a Kepulilican to
the Fiftieth Congress, and again to the Fifty-
first.
ALI-EN, Ethan, American soldier, l)orn in Litch-
field, Conn., Jan. 10, 17.'i7. He was made colonel of
an armed force ki\own as "Green Mountain Hoys,"
raised in order to protect holders of tlie land
framed bv New Hampshire wliich was claimed
y the colonies of New York and New Ilamp-
Bhire; and JtloO was offered for Allen's caj)tiire
by 'ii>v. Tryon, of New York. AMn-n hostilities
with (.ireat Britain began the Green Mountain Boys
captured Ticon-
deroga and
Crown Point. In
consequence of
this proof of pa-
triotism the
New York As-
sembly resolved
that Allen
should raise a
regiment, not to
exceed 500 men.
Allen at the
head of his com-
mand placed
valuable stores
at the disposal
of the Ameri-
ETHA.N ALLE.N. cans, and did
other invaluable work. He was captured Sept.
25, 1777, and sent to England, where he was cru-
elly treated, but on May 6 of the following year
lie was exchanged for Col. Campbell. On his re-
turn he was placed in command of the Vermont
militia, and he also received a commission as lieu-
tenant-colonel in the Continental army. An at-
tempt to bribe him to use his influence in order
to effect a union between Vermont and Canada
was unsuccessful. After the war he settled in Bur-
lington, and subsequently became a member of
the legislature and a special delegate to Congress.
He published a history of the controversy be-
tween New York and Vermont, and lieaxon the
Only Oracle of Man, liesiiles several political pam-
phlets. His death occurred in Burlin:,'ton, Vt.. Feb.
13, 1789.
ALLEN, George, American educator, bom in
Milton, Vt., Dec. 17, 1808. He was graduated ai the
University of Vermont, studied law, and subse-
quently studied theology, and became rector of an
Episcopal church at St. Albans, Vt. Later ije be-
eanif? professor of languages in Delaware College,
and then in the University of Pennsylvania. In
1847 he joined the lloman Catholic church, and for
several years was the consular representative of the
Papal States. He died in Worcester, Mass., May
28, 1876.
ALLEN, Gra.nt, English author and naturalist,
born in Kingston, Canada, Feb. 24, 1848. He was
graduated at Oxford in 1871, and became professor
of logic and philosophy at Queen's College, Spanish
Tovfn, Jamaica, in 1874. Three years later he re-
moved to England, where his attractive scientific
articles constantly appear in The Forlmqhtly, Cun-
liinporarii, and ]Ve»lminster reviews, and various
magazines. His puldished works are: Physiologi-
cal /Esthetics (1877); The Color Sense (1879); Anglo-
Saxon Britain (1880); Vignettes form Va^fre (1881);
riie Colors of Flowers {lSS-2); Strange Stories (1884);
Flnaers and ihiir Pedigrees (1884); Charles Darwin
(1885); Phihstia (1885); For Mamie's Sake (1SS6);
Babylon {ISmj ; In all Shades (1886); The Evolution-
ist at Large (1881) ; and Colin Clout's Calendar (1882).
He writes under the pen-names of J. Arbuthnot
Wilsi"! and Cecil Power.
ALLEN, Makhiso.n', American physician, born in
Philadelphia, Pa., Ajjril 17, 1841. He studied medi-
cine and 'entered the U. S. army in l.sti2 as surgeon,
resigning in 1865, after attaining the brevet rank of
major. Since then lie has been professor of pliysi-
ology in the University of Pennsylvania, professor of
anatomy and surgery in the i'hiladelphia dental
college, and surgeon of the i'hiladelphia hospital.
He has made numerous contributions to various
medical journals, and he has i)ublished Ou///»i<» o/
Coinpnratire Anatomy ami Mediinl /.oology (1867);
Studies in the Facial Region (1874), and An Analysis
of The Life Form in Art (1875).
ALLEN, Heman, American lawyer, born in
Poultney, Vt., Feb. 28, 1779. He was'graduated at
Dartmouth College in 1795, and then studied law;
subsequently he was sheriff of Chittende'i county,
Vt., chief-justice of the county court, a member of
the legislature, U. S. marshal for the dirtrici of
Vermont, and from 182o to 1N27 mini.ter to Ciiili.
Mr. Allen was president of the Burlingt'^.i bra;!ch
of the United States Bank from 1830 to 1836. He
died in Ilighgate, Vt., April 9, 1852.
ALLEN, IIe.nky Watki.ns, American soldier and
statesman, born in Prince Edward county. Va.,
April 29, 1820. He fought in the Texan war against
Mexico, and in the civil war as a confederate col-
onel, always acquitting himself honorably. He
was twice elected to the legislature, and in 1864
was made governor of Louisiana. He died in the
City of Mexico, April 22, 1866.
ALLEN, Ira, American soldier, born in Cornwall,
Conn., April 21, 1751. He was associated with liis
brother, Ethan Allen, in the dispute between New
Hampshire and New York over the land graiits;
and when the Revolution broke out he was inclined
to be a loyalist, but soon decided to serve in the
American anny, became colonel of the militia, and
took part in the battle of Bennington. From 1776
to 1777 he was a member of the Vermont legisla-
ture, and later of tlie constitutional convention of
Vermont, the first secretary of the State, then treas-
urer, and surveyor-general. He was one of the
leaders in the founding of tlie University of Ver-
mont, giving considerable land, labor, and money
to that institulioi). While on a trip to France to
purchase arms for the State of Vermont he was
seized by the English and thrown into prison on a
charge of furnishing the Irish rebels with arms,
and not until after eight years of litigation in the
court of admiralty was he acquitted. He was the
author of The Satural and Political History of Ver-
mont and of Statements Appended to the Olire Branch.
He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 7, 1814.
ALLEN, JoKL AsAi'ii, American naturalist, born
in Springfield, Mass., July 19, 1838. He studied at
"Wilbrahani Academy, then at the Lawrence Scien-
tific School, under Agassiz, and was with liim on
the expedition to Brazil in 1865. He accompanied
scientific exploring parties to Florida and the
Rocky n:ountains, and was at the head of an expe-
dition sent out by the Northern Pacific Railroad in
1873. He became assistant in ornithology at the
Museum of Comparative Zoilogy at Camjjridge in
1870, one year later receiving the Humboldt schol-
arship, and since 1885 has been connected with the
American ;\Iuseum of Natural History at New York.
He is a member of several scientific societies, and
has written numerous reports and scientific papers.
Since 1886 he has had charge of " The Auk," a journal
of ornithology published quarterly.
ALLEN, John Heard, American lawyer and
senator, born at Crawfordsville, Indiana, May 18
ALLEN — ALLIBONE
83
1845. Ht lived at or near his native town, edu-
cating himself as best he could until the spring of
1864, when he enlisted in the 12Sth Indiana infantry
and served in Tennessee and Alabama until mus-
tered out in 1865. He then removed to Kochester,
Minn., and entered the office of Judge Wilson as a
student at law, subsequently graduating from the
law school at Ann Arbor, Mich. He was admitted
to the bar in 1869, and in 1870 removed to Olympia,
Washington Territory, and entered upon the prac-
tice of his profession. Within a twelvemonth his
practice grew to unprecedented dimensions for one
so young, and he was regarded as a lawyer of great
promise and an orator of unusual force and ability.
In 1875 he was appointed United States attorney
for Washington Territory — a position which he held
for more than ten years. In 1887 he was elected to
Congress, and in 1S89 he was chosen to represent
the new and vigorous State of Washington in the
U. S. Senate.
ALLEN, John M., American Congressman, born
in Tishomingo county, Miss., July 8, 1847. He re-
ceived a common school education up to the time
of his enlistment in the GonfederiUe army, in which
he served through the war. He then studied at
the law school of the Cumberland University, and
subsequently at the University of Mississippi, being
admitted to the bar in 1870. In 1875 he was made
district attorney for the First Judicial District of
Mississippi, retiring four years later. He was
elected to the Forty-ninth, Fiftieth and Fifty-first
Congresses as a Democrat.
ALLEN, Richard, a Methodist minister, and first
bishop of the African M. E. Zion Church, was or-
dained by Francis Asbury in 1799; became bishop
in 1820, and died in 1831.
ALLEN, WiLLi.\M, an American author and edu-
cator, was born at Pittsfleld, Mass., Jan. 2, 1784.
He became a minister at the age of eighteen. He
was chosen president of Dartmouth College in
1817, and Bowdoin College in 1820. He was a
voluminous writer, his best known work being his
American Biogi-aphical and Historical Dictionary.
He died July 16, 1868.
ALLEN, William, an American statesman, born
in Edenton, N. C, in 1806. He studied at Cliilli-
cothe, Ohio, academy, entered the law office of Judge
Scott, and later that of Col. King, and was admit-
ted to the bar in 1827. AVhen Allen was twenty-
four years of age he gained a wide reputation by
successfully defending a client charged with mur-
der, and in consequence of his brilliant pleading
received the nomination and election to tlie Twenty-
third Congress in 1832. He was the youngest mem-
ber of the House, and in 1837 took his seat in the
Senate at an earlier age than any other U. S. sena-
tor. He was reelected in 1843, and in 1S48 refused
the Democratic nomination for President. Ho was
made governor of Ohio in 1873, and was a candidate
again in 1875, but was defeated Ijy R. B. Hayes,
afterward U. S. President. He died July 11, 1879.
ALLEN, William, cardinal, was born at Rossall,
Lancashire, England, in 1532. He was elected Fel-
low of Oriel College, Oxford, in 15-50, and although a
Cathcjlic retained this office until 1.560. Tlie follow-
ing year he sought refuge in Flanders. He re-
ceived priest's orders at Mechlin, founded the
English college at Pouay in 1568, and in 1587
was created cardinal, during his fourth visit to
Rome. He possessed intellectual and moral gifts
of a high order, and as long as he lived was the
unrivaled leader of his co-religionists. He wrote
several works on the religious and political con-
troversies of his time. Died at Rome, Oct. 16, 1594.
ALLEN, William Francis, American educator,
born in Norlhborough. Alaas., Sept. 6, isao. He was
graduated at Harvard College in 1851, became in-
structor in the ancient languages and literature in
1867, and later professor of Latin in the University
of Wisconsin. He published a number of text-books.
ALLEN, William Henry, an American educator,
was born in Readfield, Me., March 27, 1808. He was
successively professor of Latin and Greek in the
Cazenovia Methodist Seminary, of chemistry and
natural philosophy in Dickinson College, of philoso-
phy and English literature in the same college,
president of Girard College, of the Pennsylvania
Agricultural College, and again of Girard, for which
he wrote his Manual of Devotion. In 1872 lie became
president of the American Bible Society. He died
Aug. 29, 1882.
ALLENTOWN, a city of Pennsylvania, county
seat of Lehigh county, situated on the right bank
of the Lehigh River, is an important center of trans-
portation between the anthracite coal region and
Philadelphia and New York. Immense quantities
of coal and iron ore pass through this city, and ex-
tensive blast furnaces, rolling-mills and iron works
are in constant operation. There are also numer-
ous tanneries, machine shops, tube works, shoe
manufactories, firebrick works, and woolen and
other mills. Allentown contains a prison which
cost a quarter of a million dollars, a handsome
court house, and is the seat of Muhlenberg College
and of Allentown Female College. Pop., 25,183.
ALLER, a navigable river of Germany, about
150 miles in length, rises near Magdeburg and
flows northwestward to the AVeser.
ALLERTON, Isaac, born about 1583, sailed for
America, one of the "Pilgrim Fathers," in the first
voyage of the Mayflower, and was an enterprising
member of the colony until 1631, when he had a dis-
pute with the settlers and removed to Marblehead,
establishing several trading-stations. He died in
New Haven in 1659. Allerton's daughter was the
last survivor of the Mayfloinr company.
ALLIA, a small stream in ancient Latium, which
emptied into the Tiber. It was the scene of the de-
feat of the Roman army by the Gauls under Bren-
nus in 387 b. c.
ALLIACEOUS PLANTS are primarily those of
the genus Allium (onion, leek, garlic, etc.), or others
nearly allied to it. The term is usually employed
to denote the peculiar odor and taste of all mem-
bers of that genus.
ALLIANCE, a village of Ohio, in Stark county,
on the Mahoning River, about fifty-seven miles from
Cleveland. Population in 1890, 7,607.
ALLIBONE, Samuel Austin, American author,
born in Philadelphia, Pa., April 17, 1816. While ia
the mercantile business he engaged in literary pur-
suits and prepared an
important work en-
titled A Critical Dic-
tionary of English Liter-
ature and British and
American Aiithors, in
three volumes con-
taining 46,499 authors.
He also publislied A
Review by a Layman of
a Work 'entitled " Neu
Themes for the Protestant
Clergy" (1862); New
Themes Condensed
(1853); An Alphabetical
Index to the New TestOr
ment (1868); Union Bi-
ble Companion. (1871);
Poetical Quotations, from Chaucer to Tennyson (1873);
Pro.'ic Quotation.-', from Socrates to Macaulay; Great
Authors of aU Ages, being Selections from iIk Prose
AUSTIK ALI.IKO.VE.
84
A L L 1 E S — A ]. L - S 0 U L S ' D A Y
Works of Eminent WriterK from the time of Pericles to
the Present Day (1880) ; Krpliniulur;/ Quotations on the
Gijujjeh omI the AclK (IHHH). He also wrote for nu-
merous periodicals. In 1.S79 lie was appointed libra-
rian of the Lenox Library. He died in 1.S89.
ALLII^S, TiioM.vs WiLLiA.M, born at Bristol in
18l:i. He was examining chaplain to llisliop lUoni-
field. who in lS4i! pre.seiited him to the rectory of '
Taunloii,0.xfordshire. He joined the Konian Cath-
olic cumiiiunion in 1850, and published the .Sec of '
St. Peter, iu which he accounted for his conversion. '
He was excluded from the priestly oliice by his
marriage, and subsequently became secretary to
the ('atliolic Schools Committee. He itublislied a
niimlier of controversial works.
ALLKi.VTOK PKAK. See Cistard Api-lk, Bri-
taniiioa, vol. VI, p. 72!) ; also Avocauo Fear in Ameri-
can Additions and Kevisions.
ALLKj.VTJON, from a Lalin word signifying " to
bind together," is a rule of arithmetic relating to
the solution of questions concerning the compound-
ing or mixing of dill'erent inu;redients or ingredi-
ents of dilTerenl ((ualitics or values.
AJvLIN'UHAM, Wii.i.iANr, a popular poet of Phi g-
lish origin, born at Hallyshannon in Ireland, in
1828. While a commissioner of taxes in London,
he contributed to the "Athen;cum." "Household
Words," and other journals. In 1847 he succeeded
Froude as editor of "'Frazer's Magazine." He pub-
lished a volume of poems in 1850; in 1855 Dai/ and
Night i>u)uis, illustrated by Kossetti and Ulillais;
Liin.rencf liloutvfidd in Irehind, a narrali\e poem of
contemporary Irish life, in 18(54 ; and, later, Hougx,
Bo.llrtds and Stories.
ALLISON, WiLi.CAM B., American statesman,
born in Ohio in 182'J, educated at the Western Re-
serve College. Practiced law in Ohio until 1857,
when he removed to Iowa. On the breaking out of
the civil war, he became a member of the Gover-
nor's staff, and aided in the organization of the
Iowa volunteers. He was elected to Congress in
1862, and has been a Kepresentative and Senator
from that time until the present, except between
1871 and 1873, when he declined an election, and he
has been an important factor in all the legislation
that has been enacted during and since the civil
war. He was one of the few Congressmen who
were depended upon by the President and the Sec-
retary of the Treasury to devise ways and means
for raising the money needed for the support of the
government. He is an advocate of lower rates of
tariff duties, and a friend of the land grant rail-
roads. He is also a strong supporter of the National
bank system.
ALLIUM, a genus of Liliacese, containing about
150 species. They are perennial, or rarely biennial,
herbaceous plants, natives chiefly of the temperate
or colder regions of the nortliern hemisphere.
Some of the more common cultivated species are
the garlic, onion, leek, shallot and chive.
ALLOBROGES, a Celtic race of Gaul, allies of
Hannibal at the time of his invasion 218 b. c.
They were suljjected to the Roman yoke in 121 by
Quintus Fabius Maximus, and from that time gov-
erned as a part of Gallia Narbonensis.
ALLOCUTION. In the language of the Vatican
it denotes the address delivered by the pope at the
College of Cardinals on any ecclesiastical or polit-
ical circumstance. When the Papal court desires to
guard a principle which it is obliged to relinquish in
a particular case.or to reserve a claim for the future
which has no chance of present recognition, it makes
use of this form of address. Allocutions are pub-
lished l>y being alBxed to the doors of St. Peter's.
ALLODIUM, Allody, or Allod, probably from
the Old High German al and e(, "entire property," 1
and not to be confused with the accidentally simi-
lar od and ol, " estate patrimonial," is a freehold
estate, one which the owner holds as his absolute
property, independently of any acknowledgment,
in rent or service, to a .-uperior. It is thus ojiposed
to land held by a vassal in feudal tenure, wherein
the property was in the lord, the usufruct in the
tenant. See liritannica, \ ul. I, p. 587.
ALLOMERISM, in chemistry, is the property of
remaining uiK-hanged in crystalline form while the
chemical constituents or their proportions vary.
ALLON, He.nkv, 1). D.,an English Congregational
minister and author, was lji>rn Oct. 18, 1818, at
Welton, Yorkshire, England. He was educated at
Chestnut (.College, Hertfordshire, and in January,
1884, was ordained a.ssistant pastor of Union Chapel,
Islington, and in 1852 sole pastor of the congrega-
tion. He became eminent in his denomination, and
was chosen chairman of the Congregational Union
in 1864 and 18S1. In addition to his ministerial
duties he has been a prolilic writer, and in ]8(>5
was elected editor of the "British Quarterly Review,"
a position which he still retains. Besides numer-
ous contributions to various periodicals he has
published the Congreqational Psalmist, Memoir of tlie
Rev. J. aherman, ancl The Vision of God, the latter
being a volume of his own sermons which have had
an extensive sale. That his abilities and merits
are recognized on this side of the Atlantic is evi-
deuced by the action of Yale College in conferring
upon him the honorary degree of D. D.
ALLOPATHY, a name invented by Hahnemann
for the standard system of medical treatment, as
opposed to Homoeopathy.
ALLOTMENTS. In England allotments are
small plot s of land let to agricultural laborers, who
cultivate them during their spare time. The cus-
tom of letting allotments varies in different parts
of the country, a quarter of an acre being about the
average size of plots. When wisely applied it
has been found to be a beneficial system.
ALLOTROPHY is the existence of the same sub-
stance in different forms, each endowed with dif-
ferent properties arising, not from differences in
their chemical nature, but in their molecular ar-
rangement. The carbon, as dia.moxd, okaphite,
and CHARCOAL is a striking example of allotrophy.
ALLOWAY, situated on the right bank of the
Doon, south of the town of Ayr. It is noted as the
birth place of Burns. The house in which the poet
was born on Jan. 23, 1759, was in ISSO converted
into a Burns museum. The " haunted kirk " is still
standing, a roofless ruin, and near by is the Burns
monument.
ALLOXANTIN, a compound obtained by the
mixture of dialuric acid with alloxon. It forms
small, white, hard, brilliant prismatic crystals, is
freely dissolved by boiling water, and its solution
reddens litmus.
ALL-SAINTS' BAY, in the pro^-ince of Bahia, on
the coast of Brazil. It has a fine natural harbor, in
which the navies of the world might ride at anchor.
Its length from north to south is 37 miles, its
breadth 27.
ALLSOPP, Samvel (born 1780), was a member of
the brewing establishment of AIlsopp & Sons at
Burton-on-Trent. He was a descendant of an old
family, and was noted for the charities of his public
and private life. At his death, in 18.38, he was suc-
ceeded in the business by his sons, Charles. James
and Henry. The latter entered parliament in 1874,
and in 1880 was created a baronet. After his re-
tirement from the firm he was raised to the pea*-
age. He died April 3. 1SS7.
ALL-SOULS' DAY, a festival of the Roman
Catholic church, occurring on the 2d of November.
A L L S P IC E — A L .M 0 X D S
bo
WASHINGTON ALLSTON.
The object of it is to alleviate the sufferings of the
souls in purgatory V)y prayers and almsgiving. It
■was first instituted in the monastery of Clugny
in 993.
ALLSPICE, the fruit of Eugenia pimenta and E.
acris, also called pimento and Jamaica pepper. It
is supposed to combine the flavor of different
spices.
ALLSTON, 'W.vsHixGToK, American painter, horn
in ■\Vaecamaw, S. C, Xov. 5, 1779. He -nas gradu-
ated at Harvard in 1800, and went abroad to study
at the Royal Academy, and also at Rome. He re-
turned to America in 1809, and then went to Eng-
land in ISll and spent seven years, during which
time he produced Tlie
Dead Man Revived,
Uriel in the Snn, and
Jacob's Feast, besides
several smaller p i c-
tures. In 1818 he re-
moved his studio to
Boston, where he
painted Jeremiah, TJie
Witch of Endoi; Ma-
riam, Rosalie, Madon-
n a, Sp a n i sh G i r I,
' Spalatro's Vision of the
Bloody Hand, and Bel-
shazzar's Feast. He also
painted portraits o f
Coleridge the poet,
Benj. West, and one of himself. He was also a man
of brilliant literary tastes, and published The Si/lphs
of the Season (1813) ; Tlie Paint King; Tlie Tiro Paint-
ers; Monaldi (1841) and Lectures on Art, and Poema
(1850). He died in Cambridge, Mass., July 9, 1843.
ALLUVIOX takes place where land is formed by
the washing up of sand and earth by the sea. By
the law of England, if the addition to the soil is
made by imperceptible degrees, it goes to the owner
of the land behind it ; but if it be a considerable
acquisition, suddenly made from the shore, the
ground so acquired belongs to the crown. In Scot-
tish law alluvion made insensibly belongs to the
owner of the property to which the addition is
made, but if caused by flood or any convulsion of
nature the ground so added still remains the prop-
erty of the person of whose soil it originally formed
a part. In the United States alluvion signifies the
additions gradually made on the bank of a river,
and belongs to the owners of the bank.
ALLYN, RoBEET, an American clergyman and
educator, was born in Ledyard, Conn., Jan. 25, 181".
He has been successively principal of Wilbraham
and Providence Conference Academies, commis-
sioner of public instruction and legislator in Rhode
Island, professor of ancient languages in Ohio Uni-
versity, and president of Wesleyan Female and 3Ic-
Kendree Colleges.
ALMA, a citv of Nebraska, county seat of Harlan
county, situaf d on the left bank of tlie Republican
River, is one of the most important business cen-
ters in the southern part of the State.
AL5IA is the county seat of IJuffalo county, Wis.,
situated at the junction of tlie Mississippi ana
Buffalo Rivers.
ALMACAXTAR, a name for circles of altitude
parallel to the horizon, and hence for an astronom-
ical instrument for determining time and latitude.
It is also used for determining the apparent places
of the heavenly bodies.
ALilACK'S.a suite of rooms In King street, Lon-
don, used for assemblies, etc., built in 1705 by Al-
mack, inn-keeper, and from that time were calU'd
Almack's Rooms; — now generally called Willis
Booms from the nanie of the present proprietor;
bLit ihe name Almack's is chiefly associated with
the balls tlial have, since the opening of the rooms,
been held there under the management of a com-
mittee of ladies of high rank, and has become syn-
onymous with aristocratic exclusiveness.
ALMADA, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Estreniadura. It is built upon a height over the
Tagus, opposite Lisbon. Population, 5.091.
ALMADEX is a township of Santa Clara county,
Cal., so named on account of its famous quicksilver
mines, from the Spanish Almaden. where were sit-
uated the most famous quicksilver mines ever
known.
ALMAGRO is a finely built Spanish city of Xew
Castile, containing a park and several buildings of
note, among which are Latin schools. It is a man-
ufacturing place, and chiefly exports lace.
ALMA MATER (Lot., "nourishing mother") is a
name which has been given to a university in rela-
tion to its students, to distinguish it from inferior
schools of learning.
ALMAXSUR (ABr-.jAFER-ABDALLAHI!EX-M0HAM-
MED-AL-^MAXsrR), second calipli of the house of
the Abbassides, reigned 752-775. The whole of
his rule was cruel. He persecuted the Christians
in Syria and Egypt, removed tlie seat of the caliph-
ate from Kufa to Bagdad, and died during his pil-
grimage to Mecca in his 63rd year.
ALMA-TADEMA. Lawrence, R. A., a distin-
guished artist, is a native of the Netherlands, having
been born at Drouryp. Jan. 8, 1836, of a very ancient
family. In 1852 he entered the academy of Ant-
werp, and subsequently studied under Baron
Henry Leys. He became a British subject and set-
tled permanently in England in 1873. His works
are distinguished for their careful composition, ac-
curacy of design, and the beauty and finish of their
coloring. The following may be meutionea as a
few of tlie works embodying the general charac-
teristics of his art : "Entrance to a Roman Theatre"
(1866); "A Roman Amateur" (1S6S); "The Vintage"
(1870) ; "The Mummy" (1872) ; and "The Way to the
Temple" — the artistic diploma work for the Royal
Academy (1SS3). In 1876 Alma-Tadema exhibited
a series of three pictures at the Grosvenor Gallery,
entitled respectively, "Architecture," "Sculpture,"
and "Painting;" — and at the same gallery in 1883
there was a sijecial exhibition of his works. He
has also executed several notable works in por-
traiture, lie was elected A. R. A. in 1876, ana he
became R. A. in 1879.
ALMIEDA, a Brazilian town in the province of
Espirito Santo, founded in 1580 by the Jesuits. It
is situated at the mouth of the Reis-Magos.
ALMODOVAR DEL CAMPO, a town of Xew Cas-
tile, Spain. Theinhabitantsare cliiefly employed in
agriculture and silver-mining. Population, 10,362.
ALMOXACID DE TOLEDO, Spanish town in the
province of Toledo, noted as tlie place where King
Joseph defeated the Spaniards in ISOO.
ALMOXDS, Oil op. A fixed greasy oil exudes
when almonds are subjected to press'ure. Either
bitter or sv.eet almonds may be employed; the
former are generally used, and are not as expensive
as the sweet. The expressed cake is valuable in
the preparation of the essential oil. One cwt. of
the almonds generally yield from 48-52 lbs. of the
fixed oil. It has a specific gravity of 918, and solidi-
fies when reduced to 13 F,° It lias no odor. It is
used as medicine, and possesses a mild laxative
propertv wlien administered in large doses.
ALMOXDS, Volatiij; Oil. op. The cake which Is
left after the expression of fixed oil from tlie bitter
almonds contains, among other matters, a portion
of two substances, called amygdalin and emulsion.
Wlien the cake is made into paste with water
S6
A 1. M ( ) N I) — A I. J ' I \ !•: CLUB
the synaptase acts as a ferment upon the aniygda-
lin. The volatile is not originally present in the
bitter almonds. It does not contain a trace of the
oil already formed, so the oil is jiurely the product
of the fermentation of amygdalin, 1(K) parts of
which yield 47 crude oil. Commercial oil of the
bitter almond has a jjolden color, but can fie puri-
fied until almost colorless. The crude oil is very
poisonous, owing to the prussic acid dissolved
therein.
AL^IO.VD (ii-mund), a genus of the order liom-
ceir, sah-order Ami/ddiilrw, or Dnijiamv, consisting
of trees, and distinguished by the wrinkled covering
of the drupe and by the young leaves being con-
duplioato or having their sides folded together.
According to many botanists it includes the peach,
constituted by some into the distinct genus Fersira,
of which the drujie has a fleshy covering (sarco-
carp). while in the almond the drupe is a dry, fibrous
husk that shrivels as the fruit ripens, and finally
opens of its own accord. The almond tree grows to
the height of 20 or 30 feet, is a native of tlie East
and of Africa, Viut has now become completely wild
in the entire south of Europe. It appears to have
been cultivated from a very early period, and is
mentioned in the (Md Testament. It was intro-
duced into l!ritain beftire the middle of the Kith
century as a fruit tree, but it is only in the most
favored situations of the south of England that it
ever produces good fruit. The wood of the almond
tree is of a reddish color and hard ; it is used by
cabinet-makers, etc. It is cniefly valued on account
of the kernel of its fruit. Almonds are of two
kinds, sweet and bitter. The bitter appear to be
the original kind, and the sweet a variety improved
by cultivation. Large quantities of almonds are
annually imported into Britain and America from
France, Spain, Italy and the Levant. See Britannica,
Vol. I. p. 594.
ALMONTE. .IrAX Nepomucexo (al-mati-n-te),
Mexican statesman, born in Valadolid, Mexico,
1S04. He received his education in the United
States, and returned to Jlexico to enter upon a
military career. He served in the Texan campaign,
and was made prisoner at thebarde of San .laointo.
He also took part in the war against the L'nited
States, and fouglit in the battles of Buena Vista,
Cerro Gordo, and Churubusco. He held several
important political oiHces. among them being secre-
tary of state, minister at Washington, first minister
of war. and minister to Paris, and he was also a
member of the triumvirate to whom the French in-
trusted the management of alTairs in Mexico.
Maximilian appointed him lieutenant of the empire
in April, 18t)4, and shortly after marslial of the em-
pire; but when .Maximilian was executed, Almonte
fled to Paris, where he died in exile, March 20,
1809.
ALMORA, the principal town of the British
district of Kumaun, Northwest Provinces of India.
It was an important center in the Gurkha war of
btl.5. It is situated on the crest of a ridge of the
Himalayas, 5.337 feet above the sea. Pop., 8,000.
ALMSHOUSES, termed poorhouses in Scotland
and workhouses in England. They are institutions
for the benefit of the sick and poor. In London
almshouses were established in the reign of William
and Mary, and in Ireland in 1S3S. Compulsory
labor for all paupers able to work was introduced
in 1600. In the United States almshouses are main-
tained by municipal or county authorities, and town
farms are attached in several States. Blackwell's
Island in New York. Tewksbury and Deer Island
in Massachusetts, and Philadelphia C'ounty Alms-
house in Pennsylvania, are among the celebrated
institutions of this character.
ALMUXEC.VIi. a ^lediterranean seaport town in
.Vndalusia. Spain. Us chief exjiorts are sugar,
fruit and cotton.
AL.MV, ,IoHX .1.. .American naval officer, born in
Rhode Island, April 25. 1814. He entered the navy
as midshipman, and rose through all the successive
grades to be rear-admiral. lie was retired April
24. 1877. after nearly sixty years of service.
AL.MV. WiLLiA.M, American i)hilanthropist, born
in Providence. R. I.. Feb. 17. 17t>I. Ainong his im-
portant charities was the establishment of the New
England yearly boarding house, where he educated
eighty young persons at his own expense. He died
Feb. 5. 18.30.
ALOES WOOD is the heart-wood of A'juihria
ovata and.l. agallorhum, trees oi the order .liyHi/a-
riaccrr, natives of the tropical parts of Asia, and
supposed to be the lign-aloes of the Bible. Aloes
wood contains a dark-colored, fragrant, resinous
substance, much esteemed in the East as a medi-
cine and for the pleasant odor it diffuses in burn-
ing. A similar substance, still more esteemed, is
obtained from the central part of the trunk of
Aloe.riihii nijnllochiim, a tree found in Cochin-China
and the Moluccas.
ALOFSEN, Soi.oMox. historian, born in Amster-
dam. Netherlands. Nov. 22, 1808. He came to the
United States in early manhood and became con-
nected with the railroad business. He accumulated
a considerable fortune, and pursued the study of
history and ethnology, becoming a member of
various historical societies, at the meetings of which
he read many papers. He died in Arnneim, Hol-
land, Oct. 10, 1870.
ALORA, a town of Spain, in the province of Ma-
laga. There are ruins of an ancient castle. Pop.,
io;oi4.
ALPACA, a fabric very much in demand from
about 1805 to 1875, manufactured from alpaca wool.
The fiber is very enduring in character, and is used
in the manufacture of lining, braids, etc.. as well as
for dress-goods. The source of the supply of raw
material to the American manufacturer is from
South America. See Britannica. Vol. I. p. 597.
ALPACA PERUVIAN SHEEP, a variety of the
Llama. Inhabits the more elevated parts of the
mountain ranges, living almost on the border of per-
petual snow. The Peruvians keep vast flocks of
them for the sake of the silky luster and fineness of
their wool, which furnishes material for the best of
fabrics.
ALPENA, a city of Michigan, county seat of Al-
pena county, is situated on the shore of Lake
Huron, at the head of Thunder Bay. The harl;or is
an excellent one; the annual manufacture of lum-
ber is about 130,000,000 feet ; and this city is the
headquarters of an extensive trade in extract of
hemlock. Population in 1890, 11,228.
ALPHABETS. The alphabets of the world num-
ber as follows : The .Sandwich Islands alphabet
has 12 letters: the Burmese. 19; Italian, 20; I'enga-
lese, 21 ; Hebrew, Syrian, Chaldea. and Samaritan,
22 each; French, 23. Greek. 24; Latin. 25; German,
Dutch and English, 26 Each: Spanish and Sla-
vonic, 27 each ; .\rabic, 28; Persian and Coptic, 32;
Georgian, 32; Armenian, 38; Russian, 41; Musco-
vite, 43; Sanskrit and .Japanese, 50 ; Ethiopic and
Tartarian have 202 each.
ALPINE CLUB, a mountaineering club formed
in 1857-58. l)e Saussure. whoascended Mont Blanc
in .\ugust. 1787. may be considered the father of
mountaineering. For many years climbing was al-
most confined to this peak and was not considered
a great amusement, but with the organization of
the .\lpine Club it sprang into fashion. The club
numbers about five hundred members, including
ALPINE PLANTS — A LS OP
87
men of the most varied tastes and pursuits in life.
Among the most famous first ascents by members
of the Alpine Club may be mentioned those of the
Matterhorn (Wliyniper, INOo); the Schreckhorn
(Stephen, 1861); Ebbeuz in the Caucasus (Fresh-
field, Grove, 1868, 1874); Cotopaxi and Chimborazo
in the Andes (Whymper, 1880); Mount Cook. New
Zealand (Green, 1882). There are Austrian, Swiss,
Italian and German associations, having thousands
of members.
ALPINE PLANTS, an appellation given to
plants which are found at elevations approaching
the limit of perpetual snow in the Alps of Central
Europe, also to plants of other mountainous re-
gions in any part of the world, whose natural place
of growth is near snows that are never melted.
The small spaces clear of snow in the highest re-
gions have a very characteristic flora, the plants of
which are distinguished by a low diminutive habit,
and an inclination to form a thick tuft ; the stems
are often partly or altogether woody, and their
flowers are in proportion large, lirilliantly colored,
and in many instances very odoriferous. With these
are associated a nv.mber of delicate ferns and beau-
tiful mosses.
ALPNACH, a Swiss village, in the canton of
Unterwalden, at the foot of Mount Pilatus. It is
known principally on account of its " slide," now
disused. It was by means of this slide, 8 miles in
length, that timber was brought to the village from
Mount Pilatus. Population, 1,679.
ALKANNEN, or Alrun.e, were an ancient sect
of German prophetesses. Little images carved
from wood represented these women, and were
used by the Germans as household gods and as
idols of their religious ceremonies.
ALSACE-LORRAINE. For the earlier history and
the narrative of the transfer of this " Reichsland,"
or Imperial Land, from France to the German Em-
pire, see Britannica,Vol. I, pp. 637-38. The laws under
which the country is governed were voted by the
German Reichstag June 9, 1871. .June 20, 1872, June
25, 1873, May 2, 1877, July 4, 1879, and Sept. 28, 1885.
By the law of June 9. 1871, it is enacted, "The prov-
inces of Alsace and Lorraine, ceded by France in
the peace preliminaries of Feb. 26, 1S71. under
limits definitely fixed in the Treaty of Peace of
May 10, 1871, shall Ije forever united with the Ger-
man Empire." The Constitution of the German
Empire was introduced in Alsace-Lorraine on
Jan. 1, 1874. The administration is under a Gov-
ernor-General, bearing the title of " Statthalter."
The present incumbent, January, 1891, is Prince
Hohenloe-Schillingsfiirst, born March 31,1819. Am-
bassador from the German Empire to the French
Republic, 1874-85; appointed Statthalter of .\lsace-
Lorraine, July 22, 1885; assumed office November,
1885.
According to the constitutional law of July 4,
1879, the Emperor of Germany appoints the Statt-
halter, who exercises power as the representative
of the Imperial Government, having his residence
at Strassburg. A ministry composed of three de-
partments, with a responsible secretary of state at
its head, acts under the Statthalter, who also is as-
sisted by a council of state, comprising the Statt-
halter as president, the secretary of state at the
head of the ministry, the chief provincial ollicials,
and eight to twelve other members appciinted by
the Emperor, of whom three are presented by the
Landesausschuss, or provincial committee. This
committee, which attends to local legislation, con-
sists of fifty-eiglit memV)ers.
The Reichshmd has an area of 14,500 scjuare kil-
ometers, or 5,66.s English scpiare miles. It is ad-
ministratively divided into three Bezirke, or dis-
tricts, called Ober-Elsass, Unter-Elsass, and Loth-
ringen, the first of which is subdivided into six,
and the other two each into eight Kreise, or circles.
The following table shows the area, iionulation, and
the inhabitants per square mile of "each of the dis-
tricts and of the whole :
.•Irea, Eiik-
lish square
miles.
Population.
Districts.
1S.S0.
18S5.
per square
mile.
Ober-Elsass
Unter-EIsass
Lothriugen
l,a"0
l.SSti
2,431
4C1.'.H2
i;i2,015
492.713
4C.2.54y
Ii!-J.(i77
4S!',729
S37-6
3-28-0
201-4
Total
5,608
],r.i;ti.o70
l,.5S4.:>3a
275-9
Fiiiancr. The budget estimates of public revenue
of Alsace-Lorraine in the year ending March 31^
1890, amounted to 44,917,871 marks, and the esti-
mates of expenditure to 43,347,799 marks. Tliere
was also an extraordinary revenue of 954,571 marks
and an expenditure of 2,514,643 marks. ^lore than
half of the total revenue is derived from customs
and indirect taxes, while one of the largest
branches of expenditure is for public instruction.
Alsace-Lorraine has a debt consisting of three per
cent, rentes in circulation to the amount of 782,310
marks, — equivalent, if capitalized, to a debt of
26,077,000 marks.
In 1889 the number of farms was 233.866. support-
ing a population of 627,800, of whom 302,.593 were
actively engaged in agriculture. Alsace-Lorraine
yields the usual cereals, and it is also a great wine-
producing country. In 1888-89, 1,543 hectares were
planted with tobacco, and yielded 3,195 metric tons
of dried tobacco.
The cotton manufacture is the most important in
Germany ; woolens are produced on a smaller scale.
In 1888, minerals to the value of 11,786,957 marks
(exceeded only in Prussia and Saxony) were raised
in the Reichsland. There were 910 miles of railway
in Alsace-Lorraine in 1889, of which 820 belonged to
the State.
For information concerning currency, religion,
education, weights and measures, and judiciary sys-
tem, see those topics in this Supplement.
ALSATIA, a cant name for the precinct of White-
friars, which until 1697 was privileged as a debtor's
sanctuary, and consequently was peopled with
swindlers.
ALSEGNO. in music, directs the performer to re-
turn to that part of the movement indicated by the
sign : S : .
AL SIRAT, literally, " the way," is a bridge over
hell, as narrow as a razor's edge, believed by the
Mohammedans to extend from earth to heaven.
ALSOP, .loiiN, born in Middletown, Conn. He
was one of the Continental Congress and also a
member of the first American Congress. He died
in Newton, Long Island, Nov. 22, 1794.
ALSOP, Jon.v, American poet, born in Middle-
town, (Jonn., Feb. 5, 1776. His poems were never in
boiik form, but always appeared in various period-
icals iiud collections. He died in Jliddletown, Nov.
1, 1841.
ALSOP. Ricii.\Ri), American author, born in Mid-
dletown, Conn.. ,Ian. 23,1761. He studied at Yale
College ; but in order todevole himself more closely
to literature he left college before the comjiletiou
of his course, and firganized the " Hartford Wits." a
kind of literary league, which made a target of
everything that offered a mark for ilie ai-live wits
of its members, .\lsop published Mvundy on llie
di.alh vj W'asltiiKjlou (1800); Tlie Enchanted Lake qf
88
A L S T K K
TO
the Fairji Morgunu (1808) ; Thr Nnlural and Ciril JIIk-
lory of Chili; and the Caj)lii!li/ nnd Ailroilun's of J.
li. Ji'wett Among tin; Sin-(iiji'« 0/ Xooiku Sound. He
died in Flushing, Long Island, Aug. 20, IHl").
ALSTER, a river in llolslein. Near IJaniburg it
forms a lake called tlie Great or Outer Alsler, and
witliin the town the Inner Alsler. It flows into the
Elbe.
ALSTR0P;MERIA, or AlstrOmer's Lily, a genus
of AmiiniUiiUtceir, cultivated for its flowers and
curious leaves. The ,1. aahilln, a native of I'eru,
is cultivated in the West Indies for its tubers,
which an! eaten like those of the potato. A kind of
arrow-root is prepared in Cliili from the roots of
A.pallicl'i and other species.
ALT, in music, is a term applied to the notes con-
tained in the lirst octave al)ove the stall.
ALT.\.MA1I.\, a river of Georgia, which flows
south-eastward for nearly 150 miles, entering into
the Atlantic a little below Uarien. It is formed by
the Ocmulgee and Oconee Rivers.
ALTA.MIRAXO, Ig.vacio M. (al-ta_h-me-rah-no),
Mexican jurist, born in the Stale of Guerrero. He
was of ]Hire Indian parentage, l>ut studied under a
Spaniard and devoted himself to jwlilics. He has
lilU'd uitli success many high ollices, and has been a
niemlier of C'onijress several times. Altamirano
published considerable, both in prose and verse.
ALT.VZl.Mirni, an astront)mical instrument for
determining the apparent places of the heavenly
bodies in tlie celestial sphere. The princij)al one in
existence is that at Gr3enwich, designed by Sir
George .\iry. Small instruments of this kind are
used in surveys.
ALTEX, K.MiL August, Count of. Hanoverian
general, entered the army in 17S1. In 1S03 he left
Hanover for England, where he was made conir
mander in the German Legion. He took a promi-
nent part in the Spanisii war of liberation, and
distinguislu^d liimself at tiuatre-Bras and Water-
loo. On his return to Hanover he was made minis-
ter of war. He died April 20, IS-H).
ALTENA, a town of Prussia, in the district of
Arnsberg. It manufactures needles, pins and
hardware. Po[>ulation, .s.7S7.
ALTEX ESSEX is a Prussian town near Essen,
noted for its coalmines.
ALTEXCiAARD, a hamlet in Finmarken, the
nortliernmost province of Xorway, situated on the
south side of the .\lten Fiord, in (iO° ijo' X. latitude.
No cultivation isaltempted farther north than this
point, and even here only potatoes and barley are
produced. There is a meteorological and mag-
netic station located liere.
ALTER EGO is a term some times given as a
title to one who is at complete liberty to act for
another. It was originally applied to a Spanish
viceroy when exercising regal power.
ALTERATIVES, in medicine, a term applied to
remedies which tend to gradually improve the
health without sensibly affecting individual organs.
This grou]! includes a number of substances of
diverse pruperties, of which the action is obscure,
but the results often of great value, .\mong the
most important alteratives are various preparations
of arsenic, mercury, iodine, phospliorus. gold, cod-
liver oil, colchicum, sarsaparilla — many of them
violent poisijus when taken in improjier doses:
ALTHAM, John, American missionary. He ac-
companied Calvert to Maryland in 1G33, where he
established what was known as "the first chapel in
Maryland." an Indian lint used for religious pur-
poses. He converted several chiefs, and through
his influence with the Red Men strengthened the
nfant settlement.
iiLTHyEA, a, genus of plants, of the natural order
Miilnnci'x, including the hollyhock, Al'l-m ■■<,.~,n
and the marsh-n)allow, Allhiiu ojficinalix. It is a
common name for the Jlibitnnn Si/riarui' of botanists.
Sometimes called elu-nhhi/ atlliua and Rose of Sli'tron.
It thrives very well in tiie warmer jjarts of Europe,
and in America it is one of the most frequent orna-
ments of gardens. There are a great number of
varieties raised by florists. It is .nlso cultivated in
■lapan, where it is called " Mukinge" and is used for
hedges.
ALTHIXG, the parliament or general assembly
of Iceland. It was formed soon after the first set-
tlement, when the inhabitants organized them-
selves into a republic and adopted one constitution
for the whole island. The first Althing met in the
year (t;JO, and adopted a code of laws arranged l)y
one Ullljot, who, it is said, sju-nt tliree years in
Norway fitting himself for the task. The Althing,
in which all authority was vested, Ijoth legislative
and judicial, met once a year, in the month of .June,
and was presided over by a "speaker of laws." In
]2(i:i, when Iceland was united with Xorway, the
Althing was deprived of its legislative authority,
but continued to meet as a judicial body until the
year 1800, when it was abolished. It was, however,
reorganized in 1.S43 as a parliament to consider
Icelandic local interests, and in 1874 its powers
were considerably increased.
ALTITUDE, in astronomy, is the height of a
heavenly body above the horizon. It is measured
by the angle which a line drawn from the eye to
the heavenly body makes with the plane of the
horizon, or by the arc of a vertical circle intercepted
between the body and the horizon. The correct
determination of altitudes is of great importance
in most of the problems of astronomy snd naviga-
tion.
ALT.AIEYER, Je.vx J.\ccjies, D. C. L., Belgian
historian, was born at Luxemburg, .Ian. 24, 1804,
and educated at the athen;eum of his native place
and the University of Louvain. He first held the
position of professor of rhetoric in the col-
lege at Ypres. In 1834 he took, charge of the de-
partment of history in the Free L'niversity at
Ibussels, and in 1837 was placed in charge of the
di'i)artnient of political economy and commercial
law in the commercial and industrial school after-
wards annexed to the Royal Athenanim. Tlie Bel-
gian government em[)loyed him in 1840 to make
historical research in the north of Europe. After
his return Dr. AUmeyer published The IHjAomalic
Olid Commercial liclutionx of the Xetherlandf leith
the Xorlli of Ennijie in the Si.rteenth Century. The
great work of his life, in which he spent forty
years, was his labor among the archives of Belgium
for the purpose of publishing an exhaustive work
on The Netherlands in llu: Sixteenth Century. He had
publislied five volumes when he was compelled by
failing health to desist from the work. He died at
Brussels, Sept. 15, 1877. At his death the govern-
ment took possession of his manuscripts, and will
probably publish additional volumes. Among his
most im])ortant works are a Cours& of Philosophy of
IJi-^lor;/ (1840); Margaret of Austria, her Life, Policy,
and Court (1840) ; Summary of Modern History (1S42) ;
Tlw Sea-Beggars and the Capture of Brille (1863); and
Campaigns of Louis XIV in Belgium (18(>4).
ALT.AltJHL, a branch of the Danube River, rises
in Bavaria near Kelheim. The Ludwig Canal, which
runs from this river, connects the Rhine and the
Danube.
ALTO, in music, is properly the same as counter-
tenor, the male voice of the highest pilch. The
lowest female voice is projierly contralto. though in
printed music the second, part in a ejuartetis always
entitled alto.
A L T - C) F E N — A L V 0 K D
■89
ALT-OFEN, a town of Hungary, on tlie right
bank of the Danube. It is a decayed place of great
antiquity, and is believed to occupy the site of a
Roman town, ISicainbria or Aquinemn. It has rem-
nants of a Roman aqueduct, a bath, and an amphi-
theater. Attila made this his capital. Population,
12,000.
ALTON, an important manufacturing city of
Illinois, county seal of Madison county, is situated
on a high bluff of limestone on the left bank of the
Mississippi, near the mouth of the Missouri. The
city has an active shipping trade in stone, lime,
fruit, grain, hay, and the products of its extensive
foundries, factories and glassworks. One of the
principal points of interest ;s the large Roman
Catholic Cathedral. Alton is the seat of a female
seminary, and Upper Alton, two i liles distant, of
Shurtleff College. Population in 18i)0, 10,1.S4.
ALTON BAY, a village of New Hampshire on
Lake Winnipiseogee, frequented as a summer re-
sort.
ALTOONA. a city of Pennsyl-auia, lies at the
foot of the Allegheny mountains, which are here
crossed by the Pennsylvania railroad. The summit
is pierced by a tunnel two-thirds of a mile in
length, and affords some of the grandest views in
the -srorld. The city contains the immense car
and locomotive building works of the railroad com-
pany, extensive water-works, and planing and roll-
ing mills. The mechanics' library contains about
3,000 volumes. Population in ISOO, 30,337.
ALTOTTING, an ancient place of pilgrimage in
Upper Bavaria, not far from the river Inn. The
chapel, said to have been built on the site of a
heathen temple, contains the famous black image
of the Virgin Mary, dating from the eighth century,
and a very rich treasure of gold, silver and precious
stones. Another chapel contains the tomb of Tilly.
Population, 3,232.
ALTRICES is the name given to that class of
birds, whose young are at birth, helpless and gener-
ally almost naked. This is the case with the major-
ity of land birds and with a few water VjirdS.
ALTRUISM, a word introduced into the English
language by the translators and followers of Comte.
In meaning it is opposed to selfishness, signifying
devotion to the welfare of others.
ALUCONIDyE, a family of owls consisting of
the genera Alnco and Pliodilns, commonly called
barn-owls. They are distinguished from ordinary
owls in having the sternum entire and simply
amarginate behind, the furcnlum ankylosed with
the sternal keel and the middle claw pectinated.
The facial disc is highly developed, and triangular
in shape.
ALUUELS, in chemistry, were glasses or earthen
jugs of a pear shape, and in appearance much like
the ancient alembic. They are open at both ends
so that they may be joined to form a series, and
are employed in snblimation. The name is also
given to tubes of glass or earthenware formed of
more than one piece.
ALU.MINIUM is one of the metals present in
clay, feldspar, slate and many more rocks and min-
erals. It is silver-white in color, having a l)rilliant
luster, is about as hard as zinc and very malloalilo
and ductile. Its most remarkable characteristic
is its low specific gravity, which is alwut fmc-third
that of iron and less tlum that of marble. See
Britannica, Vol. I, p. G47.
ALUMIN.V.the most abundant of the earths, is
the oxide of the metal aluminium. It occurs in nat-
ure abundantly in combination with silica, asso-
ciated with oilier ba.ses. The most familiar of its
native compounds is feldspar, one of the constituents
A granite, and several other kind.s of igneous rocks.
ALUMNI, literally, "foster-children," applied to
the graduates of a college or university, expresses
their relation to the alma meter, or "fostering
mother."
ALUM ROOT. This name is given to two plants
very different from one another,but agi'eeing in the
astringency of their roots, which are medicinally
used. One of these plants. Geranium macuhitum
contains more tannin than kino does. The other
plant to which the name alum root is given is Heu-
chera americana, a plant of tlie natural order Sajci-
fragaceic. They are both natives of America.
ALUM SCPIIST, AuM .'-•i,.rrE, or Alum Shai-e
are terms to denote a kind of clay in combination
with iron pyrites and carlionaceous or bituminous
matter, from which is obtained, by double composi-
tion, the common alum of commerce.
ALUMINITE, otherwise known as Alum Stoxe.
is a subsulphate of alumina and potash, once
largely used in the preparation of Roman alum.
ALUNNO, Nic'coLo, one of the earliest of the old
UmT>rian painters, born at Fuligno about 1430. His
works were frescoes, subjects mainly religious.
ALUNOGEN is a simple aluminium sulphate oc-
curring as an effloresence on the walls of quarrie?
and mines, and found in certain clays and in vol-
canic solfataras.
ALURED, or Alfred, of Beverly, in Yorkshire
an English historian of the time of Henry i. He
was treasurer and sacrist of the church of Beverly,
where lie wrote his -l/u/(i/''.s-, in nine books, a work
commencing witli the fabulous period of British
history and extending down to the year 1129 — the
date of his death. It was published at Oxford in
1716 !)y Thomas Hearne.
ALVARADO, a town of IMexico. situated on the
Gulf of Mexico, at the mouth of the River Alvarado.
Population, 0,000.
ALVARL), Henry Elliaii, C. E. B. S., American
educator, born in Greenfield, JIass., March 11, 1844.
He entered the army as a volunteer in 18(32, and
passed through the successive grades to that of
major in the 2d Massachusetts cavalry. After
the war he was appointed captain of cavalry in the
regular army, which position he held for several
years. In 1886 he became professor of agriculture
at the Massachusetts agricult iral college, Amherst.
ALVAREZ, Bernardo d' (al-vah-reth), Spanish
adventurer, born in Seville in lbi4. He went to
Peru when a boy, where he 'iccumulated a large
fortune, which he devoted to charitable purposes.
He founded the benevolent order of St. Bernardine,
and established hospitals in several cities in New
Spain. He died in Spain in 1584.
ALVAREZ, Diego d', Jlexican priest, born in
Guadalajara about 1750. At the age of sixteen lie
had finished his education, and later wrote twenty-
three volumes of manuscript on a large range of
subjects, but only one of them was published.
He. died in 1824.
ALVAREZ, JuAX, Mexican soldier, born about
1780. He was of Indian blood, and in 1853, while
he was governor of Guerrero, he roused his mountain-
eers to insurrection. Santa Anna's power was over-
thrown in 1855, and Gen. Carrera was intrusted
with the .government, .which he relinc|uished in
favor of Alvarez; but .Vlvarez tendered his resig-
nation two months later, and, after procuring
$200,000 and what arms he could get, returned to
southern ]SIexico. He died in 187u.
ALVORD, Thomas Gold, American politician,
born in Onondaga, N. Y., Dec. 20. 1810. lie was
graduated at Yale, admitted to the bar, and in 1844
was sent to the New York legislature, where he re-
mained for ten consecutive terms. He was twice
speaker of the house, lieutenant-governor once, and
90
A L Z A T K Y U A M I 11 E Z — A M B O I S E
a memlier of tlie State constitutional convention in
1867-<>8.
ALZATE Y KAMIltKZ, Jose Antonio, Mexican
scientist, Ijorn in <)ziiinl)a in 1729. Me attained
high reputation as a zoulogist and botanist, antl lie
was a corresponding; meml)er of the Krenfli and
Spanisli academies of science. He jniblislied the
Oacila (li: Litfrntiirn, and also an essay entitled
Ln litnlli' iliK iiii'i/i's perpelui'llrii en ]'(iIi'oii Pupunite-
petl. He died in' the (Mty of -Mexico, Keh. 2, 1790.
ALZOG, .Ion.\NN' li.vrTisT, a German Roman
Catholic ('hiirch historian, was born in Ohlan, in
Silesia, June 29, 1 SOS. He was ordained jiriest in
IS.'W, and the next year received an appointment to
the jirofessorship of churcli history and exegesis in
the tlieological seminary at Posen. He was made
capitnhir of the cathedral and professor and
director of the seminary at lllldesheim in 1845, and
in 1S5:{ he became professor in the University of
Freiburg. He died at Freiburg, ]\Iarch 1, 187S. His
most inii)ortanl work is his Vnh-ersaUjcxchirhtc r'.er
ChriMliclifii Kirche (18-10), whioli has reached its
tenth edition. The American edition differs con-
siderably from the original work. His Gi-undrhs drr
KircliciKji'.fi-hichtf (18()8) was a briefer treatise on the
same subject.
ALZEY, a town of Rhenish Hesse, on the Selz.
Population, 5,9:)2.
AMADIS, a name much used in the chivalric
poetry of the middle ages. Of the numerous ro-
mances grouiied under it, that which contains the
adventures of Amadis of Gaul is the oldest and
best. It is believed that the earliest forms of this
story were a lost Castilian version, about 1250, and
a I'orluguese version, also lost. composed about 1.370.
Inst©! of these we have a 8|)anisli version, written
by (iarci-Ordonez de Montalvo in 14ti5, lirst pub-
lished in loOS. A French translation apxioared in
15-10, an Italian in 1540, an English in 1548, and a
German version was iiublished in 1583.
AMALEK, the chief of Edom, was the son of Eli-
phaz, whose father was Esau. The Amalekit^s, the
first of all nations, were named after Amalek.
AMALTH.EA was the name of tlie goat which
the Greeks supposed to have become Jupiter's nurse.
The famous horn of jilenty, which the god presented
to the daughters of Melissus, l)y which they were
supplied with every necessary nourishment, came
from this goat. It was also supposed that the one
who guarded the animal bore the same name.
AMANITA, a genus of hymenomycete fungi,
closely allied to mushrooms {Agarinis). There are
several edible species, but the majority are poison-
ous.
AMAPALA is a Pacific seaport of Honduras, on
the Tigre island, noted for its invigorating climate
and charming scenery. The harbor is well adapted
for foreign commerce.
AMARAXTE, a town of Portugal, in the province
of Minho, on the Tamega. The town is well built,
but dull and decayed. A church erected in the
]6th century is an interesting specimen of the
Flamboyant style. Amarante was the scene of a
fierce conflict between the French and the Portu-
jfuese in 1809. Population, 5,500.
AMARANTHACEyE, a natural order of tropical
plants, bearing dry and persistent in heads or
spikes, and including the genus Anirn-ayithiis and
the globe amaranth, whose flowers retain their
purple beauty for years.
AMARI, MicHEi.E, an Italian historian and ori-
entalist, was born at Palermo, July 7. 1S06. He de-
voted himself to Sicilian history, and in 1841 pub-
lished his famous investigation into tlie history of
the Sicilian Vespers, a masterpiece of historical
criticism. It was quickly prohibited, and was, con-
sequently, widely read. The author fled to Francei
but the revolution of 1848 recalled him to Sicilyi
where he was made vice-president of the conimillee
of war, and sent on a diplomatic mission to France
and England. The restoration in 1S49 made him
once more an exile, but he was recalled in ls59 to
fill the chair of Arabic, first at Pisa and afterward
at Florence. After the accession of Sicily to the
kingdom of Italy he was made a senator. He i)re-
sided over the Congress of Orientalists at Florence
in 1878. His most important works ara his Sloria
dei Musiihiiaiini di Sicilin (185:^-78); liihlinthica Ara-
bo-Siculo (1857) ; y'uoil Ricordi Arabica sulla Storia di
&V)iOi'(i (1873) ; and Le Epitjrcifi Arabiche di Sicilia
(1875). He Uied in 1889.
AMARYLLIDE.E, a natural order of petaloid
Monocotyledons, including many species distin-
guished by llie beauty of their flowers. There are
about four hundred known species, natives of trop-
ical or sul)-tropical, and more sparingly of temper-
ate regions, but particularly abundant at the Cape
of Good Hope. A few sjiecies only are European.
AMARYLLIS, a genus of bulbous-rooted herbs
of the natural order AmarylUdciv containing a
large number of species. They are natives of warm
regions.
AMATP]UI{, one who does anything from liking,
as distinguished from one who makes it a profession.
The term amateur, in connection with different
sports and associations, does not admit of a general
definition, as it varies considerably in application.
AMATHL'S, or Amathusia, a city which the
Greeks dedicated to Venus, and now named Ama-
thusia. It is situated in the southern part of
Cyprus.
AMATRICE, a town of South Italy, in the prov-
ince of Aquila, on the right bank of the Tronto. It
was formerly a place of considerable imjiortance.
The inhaliitants are chiefly employed in agriculture
and the manufacture of blankets. Population, 2,242,
AMAZOXAS, the northernmost province of Ura-
cil, having an area of 753,439 square miles and
an estimated population of 80,942. Also the name
of a department of Peru, bounded on the north by
Ecuador, with an area of 14,129 square miles. Popu-
lation, 34,245.
.\;\11'..VLLA, or Umballah, is a fortified town
of India, and the capital of the Umballah division.
It is an ini|)ortant British station.
.\MBER, a decayed city in the Rajput state of
■laipur, India, formerly its capital. It is situated
on the margin of a small lake, in a hollow among
the hills. Few of its houses are now inhaliited. and
its temples are empty. On the slope of an adjacent
hill is the vast palace of Amber, now silent and de-
serted.
AMBIDEXTER is a term applied to persons who
readily make use of both hands, and is also appro-
priated to a juror who is bribed to act for each
party in a lawsuit.
AMBITUS, in Roman history, was the "going
about " of a candidate for office to solicit the votes
of the people.
A:MBLY'0PSIS. a fish found in the Mammoth
Cave of Kentucky. It is interesting as illustrating,
by the condition of its eyes, the effect of darkness
and consequent disuse. It only measures a few
inches in length, is colorless, and has small eyes
covered by the skin. It is able to hear acutely.
AMBLYSTOMA, a genus of amphibians in the
Salamandroid sub-order. It is the adult form of
Axolotl.
A]\IBOISE, George of, cardinal and prime min-
ister under Louis XII of France, was born in 14H0,
near Amboise. In his fourteenth year he became
Bishop of Montauban, and in 1493 Archbishop of
AMBOY — ARIERICAN BLIGHT
91
Rouen. By his services lie secured the confidence
of Louis of Orleans, who, on his accession to the
throne iu 1498, made him his chief minister, and
from that time he was prime mover in all the af-
fairs of the realm. After the death of Pope Alex-
ander YI (loOoj Amboise endeavored to attain to
the papal see, but, failing in this, became the enemy
of the succeeding popes. To secure his own elec-
tion he engaged' in various intrigues, resulting in
a schism between the French church and the
see of Kome, and convened a separate council.
His plans were frustrated by the failures of the
French arms in Italy. He died at Lyons, May 25,
1510.
AMBOY, a manufacturing town in Lee county,
111., situated near JMendota.
AMBRIZ, the northern division of the Portu-
guese territory of Angola, West Africa, extending
from the Congo to the river Ambriz.
AMBROS, AuGCST \ViLnELM, born ISUi, died 1876.
In Australian pianist, composer, critic and his-
;orian. By virtue of his Geschirhte der Miislk;
ae is considered the greatest German authority on
ihe history of European music from ancient Greece
to the present time.
AMBROSIA , in Greek mythology, the food of the
gods. It was said to impart immortal youth and
beauty to those who ate of it, and used as a salve
had the property of preserving bodies from corrup-
tion. Hindu mythology has its aiitiltn to which
similar properties are ascribed ; and the gods of the
Scandinavian pantheon were kept in perpetual
vigor by eating the apples guarded by Indun.
AMBRY, a recess in the wall of a church, closed
by a door, and used for the purpose of holding vest-
ments and utensils employed in the service of the
mass. In monastic buildings ambries were used
for various purposes, such as keeping plate, hang-
ing towels, etc. In this sense the term ambry
seems to have been applied to any secure cupboard,
and is so used in Scotland at the present day.
AMBULACRAL SYSTEIM, a term applied to a
partly locomotor partly respiratory system in the
Starfish group of animals. The term water-vascu-
lar is perhaps preferable.
AMBUSCADE, a term applied to any attempt to
attack an enemy by lying in wait and coming upon
him unexpectedly. Ambuscade is unusual in the
civilized warfare of modern times.
AMELANCHIER is a widely dispersed genus of
small trees belonging to the order /Vo.sm'f.r, sub-
order Pomf.T. They are frequently planted be-
cause of their pretty foliage and early blossoming.
The American variety (Ainelanchier hutri/apium) is
sometimes called june-berry.
AMELIA, or Ameri.\, is an Italian town near
Spoleto. It was one of the earliest cities of Uml)ria.
AMELIA IsL.\XD, situated three miles otT the
northeastern coast of Florida. It is about four
miles wide and sixteen miles long.
AMEN, a Hebrew word equivalent to "yea,"
"truly," commonly adopted in forms of Christian
worsliip. According to the catechism of the Eng-
lish Church it signifies, at the conclusion of prayer,
(SV) hi- i!; after the repetition of the Creed, .So /.s it.
In tlie Roman Catholic version of the New Testa-
ment amen is substituted for the "verily " of the
Autliorized Yersion.
AMENDE-IIONORABLE (?>., "honoralile com-
pensation") was in France in the !)th century a
pulilic confession made by traitors and oilier cul-
prits in court, after having had various indignities
inliicted ui)on them by the t>xeeulioner. In Eng-
land the phrase is applied to a frank apology,
sufficient to atone for the wounded honor of
another.
AMENDMENT, in judicial proceedings, means
the correction of any errors or the supplying of any
omissions in the records of a civil action or in
criminal indictment. The changes and additions
made to the constitution of the United States dur-
ing the last hundred years are called the amend-
ments. In British parliamentary procedure the
object of an amendment is usually to make such a
change in a motion as will secure the vote of mem-
bers who would otherwise vote against it.
AMENIA, or Ameni.wille, is a village of Duchess
county, N. Y. It is the seat of the Ameuia Semi-
nary.
AMENOPHIS, a name borne by three Egyptian
kings of the ISth dynasty, beginning with Amasis
about 1525 b. c.
AMENTACEyE, a vast order of trees and shrubs
whose flowers are unisexual — the male flowers, and
frequently the female flowers also, being disposed
in amenta or catkins, and the perianth either want-
ing or incom])lete.
AMENTHES, the ancient Egyptian name for the
unseen world, the Hades of the Greeks. The islands
of the blessed, the judgment of the dead, Cerberus,
and the passage across the river, all have their
original in ameuthes, and are described in the fa-
mous Book of the Dead.
AMENTUM is a kind of inflorescence which is
present in the birch, poplar and willow. It is de-
ciduous.
AMERBACH, Johanx, a celebrated printer of
the fifteenth century, was born in Swabia, but re-
moved to Bale, Switzerland, where he published
magnificent editions of the writings of the fathers,
including those of St. Augustine, in which he was
the first to use Roman type instead of Italian and
Gothic. He died in 1515.
AMERCEMENT, or Amerci.\ment, is a court
punishment having the character of a fine. It has
long remained unused, but in some of the States a
sheriff may be amerced for acting contrary to a
statute.
AMERICA. This name designates the western
continent and its adjacent islands, forming the
main body of land found in the western hemis-
phere. America has an area of about l(i,500,000
square miles, and occupies about 150 degrees of
longitude and about 135 degrees of latitude.
Population 94,510,000. See Britannica, Yol. I, p.
669.
AMERICA, British, a former name for what is
now called the Dominion of Canada, together with
Newfoundland and Labrador. In a wider sense it
includes the islands and colonies of America which
belong to Great Britain.
AMERICA, Rrssi.\x, a name once applied to
what is now known as Alaska, including the Aleu-
tian Islands. This region was purchased liy the
United States from Russia, in 1 867, for $7,200,000. It
was occupied by the Russians for more than a cen-
tury, and the language, religion and manners of
the natives bear their indelible ini]iress.
AMERICA, Si'.vxisn, at [iresent includes only
the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico, with their de-
pendencies. In a wider sense the term ij* fre-
quently applied to all those parts of America where
the Spanish language is commonly spoken V>y the
people. In this sense, it would also include the
South and Central American republics and Mexico.
AMERICAN ANIMALS. See those topics sever-
ally in the Encyclopiedia P>ritannica.
AMERICAN ART. See Fine Arts, Britannica,
Yol. IX.
A.MERICAN BLIGHT, the aiiple-bark planl-
louse. or woolly aiihis. which forms a cottony film
. on neglected apple-trees.
92
A iM E K 1 C A N C 0 N T 1 .\ 1-: X '!' — A .M i: I ; 1 ( ' A X ISMS
AMERICAN CONTINENT. Authorities differ
widely as to llie ar-tiial Ainerifan area. Smne esti-
mate it at a Utile over l-t.OOll.lKM S(iuare miles,
while others inake it as liigh as 17,(XI0,00(i sijiiare
miles.
It may lie safely set down at 14,215,000 stjuare
miles. About ".If^O.OOO square miles of this area
are in North America; 175,(X10 are in C'entral
America; (i,700,(MM) belong to Houth America, and
the remaining 1(10,000 square miles are divided
among tlie various .\nierican islands.
The .American area is, therefore, about four times
that of Kunipe; nearly a third greater than tliat of
Africa, an'l almul six-sevenths that of Asia. Geo-
graphically, America lies within the arctic, the
northern ;iiid southern temperate, and the tropical
zones. It conseciuently possesses every conceivable
variety of climate and soil, and has a capacity to
sustain multifarious forms of life, unsurpassed by
any equal area of the globe.
1. North .\nierica is constituted of three political
divisions, known as the United .'States, British
America and IMexico. The I'nited Stales lias an
area of .".liOO.OOO square miles and a population of
(i2,t)00,(l00. British America jiossesses an area of
.3,500,000 .-square miles, with a population of 5,000,000.
Mexi(o luis an area of 800,0tXt, and a population of
10,000,000.
2. Central .Vineriea is the tortuous strip of terri-
tory connecting North and South America. It ex-
tends in lengtii from SOO to 000 miles, and varies
from .SO to about :W0 miles in breadth. It com-
prises five republics, as follows: Costa Rica, C4uata-
mala. Honduras, Nicaragua and San Salvador.
The united area is 175,000 square miles, and the
total population about .S.OfiO.OOO.
3. South -America is constituted of eleven politi-
cal divisions, as follows: N'enezuela, the Iniled
States of Colombia, the Bei)iibllc of Brazil, I'ru-
guay, I'aragtniy. Ilolivia, tlie -Argentine Republic.
Patagonia, Ecuador, I'eru and Chili. Thecoinliincd
area is ti,7i>0,0IK( srpiare miles, with a total ;<opuhi-
tion of about 40,(KK),(HI0. To these must be add.-d
the islands of -America, as follows: 1. The (ireater
Antilles, including Cuba, Ilayti, .lamaica and I'orto
Kico; 2. The Lesser .Antilles, comprising I'.arlia-
does and about thirty other small islands; .S. The
Bahamas, comprising about live hundred islands,
most of them insignilicai:t in size. Their total area
is about 100,0(K) s(iuare miles, with a population ap-
proximating 5,0(X),000. To these there may Ite also
added Greenland, belonging to Denmark, the popu-
lation of which is too insignificant to m<-nlion.
The area and population of the -American conti-
nent may Ije summed up in round numbers as fol-
lows :
Area, Poiiii-
Sq. m. Inliou.
Nortli -\iiierica (,180,0Cp0 77,ti(»:i.<ilO
Ccritrul Arnirlca 175.000 X.Oii'i.'iOO
South America 0,700,000 40.c«iii.wi(U
Islimds of America 100,000 a.ooil.OOO
This gives America a grand area of 14,215.000
S(|uare miles, and a total pojiulal ion of 12o.0nii.00t)
souls. When Columbus crossed the wide wastes of
a strange and storm-smitten sea he was destined in
the discovery of America lo change the world's cen-
ter of political force and moral gravity.
AMERIC.A.NISMS enter extensively into the daily
speech of the people of the United States. They
have been delined as "certain modes of expression
which are, or which are supposed to be, peculiar to
the United States in distinction to English usage."
But not a few of these so-called " .Americanisms"
are really good old English words, whicli, in the
land of their birth, liave lost their original signifi-
cance, while it has been retained here. Another
class consists of words that have been coined to
express new ideas or describe new processes exist-
ing only in the Western world. Americanisms, of
course, are more noticeable in speech than in books ;
and, in the best American writers, it is diiBcult to
detect anything of the sort, except when intro-
duced intentionally. AVhile it is undoubtedly true
that many words Avhich were once slang have
in course of time become part of our legitimate
vocabulary, yet it is the province of the lexicog-
rapher to say when they shall be so included.
Some are simply vulgarisms, and will always re-
main such, yet others are in the borderland be-
tween coarseness and purity of speech. It must be
confessed, however, that the line between American
slang and "Americanisms" is oftentimes very faint.
The extent to whicli, in the 1,'nited States, the nau-
tical term " aboard " has extended its meaning to
land affairs is quite amusing. Travelers by rail are
urged to (jn <ih(i(trd the cdra, as railway carriages
are called, the conductor finally crying out: "All
aboar'l!" The dismissal of government employees
is figuratively spoken of as being "guillotined" or
'beheaded." — Biu/ijdije-rar and Luggatji-ran are the
"ynonymoiis terms in vogue respectively on Ameri-
.;an and English railroads. Similarly, what we call
"baggage" the English term" luggage." "Whereas,
in England, attendants at bars and refreshment
eounters are women, termed "barmaids;" in the
United States the same place is invariably filled by
a man. who is called a "bartender," or "barkeeper,"
often facetiously abbreviated to " barkeep." — The
significance borne by the word /;r< in the United
States constitutes a pure .Americanism. The new.
settler generally built his log cabin without help,
but when he proposed to erect a house he had a
"raisin,'" as the setting up of the timbers was called.
All the neighbors gave their aid, calling it a "build-
ing-bee," or a "raising-bee." In like manner we
find the phrases "chopping-bee," " husking-bee,"
"quilting-bee," and even "si)elling-bee." The bee-
hunter has enriched England with the phrase "to
strike a bee-line." An energetic pursuit, or rapid,
direct course toward a certain goal, is called "mak-
ing a bee-line" for that point. — Benzine is a collo-
quial term for strong drink in the Eastern States.
In Virginia crown grants were commonly "blazed
out," or "blazoned," by cutting some marks in the
bark of a tree. The word" blaze" (from the French
hlason) has grown into an .\mericanism. \ new-
comer "blazes out" his preemption right on the
tree-trunks, or he "deadens" the tree for the same
purpose by belting or " ringing it" — i. c cutting off
a circular' piece of bark, so as to prevent the sap
from rising. — Blizzard is a modern .American word,
probably more or less onomatopoetic Suggestive
words are " blow," "blast," " blister," "Ijluster." The
French lilixxer, to wound, has also been conjectured,
but there is nothing to indicate a French origin.
As applied to a bitter snow storm, the word became
general in the .American newspapers during the
severe winter of 1880-81 ; but, according to the
"Milwaukee Republican," March 4, 1881, it had
been so apiilied in the "Northern Vindicator,"
Esherville, III., between 1860 and 1S70. Some of
the great -American railroads use various colored
envelopes for differi'n'^ branclii-> if their busiiress.
A M E 11 I C A X I S M S
93
On some of these a blue envelope contains a notice
of dismissal ; hence, the use of the plirase " to get
the blue envelope" signifies a loss of one's employ-
ment. A yellow envelope is sometimes used. — The
most plausible explanation of the common term
bogus, meaning " counterfeit" or "fraudulent," is
that the assumed name of a remarkably successful
swindler, Borghese, was in course of time not only
reduced to " bogus," but finally applied to every-
thing false and fraudulent. It spread rapidly over
the whole Union, and is now one of the most famil-
iar of Americanisms. — Bonanza is a Spanish term
of similar meaning to Placer. It is a nautical word,
and means fair weather at sea. If the reader will
refer to St. Matthew viii, 26, he will read tliat, after
the Lord rebuked the wind and the sea, " tliere was
a great calm." And if reference is next had to the
Spanish version of the jVew Testament he will find
the phrase there given, "una grande bonanza." It
is easy to understand how the word came into its
figurative use as meaning a happy calm and good
Iiope after a weary search. — The word "boss" is de-
rived from the Dutch haas. Originally used in its
primitive meaning of master or overseer, it became
customary to speak of a "boss tailor," or a "boss
carpenter," meaning a mechanic who employed
several hands, or workmen Soon the word became
widely popular. It has even been turned into a
verb, and " to boss a job " is a common expression
for undertaking a business. The word, harmless in
itself, has passed into politics, and become part of
the history of the nation. The head of a party, the
manager of an intrigue, the patron of a bill in Con-
gress, each is called the " boss." The term is cur-
rent from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of
Mexico, from the Xarrows to the Golden Gate. In
the South the house and stable servants were uni-
versally called " boys," no matter wliat their age.
From this arose the custom of dubbing tlie male
help in American hotels "boys," as bell-boy, waiter-
boy, though they may be gray-haired men. Among
his own race in the far Soutli the negro still clings
to the term bitckra, imported from the west coast of
Africa, and originally meaning a spirit or powerful
being,and then, by a natural transition, wliite man.
In his new home he used it to designate anything
specially good, as the bitcra yam, wliich, to deserve
the epithet, must be white and good at the same
time. — Even students of language may l)e surjjrised
to hear that the word bummer is not only not slang,
but it is not even pure Americanism, being found
in the " English JIarket By-Laws " of 200 years ago,
and appears in several advertisements in the Lon-
don " Pulilick Intelligencer" of tiie year 1(100 under
the form " bummaree." It originally meant a man
who retails fish by peddling outside of the regular
market. These persons being looked down upon
and regarded as cheats by the established dealers,
the name became one of contemjjt for a dishonest
person of irregular habits. The word first appeared
in tlie United States during the "Fifties" in Cali-
fornia, and traveled eastward until, during the
cis'il war. it came into general use. — The word
1>uxh has in some places, notably in .Vustralia
and South .\frica, taken the Dutch meaning of a re-
giirn abounding in trees and underwood, (Ixisch).
It is not likely tliat the term "bush-wliacker" is a
pure Americanism; though it is hardly known in
England, it is heard in Australia and South .Africa.
Originally used to designate tlio process of pro-
pelling a boat l)y pulling tlie bushes on the banks
of tlie stream, it became afterward a name for law-
less persons and fugitives from justice who took
refuge in the l)ush. — The .\nierican minister who
wishes to find a field nf usefulness waits for a call,
''nvitation, from a congregation to come and min-
ister to their spiritual wants. When it is accepted
he is "settled," and receives a "stated salary." The
English " election contest" becomes in America a
" political campaign." On American railroads the
passenger vehicles are called " cars " or " coaches,"
while in England they are called " carriages." —
Chores is a pure Americanism, naming collectively
the hundred-and-one odd jobs that need daily at-
tendance about the house or farm. AVhen a stream
of water is suddenly hemmed in between high and
narrow Vjanks, and thereby forced to reach a lower
level with more or less velocity, such a place is
termed a " chute." In mining parlance, too, the
name is given to an artificial stream of water con-
fined within narrow limits. — Clever is one of the
most cruelly ill-treated Americanisms. It has as-
sumed two very diS'erent meanings, designating in
the North a good-natured, obliging person, while at
the South it means gifted and talented. The
American pet word smart has, however, largely su-
perseded it. — The use of deligldful for delicivus in
such a sentence as, " The ice-cream is delightful," is
very common in the Southern States. The word
"digging"has become familiar to English ears from
its use in the gold-mines of Australia. There it
generally denotes only a place where precious
metals are dug for, but as an Americanism it serves
to designate any special locality. The "drummer"
so named, it is supposed, from his habit of traveling
about the country to solicit or drum up custom, is,
in the United States, the equivalent of the " bag-
man" or "commercial man "of Great Britain. The
word " dry-goods " is universally used in the United
States for the wares known in England as "linen-
drapery " or " haberdashery." Dry goods for men's
use are called "men's furnishings." — To dump, in
the sense of tilting a cart and thus unloading it, is
an .Americanism; and ojien lots, where "rubbish
may be shot," as is said in England, are in Amer-
ica called "dumping-grounds." The expert who
handles the throttle of an English locomotive is
called the "engine-driver" — a wise distinction, as
compared with our American use of the term "en-
gineer," which confounds men of vastly different
callings. — Expect is the equivalent in the Middle
States for the New England "guess." The "fire-
man" of American locomotives and steamships be-
comes the "stoker "on similar English conveyances.
" To fix," says a writer, " may be said to be the
American word of words, since there is probably no
action of mind or body which is not at some time or
other represented by this word." AA'hatever is to be
made, whatever needs repair, whatever requires
arrangement— all is " fixed." The President fixes
his cabinet, the mechanic his work-bench, and the
seamstress her sewing-machine. And yet "fix"
may mean trouble and embarrassment. The "New
York Herald" speaks of President Arthur being in
a fix, and a young lady hesitating between two
suitors is in a painful "fix." — Fiximis naturally
abound also, and denote well-nigh everything, from
the "railway fi>; igs" of a new branch to the
"chicken-fixings" of the AVest and llie South. — The
meaning given to the word "lizzie" in the United
States constitutes an Americanism. The old-fash-
ioned musket would frequent 1' -efuse to explode,
the priming in the jian going on' with a fizzling
sound. Hence the word "fizzle" signilies any ridic-
ulous failure after great expectations had been
aroused. Articles shipped by railway are called
"freight" in America, and "goods" in England.
Thus we have the .American "freight-train" and
the English " goods-train " or " luggage-train." The
English never speak of matter sent by sliip as
" freight," but use the term "cargo." or "lading."
The pointed iron plates placed where two lines
Di
A M E II 1 C A N 1 8 .M S
ii mil road par! are called "points" in England;
in llie United States tlie.v are called "frogs," re-
sembling the marks on a horse's hoof. The appar-
sntly contrary expressions "gone up," "gone un-
der," stand for one and the same thing in Western
parlance—/, e. to fall, to "go to smash," or even to die.
Tlie first may be supposed to he drawn from the
sudden elevation attending an explosion; the sec-
ond probalily arose from tlie fate of s(ime luckless
pioneer wliowas drawn under the ra])idsof a river.
"Of tlie facility with which the slang of England
rises to the rank of unohjectionalile words in the
mouths of Americans, the term 'going up' is an
instance. It arose from the spout or tube through
wliicli the pawnbroker sends the goods he has ad-
vanced ujiiin to an upper story. Hence, at first the
phrase ran ' to go up the spout,' and meant simply ^
ilisapjiearance or destruction. Then the .</;</»( was
deemed superfluous, and when the city of Kichmond
fell at the close of the civil war the newspapers
reported gravely that it had none up." — Grit and
clear grit are pure Americanisms, standing for
pluck, or energy, or industry, or all three. Kefer-
ence is probably had to the sandstones used for
grindstones — the more "grit" they contain the bet-
ter they wear. — (tiia^H, says a recent authority, "is
probalily, of all words in the dictionary, the most
thoroughly abused and the most passionately dis-
cussed." "Quoted by almost every writer on Amer-
ica as one of the most obtrusive Americanisms,
there is ample evidence that the word has been
used in England from time immemorial in the pre-
cise sense in which the Yankee uses it now. The
only (lifTerence, in our day, is perhaps that the Eng-
lish " guess" is a fair, candid supjwsition, while the
American who "guesses" is apt to be quite sure of
what he professes to doubt. .\s he only "calcu-
lates "when he has already solved his problem, so
he "guesses" after having made sure of his fact.
" / i7?(C.<;,s I can " means, from his lips, " I am sure I
can." — Gitlch is really a resurrected Old English
word, meaning a dry water-course or gully, and
contrary to general belief has no connection with
the Spanish. To "fly off the handle" is to lose
one's temper, or, in the case of a lady, to jilt her
lover. The phrase has a back-woods flavor, and
probably arose from the great value of the trusty
ax to the hardy pioneer ; when the head flew off the
handle, the tool was useless. The word " help " was
probably coined to avoid the use of the word " serv-
ant " in this "land of the free." Hired man and hired
(//c/ are two other terms used in the United States
with the same end in view. Americans say a girl
is "homely" when they mean she possesses plain
features, and thus a word denoting a woman's most
lovable quality is perverted into a term of reproach.
— Honey.fiigliiig is a genuine Americanism, mean-
ing to cheat or defraud one's creditors. — Hrjrn is
another name for a dram or " drink " of liquor. The
term "jack-knife" has been supposed to be derived
from " jack-a-legs," which, as a name for a clasp-
knife, has queer history. In New England we call,
to-day, a particular kind of cutting implement a
jack-knife. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centu-
ries communication between Scotland and France
of a social and mercantile character was constant.
There was a famous French cutler whose name was
Jacque le Coultre. To this day there are fine razors
made in France, having this name stamped on them.
The knives of this .lacque le Coultre were sent to
Scotland, and so, beyond a doubt, the name jack-
knife, or jack-a-legs, derived its origin. — Jerseti
Lightning is a colloquial term for the apple-jack sold
in the State of New Jersey. It is popularly sup-
posed to be extraordinarily rapid in its intoxicat-
ing effects. A common Southernisni is the use of
"like as if," or " like,' for the words " as if." "She
looked like she knew me" is a common expression,
or, " She looked like as if she'd die." This is very
common in Washington, and in all the States South
of Mason and Dixon's line. — L"l is a word which, in
its application to land, is unknown to England and
universal in the United States. It has its rise in an
old I'urilan custom. The first settlers in the sea-
board plantations of New England owned the ex-
tensive salt-marshes, which produce such excellent
salt-hay, in common, and every man cut and cocked,
saved and salted, as much" of the latter as he
wanted. When, however, the population increased,
and the first simplicity and harmony were no
longer maintained, it was agreed to divide out
these commons in eijual jiarts to all the families.
This was done after the IJiblical precedent in the
election of a twelfth Ajmstle, by " V'l ; " and the
choice of every man, as his name was drawn, and
he became entitled to select his piece of land, was
known as his lot. The firm belief of the Puritans
in a special providence watching over them and
their interests made them continually resort to
this manner of distributing lands or f)ther articles
of value, held heretofore in common, and thus the
term "lots" soon came to designate any great
quantity. In the I'nited States " lumber" means
manufactured limber; hence, we have the terms
"lumber-yard" for the English "timber-yard," and
the " lumber-camp " for a colony of tree-fellers, who
are said to be engaged in " lumViering," and are
called "lumber-men." — Mad, in the sense of angry,
and as a suVjstitute for the English irild, has been
recognized as excellent Old English. Captain John
Smith says: "This made him halfe madde." Even
the familiar phrase "like mad" has old and high
authority. — The Negro nurse of Southern white
children was called " n.ammy," generally sounded
mavrner. This last has invaded the .\orth as the
too frequent substitute for " mamma" among white
children. — In Louisiana the word ("('/('/denotes the
child of a white man and a quadroon. — ilvss is a
colloquial word meaning to tlirow into confusion,
to muddle, to litter. As a noun it signifies rulibish,
dirt, etc. A third meaning makes it do duty for a
fight, a fracas, or a quarrel. — Xolion, in the sense of
small, trifling wares, is probalily the word which, of
all Americanisms, is regarded as the most abso-
lutely American, both in origin and in usage.
"Yankee notions" is a phrase known the world
over. But so grave and didactic a poet as Young,
than whom none could lie less .-Vmerican, used it
nearly one hundred and fifty years ago exactly in
the sense in which it is now used in New England.
In the days of the petroleum excitement in Penn-
sylvania the findingof oil meant fortune to the lucky
prospector. Hence the phrase " struck oil " passed
into current speech to signify sudden riches. An
American speaks of his " people," meaning his im-
mediate kindred, where an Englishman would say
"relations." The word "folk "is similarly used. —
Pirkdiiiine indicates something small, mean, or con-
temptilile. The pickayune is a Carib coin, worth
six and a quarter cents. — The miner or the mer-
chant who has grown rich is said to have "made his
pile" — a phrase imported from the camp of the gold
hunter. " If a man asks for the milk-jug," says R.
G.White, "be sure that he is British bred: if for
the milk-pitcher, be equally sure that he is .Ameri-
can.''— Plari r, an American mining term of Spanish
origin, meaning at first simply " pleasure " at com-
ing unawares to a rich gold mine, has become fa-
miliar, and now means not only the drift-sand
which contains gold, but any good thing which
promises a liberal return of profit. The British,
government in old times used to make grants to
AMERICANISMS
9&
all who were willing to " plant" colonies. Hence,
these colonies were called " i)lantations" at the
North as well as at the South. An American term
for whisky is " poison." "What's your poison?" is
often heard as an invitation to drink. Among
colloquial terms derived from commerce, none
are more frequently heard than "posting" and
" posted." The terms arise, of course, from accounts
which, when fully entered on the ledger, are said to
be " posted." As Americanisms, however, they are
used to express full knowledge of any subject. A
Would-be farmer thus says : " I require much ' post-
ing' (information) before I can begin;" and a
scholar of various learning is reputed to be " posted "
on all grave questions. — The pound parttj is a varia-
tion of the surprise party, in which every person
participating is supposed or expected to contribute
a pound of something to the general stock. Fre-
quently the unopened packages are auctioned off
for the benefit of some charity. Among South-
:rners " pretty " is a word very often misused ; for
.nstance : " Isn't this a pretty day," and this error
is a very general one. North Carolinians say the
scenery is "pretty" — meaning picturesque; the
day is "pretty" — meaning fine; and that a per-
son's manners are " pretty " — meaning well-bred.
In Louisiana, the term " quadroon " denotes the ofiF-
pring of a white man and a gritfin. — The railroad,
as Americans uniformly say instead of railway, as
in England, has brought with it a number of terms
peculiar to the New World. The English " station "
becomes a " depot ;" the " trucks " of the Old World
are called freight-cars, and there are " palace-cars,"
and even "silver palace ears." The "rails" of
American railroads are the "metals'" of English
lines. — To raise, applied in England only to vege-
tables and animals, is used in America also in ref-
erence to men. Nothing is more common than
the question, " Where were you raised?" — The
•anch was the farm of the Spaniard in Mexico, and
the ranchcro was the farmer himself. In the great
West the term " ranch " indicates the home of the
Btock-raiser. The word "rapids" is peculiar to
New World English, and serves to indicate the dif-
ference between a rapid descent or a series of de-
scents in a river and a waterfall or cascade. The
Southern equivalent for the "guess "of New Eng-
land and the "expect" of the Middle States is
" reckon." — Bight airat/, used for slrait/htirai/, ex-
cited the wrath and ridicule of Dickens on his first
visit to Boston. Now the phrase is heard all over
the Union, and has made its way to England also.
If we happen to hear any body say " ri/e cheer" we
may know it is intended to mean " right here."
For instance, a South Carolinian will say: "He
stayed nje cheer with me." — Hii/ht .iinart is a pet
Southern phrase, where one often hears of a " right
smart lawyer," or "a right smart preacher." In
the Southern States the word " rock " means a peb-
ble or a stone. — Rubbed out is a Western euphemism
for death. Very expressive of American haste and
hurry is the comparatively modern use nf " to run,"
in the sense of to manage or to keep, wlien applied
to any kind of business, from a gigantic hotel to
a petty grocery. — Who rxins this business now?"
means "Who is the manager?" The phrase "run
on a bank" is not a pure Americanism, being often
heard in England. The corner pulilic-liouse of
English cities gives place, in America, tci the more
pretentious " saloon." — Salt and ixdiimi are Western
Americanisms. In the parlance of tlie mining
camp, to "salt" a wortliless mine is to secretly
place or scatter therein samples of rich ore for tlie
purpose of effecting a sale. The rich ore is tlie
"salt," and the practice is known as "salting a
mine." — Sample-ruum, was once a name for a liquor
saloon, supposed to embody the fiction that patrons
enter only to " sample '' or try the beverages within.
This, and the kindred term, "shades" (q. v.) is
probably an outgrowth of the temperance agita-
tion, which sought to render drinking vulgar in
" bar-rooms " and " saloons." — Sand is an American-
ism, whose first meaning is the same as "grit." A
man with " sand in his craw " is supposed to be
very plucky. A second colloquial use of the word
makes it stand for money, l;>ut though very com-
mon in the States it is doubtful if it is a pure
Americanism. In New England "garden sass"
means any kind of small vegetables. " One of the
few French words which have become naturalized
in American speech is the chantier, thoroughly
adopted in the shape of shantij. — Originally used by
royageurs and Canadian immigrants, it is univer-
sally employed to designate a slight wooden shed or
shelter." — Shebang is the name of a college stu-
dent's sanctum, of a low drinking den, and of a
cheap theater or variety show. The word is
thought to be a corruption of the French cabane,
and is common throughout the United States. — The
word sliinney, denoting a stick with a crook to it,
used by boys to strike a ball with, and also applied
to the game itself, is from the North of Ireland. It
was in common use in the United States fifty years
ago, but is not so commonly employed to-day. The
outer covering of the spike or fruit of the maize is
the shuck. This name is peculiar to the South. In
the Western and Northern States the equivalent
term is "husk." So a certain rural gathering is, in
the South, a " shucking-bee," and in the other local-
ities named a " husking-bee." — Sich, applied in Eng-
land solely to nausea, is in America used for any
kind of indisposition. — Sink-holes are abrupt inden-
tations in the soil, from the bottom of which min-
eral springs frequently issue. — Skedaddle is an
Americanism which obtained currency during the
civil war, and signifying precipitous flight. The
word claims sometimes Irish, sometimes Scottish,
descent. But of all explanations the most plau-
sible is, strangely enough, the theory that the word
comes from a Greek word, meaning " I scatter, I
disperse tumultuously," and used by both Herodo-
tus and Homer. — Slip has acquired a new mean-
ing in its new home. It means an opening between
two wharves or in a dock ; hence many localities
in the city of New York bear such names as " Peck
Slip." — Small Pejtatoes is applied to anything or any-
body small, mean, or petty. The complete phrase
is " Small potatoes and few in a hill." To "smile"
is the Americanism, once immensely popular from
Elaine to California, used to denote the act of
drinking liquor. " Let's smile " was a universally
understood talisman. — Snufed out is a California
euphemism for death. The humorous son of the
West speaks of the discontented settler as a man
W'ho has "soured" on his "section." The jilted
lover "sours" on his former flame, and to lose
money by the failure of a bank lias "soured" the
stockholders. — The stoop, as designating the place
between the steps leading up to the huise and the
door, is a genuine Americanism due to the Dutch,
for the burghers loved to sit on their stoeps (seats)
smoking their pipes. Now stooii is the name for
any covered or open porch in tront of a house. —
.S7<))v is the universal equivalent for the English
"shop." In a country newly n'^'hiimed irom the
forest tree-stumps remain for years a ctmspicuous
feature of the landscape. Such often formed a con-
venient platform for political speakers, and hence
"to take the stump," or to "stump the country,"
signifies a traveling from jilace to place, speaking
and canvassing for votes. Such a man is known as
a "stump speaker." In the Northern States and
96
A M E I{ I C A \ I S T — A M E S
in Canadii, a galliprijig in the manic {jruvc fur the
purpose (jf inakiii;;,' siiijar, wliicli is ofjlained from
Byrnp drained from " lappinir " tlie snt;ar-ma|(le, is
a " siit;ar-camp." — A grove nl siigar-niaiile trees is
called a " sugar-orchard " in the Norllierii Slates
and Canada. A soeial f^atlieriiij;, in which the fam-
ily visited is not; forewarned, lii'iiii^ therefore "sur-
prised," and on whicli aeeount visitors lirinR their
own refresliments, is called a "surprise party."
The Americans "switch " a train where their Kiifj-
lish cousins speak of "slunitiut;" one. The "switch-
man" or "switch-tender" of American railroads is
the " pointsman" of Knglish roatls. A law against
the gamo of nine-pins having been evaded hy the
addition of the tenth |)in, the man who bowled over
the whole number was said to nuike a "ten-strike,"
so the phrase " to make a ten-strike" passed into
current phraseology to indicate a lucky stroke.
The wore! "timlier" is used Ihrougliout the West
for any woodland or forest growth. Hence "to
take to the timlier" is to hide in the forest. The
phrase " ])resideiitial timber" is also used of men
considered available for that high ollice. As none
but the tallest and straightest trees are selected by
the woodman's axe, so oidy the most eminent men
are likely to be talked of for the highest ollice in
the gift of the peoi)le. Our .\merican custom of
calling the prong of a fork a "tine" is a Lincoln-
shire j)eculiarity, and came over with our fathers.
The more general word "prong" is, indeed, driving
it out, and the word "tine" is understood in Lin-
colnshire alone. "To get to go" is essentially a
Georgia expression. They say : " Don't fail to come
to-night," and the reply is, "I've tried 'to get to
go' three weeks, now, so I reckon I'll be there
t'night." The expression "Do don't" is heard in
Georgia and South Carolina, but rarely elsewhere.
The road-bed of a railroad, which we name the
"track," is called the "line" in England. The
practice, common to hunted game, of seeking ref-
uge in the branches of a tree, led to the phrase " to
tree" one's self, or "to tree" game. In an opossum
chase the dogs often mistake the tree up which the
oreature has sought safety, and are then said to be
"barking up the wrong tree," a phrase which has
come to be applied to similar blunders in real life.
The phrase "u]> a tree," meaning "in a ))redica-
ment," is also of the same origin. Kitchen-garden
produce in America is known as "truck," "garden-
truck," or " garden-sass." Another meaning of the
Americanism "truck" is its equivalent use for the
English words " lumber," "litter," or "rubbish," ot
any sort. The vehicle known as a " truck " in th.e cities
of the United States is the " van " or the " dray " of the
English. .\s strange a perversion of a word as can
be found in the long list of Americanisms is t he use
of the word " \igly " for "ill-tempered" or "angry."
Throughout the Middle States, especially in the
rural portion, the "vandoo" signifies an auction
sale of goods and chattels. It is, of course, a cor-
rupt u>',\ of rfiidne. Like the term crevasse, the word
"wash-out" also signifies a break in an embank-
ment: but while a "crevasse" has reference to a
river dike, a "wash-out" apjilies more especially to
a railway embankment, and also to the dropping
out of the bottom of a canal. — Yon all, or as it
should I)e abbreviated, i/all, is one of the most
ridiculous of all the Southernisms we can call to
mind. It usually means two or more persons, but
is sometimes used when only one person is meant.
For instance, a caller, on taking her departure,
says : " Y'all must come to see us." She means I hat
the lady upon whom she is calling and her husband
may call.
AMERICANIST, a term applied to one who is de-
voted to the study of subjects especially relating to
America. It differs from American in that it may
be i)roperIy applied to a person of any nation who
interests himself prominently in the study of 8ul>
jects relating to .\inerica.
A.MKlilCAN KIVK1{ (Cal.), a branch of the Sac-
ramento, formed by the junction of three small
confluents, which rise in the Sierra Nevada, and
wind among those mountains in narrow, deep can-
ons. The land surrounding these branches afifords
a valuable supply of gold.
AMERM.A.N, 1,i;mii:i,, a lawyer of Scranton, Pa.,
was born in l>aiiville, I'a. Oct. 2\), 1K46. lie was
educated at KiicKnell University. He taught
school while studying law. He was "ccninly solicitor,
a representative in the Stale legislature two terms,
city comptroller of Scranton, Pa., and reporter of
the State supreme court. In ISiKj he was elected
a representative from the Eleventh liistricl of
Pennsylvania to the Fifty-second Congress.
AMKS, Adbi.beht, U. S. soldier, born in Rock-
land, Me., Oct. 31, lS3ij. He was graduated at West
Point, and assigned to theolli artillery. Hi- wasbre-
vetted for gallantry in the battle of Bull Hun, at
which time he received a Avound. He took part in
the siege of Yorktown, and the battles of (iaines'
Mills, Malvern Hill, Fredericksburg, Chancellors-
ville, Antietam, and Gettysburg, besides several
other minor engagements throughout the civil war.
On several occasions he was brevetted for " gallant
and meritorious conduct on the field," and rose
through the successive grades lo be lieutenant-
colonel, 24lh infantry. In 1868 he was appointed
provisional governor of IMississippi, under acts of
Congress providing for such temporary government,
and in IStiO Gen. Ames was elected U. S. Senator.
In b'<73 he became governor of Mississipjii by the
popular vote, but in 1876 resigned and removed to
jlinnesota.
AMES, Edward R.vmoxd, JI. E. bishop, borr in
Athens, Ohio, May 20, 1806. In 1S28 he opened a
school at Lebanon, 111., which afterwards became
JIcKendree College. In 18.30 he joined the Meth-
odist Episcopal church, and ten years later was
chosen corresponding secretary of the missionary
society. He became a presiding elder in 1844, and
filled that position ti<| he was chosen bishop in
1802. Ames was the first Methodist bishop to
visit the Pacific coast. He died 'n Baltimore, April
25, 1879.
AMES, Joseph, American painter, born in Rock-
bury, N. H., in 1816. He was wholly self-taught
when some of his best works were produced, but
later he studied at Rome. He returned to the
United States, and two years before his death he
was elected a member of the national academy of
design (1S70.) Some of his best-known works are:
liititiiri, I'rescntt, K)itfn<oii, Riichi'l, Preside/it Felion
of Ildrvard. Among his ideal paintings are Miranda,
A'i(jlit, Mornin<i, The Death uf Wehfler, and Mnui
Muller. He died of brain fever in New York, Oct.
30, 1872.
AMES, N.\TH.\x P., .'Vmerican manufacturer, born
in 1803. In 1829 he became known as a skillful
sword-maker, and furnished large numbers to the
U. S. (iovernment. In 1834 he incorporated the
Ames Manufacturing Co., and it soon became fa-
mous, furnishing most of the brass cannon for the
U. S. Army. This foundry also turned out the statues
of De Witt Clinton in Greenwood cemetery, Brook-
lyn. N. Y. ; of George Washington, Union Square,
New York, and of Franklin in School street. Bos-
ton. Mr. 'Ames dieil in Chicopee, .April 23, 1847.
AMES. X.vTUAXiKi,, an American physician, born
in 1702, died at Dedham, :Mass., 1765. He ac(]uired
a household reputation throughout New England
by his calculations as an astronomer, in his al-
A M E S — A .M .M E L 1 X E
97
nianacs, whicli were published successively from
1726 to 1775 (after 1765 by his son, N. Ames, .Jr.). He
kept a tavern in Dedham which in those days
added to his celebrity. Ilis son, Fisher, occu|/ies a
distinguished place among the orators and patriots.
AMES, O.iKEs, American manufacturer, born in
Easton, Mass., .Jan. 10, 1804. At an early age he be-
came a member of the firm of Oliver Ames &
Sons, manufacturers of shovels and picks, and dur-
ing the gold excitement in California and later in
Australia, turned out enormous quantities of sup-
plies. During the civil war they furnished the gov-
ernment with a large proportion of the swords and
shovels used. In 1861 Mr. Ames became a member
of the executive council of Massachusetts. From
1862 to 1873 he served continuously in Congress as
representative of the Second Massachusetts District.
He died in North Easton, Mass., May S, 1873.
AMES, Oliver, American manufacturer, born in
Plymouth, Mass., Nov. 5, 1807. He was a member
of the firm of Oliver Ames & Sons, manufacturers
of shovels, picks, swords, etc., and at his brother's
death became pi-esident of the firm. He was a
member of the Massachusetts senate from 18.52 to
1857, and was elected president of the Union Pacific
railroad company in 1868. He died in North
Easton, Mass., March 9, 1877.
AMES, Samiel, American jurist, born in Provi-
dence, R. I., Sept. 6, 1806. After he was graduated
at Brown in 1823, he became a member of the
Rhode Island bar. He was a member of the city
council of Providence, and for many years served in
the State Assembly, being speaker of that body in
1844 and 1845. During the period of the rebellion
in 1842 he was a quartermaster of the State troops,
and in 18.53 was appointed to the legislature to rep-
resent the State in tlie adjustment of the boundary
between Rhode Island and Massachusetts. He was
one of the commissioners in 1855 to revise the stat-
utes of Rhode Island, and in 18-56 was elected chief
justice of the State supreme court. Mr. Ames puli-
\ii-hed Anf/ell and Ames on Corporations, a,nd Rhode
hla )><} Reports. He died in Providence, Dec. 20, 186.5.
AMESBURY, a village of ^Massachusetts, about
forty miles north of Boston, is noted as being the
home of the poet AVhittier. It contains an excellent
high school, and is the headquarters of extensive
manufactures of boots and shoes, carriages and
woolen goods. Population in 1890, 9,798.
AMHARA, the middle and largest of the three
divisions of Al)yssinia, extends from the Tacazze to
the Blue Nile. Capital, Gondar.
A:MHERST. ,T. II., actor, born in London, Eng-
land, in 1776. After appearing in his native city he
emigrated to Philadelphia, and acted in several
plavs. He was an accomplished classical scholar
and wrote many plays, among his most popular
being: WiU Walrh; or, the Blaek PAa?) ton (1825) ;
Napoleon Bonaparte's Invasion of Russia; or, the
Conflaqratlon of Moscov) (1850) ; Ireland as it /8(1850) ;
The Battle of Waterloo (18.50); and Ireland as it Was
(1850). He died in Philadelphia, Aug. 12, 1851.
AMHEKST, .Teffeuy, English soldier, born in
Riverhead.Kont, England,. Ian. 29, 1717. When a boy
he served in Flanders, where he won distinction
and became a favorite of the king. In 1760 he was
appointed governor-general of the British posses-
sions in America, and in 1763 he was made governor
of Virginia. In 1776 he was raised to the peerage,
and in 17cS7 received a i)alent as Baron Amherst of
Montreal. He died Aug. 3, 1797.
AMHEKSTBTRG, one of the oldest towns of On-
tario, {^anada, situated on tlie Detroit Kiver, near
its entrance inin lake Erie, was during the war of
1813-14 first dismantled by the Britisli under Gen-
eral Proctor, and afterwards destroyed by the
1—7
Americans under General Harriso». Its manu-
factures consist chiefly of mill products and iron.
The prin'.'ipal buildings are the court-house and a
lunatic asylum.
AMHERST COLLEGE is situated in the town of
Amherst, Hampshire county, ilassachusetts. It
was founded as "The Collegiate Institution at Am-
herst" in 1821, and incorporated under the name
of Amherst College in 1825. Population of Amherst
in 1890, 4,512. See Britannica, Vol. I, p. 737.
AMHEKST ISDANDS are a group lying west of
the southwestern extremity of the peninsula of
Corea, in the Yellow Sea.
AMI, Henry il., Canadian scientist, born in Belle-
Riviere, Quebec, Nov. 23, 1858. After he was gradu-
ated at ilcGill College in 1882, he was appointed on
the staff of the geological survey of Canada, became
assistant paleontologist in 1886, and the same year
was engaged in classifying the fossil remains of
Canada. He has published numerous reports on
stratigraphic and paleontologic subjects. In 1883
he became a permanent civil service officer.
AMIA CALVA, a species of fishes representing
the family AmiirUe, is found in the fresh waters of
North America, and is variously known as dog-fish,
lawyer, bow-fish, mud-fish, brindle andgrindle.
AMICUS CURI-E : in law, a friend of the court ;
a person in court who, not having any employment
or interest in the case, informs the judge of some
error, or makes a suggestion on a point of law in aid
of the duty of the court.
AMIDES, a name originally applied to a group
of organic compounds derived from ammonia. At
present the term amide is restricted to the case in
which one or more atoms of hydrogen are replaced
by an arid radical, and the amides are called pri-
mary, secondary, or tertiary according as one, two,
or all three of the atoms of hydrogen are replaced
by the acid radical.
AMIDOGEN, or Di.\>tiDE, formerly looked upon
as a hypothetical body. Curtius, however, has re-
cently produced the sulphate of amidogen, from
which amidogen itself is obtained by the action of
an alkali. It is a gas possessing a peculiar odor,
and when inhaled strongly affects the nose and
fauces.
AIMIEL, Hexri Frederic, was born at Geneva in
1821. He studied at Berlin, where he read indus-
triously, returning to Geneva thoroughly initjued
with German science and philosophy. In 1849 he
was appointed professor of ^Esthetics and French
Literature at the Academy (University) of Geneva,
which pest he exchanged four years later for the
proiessorsnip of Moral Philosophy. He died in
1881. He was a man of wide culture and considera-
Iile critical power.
A]\IIRANTE ISLANDS, a group of eleven low.
wooded islands situated southwest of the Seychelles,
opposite the eastern coast of Africa. They lielong to
Great Britain, and form a dependency of ilaurilius.
AMITE, a river about 1-50 miles long and naviga-
ble for about 50 miles, rises in the southwestern part
of Mississippi, and flows in a southerly direction
through Louisiana into Lake Maurepas.
.\MLET1I, anancient,or, perhaps, fabulous prince
of .Jutland, whose story is told by Saxo CJrammati-
cus, and who is believed liy many to be the ori^'iiial
hero of Shakespeare's Hamlet.
AMM.\N,or Ammo.v (the ancient Rabbah, rebuilt
and called Pliiladelphia by the Greeks), a ruined
city of Syria on an affiuent of the .Jordan. It lias
numerous remains of (ireek edifices.
AJIMELl.VE is a white crystalline substance pro-
duced by the action of an acid or an alkali on
melam, and regarded as an amic acid of cyanu«
ric acid.
98
A M M K X — A M I' K I. O I' S IS
A^^MK^, Dakiki.. American niival oHicer.liorn in
•Ohio, May 15, iH2iJ. In- ciitfrcd tlie navy as mid-
eliipinaii, and continued in its service for 4!t years
and six mouths, when he was made rear-admiral and
placed on llie retired list, Dec. 11, 1877.
AM. MEN, J.\cou, .Vinerican soldier, born in Bote-
tourt county, Va., .Ian. 7, 180s. He was graduated
at the L'niled States .Military .\cademy in l.S.'il,
and then served as instructor in mathematics at
^\'est I'oinl, ISacon College, .lelferson College, and
the University of Indiana, lie served during the
civil war through all the successive grades from
captain oi volunteers to brigadier-general. He re-
signed ,Ian. 14. 1SI)5.
A.M.M1I>()\VN, Edw.m(I) Holmi;s, American mer-
chant, born in Soulhbridge, .^lass., Oct. 28, 1830.
His family is one of the
oldest in New England,
having started in tliis
country with Koger
Ammidown, a Huguenot
refugee, who came to
Salem in bl40, and sub-
seiiuenlly settled in
Boston, where succeed-
ing generations became
lirominent. Edward H.
.\inmidown passed his
boyliood and youth in
Boston. In IsfiO lie re-
moved to New York and
entered the dry-goods
EDWARD H. AMMiDowK. coinmissioii busiuess,
and in a few years became one of the leading men
in that line of trade.
AMMODVTE is a poisonous serpent related to
the viper. There is an Eastern species whose sting
causes speedy death.
AMMONIAl'HONE, the name of an instrument
-for improving the quality of the singing and speak-
ing voice by iiihalingair saturated with peroxide of
hydrogen and free ammonia. It was invented
ai)Out 18S0 by Dr. Carter .Moffat, who ascribed the
.superiority of Italian vocal organs to the presence
of those gases in the air of Italy.
A^niUNlTES, a genus of fossil shells, nearly
allied to the recent genus Nautilus. The family to
which they belong ranged from Pal:rozoic to
Mesozoic times, and embraced a number of differ-
ent forms, varying greatly in size.
AM^IONITIDJC, a geniis of cephalopodous mol-
lusks, represented solely by the extinct Aimnonili-i.
AMMONIUM, the site of the famous temnle of
Ammou in the Libyan Desert, the modern oasis of
Sinah.
AMMUNITION. See Arms.
AMNESI.V, loss of memory ; specifically, a condi-
tion in which a j)erson is unable to recall a word
that is wanted, or, perhaps, understand it when
spoken. In Zoology, a genus of coeleopterous
insects.
AMNION is a fuetal membrane, which immedi-
ately invests the embryo, appearing very early in
the development of the latter, and adhering closely
to it.
AMNIOS, in botany, is a thin, semi-transparent
substance, composed of gelatine, which proiccts and
nourishes the young seed.
AMiJEBA, a name given to a numi.er of the
simplest animals, or protozoa, which consist of
masses of minute living matter. They ari> found
in fresh water or in mud, and occasionally in damp
AMCEBEAN VERSES are such as answer one
■anot'v^r alternately, as in some of Virgil's Eclogues.
AMOliPlIOUS, a term used in chemistry to
describe the uncrystallized in opposition to the
crystallized condition of bodies.
A.MO.MLAl, a genus of Ziitijibntircx, to which
Ijelong the plants yielding Cardamoms and Grains
of Paradise.
AMOHOOS, an island among the Sporades group,
in the Grecian Archiiielago, eighteen miles south-
east of Naxos. It is thirteen miles long and sis
miles wide, and contains many mountains. The
chief town is Amorgos, and the port, situated on the
northeast coast, is Santa Anna.
AMOKOSO, in music, is descriptive of passages
to be rendered in a manner expressive of love — af-
fectionately, tenderly.
AMOKV, ItoiiKUT, American physician, born in
Boston, May 2, 1842. He was graduated at Harvard
in 18t>3, and after studying inedii'ine in Paris and
Dublin he settled in Uongwood (Brookline;, .Mass.
He occupied several imjiortant otiices in the town,
and in 18()9 was elected lecturer at Harvard Col-
lege, and later professor at Bowdoin. He resigned
in 1874, and became assistant-surgeon in the Slas-
sachusettg volunteer militia, surgeon two years
later, and then medical director. lie has published
Brotiiiclix tif I'otumiuin 'mil Aimiiimitiiii (1872). and .!<■-
lion of Nit roll K Oxide (1870), and has conlriliuted
numerous important papers to various scientific
periodicals.
AMOKY, Tiio.MAS, an eccentric author of Irish
descent, who was born about Iliill and died in 1788.
He was a son of Councilor Amory, who went to
Ireland with William III, and was made secretary
of the forfeited estates. Amory lived a retired life.
His cJiief works are: 1/ins uj .Scrcral Ladies of
Great Britain; A Hinlory of Aittinuities, I'rodurtions
of Nature, etc. (1755), and the Life of John Buncle
(1756).
AMORY, TnoMAS Cokfi.n, American lawyer, bom
in Boston, Mass., in 1809. He was graduated at
Harvard t;ollege in 1830, and was admitted to the
bar four years later. For many years he was con-
nected with the government of Boston. He pub-
lished numerous reports, and contributed on histor-
ical subjects both in prose and verse to various
magazines.
AMORY, Thomas J. C, American soldier, born in
Massachusetts about 1830. He was graduated at
West Point in 18.il, and served in several battles of
the civil war. He became major of volunteers
in September, 1S()4, and was brevetted brigadier-
general on the first of October of the same year,
but died seven days later of yellow fever in Kew-
bern, N. C.
AMOS was an ancient prophet from the town of
Tekoa, near Bethlehem. He was called from his
bumble occupation of tending herds and gathering
the fruit of the sycamore to become the fourth mes-
senger oi God.
AMOTION, in law. is removal from office, as of
an officer of a corporation, and is distinguished
from disfranchisement, which is the removal of a
member.
a:MPELIC acid, a white solid, is the product of
nitric acid acting on schist oils.
AMPELID.E, in ornithology, a family name vari-
ously applied to oscine passerine birds. The family
was "founded by Swainson in 1831. without peculiar-
ities by which it may be defined. It has been re-
stricted of late by American authorities to the Am-
plin:e proper, and placed between Tyrannidse and
Cotingidx.
AMPELINE. the name ^iven to a watery look-
ing, odorless oil produced by a distillation of sul-
phuric acid and alum-slate oil.
AMPEL(JPSIS. a genus of the Vitni-es, closely
resembling the vine.
AMP JIIBIA — AM YL
99
AMPHIBIA, in popular language, applied to ani-
mals living l)Oth on
land and in the water
— tliose wliich, tliongh
unalile to breallie un-
der water, lialiitually
enter tliat element. In
this class belong the
walrus, or morse, and
tlie tortoise. In Zool-
ogy, a class of verte-
l)rates between fishes
"•^''''■'^*' and reptiles. The term
was used by Linnwus to include reptiles, amphib-
ians and some fishes,
and by Cuvier as syn-
onymous witli the ti-
tle " reptiles," which
he applied to all ani-
mals between fishes
i.ud liirds. The ap-
plication of the term
was soon narrowed,
and the amphibia
were separated on comsion or greek toktoise.
the one hand from the reptiles which never
breathe by gills, and
on tlie other from the
fishes wliicli, with the
exception of the
Dipnoi, never breathe
by lungs. Since the
amphibia are more
nearly related to fishes
I ban to reptiles, Hux-
ley united them in
18(J3 with the former in
inwK's-uiLL TURTLE. fhe geuora.
AIMPHIBOLE, the name of a group of minerals
which are essentially
silicates of lime and
magnesia. The most
important minerals
in this group are
Tremolite, Actimo-
lite, Ne ph rite, and _.;
Hornlilende.
AMPHICTYONIC
COUNCIL, a cele-
brated council of the
ancient states o f
Greece. Origi n a I ) y
amphictiioiii! meant an association of several tribes
for the jMirpiise of protecting some temjile common
to them all, and for maintaining worship within it.
Later it aciiuired a political sense. There were
several such associations, but the most important
was tliiil at Anthehi, near ThermopyliB, afterward
transferred to l-)elp!ii.
AMPHI.MOKPH.K, a term zoologically equiva-
lent to Oddiitniilii.in.f, and applied by Hu.xley to a
super-family of de.sniognathous carinate liirds. It
contains only the llainingoes, I'li'iiiicdjitfridx. See
Fb.\MTNiio, I'.ritannica, Vol. IX, ]). 2H().
AMPIIISS.V is a (iroeian town on the inlet of the
Gulf of Corinth. It is situated at the base of Mt.
Parnassus, eiglity-si'ven miles W. N. W. of Athens.
It is noted for its acropolis, which contains the re-
mains of an ancient ciiadel.
AMPIIITIIERIUM. a genus of extinct insectivo-
rous rnanimals, resembling in many points the liv-
ing Miiniiri-nliiiix.
AIMPHlTlvYON', in Greek mythology, a king of
Tiryns, son of .\lcaens, and husband of Alpmene.
The story has been treated by Plautns in liis Ain-
phitruru, and after him by Moliere in his Anijihilryon.
HAWK*.S-BILL TURTLE ( UIuId' sidi'J.
AMPHIUMA, a North American tailed amphilv
ian, whicli loses the external gills of its youth. It
belongs to the caducibranch group of the order Uro-
dela. The form is eel-like and about two feet in
length ; the eyes are covered with skin, and there
are numerous teeth. A. incai'.t is found in the
southern and south-western states burrowing in the
mud in the ditches of the rice-fields. The negroes
call it the Congo snake.
AMPIPODS, an order of small sessile-eyed crust-
aceans. The order includes a great number of
common forms, such as the familiar Sandhopper
(Talili-as naltator); the abundant Uamanii of run-
ning water ; the blind NIphargus of under-ground
fresli water, and many more.
AMPUTATION is the cutting off of a part which,
through being injured or diseased. eiKlangers the
whole body. The amputation of a limb in ancient
times was attended with great danger to the pa-
tient, as surgeons had no means of restraining the
bleeding. The desired power of controlling the
hiCinorrhage was obtained by the invention of the
tourniquet, in 1764, by a French surgeon (Morel).
The question wlicn amputation of a limb is neces-
sary is often, especially after an accident, one of
the most difficult in surgery.
AMRITA : literally, "without death," denotes in
Hindoo mythology the ambrosia of the gods, or
water of immortality, the product of the churning
of the ocean.
AMKOIIA, a town in the North-west Provinces of
India. Population, 36,14.5, mainly Moslems.
AMSTERDAM, a city of New York, is situated
on the north bank of the Mohawk, about thirty
miles northwest of Albany. Its local trade in gen-
eral merchandise is extensive. There are large
manufactories of knit goods and carpets, and nu-
merous ol her industries ir.clude the making of paper,
brooms, and steel springs. Amsterdam is the seat
of a Roman Catholic institute, an academy, and ex-
cellent jiublic and private schools. Population in
1890, 17,264.
AMSTERDAINI ISLAND. See M.\rmTiis.
AMUCK, in the phrase to run amuck, signifies,
literally, "in a state of murderous frenzy ; refer-
ring to the plan of suicide of the Malay nasheesh-
eater, who. crazed by the habitual use of the drug,
runs frantically through the street, wounding or
killing with a dirk all whom he can reach ; thus in-
viting the death by which alone the community
can put a stop to the indiscriminate slaughter.
AMURN.4TII, a cave in Cashmere, amonjj the
mountains on the North-east boundary. It is be-
lieved to be the residence of the god Siva, and is
visited by multitudes of pilgrims.
AMYCL.E, an ancient town of Laconia. on the
eastern bank of the Enrotas. It was the home of
Castor and Pollux, the "Amycheau brothers."
Also, the name of an ancient town of Latium,
which claimed to have been built by a colony from
the Greek Amyclie.
AJIYGDALIN is a crystalline principle existing
in the kernel of bitter almonds, the leaves of the
Pniiius hiuro-i'iriiKiiti, and various other plants,
which l)y distillation yields hydrocyanic acid.
AMYGDALOID, an igneous, crystalline or vitre-
ous rock containing numerous cells. As cells and
cellular structure occur in many different kinds of
igneous rock, the term ann/iiddlaii} no longer de-
notes a rock species, an 1 has fallen into disuse. It
is nowonly emploved in the adjective form, aiHf/i/i/n-
loidiil, indicatinj; a ci>llular or slag-like structure,
in which the pores and cells are more or less filled
up with mineral mailer.
AMYIj is an alcohol radical, obtaiinni by heating
amyl-iodide with an amalgam of zinc in a closed
100
A M Y L H N E — A N A 1\I 0 R IMJ O S 1 fe
tube at a temperatnrp of alioul .SOo" V., arul in one
of the natural products of llip distillalion of coal.
It enters into a large number of chemical com-
pounds.
AMYl^KNE, a limpid liquid produced tiy the de-
hydration of amy lie alcoluil, is somcliines used as
an aiuisllictic, l)ut is extremely danfferous.
A.MYI/)I1), a term used in chemistry and botany,
and is generally eijuivalent to "starchy." Amyloids
are sulistances like starch, dextrine, sugar, gum,
etc., which consist of carbon, liydrogen.and oxygen,
the latter two being always in the proportion in
M'hicli they occur in water.
A.AIYDT, JosEiMi, oriental scholar, was born at
Tiiuion in 171S, and lived as a Jesuit missionary in
(Jhina from 1750 fill his death in 179-1. His knowl-
edge of the Chinese and Tartar languages enabled
him to aci|uire his knowledge of the anli(|uities,
history, language, and arts of China from the most
authentic sources. His principal writings may be
found in the Miiiyiireg coJiin'nt<iiil» I'Jfixlaire, les
Sciences et les Arts ties Chinois (16 vols. Paris, 1776-
1814).
AMYRIDAt'K.E, a sub-order of 7'ei-Aiintliece,r,
consisting of trees and shrubs remarkable for the
abundance of their fragrant resinous juice.
ANWBLKPS, a genus in Agassiz's cyprinodont
family of bony fishes with open air-!)ladders. They
are remarkable for their projecting eyes. The
outer covering, or airnen, is crossed by a dark band,
and the inner v'/v'.s is similarly divided, so thai lliero
are really two pupils instead of one. This uni(|ue
structure is supposed to be associated with a habit
which these fishes are said to have of swimming
with the eyes jiartly out of the water. ,1. teiropthal-
nuts inhal>ils the rivers of Guiana and Surinam.
ANABOIilS.AI, assimilation, processes wilhin the
protoi)lasni, by which a substance is transformed
into another which is more complex or more highly
organized and more energetic till it finally becomes
living matter.
ANACMARIS, a genus of plants of the natural
order Hiidroeharidex. It is a native of North
America, growing in ponds and slow streams. It
has been introduced into ISritain, where it is now
very abundant and troublesome in some of the
rivers— in fact, much more so than it ever becomes
in America.
AN AC LAC I IE, a lofty peak of the Bolivian
Andes, is more than twenty-two thousand feet
above the ocean level, and is covered with per-
petual snow.
ANAHEIM, a village of southern ("alifornia, in
the center of the largest valley in the State, is
the headquarters of the wine interest of that re-
gion, producing annually more than one million
gallons.
AN -EMI A, a term employed to denote condi-
tions in which there is a diminished quantity of
blood or a smaller number of its corpuscles than in
health.
ANyESTHESIA, ANAESTHETICS. The former
is a term used to express a loss of sensibility to ex-
ternal impressions, which may involve a "part or
the whole surface of the body. It may occur natu-
rally as the result of disease, or may be produced
artificially by the administration of nmcsthetics.
The anresthetics almost exclusively used for the
production of general anresthesia are ether, chloro-
form, and nitrous oxide (laughing gas). Their em-
ployment in surgery has greatly increased the
scope of the surgeon's usefulness, and has been a
great boon to suffering humanity.
7,<irii! anicsthesia, artificially jiroduced, is of great
Talue in minor operations, and in painful affections
of limited areas of the body. Local antesthesia is
often produced by freezing the part with ether
Bpray. Of medicinal agnsits, the best is cmuine,
prepared from the cocoa shrub of Peru (Knjtliriixy-
liiii cdcd). In the form of a five to ten i)er cent,
watery solution, this drug is introduced into the
tissues by a hypodermic needle, and prodmes
complete ana-sthesia of the part thus treated in
from three to fifteen minutes. Thymol, menthol,
aconite, belladonna, chloroform, phniol, chloral,
and Indian hemp have also a local aiuesthetic ac-
tion, if rubljed on the skin or a])plied to abraded
surfaces. See IJrilannica, \dl. I, p. 7Htl.
."VNAKl.M, a people living in the south of Pales-
tine, esijeeially about Hebron, called at that time
Kirjatharba. They were described in the Bible as
a race of giants. They were also called "Sons of
Anak."
ANALCITE, or Analcimk : literally, "not strong"
(because by friction il becomes but /Vit/y electri-
fied) is a hydraled silicate of alumina and soda
found in the trap-rocks of Nova Scotia, Lake
Superior, Ireland and Scotland.
.\N.\LEJIM.\, in geometry, denotes an ortho-
graphic projection of the sphere on the plane of the
meridian, the eye being supposed to be at an in-
finite distance and in the east or west point of the
liorizon. The word also denotes an instrument in
use before the invention of trigonometry for draw-
ing such a projection in the solving of astronomical
l)ro1)lems.
AN.VL (tLANDS, pouches from the end of the iur
testine beside the anus, consisting of cells which
exhibit a special develojiment of the general gland-
ular properties so abundantly associated with the
skin. They occur especially in mammalr. but also
in snakes, lizards and other reptiles. Tlie secre-
tions of the glandular cells has usually a strong
smell. They are sometimes of i)roteetive advan-
tage, and in other cases doubtless auxiliary to sex-
ual attraction.
ANALOGUE, a technical term in biology for an
organ in one species or group having the same
function as an organ of different st ructure or origin
in another species. It denotes physiological, inde-
pendent of morphological resemblance.
ANALYSTjPiBLic, a person appointed by the au-
thorities as analyst of all articles of food and drugs
sold within his district, for the ])urpose of detect-
ing dealers guilty of selling adulterated articles.
AN\M, area 200,0(10 square miles, population
21,000,000, is an empire including Tonquin, Cochin-
China. part of Cambodia, and some islands in the
China Sea. It is nominally sub-
ject to China, but really a depend-
ency of France, through whom in
1874 the ports were opened to com-
merce ani toleration of the Chris-
tian religion secured. In lSS4.\nam
and Tonquin were placed under the
administration of a French resi-
dent-general residing at Hu^. The
present emperor, Bien-Lauh, as-
cended th'; throne Jan. 31, 1889, on
the death of his father. He was
born in 1879.
ANAMORPHOSIS, in perspec-
tive, is a distorted picture,
which appears in its proper form
only when viewed from a par-
ticular point, or through a poly-
hedron, or reflected by a curved
mirror. In natural liistory the'
term is used for that gradual
change of form which is traced in a group of plants
or animals, the members of which succeed each
other in a point of time; called also Anamorphism.
.\N.\MOKI'iIOSIS.
A NAMOSA — ANCHORITE
101
ANAMOSA, a city of Iowa, on the BuflFalo and
Wapsepenecon rivers, contains a State peniten-
tiary, and is noted for its quarries of excellent
building stone.
ANANIEV, a town of Southern Russia, in the
government of Kherson. Population, 16,449.
ANAPA, a seaport town on the eastern shore of
the Black Sea, in Russian Caucasia. It is an im-
portant garrison and naval station, having a brisk
trade with Trebizond. Population, 5.037.
ANAPHORA, in rhetoric, is that figure of speech
which consists in repeating the same word at the
beginning of two or more successive clauses or sen-
tences, as in 1 Cor. i. 20. The word is also used in
liturgies of that part of the communion service
which begins with the Sursum Corda.
ANARCHISM has quite a distinct meaning from
Anarchy in the usual acceptation of the word. -4)!-
archism is the name adopted by a phase of revolu-
tionary socialism — an exaggerated idea of individ-
ual freedom, which considers government of man
by man to be oppression. Anarchism has two as-
pects: it has a political theory, the negative of gov-
ernment or of external authority ; and it has an
economic theory as to land and capital, which is
common to it with other forms of socialism. The
acknowledged father of anarchism, as a form of re-
cent and contemporary socialism, is Proudhon
(1809-1865).
ANAS, a Linnasan genus, including ducks, geese,
swans, etc.
ANASTASIUS, the name of four popes, the first
and most eminent of whom held office for only
three years (398—101). He enforced celibacy on the
higher clergy.
ANASTOMOSIS, a term used in anatomy to ex-
press the union of the vessels which carry blood or
other fluids, and also, for the sake of convenience,
the junction of nerves.
ANASTROPHE is a placing of words in a posi-
tion different from the common method of construc-
tion ; as, (/'cre </ip;/ /<>, for f/ieii/ lie there. The Latin
phrase vobiscum is an anastrophe for cum vobis.
ANATHOTH was a Levitical city of refuge, situ-
ated about four miles from Jerusalem. It is sup-
posed to have been the native place of Jeremiah.
ANATIDjE, a family of birds corresponding to
the genera Anas and Merr/us, and equivalent to the
order LameJUrostres, exclusive of the flamingoes. It
includes ducks, geese, swans, and mergansers.
They are commonly divided into five sub-families :
(_' i/gninse, the swans; Atiserime, the geese; Anatina;,
tlie river or fresh-water ducks; Fuligulinx, the sea-
ducks; and Merginx, the mergansers. There are
upwards of 175 species, and numerous modern gen-
era so closely related as not to be easily divisible
into sub-families. They are called collectively
vild fowl or water-foid. Their distinctive charac-
teristics are : Bill lamellate or toothed, invested
with a tough, leathery membrane hardened at the
end into a horny nail more or less distinct, short
legs, feathered nearly or quite to the suffrago; feet
four-toed, palmated, the hind toe elevated, free,
and either simple or furnished with a flap; wings
strong and of moderate length ; tarsi scutellate or
reticulate, or both ; tongue thick and fleshy, denticu-
late along the sides, with greatly developed glosso-
hyal bone.
ANATINvE, a sub-family of the Anntiilr, to which
all ducks properly belong. This fowl, of wliich
there are many species, is generally fotmd upon the
water either of lakes or rivers, but some inliabit
the sea-shore, existing upon vegetables, shell-fish,
or insects. The most important species is the Anas,
or common duck.
ANATOMY, in law. The difficulty of obtaining
a sufficient supply of human bodies for dissectiorj
for purposes of surgical and medical instruction
was made the subject of legislation (for England,
Ireland, and Scotland), and is now governed by the
Anatomy Acts of 1832 and 1871. These acts author-
ize the Home Secretary to grant licenses for the
practice of anatomical dissection to any qualified
medical practitioner, or any student or teacher of
anatomy. The system is understood to have met
the evils it was intended to obviate ; and under it
the supply of bodies of persons dying friendless, in
poor-houses, hospitals, and elsewhere, is stated to
have proved sufficient for the wants of the profes-
sion.
ANBURY, or Club Root, a disease of the turnip,
produced by a fungus, Pla amodophora, belonging to
the family of slime-fungi Myxomycetes. It attacks
the plant most readily when the growth is restricted
by unfavorable conditions. It is identical with club-
root in cabbage, but is quite distinct from " fingers
and toes," another disease of the turnip. See
Britannica, Vol. I, p. .368 ; Vol. IV, p. 95.
ANCACHS, a department of Peru, lying between
the Andes and the Pacific, north of the department
of Lima ; it is rich in undeveloped silver mines
and in gold ; the people, however, are almost ex-
clusively devoted to farming and cattle-raising.
ANCESTOR : in law, one who has gone before in a
family. This term differs in its application from
that of predecessor, in that it refers simply to fam-
ilies, while by the latter are meant ex-officers of a
corporation, etc.
ANCESTORS, Worship of, a form of religion
which arises naturally from the primitive concep-
tion of a soul during life animating the body and
exercising influence over it, and after death re-
taining its power, and continuing into the unseen
world the life and social relations of the living world.
Having become a deity it goes on protecting its
people and receiving service from them. The wor-
ship of ancestors is really a sub-division of animism,
and its universality has led Herbert Spencer to the
opinion that it was the origin of religion every-
where. It is not mere affection, but actual fear
that impels this reverence among the North Ameri-
can Indians, the ancient Aztecs, the negroes in
Guinea, the natives of Polynesia, and most strongly
perhaps among the Zulus. See Britannica, Vol.
XVII, p. 141 ; Vol. XXIII, p. 467.
ANCHITHERIUM, an animal that lived in
Europe and North America during Upper Eocene
times. It had affinities to the tapir-like I'alxo-
therium and true horse. The Arichitherhtin was about
the size of a small pony, having three hoofs on each
foot, all reaching to the ground. It is looked upon
as one of the ancestors of the existing horse.
See Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 173, 174.
ANCHORAGE, a toll levied on the owner or cap-
tain of a ship for the privilege of casting anchor
on special anchoring-grounds. It is usually paya-
ble to the State, but sometimes the right is vested
in corporations or individuals. Anchorage also
signifies " anchor-ground." See Britannica, Vol. II,
p. 8.
ANCHOR-ICE, or Groukd-Ice, a kind of ice
which forms upon the beds of rivers, or shallow,
brackish seas. It forms most readily where the
flow of the water is most interrupted and tumultu-
ous. It begins to form when the temperature of
the atmosphere falls to within 10° F., and does
not adhere strongly to the bottom until zero is
reached. When it rises to the surface it frequently
brings with it the stones to which it is attached.
ANCHORITE. The terms " anchorite " and " her-
mit" are now used as synonymous, but originally
there was a distinction made between them. An-
I
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